118818
118818
118818
This work is used with the permission of M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation.
CONSERVATION OF
MANGROVE FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES
A TRAINING MANUAL
EDITED BY
1994
INTERNATIONAL TECHNICAL STEERING COMMITTEE
Prof. M.S. Swaminathan Chairman
Dr. David S. Cassells ITTO, Japan
Dr. Gary M. Burniske ITTO, Japan
Mr. R. Rajamani, lAS Secretary
Ministryof Environmentand Forests
Governmentof India
Representative Governmentof Japan
Mr. Zheng Dezhang China
Representative Governmentof Indonesia
Dr. Mohamed bin Haji Ismail Malaysia
Dr. H.G. Palis The Philippines
Dr. K.W. Sorensen UNESCO
Mr. Yoshiyasu Hirayama UNEP
Dr. V. Balaji Member Secretary
ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Chairman Prof. M.S. Swaminathan
Course Director Prof. A.N. Rao
Course Adviser Dr. Sanjay Deshmukh
Member Dr. V. Balaji
Secretariat Ms. Stella Saleth
Ms. Solai Annamalai
CITATION
Sanjay Deshmukh and V. Balaji (Ed.s). Conservationof MangroveForest Genetic Resources : A
TrainingManual. JTTO-CRSARD Project, M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation, Madras,
India, 1994.
©CRSARD 94
Centre for Research on Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development,Madras, India
COVER
Mangroves at Krusadai island, in the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve, Tamil
Nadu, India (Photo : Dr. Sanjay Deshmukh)
COVER DESIGN AND GRAPHICS
M/s. Fifth Estate Communications, Pvt. Ltd., Madras
M/s. Sanka GraphicsPvt. Ltd., Madras
TYPESETTING AND PRINTING
M/s. SBS Laser Words Pvt. Ltd., Madras; M/s. Adyar Students Xerox Pvt. Ltd., Madras
M/s. Sudarshan Graphics Pvt. Ltd., Madras; M/s. Reliance Printers Pvt. Ltd., Madras
CONTENTS
Page No.
PREFACE ix
M.S. Swaminathan
CONTRIBUTORS xi
I. INTRODUCTION 1-10
Human Resources Developmentfor the Conservation of Mangroves 1
Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Interactions 31
Barry F. Clough
Climatic Impacts on Mangrove Ecosystems 39
Barry F. Clough
Biological Investigationto Understand and Mitigate the Effects of Global Change
and Sea Level Rise 45
S.N. Dwivedi
IV. ISSUES IN GENETIC CONSERVATION 59-84
Gene and Genetic Conservation 59
V. Arunachalam
During my stay in the Philippines from 1982—88 as Director General of the International Rice
Research Institute, I was struck by the beauty and utility of mangrove forests in many of the
islands of that country. It was then I took a fascination for the mangrove ecosystems. Later, I
witnessedwith sorrow fairly rapid damage to several of these valuable ecosystems as a result of
the expansion of coastal aquacultureand urbanisation. Quite often coastal developmentprojects,
including aquaculture, were environmentallydestructive and socially disruptive. I then felt that
concerted action to save the remaining mangrove forests should be initiated. On my return to
India, I observedthat the fate of manymangroveforest areas was in gravejeopardy as a result of
anthropogenicpressures. Therefore, the highest priority was given in the research and training
agenda of the Centre for Research on Sustainable Agriculturaland RuralDevelopment(CRSARD)
established in Madras in 1990 to the conservation and sustainable management of mangrove
forest areas. In 1990, I was elected the first President of the International Society of Mangrove
Ecosystems (ISME) with its headquarters at Okinawa, Japan and I took this opportunity to
suggest the preparation of a Charterfor Mangroves on the model of the World Charter for Nature
adopted by the United Nations in 1982. ISME prepared such a Charter under the guidance of
Dr. Cohn Field and this Charter finds a place in this publication.
In September 1989, I was invited to delivera lectureby the Governmentof Japan on the potential
problems which may arise from changesin sea level due to global warming. I then pleaded for
special attention to the conservation of genetic diversity in mangrove species since it may be
possibleto transfer genes for toleranceto sea water intrusion from them to other plants through
recombinantDNA technology. The late Dr. Saburo Okita, who was the Chairman of the Tokyo
Conference, recommended that the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) located
at Yokohama should initiate work on the conservation of mangrove ecosystems. Fortunately,
immediatelyafter this meeting, Dr. B.C.Y. Freezailah, Executive Director, ITTO and I happened
to travel in the same plane to New Delhi. I then mentioned to Dr. Freezailahthat we would like to
prepare a proposalfor assemblingmangrove experts from different parts of the Worldto prepare
a proposal for saving for posterity a representativesample of the genetic diversity occurring in
mangrove species. He enthusiasticallywelcomed the idea. I then prepared a proposal which
was forwarded by the Governmentof India to ITTO and was approved by the ITTO Governing
Council. Funds for the Global Consultationwere provided by the Governmentsof Japan and the
UK. The group of experts who met in Madras in January 1991 helped to prepare a proposal titled
"Establishment of a Global Network of MangroveGenetic Resource Centres". This proposal was
approved by the ITTO Council in May 1991.
Our proposal comprised of the following components
1. Organisationof a global network of mangrove genetic resourcescentres;
2. A detailed study of mangrove genetic resourcesin West Africa;
3. Organisationof a Trainers' Training Programmefor developinga cadre of professionals well-
versed in the art and science of genetic conservation with reference to mangroves; and
4. Establishment of a Mangrove Ecosystems Information Service (METS) as a global data base
service facility.
ix
x Preface
With the generous support of the Governments of Japan and Australia and with the technical
guidance of an InternationalSteering Committee the workon this project was started in Septem-
ber 1991. A 3-month Trainers' Training Programme was organised from 16th March, 1992 at
Madras. A wide range of experts delivered lectures and conducted practicals. 20 participants
from 12 countries whose names are included in this publication participated.Towards the end
of the Course, the trainees prepared a Charter for Mangroves for their own countriesbased on
the ISME Charter. Mr. Mai Sy Tuan from Vietnam, who produced the most imaginative and
implementableCharter for Mangroves, was awarded the N.J. Vavilov Medal.
The various papers presented in the TrainingCourse have been compiled by my colleagues Drs.
Sanjay V. Deshmukh and V. Balaji and are included in this publication.We were fortunate to
have the servicesof Prof. A.N. Rao of the National Universityof Singapore to serve as the Course
Director. His untiring efforts contributed greatly to the success of the Course.
In the editing of this publication, we have had the kind assistance of Prof. A.N. Rao, Prof.
S.M. Karmarkarand Mr. A. Narayanan. Many others from our Research Centre, particularlyMs.
Stella Saleth, Ms. Solai Annamalai and Mr. N. Parasuraman rendered very valuable assistance.
Our thanks go to all of them.
This TrainingManual is becoming available at an appropriate time when the global interest in
biodiversityhasbeen heightenedby the cominginto force of the Global Biodiversity Convention
on 29th December, 1993. It is a matter for great satisfaction that many of the participants who
attended the Course are now in the forefront of arresting geneticerosion in theirrespective coun-
tries. Encouragedby the success of the Trainers'TrainingProgramme,the Steering Committee of
the Project urged that a second training programme should be held soon as a part of a capacity
building exercise for conservingmangrove genetic resources. On the basis of the recommenda-
tion of the Steering Committee, a project proposal was submitted in 1993 to ITTO and we are
grateful to the ITTO Council for approving this project at their meeting in May 1994. This will
enable us to improve the global capacity for genetic conservationin mangrove ecosystems.
Ourworkwould not have been possiblebut for the continuingguidance and encouragementof
Dr. B.C.Y. Freezailah, Executive Director of ITTO, who personally came to Madras in December
1993 to dedicatethe MangroveEcosystems InformationService to the global scientific community.
Drs. David Cassells and Gary M. Burniske of ITTO have guided us at every step and have been
pillars of strength to this project. We cannot thank them adequately.
Finally, our gratitude goes to Shri. R. Rajamani, Secretary, Ministry of Environmentand Forests
and Shri. Tejendra Khanna, Secretary, Ministry of Commerce for their constant encouragement
and support. To the Governmentsof Japan and Australiawe are deeplyindebted for their finan-
cial support without which this Project could not have been undertaken.
It is our hope that this Training Manual will be found useful not only by mangrove research
workersbut also by all others interested in the conservationand sustainableutilisationof coastal
biodiversity.
M.S. Swaminathan,FRS
Director
Centre for Research on Sustainable Agriculturaland Rural Development(CRSARD)
Madras, India
CONTRIBUTORS
C.T. Achuthankutty, National Institute of Oceanography,Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India.
K. Alagarswami, Director, Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Marshells Road,
Madras 600 008, India.
Late D.V. Amonkar, Department of Biological Sciences, R. Jhunjhunwala College, Ghatkopar
(W), Bombay 400 086, India.
V. Arunachalam,Divisionof Genetics, Indian AgriculturalResearch Institute,PUSA, New Delhi
110 012, India.
K. Balasubrahmanyan,2, Periyar Nagar, Koothappakkam, Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu, India.
P. Balakrishna, M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation,III Cross Street, Taramani Institutional
Area, Madras 600 113, India.
A.K. Bandyopadhyay, Director, Central Agricultural Research Institute, Haddo, Port Blair 744
102 Andaman,India.
David S. Cassells, Asst. Director (Afforestation), International Tropical Timber Organisation,
Yokohama, Japan.
S.B. Chaphekar, Head, Department of Botany, University of Poona, Pune 411 017, Maharashtra,
India.
S. Chinna Raj, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India.
B.F. Clough, Australian Institute of Marine Sciences, PMB 3, Townsville, Queensland 4810, Aus-
tralia.
H.S. Debnath, Botanical Survey of India, P-8, Brabourne Road, Calcutta 700 001, India.
P.V. Dehadrai, Dy. Director General (Fisheries), Indian Council of AgriculturalResearch, Krishi
Bhavan,New Delhi 110 001, India.
Sanjay V. Deshmukh, M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation, III Cross Street, Taramani Insti-
tutional Area, Madras 600 113, India.
V.K. Dhargalkar, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India.
S.N. Dwivedi, Officer on Special Duty, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, PUSA, New
Delhi 110 012, India.
I.A.U.N. Gunetilleke, Department of Botany, Universityof Peradeniya,Kandy, Sri Lanka.
Savitri Gunetilleke, Department of Botany, Universityof Peradeniya, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
Sakti Jana, Department of Crop science and Plant Ecology, University of Saskatchewan, Saska-
toon S7 NO WO, Canada.
L. Kannan, Centre for Advanced Study in Marine Biology, AnnamalaiUniversity, Parangipettai
608 502, Tamil Nadu, India.
S.M. Karmarkar, Department of Biological Sciences, R. Jhunjhunwala College, Ghatkopar (W),
Bombay 400 086, India.
K. Kathiresan, Centre for AdvancedStudy in Marine Biology, AnnamalaiUniversity, Parangipet-
tai 608 502, Tamil Nadu, India.
S. Kedharnath, Institute of Forest Research, 12A, First Cross Road, Ramalinganagar, V Layout,
K.K. Pudur Post, Coimbatore641 038, Tamil Nadu, India.
xi
xii Contributors
T.N. Khoshoo, Jawaharlal Nehru Fellow, Tata Energy Research Institute, 7 Jor Bagh, New Delhi
110 003, India.
Late A.V.R.G. Krishna Murthy, IFS, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Govt. of Andhra
Pradesh, Hyderabad 500 022, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Subrata Maity, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavid-
yalaya, Mohanpur 741 252, West Bengal, India.
L.P. Mall, 62, Durga Nagar, Old Padra Road, Vadodara 390 020, Gujarat, India.
Jeffrey A. McNeely, Chief Biodiversity Officer, IUCN - The World Conservation Union, 1196,
Gland, Switzerland.
A.D. Mongia, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana 132 001, India.
Usha Mukundan, Department of Biological Sciences, R. JhunjhunwalaCollege, Ghatkopar (W),
Bombay 400 086, India.
B.R. Murty, INSA & QRT Chairman (Retd.), Division of Genetics, Indian AgriculturalResearch
Institute, PUSA, New Delhi 110 012, India.
Shailesh Nayak, Space Applications Centre, Post SAC, Ahmedabad380 053, Gujarat, India.
Rajiv Nigam, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India.
A.H. Parulekar, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India.
R. Paul Raj, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, 741, Marshalls Road, Madras 600 008,
India.
A.G. Raddi, IFS, Chief Conservatorof Forests,Old P.M.T. Bldg., ShankarshethRoad, Swargate,
Pune 411 042, Maharashtra, India.
S. Raghu Kumar, National Institute of Oceanography,Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India.
A.N. Rao, Department of Botany, Faculty of Sciences, National Universityof Singapore, Lower
Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 0511.
T.S. Sadasivan, Former Director, Centre for Advanced Study in Botany, University of Madras,
Guindy, Madras 600 025, India.
R. Maria Saleth, Institute of Economic Growth, UniversityEnclave, Delhi 110 007, India.
P.V. Savant, IFS, Jt. Director, Forest Survey of India, 1, Semineri Hills, Nagpur 440 006, Maha-
rashtra, India.
Ajai Saxena, IFS, Dy. Conservator of Forests and Wildlife Warden, Haddo Zoo, Port Blair 744
102, Andaman and Nicobar, India.
B.P. Sinha, IFS, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, At
Chatham, Port Blair 744 102, Andaman and Nicobar, India.
M.S. Swaminathan, Director, Centre for Research on Sustainable Agriculturaland Rural Devel-
opment (CRSARD),III Cross Street, Taramani Institutional Area, Madras 600 113, India.
M.P. Tapaswi, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India.
A.G. Untawale, Sr. Asst. Director, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004,
India.
C.S. Venkatesh, Forestry Consultant, Ashok Nagar, Madras 600 020, India.
Sayeeda Wafar, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India.
INTRODUCTION
HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENTFOR THE
CONSERVATION OF MANGROVES
INTRODUCTION
Environment and development problems are complex and there cannot be generalised and
simplified solutions. Answers are to be found which are ecologically, economically and socio-
culturally consistent in the particular milieu. For achieving the integration of environmental
considerationinto developmentplanning there has to be "capacitybuilding" ameliorative action.
One of the most serious challenges facing contemporarydevelopmentplanners and agencieshas
been the growing damage to our basic life support systems, comprisingland, water, flora, fauna
and the atmosphere thereby rendering current patterns of economic development ecologically
unsustainable. This was highlighted at the UN conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) held at Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. UNCED urged the developmentat the global and
country levels, and Agenda 21 plan of action which would help to foster economic growth based
on sound ecological ground rules. For implementingthis, an urgent need is the developmentof
national and local level capacity for formulating and implementingan Agenda 21 (highlighting
the conservation of biological diversity in respective countries) based on the principle " think
and plan locally while acting nationally and globally".
DISSERTATION
The dissertation was designed to include information on the following:
Chapter I: Biological Wealth—CurrentStatus
a. Descriptionof nation's biological wealth and agro-ecological features
b. Descriptionof coastal ecosystems
c. Descriptionof mangrove wealth
DIPLOMAS
The candidates,on the successfulcompletionof the course, qualified for the award of the Diploma
of the Associateship of the N.J. Vavilov Centre for Research and Training on the Sustainable
Managementof Biological Diversity of the M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation.
Mr. Mai Sy Tuan (Vietnam), whose dissertation was adjudged as outstanding received the
N.J. Vavilov Biodiversity Medal together with a cash prize of Rs. 5000.00.
FOLLOW-UP
It is hoped that the outputs of this training course willbe the following:
1. Organisation of similar training programmesat the country level by the candidates, and
2. Developmentof a collaborative research network involving the trainees in order to promote
the growth of a global grid of mangrove genetic research and conservation centres.
The collection of relevant chapters on fourteen topics in this manual is the first attempt to
integrate theory and policy relatingto the subject of conservation biologyfor its usein developing
training programmes and courses, not only for scientists but administrators and policy makers
also. It is essentialto have increased collaboration between field experts and resource managers
for meeting the demands from research scientists and decision makers which will help to meet
the growing challengeof protectingbiological diversity prevailingin the tropicaltidal forests.
THE ITTO AND MANGROVES*
DAVID S. CASSELLS
When the International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA) was finally negotiated in the early
1980's, it was fundamentally different to other commodity agreements negotiated under the
auspices of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). For unlike
other commodityagreements,ITTA recognisedthat if tropicaltimber was to remain a significant
commodityresource in the future, discussions should be held about the production, utilisation
and trade in tropicaltimber, which could never be realistically divorced from discussionsabout
the conservation and wise management of the tropicalforest resource.
ITTA took nearly a full decade to negotiate, and the latter days of thesenegotiationsstraddled the
releaseof the World Conservation Strategy by the InternationalUnion for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources (IUCN) in 1980. With its concern with both the commodity of tropical
timberand the conservationof the tropicalforest resources,the final constitutionof ITTA adopted
the same perspectiveas the World Conservation Strategywithregard to the relationshipbetween
conservation and development. Like the Conference on Environment and Development (June
1992), both the World Conservation Strategy and ITTA recognised that without economic and
social development it would not be possible to mobilisethe resourcesneeded for environmental
conservation. Equally, it was also recognisedthat without conservation, none of the benefits of
economic development would be sustainable in the long run.
In recognition of this linkage, the fundamental objectives of the World Conservation Strategy
were incorporated into the heart of ITTA through its objective 1(h). This objective of ITTA aims
"to encourage the development of national policies aimed at the sustainable utilisation and
conservation of tropical forests and their genetic resources, and at maintaining the ecological
balance in the regions concerned".
The objective has become the primary orientation for the actions of the ITTO. Early reviews of
the status of forestry in our producer member-countries revealed that only an insignificantly
small proportion of the World's tropical forests were then being managed on a demonstrably
sustainable basis. Since then, ITTO and its member-countries have wrestled with the problems
of both defining sustainabilityand ensuring that sustainableforest managementbecomes a field
reality in the tropics more than just an admirable theoreticalconstruct.
With this focus within ITTO, the concept of sustainability has been directlylinked to the related
objectives of the World Conservation Strategy —the conservation of genetic diversity and the
maintenance of ecological life support systems. Thus, within the organisation, the traditional
concept of sustained yield timber management has been extended and replaced by a broader
concept of resource sustainability through integrated natural resource management to protect
all forest values, not just the immediately obvious economic values. Within ITTO, one of the
important topics in these discussions on sustainability has been the crucial importance of the
conservation and management of mangrove forests.
T.S. SADASIVAN
Biodiversity is nature's gift to mankind. The flora and fauna of today are probably a fraction of
what was there in the various epochs down the geological scale of the earth. Great upheavals
right from the Pre-cambrian, through Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Eocene to the Quaternary
period brought profound changes in the flora and fauna. Giant trees, lianas and a whole host of
remarkableplant wealth disappeared. Similarly, ferocious animals of giganticproportions down
to small animals also disappeared. The reasons were very many.
Dr. M.S. Swaminathan'suncanny abilityin identifyingproblems like the far-reaching significance
of man's quest for stable ecosystems haslanded in organisingin-depth studies of the mangroves.
Who else could have visualisedthe neglectedfield of conservationofmangrovesthan Dr. Swami-
nathan? To many, mangroves are a disappearing ecosystem and their attitude has been one of
complacency, not so to the discerning scientist. Mangroves represent an ancient habitat and are
part of the transition in the origin of a land flora. They can, perhaps, be compared to the shola
vegetation of terrestrial trees and shrubs in our hilly terrains. Professor F.O. Bower's masterly
treatises on the" Origin of Land Flora" and" Primitive Land Plants" bring home the point that
the algae were the primary colonisers of our earth. In particular,he points to the alga Fritschiella
tuberosa, which was first described by the distinguished algologist, Professor M.O.P. Iyengar of
Madras. It is not quite correct to say that the saline habitat is a primitive ecosystem. There are,
of course, many questions yet unanswered. As a student of plant physiology, I would like to
mention that it would be exciting to work out anatomy of mangrove plants which is so well
adjusted to a marine-estuarineniche. Some of the questions we can address ourselves are
1. The extraordinaryability of tolerance of a saline substrate by the plants of the mangrovesis
reflected by the osmoregulatorynature and the plasma membranesof their roots,
2. The respiration and photo-respirationof various species of mangroves,
3. The photosynthetic efficiency of these plants, and
4. Are there C3 plants in mangroves?How many of them are C4 plants?
I realise that this training programme is aimed at conservation of mangrove forest genetic re-
sources. Nevertheless, it may be a kind of intellectualstimulation if one were to thinkin terms
of the origin of mangroves and their specific niches which are favourable for establishing them-
selves. Some of their physiologicalcharacteristics, which are differentfrom terrestrialplants in a
fresh water situation, may be useful in any selection process. I feel certain that Dr. Swaminathan
is planning to take up these problems when his new laboratory is ready to do so.
Nation-building, especially in the developing parts of the World is an uphill task, and in this,
training of personnel for specific programmes occupies a high priority. India is fortunate in
having an able scientistin Dr. Swaminathan, whose wide experience and expertise in so many
areas of agricultural science has given the country an edge in organising our forward-looking
M.S. SWAMINATHAN
INTRODUCTION
Towards the close of the 20th century we are rediscoveringonce again the eternal truth that all
life on earth is one great interdependent system, and that economic progresshasto remainwithin
the carrying capacity of the earth's ecosystems, if it is to conferlastingbenefits. The perpetuation
of poverty and the spread of environmentaldegradation reminds us that developmenthas to be
both people-centredand conservation based. With the global population growing fast towards
six billion, we realise that sustainable advances in biological productivity are essential for safe-
guarding both global food security as well as security of the livelihoods of millions of rural
families in developingcountries. Such advanceshave to take place in the context of diminishing
land and fresh water resources for agriculture and expanding biotic and abiotic stresses.
The experienceof the last 30 years reveals that given access to a wide range of plant and animal
geneticresources, it is possibleto keep grain, milk and meat production above populationgrowth
levels and, in addition, prevent the further denudation of forests for expansion of agriculture.We
can neither sustain a global food security system nor face the challenge of climate change and
enhanced ultraviolet-B radiation if we fail to conserve biological diversity through conventional
and frontier technologies. The conservation of biodiversityis thus fundamentalto the success of
the developmentprocess.
GENETIC EROSION
Many experts believe that at present species are being lost throughout the World at a rate which
is at least 1000 times background rate. What we are witnessing is more severe than any that
has occurred during the past 65 million years, since the end of the Cretaceous period, when
the dinosaurs disappeared. Such extinctionis occurringat a time when genetic engineering has
opened up possibilities for moving genes across sexualbarriers and thus generatenovel genetic
combinations to meet new needs and situations.
We do not even know what we are losing. Wilson (1988) estimatedthat about 1.4 million species
of organismshave been namedso far. Theseinclude about 750,000 insects, 41,000 vertebrates,and
250,000 plants. The remainingspeciescomprisebacteria, protozoa, algae, fungi and invertebrates.
Participants at a symposium held at the Royal Society, London, in 1990 under the auspices of
C.A.B.Internationalconcludedthat if extensive biosystematic workis undertakenin invertebrates
and micro-organisms, the total number of species on our planet may exceed 50 million. Erwin
(1988) places it at 80 million or more. May (1988) lamented at the fact that there is no area on
earth, large or small, where we have a complete census of living organisms. Raven (1990) has
thereforepleaded for systematicefforts in the organismson earth. A global biological inventory
network coupled with a conservationmonitoringnetwork is essentialto understand the rates of
species extinction and genetic erosion.
11. A global biodiversity strategy prepared in 1992 by the World Resources Institute; the World
Conservation Union and the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme.
Several other activitiesof a legislative nature have taken place at the internationallevel. These in-
clude a recentlyconcluded revisionofthe InternationalUnion for the Protectionof New Varieties
of Plants (UPOV) Conventionand the patenting of plant related biotechnological inventions. In
addition, the Trade RelatedIntellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) issues in the negotiationsof the
current Uruguay Round of the General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT) also deal with
the patenting of products in addition to processes and of living organisms.
At the national level also, several significant developmentshave taken place. In India, for ex-
ample, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research has established National Bureaus of Plant,
Animal, Fish and Forest genetic resources. The World Wide Fund for Nature-Indiais establish-
ing with the support of the Ministry of Environmental and Forest of the Governmentof India, a
national conservationmonitoring centre.
The three basic principles which should govern action are
1. Contain and prevent genetic erosion,
2. Use genetic resourceseffectively and sustainably,and
3. Share the benefits equitably.
If these principles are followed, we can usher in a new paradigm of biodiversityconservation
based on the integration of principles of ecological sustainability, economic efficiency and social
equity.
involvement in the conservation of biological diversity is essentialfor ensuring that the fruits of
thousands of years of natural and human selection are preserved for current and future use.
The participants at a workshop held in Madras in November 1991 recommendedthat in every
country a Genetic Resources Consortium for Sustainable Agriculture be established comprising
the following:
1. Non-governmentalconservation organisations,
2. Governmentorganisations such as National Bureaus of Plant, Animal, Fish and Forest genetic
resources, and
3. Appropriate International Agricultural Research Centres (IARCs) and Gene Banks like the
Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry at St. Petersburg,the Ban gene bank in Italy,the University
of Viterbo in Italy, the Nordic gene bank and the Tsukuba gene bank. In India, it was suggested
that the Scarascia Mugnozza Genetic Resources Centre of the M.S. Swaminathan Research
Foundation at Madras may take the lead in organisingsuch a Consortium.
The Genetic Resources Consortiumfor Sustainable Agriculturecould have the following mission
and mandate:
Identify key scientific and socio-economic componentsof a sustainablecrop-livestock integrated
production system and assemble specialisedgene pools for selecting/breeding crop and animal
species and strains adapted to the production system, both through conventional and genetic
engineering techniques. For this purpose, the consortium should promote the establishment of
Genetic Gardens for Sustainable Agricultureto cater to the following needs
1. Genetic heterogeneityand genetic adaptation to the biotic stresseswhich a particular farming
system is subjected to,
2. Provide to the maximum possible extent the nutrient requirements of a high yield farming
system through biological nitrogen fixation, biofertilisers and cooperations and residues and
assemble for this purpose germplasm of green manure crops, Azolla, blue-green algae and
pulse crops suitable for inclusion in the farming system,
3. Accord priority to irrigated and complex,risk-prone and diverse rainfed farming systems as
well as to coastal and hill ecosystems,
4. Assemble genotypes suitable for an agroforestry system of land management, with special
emphasis on silvi-horticulturaland silvi-pastoralsystems, and
5. Assemble candidate genes for use in recombinantDNA experimentsleading to new genetic
combinations of interest in imparting the dimension of ecological sustainability to the recom-
mended cropping/farming system.
The Genetic Resources Consortium for Sustainable Agriculture should promote not only in situ
and ex situ conservationby local communities and official agencies, but should also ensure at-
tention to evaluation,classification, utilisation and monitoring.Bioindicators and bio-monitoring
techniques should be standardised and popularised among local schools and village communi-
ties.
In addition, there is need for undertaking the following tasks:
1. Organisation of awareness generationprogrammesand educationaland media resources cen-
tres,
18 Biological diversity and global food security
2. Mobilisation of school children in the application of bio-indicatorsin pollution monitoring
work,
3. Research on methods of according recognition to informal innovation by rural women and
men,
4. Training of grass-roots level conservation workers in the conservation of plant and animal
genetic resources,
5. Development of a political constituencyfor genetic resources through organisation of dia-
logues involving scientists and political leaders,
6. Mobilising public opinion for the conservation of economic and ecological key species are
well as special genotypeslike mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs, and
7. Setting priorities in collection, evaluation and conservation work.
Obviously, priority in conservation should go to the species listed in Red Data books and to
life-support species and underutilised plants. Local breeds of farm animals and fishes should
also receive priority attention. The different members of the consortium can divide the work
among themselves, in accordance with their own mandate, priorities and facilities.
wide range of inter-specific genetic variability, on the other. The recent adoption of a revised
UPOV convention for the protection of new plant varieties and the patenting of plant-related
biotechnological inventions, the statement of the Green Industry Biotechnology Platform and
the acceptance of the concept of "Farmer's Rights" in FAO meetings are significant events in
the ongoing debate on biotechnologyand IPR. The establishment of an International Centre for
Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB) by UNIDO is an important milestone in the
history of biotechnologydevelopmentfor developingcountries.
Biotechnological innovations offer scope for making substantial impacts on crop and animal
husbandry, fisheries, forestry, biomass-based energy, bioremediation, health, industry, pollu-
tion control and a wide range of human activities having a bearing in sustainable development
(Swaminathan 1991). No wonder many members of the Asian, African and Inter-American De-
velopment Banks, are playing a pivotal role in the developmentof biotechnological innovations
and their widespread disseminationin developingcountries. In addition, internationalscientific
bodies like the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), regional association like the
Commission of the EuropeanCommunitiesand private industry are actively involvedin various
aspects of biotechnologyresearch and development.
The human population is likely to double in about 35 years. More than 10 billion people will
have to be fed, clothed and provided with jobs under conditions of shrinking land and water
resources for agriculture, expanding biotic and abiotic stresses, increasing genetic erosion and
rising cost of fossil fuel energy reserves. Compounding these social and economic problems is
the possibility of alterations in climate, rise in sea levels and greater incidence of ultraviolet-B
radiation, caused by both unsustainablelifestyles and the undesirable consequences of some of
the current industrial and agricultural technologies.
It is in the above context that the Preparatory Committee for the United Nations Conference on
Environmentand Development (UNCED) concluded at its Third Session, held in Genevafrom
August 12 to September 4, 1991, that the environmentally sound and safe application of biotech-
nology is essentialfor health care and food security, pollution control, higher efficiency of indus-
trial development processes and biodegradation of industrial wastes. The Committee therefore
urged the accelerationof current efforts on the developmentand applicationof biotechnologies,
particularly in developing countries.
How can such a goal be achieved? Obviously this will call for institutional mechanismwhich
can ensure that public good and private profit are not naturally antagonistic. The UN principle
of "one vote" helps to keep all points of view in decision-making. The UN principles are the
ones which will promote harmony and understanding under conditions of diversity in needs,
perceptions, socio-economic conditions,technological capabilityand biological wealth. How can
the power of modern biotechnologies be used for promoting economic development without
damage to the ecological health of our planet and for ensuring that the welfare of the poor is
enriched and not eroded by technological progress?
During the last two decades, the institutional structure represented by the ConsultativeGroup
on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), co-sponsored by FAO, UNDP and IBRD, has
proved to be an effective mechanism for reaching the resource-poorfarmers as well as for in-
spiring donor confidence. As a consequence, the annual budget of CGIAR, comprisingvoluntary
contributionsby bilateral and multilateraldonors and philanthropicfoundations,rosefrom about
US$ 10 million in 1971 to about US$ 350 million in 1991.
20 Biological diversity and global food security
Considering the far-reachingimplications of biotechnologyfor human welfare and planet pro-
tection, it would be appropriate if a global coalition is formed through a Consultative Group
for Biotechnology (CG-Biotech),which can bring together appropriate members of the UN sys-
tem, bilateral and multilateral donors, foundations, private and public sector industries, and
governmental and non-governmentalorganisation. The CG-Biotech could help to mobilise the
necessary financial, technical and institutionalresourcesfor ensuring that the benefits of "green"
or environmentallybenign biotechnologies reach the unreached.
The participants of the International Conference on "An agenda of science for environmentand
developmentinto the 21st century" (ASCEND 21), sponsoredby ICSU and held at Vienna from
November25—29, 1991, concludedthat unprecedented crises are likely within the lifetime of half
of the World'spopulation, arising from such changes as
Biotechnology can be a powerful ally in the development of avoidance and adaptation mecha-
nisms which can prevent or mitigate the adverse impact of such crises.
Hence, no further time should be lost in the development of a suitable institutional frame-
workwhich can foster the growth of a global coalition committedto removingthe technological
component of the wall dividing prosperity and poverty. Innovative and dynamic institutional
structures are essentialfor dealing with the human implications of a dynamic science.
At the same time, it should be emphasised, as was done by participants at the Keystone In-
ternational Dialogue on Plant Genetic Resources, that the traditional donor-recipient concept
is not relevant while dealing with biodiversity and biotechnology. The GIFTS concept is more
appropriate.This involves all countriesgiving and/orreceiving one or the other of the following:
C —
Germplasm
I — Information
F — Funds
T —
Technology
S —
Systems
REFERENCES
Balain, D.S. (1991). Biodiversity and animal husbandry, Biology Education 8(1) : 34—46.
Erwin, T.L. (1988). The tropical forest canopy. In : Wilson, E.O. (Ed.). Biodiversity. National
AcademyPress, Washington, D.C. pp.. 123—129.
Global Biodiversity strategy, (1992). Prepared by World Resources Institute,The World Conservation
Union and United Nations EnvironmentProgramme. 224 p.
May, R.M. (1988). How many species are there on earth? Science, 241 : 1441—1449.
Raven, P.H. (1990). The importance of National Biological Inventory (Mimeographed paper).
Stork, N.E. (1988). Insect diversity: Fact, fiction and speculation. BiologicalJournal of the Linnean
Society 35 : 321—337.
Swaminathan,M.S. (Ed.). (1991). Reaching the Linreached: Biotechnology in Agriculture. Macmillan
India Ltd. 371 p.
Wilson, E.O. (1988). The current state of biological diversity. In : Wilson, E.O. (Ed.). Biodiversity,
National AcademyPress, Washington, D.C. pp. 3—18.
IN SITU CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICALDIVERSITY:
IMPORTANTACTION POINTS
T.N. KHOSHOO
INTRODUCTION
The major environmental concerns facing the human race are population escalation, tropical
deforestation, loss of biodiversity, climate change, and AIDS epidemic. Loss of biodiversity is
interconnectedwith population escalation and tropical deforestation. Much of the biodiversity
on which the human race depends is located in tropical,sub-tropical, and hot temperate areas of
the World. Biodiversity is expressed in individuals, populations, communities, and ecosystems.
As to the loss of biodiversity, it is well recognisedthat species are not static; extinctions and even
correspondingrenewals have been commonin geological times.Extinctions in the past have been
the result of many cataclysmic changes on the earth. However, causes of the present highrate of
loss of biodiversitycan be traced to the doings of only one specie : Homo sapiens. Furthermore,
correspondingrenewals are not in sight. It is on this account that the loss of biodiversitybecomes
a major problem.
It is also well known that the human being has lived in a hunter-gatherersociety for 99% of the
time since its origin and has depended entirely on biodiversity for its sustenance. However, it
is during the last 1% of the time that it has lived in agricultural societies followed by industrial
societies. The latter resulted in total social and economic transformation of the human society
with relatively less emphasis on biodiversity. However, conservation of the total spectrum of
biodiversity (plants, animals, and micro-organisms) can no longer be regarded as an esoteric
exercise, but something that affects the totality of environment,on which the very existence of
life (includinghuman life) depends. Therefore, biodiversity is critical to our survival and more
of the poor—assetless section of our society —whosewell-being depends on biomass. The basic
reason for this is that biodiversityand bioproductivityare on biomass.The basic reason for this
is that biodiversityand bioproductivityare interdependent.
Essentially, it is a question of survival. Furthermore, the prospect of climate change would
invoke change in the biotic composition of ecosystems and also their migration. In the absence
of knowledge about the exact nature of genetic changes, there is a most urgent need to have as
wide a genetic base as possible.
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Biological diversity is the sum total of species richness, i.e., the number of species of plants, an-
imals, and micro-organisms living in a community or an ecosystem. It is a part of the biosphere
supported by biological processes and organic [evolution]: these three elements are interdepen-
dent.
Genetic diversity pertains essentially to the domesticatedplants and animals and is the result
of the domestication process to feed the escalating human population. This led to expansion of
agricultureand animal husbandry. In courseof time, in actual practice, it meant great dependence
on only high-yieldingvarieties, and consequentlyshrinkage of genetic base and increased crop
vulnerability. The present 'green revolution' agriculture is based on high productivity and low
diversity. There is now a need to combinehigh productivity and high genetic diversity not only
for enhancingfood productionbut also as insulation against threats from global climaticchanges
and pollutants in air, water and land.
The conservation of biodiversity is a holistic concept and encompasses the whole spectrum of
biota and of activities ranging from ecosystems at macro level (in situ) to DNA libraries at
molecularlevel (ex situ), and everything in between.
Biodiversity in general and genetic diversity in particular,have become highly politicisedissues,
much to the disappointmentof geneticists and breeders who caremore for the underlying science
and service to the society. Accordingly, there is now talk of a 'gene drain' from the South to the
North' star wars are being replaced with seed wars. Suchpoliticisationhas been the direct result
of the recent interest taken by multinational corporations, businessmen, diplomats, bureaucrats,
politicians, and the press. However, the traditional caretakers have been the subsistence farmers,
tribals, and individualbreeders in universities, government departments,and industry. All kept
genetic diversity alive for different reasons. The breeders used to exchangegenetically important
material without any reservations. In fact, the 'green revolution' in India is the result of such
scientific exchanges of the very advanced breeding material of Mexican dwarf wheats that were
subjectedto selection under local environmentalconditions.
India has done commendably well as far as ex situ conservation of crop genetic resources is
concerned but it has not paid adequate attention to the biological resources on a holistic basis
(in situ) under different ecosystems.
The important point in in situ conservation is that forest trees, wild animals,and micro-organisms
all occurtogether in a givenecosystem. Therefore, if we try to conserve and enrich the ecosystem,
much can be achieved in a single step. This would be particularly advantageous in tropical
forests where many species occur in low densities and are endemic to a high degree. Obviously,
there is an urgent need to co-ordinate our efforts on the ground level. This would not only
save time and effortbut also scarce fiscal resourcesand infrastructure.With small modifications,
programmeson crop and non-cropplants, wild animals,and forest trees could form components
of the whole whereby plants in general and crop relatives in particular, forest trees, and wild
and semi-domesticated animals as well as associated micro-organisms could be saved in one
operation.
The people's participationhas to be ensured by meeting all their needs for which they depend on
a particular ecosystem. This canbe done by helping the peopleto meet their needs from the buffer
zone. In this way, it is possibleto integrate rural development with ecosystem conservation. In
brief, not only wild animals and forest trees, but the full complement of biota, can generate
valuable products and services, Obviously, such areaswillhave to be selectedby design and not
on an ad hoc basis. The minimum area of the ecosystem willhave to be related to the population
size of the major species of forest trees and other plants and animals.
In order to identify ecosystems that have been left out and are in urgent need of conservation, it
is necessary to match the twelve bio-geographical provinces of India with the provinces of India
with the present-dayprotected area network (PAN). Sucha study willpointout additional areas
in need of conservation.
T.N. Khoshoo 25
So far, the approachhasbeen 'ad hoc' and oriented at savingfauna, especially large mammalsand
big cats, perhaps becausethey are more obvious and occupy the top of the food chain. In general,
decision-making has been based on the presence of wild mammals and birds. Unfortunately,
plant and other biotic wealth has never been taken into consideration. Such an omission is to
be rectified now, and the restricted outlook must change in favour of a holistic one in order to
enable the country to save as much of the biological wealth as possible.
So far the top donors of germplasm have been the developingcountries whereas the beneficia-
ries have been the developed ones. Furthermore, the priorities have also been dictated by the
developed World. According to this author, these must now be changed in favour of the needs
of the developingcountries.
Another aspect requiring attention is the evolution of a system, both nationallyand internation-
ally, where rights of both breeders and farmers are guaranteed. Although biodiversity is the
heritage of all humankind, the situation has changed on account of the application of biotech-
nology and genetic engineering,leading to the involvement of multinationalcorporationsin this
area. These aspects need to be looked into very carefully, so as to safeguard the interests of the
country and its breeders and farmers.
Furthermore, those countries that the maximum biological diversity are the ones which have
hardly any worthwhile economic means and professional competence to ensure conservation on
a sustained basis. India and some countriesin Centraland South America are notableexceptions.
In other developing countries, the social benefits of biological diversity are intangible and, for
want of a value in the market-place, the dire need to conserve biodiversityis never realised. The
same is true of the ecosystem, which is not at all conducive to conservation.
The term wildlifetheoreticallyinclude all non-domesticatedbiota growing under wild conditions.
However, the World has lost its utility because over the years, it has come to mean only wild
mammals (especially the big cats) and birds. To conserve such biota may have been a historical
necessity, but today even the WWF (World Wildlife Fund), from which all wildlife enthusiasts
have been drawing inspiration, has changed its name to World Wide Fund for Nature, realising
the widening frontiers and importance of biodiversityand environmentalissues. It is high time
that the Indian Board for Wildlife is scrapped and replaced by an interdisciplinary National
Biodiversity ConservationBoard, not merely in name but in substance and in actual functioning.
This Board should be the guardian of our biodiversity and deal with whole gamut of issues
connected with it.
In the developing countries, which are gene-rich, the most urgent need is trained manpower.
However, it is the developed countries which used this biodiversity and are crop-rich today.
Thus the developing countries, which have the basic raw material, are not often aware of its
importance,and it has eventuallybeen exploitedby the developed ones. This is a majorinfirmity
prevailing in the World is eventually and must be corrected at the earliest. Training, among
other subjects, must involve genetics (including population genetics, conservation biology, and
breeding). Meaningful conservation can be done only by such trained manpower and not by
generalists.
26 In situ conservationof biological diversity : important action points
IMPORTANT ACTION POINTS
1. Declare biological diversity a national resource, its conservation a national goal, and its
implementationa national priority. Conserverbiodiversityin local, state, national, regional,
and global contexts.
2. Constitute an interdisciplinaryNational Biodiversity Conservation Board for conservation,
monitoringand overseeingimplementationof the work plan, and managing conservationof
different biota and the PAN (Protected Areas Network).
3. Evolve a national policy on conservation of biodiversityand update the same periodically.
4. Reviewexisting PAN, which includesbiosphere reserves, nationalparks, wildlife sanctuaries,
sacred groves, preservation plots, game reserves,etc., with reference to
a. bio-geographical aspects involving all habitats from sea to alpine levels, and from moist
tropical forests to cold and hot deserts,
b. biological holdings and size of each protected area in relation to population size of biota
to be conserved, forest types, threatened biota, centres of diversity of plant and animal
species and their relatives,
c. anthropological aspects,
d. nationalinformationbase on biological wealth, together with its value in economic terms,
and
e. managementpatterns.
5. Reviewthe present conservation effort on differentbiota and prepare a special management
plan for conservation of forest and micro-organisms.
6. Draw up a plan to establish a representativePAN by
a. excludingthose areas that do not satisfy the minimum criteria, and
b. including new areas in order to rectify the deficiencies such as genetic reserves for rice,
sugarcane, mango, forage plants, banana, citrus, buffalo, fish, etc.
7. Establish minimal data bases for each protected area with regard to
a. climate, soil, water, air and other abiotic characteristics,
b. total biotic wealth with taxonomic identification,
c. wild relatives of domesticatedbiota,
d. threatened biota and nature of threats, and
e. linking of such data bases to a central point.
8. Draw management plans for PAN by ensuring
a. all-round involvement of people in order to develop their stake in PAN, including the
welfare and developmentalmeasures, so as to reduce to the minimum,their dependence
on Pan for goods, and
b. build-up a cradle of PAN conservators and science and technology professionals fully
trained in various aspects of management of these areas and the underlying science and
technology. (Since these are often far away from cities and towns, and these personnel
T.N. Khoshoo 27
have to deal with dangerous animals, the rules regarding recruitment, training, salary,
promotion and career development need re-examination).
9. Examine the tenurial status as well as land and water use patterns. Wherevernecessary, take
steps to guarantee tenurial status in particularhabitats on account of developmental projects.
Such a disruption would markthe continuityof the biological process.
10. Draw up plans for rehabilitation of the priority species both ex situ and in situ and for
purposes of restoring the natural populations. In all cases, the basis has to be ecosystem
dynamics, population geneticsand conservation biology,so as to avoid geneticdrift in future.
11. Domesticate, where required, those wildbiota that have a trade value but are under constant
threat,such as butterflies, frogs, turtles, fish, fur animals,herbal drugs, ornamentals,botanical
varieties, teaching materials, etc. This would reduce the presence on the natural populations
and help in their conservation, provided breeding methodology is based on evolutionary
biology and population genetics.
12. Draw up plans for education and awareness about various aspects of PAN for students, the
lay public, administrators,decision-makers and politicians.
13. Promote awareness among people, particularly those who are a part of the ecosystems, and,
if required,lookinto the compensatorymechanismsfor the people.
14. Drawing up plans for basic and applied research at individual, population,community,and
ecosystemlevels regarding ecosystem dynamics, conservationbiology, population genetics,
reproductivebiology, and other related subjects.
15. Support PAN with an effective network of botanical and zoological gardens, zoo, arboreta,
aquaria, and bio-banks concerned chiefly with ex situ conservation.
16. Guarantee continued financial support.
ISSUES IN ECOLOGICAL SECURITY
SOIL-PLANT-ATMOSPHERE INTERACTIONS
BARRY F. CLOUGH
THEMES
• Strategies for accommodating environmentalstress
• Regulation of forest primary production and growth
• Impact of possibleglobal climatic changes
• Implications for management
STRESS FACTORS
Main stress factors experiencedby mangroves
• Anaerobic or anoxic soils
• Nutrient unavailability
• High soil salinity
• Water availability
• Temperature
• Excessive solar radiation! light
CONSEQUENCES
• Mangrove soil are mostly anaerobic, with oxidation)reduction(redox) potentials < 100 mV
• In general, redox potential decreaseswith depth in the soil
• Mangrove roots cannot obtain 02 from the soil to satisfy their respiratory requirements
• Availability of nutrients, especiallyN, P, Fe, Mn
ACCOMMODATION BY MANGROVES
• Spatial distribution of roots
• Specialised root morphology and structures to facilitate 02 transport from the air to the below-
ground roots
NUTRIENTAVAILABILITY
GENERALISATIONS
• Sands or sandy soil and calcareous soils derived chiefly from the marine environmenttend to
be nutrient-deficient(e.g., coral cays, barrier and other low islands)
• Silty and clayey soils derived from the land tend to be nutrient-rich (e.g., river and estuary
deltas)
SALINITY
• Effect of high Na and Cl
• Effect on water balance
• Osmoregulationand uptake of Na and C1
• Osmoregulationand compatible organic solutes
• Salinity and growth
WATER AVAILABILITY
• Effect of salinity
• Effect of soil water content
• Influence of tidal range and topographiclevel
• Some ecological implicationsfor zonation
TEMPERATURE
• Effects of low temperature on species distributions
• Genotypicvariation in low temperature responses
• Effect of high temperature on photosynthesis
• Effect of high temperature on water loss
SOLAR RADIATION
INFRARED RADIATION (> 800 nm)
• Effect on Photosynthesis
• Photoinhibition
ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION (< 400 nm)
• General effects
• Tanninsas UVblockers
• Temperature
• Dispersal
— Ocean currents
—
Propagule buoyance
—
Propagule longevity
• Aridity
— /
rainfall cloudiness
—
seasonality
LOCALLY
• Geomorphicsetting
• Tidal regime and topographic level
• Soil properties
—
salinity
— water content
—
composition
— nutrient availability
globally eustatic sea level has rise of 10 cm over the last 100 years
—
— expect a rise of 30—50 cm by 2050 and 100 cm by 2100
giving an expected average rise of 50—90 cm over the next 100 years
—
POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES
• management strategies
• Selecting appropriate sites for specific types of management
REFERENCES
Aksornkae, S. (1987). Traditional uses of the mangrovein Thailand. In : Field. C.D. and A.J. Dart-
nall, (Ed.s). Mangrove ecosystems of Asia and the Pacific : status, exploitation and management.
Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia. pp. 104—113.
Andrews T.J., B.F. Clough, and G.J. Muller. (1984). Photosyntheticgas exchange properties and
carbonisotope ratios of some mangrovesin North Queensland.In : H.J. Teas, (Ed.). Physiology
and Managementof Mangroves,Tasks for Vegetation, Science 9 15—23. Dr. W. Junk, The
Hague.
Ansari, T.A. (1986). In : Umali, R.M., P.M. Zamora, R.R. Gotera, R.S. Jara, R.S. and A.S. Ca-
mach (Ed.s). MangrovesofAsia and the Pacific : status and management. Technical Report of the
UNDP/UNESCOResearch and Training Pilot Programmeon Mangrove Ecosystems in Asia
and the Pacific (RAS/79/002), pp. 151—173. UNESCO, New Delhi.
Atkinson, M.R., G.P. Findlay,A.B. Hope, M.G. Pitman, H.D.W. Saddlerand K.R. West (1967). Salt
regulationin the mangroves Rhizophora mucronata Lam. and Aegialitis annulata R. Br. Aust. I.
Biol. Sci. 20 : 589—599.
Attiwill, P.M. and B.F. dough. (1980). Carbon dioxide and water vapour exchangein the white
mangrove. Photosynthetica 14 : 40—47.
Ball, M.C. (1988). Ecophysiology of mangroves. Tress 2: 129—142.
Ball, M.C. and C. Chitley. (1982). Photosynthetic responses to irradiance by grey mangrove,
Avicenniamarina, grown under differentlight regimes. Plant Physiol. 70 : 1101—1106.
Ball, M.C., I.R. Cowan, and G.D. Farquhar. (1988). Maintenance of leaf temperature and optimi-
sation of carbon in relation to water loss in a tropicalmangrove forest. Aust. J. Plant Physiol.
15 : 263—276.
Baliment, E.R., T.J. Smith II and J.A. Stoddart. (1988). Sibling species in the mangrove genus
Ceriops (Rhizophoraceae), detected using biochemical genetics. Aust. Syst. Bot. 1 : 391—397.
Berry, J and 0. Bjorkman. (1980). Photosynthetic response and adaptation to temperature in
higher plants. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. 31 : 491—543.
Bjorkman, 0. and B. Demming.(1987). Photonyield of 02 evolution and chlorophyll fluorescence
characteristics at 77 K among vascular plants of diverse origins. Planta 170 : 489—504.
Bjorknman, 0., B. Demming, and T.J. Andrews (1988). Mangrove photosynthesis : response to
high irradiance stress. Aust. I. Plant Physiol. 15 : 43—61.
Blasco, F. (1982). Climatic factors and the biology of mangrove species. In : Snedaker, S.C. and
J.G. Snedaker. (Ed.s). The Mangroveecosystem : Research Methods. pp. 18—34. UNESCO, Paris.
Boto, K.G. (1982). Nutrient and organic fluxes in mangroves. In : Clough, B.F. (Ed.). Mangrove
Ecosystems in Australia : Structure, Function and Management. Australian National University
Press, Canberra. pp. 239—257.
Boto, K., Saffigna, P. and B.F. Clough. (1985). Role of nitrate in nitrogen nutrition of the mangrove
Avicennia marina. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 21: 259—265.
36 Soil-plant-atmosphere interactions
Boto, K.G. and J.T. Wellington, (1983). Phosphorus and nitrogen nutritional status in a Northern
Australian mangrove forest. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 21: 259—265.
Boto, K.G. and J.T. Wellington. (1984). Soil characteristics and nutrient status in a Northern
Australian mangrove forest. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 11 : 63—69.
Burchett, M.D., C.D. Field and A. Pulkownik. (1984). Salinity, growth and root respiration in the
grey mangroveAvicennia marina. Physiol. Plantarum 60 : 113—118.
Chapman, V.J. (1975). Mangrove biogeography. In : Walsh, G.E., S.C. Snedaker, and H.J. Teas
(Ed.s). Proceedings of the internationalsymposium on biology and management of mangroves, II
3—22. Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences, Universityof Florida, Gainsville, Florida.
Clusener, M. and S.W. Breckle. (1987). Reasons for the limitation of mangrove along the West
coast of Northern Peru. Vegetatio 68 : 173—177.
Connor, D.J. (1969). Growth of grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) in nutrient culture. Biotropica
1 : 36—40.
Downton, W.J.S. (1982). Growth and osmotic relations of the mangrove Avicennia marina, as
influencedby salinity. Aust. I. Plant Physiol. 9 : 519—528.
Flowers, T.J. and A.R. Yeo. (1986). Ion relations of plants under drought and salinity, Aust. J.
Plant Physiol 13 : 75—91.
Gill, A.M. and P.B. Tomlinson. (1977). Studies on the growth of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle
L.): The adult root system. Biotropica 9: 145—155.
Hesse, P.R. (1961). Some differences between the soils of Rhizophora and Avicennia mangrove
swamps in Sierra Leone. Plant and Soil. 14 : 335—346.
Hosokawa, T., H. Tagawa, and V.J. Chapman. (1977). Mangals of Micronesia, Taiwan, Japan,
The Philippines and Oceania. In : Chapman, V.J. (Ed.). Ecosystems of the World 1: wet coastal
ecosystems, Elsevier, Amsterdam.pp. 271—291.
Kenneally, K.R. (1982). Mangrovesof Western Australia. In : Clough, B.F. (Ed.). MangroveEcosys-
tems in Australia : structure, function and management. Australian National University Press,
Canberra. pp. 95—110.
Barry F. Clough 37
Kogo, M., C. Miyamoto, and S. Suda. (1986). Report of thefirst consultant mission for experimental
plantationfor rehabilitation of mangroves in Pakistan. UNDP/UNESCOResearch and Training
Pilot Programmeon Mangrove Ecosystems in Asia and the Pacific (RAS/79/002). Al-Grum
Research Centre, Tokyo. 45 p.
Lawton. J.R., A. Todd, and D.K. Naidoo. (1981). Preliminary investigationsinto structure of the
roots of the mangroves, Avicennia marina and Bruguieragymnorrhiza, in relationto ion uptake.
New Phytol. 88 : 713—722.
Lovelock, C.E. (1990). Influence of environment on xanthophyll contents and the relationship
between photosynthetic rates and zeaxanthin formation in tropical mangroves. Abstr. Aust.
Soc. Plant Physilologists. 30th Annual General Meeting, University of New South Wales.
Macnae, W. (1968). A general account of the fauna and flora of mangrove swamps and forests
in the Indo-West Pacific region. Adv. Mar. Biol. 6 : 73—270.
Markley, J.L., C. McMillan, and G.A. Thompson. Jr. (1982). Latitudinal differentiation in response
to chilling temperaturesamong populationsof three mangroves,Avicennia germinans, Langun-
cularia racemosa and Rhizophora mangle, from the Western tropicalAtlanticand Pacific Panama.
Can. j. Bot. 60 : 2704—2715.
McMillan, C. (1971). Environmentalfactors affecting seedling establishment of the black man-
grove on the central Texas cost. Ecology 52 : 927—930.
Moon, G.J., B.F. dough, C.A. Peterson, and W.G. Allaway. (1986). Apoplastic and symplastic
pathways in Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. root revealedby fluorescent tracer dyes. Aust. J.
Plant Physiol. 13 : 637—648.
Moore, R.T., P.C. Miller, D. Albright, and L.L. Tieszen. (1972). Comparativegas exchangechar-
acteristics of three mangrove species during the winter. Photosynthetica 6 : 387—393.
Moore, R.T., P.C. Miller, J. Ehleringer, and W. Lawrence. (1973). Seasonal trends in gas exchange
characteristics of three mangrove species. Photosynthetica 6 : 387—394.
Popp, M. (1984). Chemicalcomposition of Australian mangroves, 1 : Inorganic ions and organic
acids. Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 113 : 395—409.
Popp, M. (1984a). Chemical composition of Australian mangroves. Low molecular weight
carbohydrates.Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 113 : 411—421.
Popp, M., F. Larher, and P. Weigel. (1984). Chemical composition of Australian mangroves. 3.
Free amino acids, total methylated onium compounds and total nitrogen. Z. Pflanzenphysiol.
114: 15—25.
Qureshi, M.T. (1990). Experimental plantation for rehabilitationof mangroveforests in Pakistan.
First Report.UNDP/UNESCORegional Project for Research and its Application to the Man-
agement of the Mangroves of Asia and the Pacific (RAS/86/120). Sind Forest Department,
Govt. of Sind, Karachi, Pakistan.
Rabinowitch, D. (1985). Dispersal properties of mangrove propagules. Biotropica 10 : 47—57.
Robertson, A.I. and N.C. Duke. (1987). Mangroves as nursery sites : comparisons of the abundance
and species composition of fish and crustaceans in mangroves and other nearshore habitats
in tropical Australia. Marine Biology 96 : 193—205.
38 Soil-plant-atmosphere interactions
Saenger, P. (1982). Morphological, anatomical and reproductiveadaptation of Australian man-
groves. In : Clough, B.F. (Ed.). MangroveEcosystems in Australia: Structure, Function and Man-
agement. Australian National UniversityPress, Canberra. pp. 153—191.
Saenger, P., M.M. Specht, Specht, R.L. and V.J. Chapman, (1977). Mangal and coastal salt-marsh
communities in Australasia.In : Chapman, V.J. (Ed.). Ecosystems of the World. 1 : wet coastal
ecosystems. Elsevier, Amsterdam.pp. 293—345.
Scholander, P.F. (1968). How mangroves desalinate seawater.Physiol. Plantarum 2 : 251—261.
Sidhu, S.S. (1975). Structure of epidermis and stomatal apparatus of some mangrove species. In:
Walsh, G.E., Snedaker, S.C. and H.J. Teas. (Ed.s). Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Biology and Management of Mangroves 2 : 569—578. Institute of Food and Agricultural Science,
University of Florida,Gainsville, Florida.
Smith, J.A., C.M. Popp, U. Luttge,W.J. Cram, M. Diaz, H. Griffiths, H.S. Lee, E. Medina,C. Schaf-
fer, K.H. Stimmel, and B. Thonke. (1989). Ecophysiology of xerophytic and halophytic vege-
tation of coastal alluvial plain in Northern Venezuela. VI. Water relations and gas exchange
of mangroves. New Phytol. 111: 293—307.
Teas, H.J. (1979). Silviculture with saline water, In: Hollaender,A., J.C. Aller, E. Epstein, A. San
Pietro, and O.R. Zaborsky (Ed.s). The Biosaline Concept. An Approach to the utilization of under-
exploited resources. Plenum Press, New York. pp. 117—161.
Tomlinson, P.B. (1986). The BotanyofMangroves. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge.413 p.
Tsilemanis, C. (1989). The Effect of Salinity on Photosynthesis in Mangroves. MS. Envir. Sc. Thesis,
Monash University. 49 p.
Turner, R.E. (1986). Relationships between coastal wetlands, climate and penaeid shrimps yield.
In : IOC/FAO Workshop on Recruitmentin Tropical Coastal DemersalCommunities : Sub-
mitted Papers, Cuidad de Carman, Compeche, Mexico. UNESCO, Paris. pp. 267—276.
Walsh, G.E. (1977). Exploitation of the mangal. In : Chapman, V.J. (Ed.). Ecosystems of the World
1 : wet coastal ecosystems. Elsevier, Amsterdam.pp. 347—362.
Wells, A.G. (1983). Distribution of mangrove species in Australia. In : Teas, H.J. (Ed.). Biology
and Ecology of Mangroves. Tasks for Vegetation Science 8 : 57—76. Dr. W. Junk, The Hague.
Wightman, G.M. (1989). Mangrovesof the Northern Territory. Northern Territory Botanical Bulletin
No. 7. Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory, Darwin, Australia. 130 p.
Zahran, M.A., (1977). Africa : A. Wet Formations of the AfricanRed Sea Coast. In : Chapman,V.J.
(Ed.). Ecosystems of the World: wet coastal ecosystems, pp. 215—231. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
CLIMATIC IMPACTS ON MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS
BARRY F. CLOUGH
INTRODUCTION
Mangroves are woody trees or shrubs that grow in Intertidal region along tropical and sub-
tropical coasts. With favourable geomorphic conditions, mangroves commonly form extensive
tidal forests in moist, humid equatorial climates. Under these conditions, individual trees may
attain heights of 40—45 metres and have stem diameters of more than 1 meter. Tidal mangrove
forests under the favourable conditions of humid production climates and low to moderate soil
salinity commonly have highrates of primary production and growth that are equivalentto those
of the best terrestrialforests. On the other hand, under less favourable conditions, such as high
soil salinity or arid climates, rates of primary production and growth are generally somewhat
less. There are approximately60 species of mangroves World-wide. About 45 of these occur in
the South-east Asian/Western Pacific region, commonly referred to as the New World. The Old
World region of Central and South America has 45-species, while there are about 10—12 species
of Africa and Arabia. Asia and the Western Pacific are thus rich in terms of mangroveflora.
In addition to differences in species richness between major continental regions, their is also
a marked reduction in the number of species with increasing latitude. Thus, while there are
about 35 species on the North-eastern tip of Cape York Peninsula, only 4—5 species of mangrove
occur near Brisbane, reducing to a solitary species, Avicennia marina, at the Southernmostlimit
of distribution of mangroves at Corner Inlet on the Southern coastline of mainland Australia.
There is a similar reduction in the number of species with increasing latitude in the Northern
hemisphere.
Mangroveforests are important for a number of reasons
1. Mangrove forests and estuaries are the primary nursery area for a number of commercially
important shrimp, crab and fish species. They are also important nursery areas for other
species which are themselvesnot used commercially, but which for, part of the food chain for
commercial species offshore.
2. Mangrove vegetation stabilises shorelines and the banks of rivers and estuaries, providing
them with some protection from tidal bores, ocean currents and storm surges.
3. In many countries of South-east Asia and the Pacific, mangroves are used commercially for
the production of timber for building, firewood and charcoal. Experience has shown that
when these activitiesare managed appropriately it is possibleto derive timber products from
mangroveforests without significant environmentaldegradation,and while maintainingtheir
value as a nursery and source of food for commercial capture fisheries.
1. River-dominated settings, where the dominant influence is the influx of freshwater and sed-
imentary materials from upland catchments. This setting is often characterisedby the pres-
ence of extensive mangrove-dominateddeltaic floodplains and mud-flats with a relatively
small topographic gradient. Mangrove forests in this settings are often both extensive and
exceptionallyluxuriant owing to the influx of freshwaterand nutrient rich silt.
2. Tide-dominated settings, where the dominant influence is largely that of regular tidal inunda-
tion with seawater of marine origin. Lack of freshwater influx in this type of setting, coupled
withless extensivedeltaic floodplaindevelopment,oftenrestrictsboth the areal extent of man-
groves and their rate of growth. As will be pointed out later, growth rate is much reduced
due to high salinities.
3. Carbonatesettings,where mangrovesoccur on coral rubble from former coralreefs, or on cal-
careoussands of marine origin. These environments,which are quite common in small island
countries of the Western Pacific, are generally low in nutrients, lack significant freshwater
influx, and may be exposed to onshore waves and other high-energy natural phenomena.
In consequence, mangrove vegetation in this setting is often depauperate in terms of species
diversity,and generally has a comparativelylow rate of growth.
TOPOGRAPHY
As indicated above, many mangrove areas show quite distinct zonation patterns, where species
are zoned according to their tolerance to soil type, water content, salinity, soil type, tidal fre-
quency and amplitude, and perhaps many other soil factors. Many of thee soil characteristics are
determined by topographic level and tidal range. Some mangroves, such a Ceriops, Heritiera,
Lumnitzerafor example, show a clear preference for the mid to upper tidal range; others, such
as Rhizophoraand Sonneratia,show a clear preference for the lower Intertidal range. One genus,
Avicennia,appears to be well adapted to both the low Intertidal and high Intertidal regions, but
is generally absent from mid-Intertidal regions. While biotic factors such as predation by crabs
might explain some zonation patterns, there is nevertheless clear evidence that the frequency
and duration of tidal inundation is a major factor determiningzonation patterns.
In areas where tidal amplitude is large (> 4 m) and the shoreline is steeply sloped, mangrove
areas are often contracted to a narrow fringe close to the upper tidal limit.
Barry F. Clough 41
SOIL FACTORS
Salinity and water content are probably the two key soil factors influencingzonation, patterns.
Both of these properties are influencedby the geomorphic, setting, the physical composition of
the soil, tidal frequencyand amplitude. Each species of mangrove appears to have an ecological
amplitude that is dictated to a major extent by the interaction of soil water content and soil
salinity. As will be clear later, a change in relative sea level will changetidalinundation patterns,
which in turn would be expected to lead to landward shift in present zonation patterns.
CLIMATICFACTORS
Light, temperature and aridity appear to be the most important climatic parameters influenc-
ing mangrove growth and geographic distribution. As pointed out earlier, there is a marked
reduction in the number of species with increasing latitude. This appears to be associated with
a correspondingdecreasein air and sea surfacetemperature with increasing latitude. However,
the physiologicalbasis for the apparent inability of most species to withstand moderately low
temperatures is not understood. Moreover, no species of mangroves can withstand persistent
forest.
Apart from the apparent effect of temperature on geographical distribution, all these climatic
factors (i.e, light, temperature and aridity) have a profound effect on growth. Their effect is
largely at the canopy level, where they interact to influence the water and carbon balance of
mangroves.In general terms,cloudy overcast conditions, coupled with moderateto low salinities,
are most advantageous for the growth of mangroves. In arid climates or in monsoonal climates
where the monsoon is strongly seasonal, growth is much reduced by climatic conditions which
promote excessive water loss and hence water stress in mangrove trees. This problem is further
exacerbated by high soil salinity, which effectively makes it more difficultfor the trees to take
up water.
EPISODIC EVENTS
Most predictions of future global change indicate an increase in the frequencyand intensity of
episodic cyclones, hurricanes, storms and floods. Furthermore, these episodic events are likely to
extend their influence further South in the Southernhemisphereand further North in the North-
ern hemisphere. While mangroves do provide a protective buffer that minimisesthe impact of
sever storms on coastalregions, such events inevitablycause some destructionof mangrovesand
instabilityin mangrove areas. If predictions for future global climate are correct, it is likely that
cyclones and other severe episodic climate events will have an increasingimpact on mangrove
ecosystems.
CLIMATIC CHANGES
Global climatic change is expected to lead to further rises in atmosphericCO2 levels, and increase
in temperature, increasedUV radiation, and changesin rainfall pattern. These willprobably not
be uniform around the World. In particular, there is great uncertainty about which areas of the
World are likely to become wetter or drier.
Mangroves,like most other tree species and most crop plants, use the C3 biochemicalpathway
for photosynthesis. Studies with crop plants indicate that rising atmospheric CO2 levels will
result in increased growth, biomass production and commercial yield. Comparable studies with
mangroves have not been done. However, based on our present understanding of mangrove
Barry F. dough 43
physiology, it seems likely that higher atmosphericCO2 concentrations willalso lead potentially
to higher rates of photosynthesis.Whether or not this will lead to a correspondingincrease in
growth rate is not yet clear. As pointed out earlier,mangroves seemto have adopted a strategyof
minimisingtheir waterloss for a given amount of carbon gained in photosynthesis.This strategy
is well suited to highly saline soils which place stress on the water balance of the plant. Thus
it is possiblethat greater photosynthetic carbon fixation in response to elevated CO2 levels will
simply result in the use of less water rather than being translated intoa correspondingincrease in
growth rate. The question of how to respond to a rise in CO2 concentrationand to temperature
depends very much on whether rainfall increases or decreases. In general, it can be expected
that increasingrainfall, and in particular increasingcloudiness,couples with decreasing salinity
would favour increased rates of photosynthesisand more rapid growth.
An overallincrease in global temperaturesis also likelyto lead to an increase in species migration
polewards as temperatures at temperate latitudes reach levels that are suitable for those species
that are presently restricted to latitudes closer to the equator.
MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
As pointed out above, mangroves are now managed on a sustainable basis for a variety of timber
and other products. Some countries have also gazetted green belts (of mangrove forest) along
their coastal fringe as a buffer between land and sea and to maintain coastal capture fisheries.
Options for management for mangrove areaswillneed to considerthe impact of a possible rise in
relative sea level on the long-term sustainabilityof present and future use of mangroveforests. In
addition, it needs to be rememberedthat in many cases development of land behind mangrove
areas will likely restrict the landward migration of mangroves in response to an increase in
relative sea level.
REFERENCES
Clough, B.F., T.J. Andrews and I.R. Cowan. (1982). Physiological processes. In: B.F. Clough (Ed.).
Mangrove Ecosystems in Australia: Structure, Function and Management. Australian National
University Press, Canberra. pp. 194—210.
Ellison, J.C. and D.R. Stoddart. (1991). Mangrove ecosystemcollapse during predicted sea-level
rise: Holocene analogues and implications. Journal of Coastal Research 7(1) : 151—155.
Thom, B.G. (1982). Mangrove ecology—a geomorphological perspective. In: B.F. Clough (Ed.).
Mangrove Ecosystems in Australia: Structure, Function and Management. Australian National
University Press, Canberra. pp. 3—17.
Woodroffe, C.D. (1990). The impact of sea-level rise on mangrove shorelines. Progress in Physical
Geography 44 : 84—520.
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION TO UNDERSTANDAND
MITIGATETHE EFFECTS OF GLOBAL CHANGE AND SEA
LEVEL RISE
S.N. DWIVEDI
INTRODUCTION
The climate change and global Sea Level Rise (SLR) apart from directlysubmergingsome coastal
areas is goingto result in many ecological changesand these may pose a major pollutionin coastal
areas. In order to understand the implications,answers to following questions are needed:
1. What these changes are likely to be?
2. How they are going to effect coastal areas and islands in the Padfic, Atlantic and the Indian
Ocean ?
3. What action can be taken to combat and mitigate their adverse effects if such changesoccur?
4. What are the other likely changes - salt water incursion from sea towards land?
5. How are biological resources and production rates going to be influenced?
6. What are likely changes in the hydrology of estuaries and coastal lagoons?
It is therefore necessary to understand the present state of art of coastal areas with reference to
the biological aspects and design simple experimentswhich can be conducted on national and
regional basis for understanding the changesand the manner in which they are likelyto influence
the ecosystems and suggest advance action to mitigate their adverse effects. The effects of these
changes are likely to be felt intensely in developing countriesand also in the small islands.
The developing countriesat present do not have
1. Enough S & T data to predict the levels of change,
2. Manpower and equipment to understand and define the associate changes which are likely
to occur, e.g., ingress of salt water from sea towards land, erosion and accretion, supratidal
areas suitable for plantation along beaches,
3. Infrastructural and scientific support for investigation in the area of marine sciences which
help in the better definition of the above, demonstrate changeswhich may occur in different
nations and region, and
4. Suggestionsfor S & T action for enhancement of preparednessto mitigate the adverse effects
of global changes.
The impact of global warming will also increase the dischargeof rivers. These rivers apart from
water also transport a large amount of withered material in solution and in suspension. It has
been estimated that the total river borne fluxes of suspended sediment is about 12 billion tons
per annum in Bay of Bengal.
The water increase has bought about morphologicaland ecological changes which influence the
biology and production of the Bay of Bengal. The countries influenced by these changes are
India, Bangladesh, Burma and Thailand. Some of the changeswhich have occurred are:
BIOLOGICAL MEASURES TO COMBAT SEA LEVEL RISE AND MITIGATE ITS EFFECTS
RECLAMATIONOF LAND THROUGH SILT TRAPS
Hoogly Malta is one of the biggest estuarine systems in the World. Weather Watch Research
Institute,Washington has estimated that more than 12 billion tonnes of silt is dischargedannually
by this estuarine system over centuries, this silt has been deposited in the shape of Bengal fan.
Some of the coastal areas near the Diamond harbour have also become shallower. Calcutta port
also has problems relating to formation of sandbars and siltation. Dredging of Calcutta harbour
is a recurring expenditure which is undertaken to maintain navigability of the system. Keeping
in view the large amount of aloud which is available annually, it is proposed to undertake
following programmes.
Traditionally, the local people have constructed 'Bheries' along the estuaries in which brick
making is undertaken as an artisanal measure. This is a major source of material used for bricks.
It is suggested to study these bricks so that they could be used in coastal areas for low cost
housing. The constant removal of the silt would also require scientific studies to indicate the
quantity of slit which can be deposited annually in the artificially created silt traps.
SILT TRAPS AND SILT BARRIERS
After the monsoonseason, large quantities of silt are depositedin the supratidal region. However,
on a regular basis this silt is used by the local people for domesticpurposes.
Experimentsconducted also indicate that if silt is collected in the selected areas, it results in
raising of the land. Successive artificial barriers placed in an inclined plain help to arrest the
50 Understanding the effects of global change and sea level rise
slit but the water is slowly drained away. In this manner large low lying areas of depths less
than half a meter can be reclaimed.It is thereforeproposed to design experiments to undertake
studies on the rate of siltation, the total silt deposited and the time which will be required for
reclamation of 1 hectare area with an average depth of half a meter at the high tide level.
MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS
Due to the projected sea level rise, changes are being caused in the mangrove swamps of Sun-
derbans. In some areas, mangroves have died out while In other areas mangrove swamps have
become more saline and the composition of species of both fauna and flora is changing. It is
therefore proposed to study the ecology of mangroves of various salinity levels-low, medium
and high. In these areas it is proposed to study the physicochemical conditions, productivity of
benthos, phyto and zooplankton, availability of juveniles of prawns and fish and use them for
growing. In addition, it is also proposed to study the role of different kinds of ecosystems, for
the kind of species they will support for breeding and reproduction,as nursery grounds and as
habitat for growing adult fish.
Mangroves are slow growing species and young ones only grow under most favorable condi-
tions. The experimentsconducted duringthe last decade have led to the developmentof nursery
of mangroves in which various species of mangroveshave been growing successfully. it is sug-
gested to undertake three pilot projects to determine the social forestry use of mangroves. The
mangroves help in increasingthe silt load and detritus and combatingthe adverse effects of sea
level rise.
Impact of Sea Level Rise on waste disposal and the aquatic environmentare subjectedto various
pollutants due to discharge of sewage through municipal drainage system which contains do-
mestic waste, storm water and surface run-out, industrial discharge of effluent and oil discharge
during tanker traffic, oil explorations, presence of pipelines submergedin water etc.
ECOSYSTEM EFFECTS
Sewage discharge large amount of turbidity including heavy and trace metals into aquatic envi-
ronment. Turbidity depresses phytoplankton production and benthic environmentis altered by
sedimentation.On the periphery, the effect is usually that of enhancement of biologicalcommu-
nities by the addition of organic and inorganic nutrients. If the discharge through the pipeline
is on the shore, the growth of sea weeds and Intertidal animal species adapted to high nutrient
levels may be encouraged. Such enhancement of limited group of species is an important effect
of sewage input which disturbs the energy transfer through food webs which ultimately leads
to reduction in species diversity. However, treated sewage from a properly designed and well
positioned outfalls is unlikelyto have significant detrimental effect over a long range.
EFFECT ON HUMAN LIFE
Sewage dischargeon the beaches and in shallowwateris likely to causean offensive odour and as
a result deterioration in amenities including possible health effects. Such discharges will result
in a continuous flow of pathogenic bacteria, viruses and parasites into coastal waters around
urban regions. These organisms can survive for a long time and as a result can get attached to
bottom organisms. Where drainage systems are ineffective, feces may be deposited directly on
the beach which results in infection to several human beings. Recent investigationshave proved
that bathing in such contaminatedwater can result in diseases. Also consumption of fish and
shell fish harvested from sewage contaminated water can cause bacterialand viral infection.
EFFECT OF ORGANOCHLORINES
PCBs consist of a large number of homologous and isomers and chlorinatedbiphenyls. For fish
and other marine organisms the acute toxicity is higher for mixture with a low chlorine content
S.N. Dwivedi 53
and there is also a cumulative effect. Fishes are more sensitive in the early stages of life and the
sample applies to marine invertebrates which are, as adults more sensitive than fish.
Since man is one of the species most susceptible to PCBs, residues in marine organismsused as
food could represent a public health problem.
DDT has been detected in rain-water,in Antarctic snow and in soils and lakes. Like PCBs, DDT
is transported in the atmosphere and in water courses. It cycles in the food web and can be
magnified in certain food chains. The concentration of DDT in living organisms may be the
result of absorption from water. Marine organisms show large differences in sensitivities to
DDT. Thus for zooplankton, the lethal concentration starts at 0.01 mg/i; for fish, 0.1 mg/l is
toxic. Phytoplankton,crustaceansand molluscs are affected by concentrations above 1.0 mg / 1.
Marine organismsalso absorb oil. The toxicityis largelyassociatedwiththe aromatic hydrocarbon
content of the oil, although for some organisms, the non-hydrocarboncomponentsare not toxic.
In addition to their acute toxic effects on marine life, crude and refined oils affects marine
organisms at concentrationsthe do not result immediatelyin death. The oil slicks at sea kill or
adversely affect zoo-plankton,including totally planktonic species like Copepods, as well as the
planktonic eggs large of fish and benthic invertebrates.
CONCLUSION
It is therefore necessary that the impact of projected Sea Level Rise should be studied to under-
stand the impact or changes in coastal circulation on availabilityof dilution factor, direction of
dispersal, bioaccumulationand benthic changes. The experimentalsites should be selectednear
large coastal metropolitan cities and near industrial outfalls. Further, the experiments should
be conducted in temperature and tropical oceans and included in the national programmes of
different countries. They should be then studied to design general predictive models to evolve
guidelines for protectionof waste disposal points to minimise effects against Sea Level Rise.
CARBON DIOXIDE BUDGET AND RESEARCHPROJECT
The changes in Sea Level Rise are likely to influence the total carbon budget. In carbon budget
the ocean plays a major role because 70% of the earth's surface is covered by water in which
photosysthesis takes place on a continuousbasis. The earlier studies conducted for evaluationof
chlorophyll has shown regional differences in different oceans. Apart from the regional differ-
ences the seasonal differences and inter annual variations are also important. The work done in
the Indian ocean has shown that the upwelling occurringalong the South-west Coast of Indian
results in intensive production of phytoplankton.This in turn alters the food chain. In center in
cases when the conditions are more favourable, plankton blooms occur. The plankton blooms
have been reported along the West cost of India from early part of 19th century. The problem is
also receiving international attention and IOC has constituted a sub-group to develop standard
methods of estimation to assess the phytoplankton blooms and their intensity. These blooms
apart from having toxic effect on other organisms, also contribute for consumption of oxygen
and production of carbon dioxide during the sunlight, the process is reversed in darkness. It has
been estimated that there is an extra production of 3 million tons of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. It is thereforenecessary that while estimates are being made regarding production
54 Understanding the effects of global change and sea level rise
of excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,the role played by plankton in oceans for production
of oxygen is also estimated.
The earlier studies conducted in the Indian Ocean had estimatedthe phytoplankton production
based on total organic carbon, at 11 million tons of tertiary crop. It is, therefore, necessary that
on a continuing basis, experiments should be designed to estimate chlorophyllestimation with
reference to carbon dioxide budget. The change in the topical ocean are more rapid and variation
are large. A comparativestudy at three or four centres shouldbe undertaken in the Indian ocean.
It is thereforesuggested, to undertake experimentsto determinethe rates of production of chloro-
phyll with reference to carbon dioxide budget in differentoceanicareas also.
REMOTE SENSING AND SEA LEVEL RISE
Sea Level Rise (SLR) is a slow phenomena, and its impact is gradual. It needs long term and
precise observationsto understand and predict likely changes that may occur along the coasts
of the continents and islands. These impacts of SLR are global in nature but they undergo
annual, regional and local variations. They are influenced by the coastal morphology and rainfall
particularly in the countriessituated in the monsoonbelt in Asia.
COASTALMORPHOLOGY
Due to coastal process, hydrography and currents, the continentalmargins, estuaries and island
undergo seasonal and long terms fluctuations.The occurrence and disappearance of sand bars
is caused due to silt movement. It influences closing and opening of the mouths of the estuaries
and the coastal lakesand changesthe hydrologyand biological characterof the area. Therefore, it
is necessary to study the morphology of the coastal margins, estuaries,coastal lakes, backwaters
and lagoons and understand seasonal and annual variations.
The dischargeof sewage and organic wastes in estuaries undergo quantit.ative changes. In many
parts the estuaries get connected to ow lying coastal plains, mud-flat,marshes and pollute them,
thus large areas become unfit for development. In these areas production of organic debris and
detritus is a continuousprocess. The dispersal and decomposition of detritus and silt depends on
coastal currents. Such areas are abundant near Bangkok, Calcutta, Bombay and in Shat-al-Arab
in Iraq and are vulnerable to SLR.
V. ARUNACHALAM
thata random sample of n gametes would contain at least one copy of each allele. A safe
conclusion is that a random sample of size 50 to 100 will be more than adequate under most
circumstances. The number of populations or sites to be sampled will be determined by various
factors such as the length of collecting season, relative abundance of target species, roughnessof
terrain, and so on. However,under ideal conditions this limit can be as high as 1000 per season,
although in most cases it will be considerablyless (Allard, 1970; Bennett, 1970).
When information on levels of variation within and between populations of target species is
available, the fraction of the total genetic variation in the target area captured by a particular
samplingprocedure is obtainedusing the formula due to Oka (1969). The numberof populations
or sites to be sampled and the number of plants (or seeds) sampled per site are extrapolated
for the sampling procedure. A careful considerationof various values of relevant parameters
estimated for various crops, suggests an adequate sample of a size of about 50 plants per popu-
lation, in contrast to 200 to 300 plants suggested by Bennett (1970) and Allard (1970). As far as
sites are concerned, the best strategy is to sample as many as possible within the available time,
ensuring that they represent as broad a range of environmentsas possible(Marshall and Brown,
1975).
It would thus be seen that resource- and time-efficient strategies neither demand growing a
large number of plants per accession nor suggest maintenanceof germplasm complexes when
genetic distinctnessis lost. In general, a progeny size of 25 to 50 per accession appears to be
adequate in most of the situationsencounteredin conservationprogrammes. Propermanagement
at rejuvenationtime can lessen the effects of natural selection and an appropriate mating system
(like the biparental mating) coupled with maintenanceof equal progeny sizes. Every generation
will help to maintain even rare alleles (as found to occur in normal populations) over at least
five to ten generations.
ABUNDANCE OF SPECIES
When the number of species is high in frequencywithrelativelyfewer number of individuals per
species, conservation concepts need critical examination. If the species as a whole is looked at as
a unitfor conservation, the future of the speciesis secure (conservation of inter-specific variation).
But intra-specific variation, equally important for survival of a particular species against ecolog-
ical imbalances, also needs conservation. Then sampling schemes need to be carefully chosen so
as to prevent extinctiondue to low population sizes within species.
DECISION-MAKING
Decisions are functions of the magnitude of information and the number of populations from
which such information is gathered. It is hence essential to identify the minimum population
size and their habitant areas for gathering relevant information.Once decisions are taken, it is
equally important to identify appropriate ecosystems for conservingtarget populations.
MANAGEMENT FACTORS
When mangrove forests are under the care of Government forest departments, prevention of
destructive loggingby the marginal populations around needs legislative measures which have
intricate problems associatedwith, for example, programmesof tribal welfare and so on. At least
compromise plans have to be developed to minimise such acts as destructive logging, which,
for example, programmes of tribal welfare and so on. At least compromise plans have to be
developed to minimise such acts as destructivelogging, which in the long run, can succeed.
ADAPTIVE RESPONSE
To incorporate general adaptation to dynamic environments, it is essential to preserve high
genetic diversity. This would be possible only if resort can be made to both in situ and ex situ
conservation strategies.
V. Arunachalam 63
REFERENCES
Allard, R.W. (1970). Population structure and samplingmethods. pp. 97—107. In: Genetic resources
in plants: their exploration and conservation O.H. Frankel and E. Bennett (Ed.s). IBP Hand-
book No. 11, Blackwell, Oxford and Edinburgh.pp. 97—107
Beckmann, J.S. and M. Soller (1986). Restriction fragmentlength polymorphismsin plant genetic
improvement. In: B.J. Miflin (Ed.). Oxford surveys of plant molecular and cell biology, Vol. 3.
Oxford UniversityPress, England.
Bennett, E. (1970). Adaptation in wild and cultivated plant populations. In : O.H. Frankel and
E. Bennett (Ed.s). Genetic resources in plants: their exploration and conservation. IBP Handbook
No. 11, Blackwell, Oxford and Edinburgh. pp. 115—129.
Clegg, M.T. and R.W. Allard. (1972). Patterns of genetic differentiationin the slender wild oat
species, Avena barbata. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 69 : 1820—1824.
Holden, J.H.W. (1984). In : J.H.W. Holden and J.T. Williams, (Ed.s). The second ten years of crop
geneticresources: conservation and evaluation. George Allen and Unwin, London. pp. 277—285.
Kimura, M. and J.F. Crow. (1964). The number of alleles that can be maintained in a finite
population. Genetics 49: 725—738.
Kimura, M. and J.F. Crow. (1970). An Introduction to Population Genetics Theory. Harper and Row,
New York. 591 pp.
Marshall, D.R. and A.H.D. Brown. (1975). Optimum samplingstrategiesin genetic conservation.
Crop Genetic Resources for Today and Tomorrow. In: O.H. Frankel and J.G. Hawkes, (Ed.s).
CambridgeUniversity Press, U.K. pp. 53—80.
Moran, P.A.P. (1968). An Introduction to Probability Theory. Oxford University Press, London.
Oka, H.I. (1969). A note on the design of germplasmpresentation work in grain crops. SABRAO
Newsletter 1: 127—134.
Paterson,A.H., S. Damon,J.D. Hewitt, D. Zamir, H.D. Rabinowitch, S.E. Lincoln, E.S. Lander and
S.D. Tanksley. (1991). Mendelianfactorsunderlying quantitative traits in tomato: Comparison
across species,generations and environments.Genetics 127 : 181—197.
UNDERSTANDING GENETIC DIVERSITYIN MANGROVES
INTRODUCTION
The mangrovesare one of the unique plant communitiesgrowing in the Intertidal zones of estu-
anne regions in the tropicalbelt of the World. The main tree flora of mangrovesconsists of highly
specialised plant species, well-adapted to the unique conditions of sea water inundation during
high tides throughout the year and nearly fresh water conditions during monsoon. Like most
of the other genetic resources connected with agriculture and forestry, the mangrove resources
are also dwindling - yielding to population pressure, leading to disappearanceof many virgin
mangrove areas from the coastal regions.
To preserve and protect a growing mangrove population, both genetical and ecological studies
are required. Data on the reproductivebiologyand population genetics of mangrovespecies are
lacking since little or no experimentalresearch has been done on these systems. A basic under-
standing on those aspects is a prerequisite for any genetic conservationprogramme. Traditional
identification of mangrovespecieswere based on the morphologicaltraits that required extensive
observationsof mature plants which, in many instanceslacks definitionand objectively. Further-
more, they can not serve as unambiguous markers because of environmentalinfluences. On the
contrary, DNA as also markers provide much higher degree of polymorphismand stability. It is
thereforeimportant to study the genetic diversity among mangroves with a combined approach
of field and laboratory studies.
GENETIC DIVERSITY
The diversity in a mangrove system has two components, namely (a) species diversity, and (b)
genetic diversity within species. These two componentsare closely intertwined and inseparable.
For example, Avicennia is present on firmer, exposed seaward side, while Sonneratia is in soft,
rich much along sheltered river mouths and Ceriops decandra is in the shelteredcoast. However,
Bruguiera exists in varied conditions and the same is true for Rhizophora. Rhizophora mucronata is
abundant in sandy, firmer bottoms and also regions of low tide areas bordering the vegetation,
while R. apiculata is found in the banks of tidal coasts.
In Mangroves, biological diversity is linked with environmental diversity in a specific pattern.
Therefore diversity analysis means pattern analysis and its genetic basis. The components of
diversity in any geographical regions are: (a) regional diversity, (b) ecosystem diversity, (c)
species diversity, and (d) genetic diversity.
The interesting characteristic of the system is that only a few genera and specific species with
convergent adaptation to the group of selection forces are present all over the tropical and
sub-tropicalestuarine tidal regions of the World.
This living together as a community subject to continuous changes are slicing, colonising and
erosion in the seaward side or change of rise in the tides and drainage on the landward side
GENETIC VARIATION
The major factors of genetic variation in any biological system are:
a. mutation,
b. selection (natural or human),
c. migration, and
d. genetic drift.
The effect of fluctuating environmentadds to the complexity. The additional selection forces in
mangroveswhich need careful study are:
1. Overlappingof generation and degree of differences in diversity between age groups,
2. Ploidy, breeding behaviour (variety of breeding structures asexual, temporal isolation,repro-
ductive potential changes over seasons/age groups), and
3. Fluctuating environmentand diversity of gradients of soil, water and tidal effects, etc.
POPULATION STRUCTURE
Population structure is the totality of ecological, and genetic relationships among member in-
dividuals and subdivisions of a biological species complex. It varies over time and requires
a multivariate approach. Biological and environmental factors influence population structure.
Monitoringpopulation structure and relating it to the effect of environmentalchangesand study
of evolutionarychanges are important to genetically characterise each ecosystem.
68 Understanding genetic diversity in mangroves
The factors influencingpopulation structure are:
1. Mode of reproduction (sexual, asexual changes in out-crossing),
2. Patterns of distribution (kind and variety of habitats and communities),
3. Inter-and intra-specific hybridisation(rates of gene flow - effect of environmentaldisturbance),
4. Recombinations system (meiotic),
5. Generation length, life cycle components, survival, population density (reproductive rates,
population growth and size),
6. Local dispersion and gene flow,
7. Nature of geneticvariation (polymorphism, percentageheterozygosity and frequencyof linked
loci),
8. Environmentalheterogeneityvariation over space and time, and
9. Phenotypicplasticity, genetic vs non-genetic variation.
The advantages and disadvantages from the point of view of an ecologist for applying the
principles of genetics for the preservation of genetic diversity in mangrovescan be summarised
as follows:
Table 1 Assessment of mangrove forest genetic resources:advantages and disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Long life cycle, natural population, slow evolution 1. There are very few /and no records
/
of the nature of origin propagation
method and limited diversity
founder populations.
2. Possible to conserve in situ, easy resampling 2. Scanty information on taxonomy,
and regenerationfacilities bio-geography, phenology of species
3. Vegetative propagation possible for resampling 3. Sparse populations of some
and/or in case of non-availability of seed mangrove species require sampling
material modifications to ensure inclusion of
rare alleles or species
4. Distributionof alleles in natural 4. Need for a multitude of visits, both
populations permits study of long term for species and varieties over time
effects of the selection forces
5. Combined analysisof genetic and 5. The priorities of resource allocation
ecological diversity is possible between alternate sites, different
genera may be empiricalin the
absence of a priori information
2. Classification,
3. Evaluationand documentation,
4. Conservation,
5. Utilisation and policy formulation, and
6. Monitoring.
For explorationand assessment of mangrove forest areas, three componentsare essential:
1. Survey techniques and their interpretation,
2. Sampling methods, and
3. Collection and propagation.
CONCLUSION
The need for study of correspondencebetween genetic diversity and environmentaldiversity
as much a priori information is available in mangroves, calls for pilot studies (genetic), and
monitoringchanges in populations.
For conservation of mangrove forest genetic resources, following aspects need to be considered
before any conservationstrategy is formulated:
1. Allelic frequencies, their equilibria neutral and selective alleles, and frequency dependent
natural selection,
2. Extent of linkage—conservation of variation by co-adapted gene complexes,
3. Linkage disequilibrium —several equilibria may exist influencedby seasons,
4. Breedingbehaviour such as vivipary, sexual as compensatingmechanisms to preserve varia-
tion,
5. Ploidy levels to reduce release of variation,
6. Preservationof constellation of characters than individual characters further controlthe release
of genetic variation, and
7. Monitoringchangesby analysingchangesin (a) species composition, (b) gene frequencywithin
a speciesto understand the dynamicsof the system, (c) breeding structure and (d) constellation
of characters (inter-relations) and the difference in their pattern between sites/seasonsin the
same site.
It is imperative from the above observationthat genetic diversity in mangrovescan be measured
by different ways, i.e., morphologicalstudies and molecularbiology techniques. However, for
undertaking studies related to molecular biology it is necessary to identify visually observed
diversity at the field level. Identifying criteria and evaluation methods for forest areas for es-
tablishmentof mangrove genetic resourcesconservationcentres, can thus be done based on the
aspects mentioned in this paper.
CONSERVATION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES
S. KEDHARNATH
INTRODUCTION
The necessity of conservingthe genetic resourcesexisting in the natural populationsof different
species crop plants, forest trees, fruit trees, etc., is now well-recognised. While replacement of
highly bred varieties of relatively narrow genetic base has not become intensive in forestry
practice, the pressure of exploding population often finds an outlet in the felling of forests for
use of agricultureand other requirements.Land has become a scarce resource. As the population
increases, the land-man ratio falls, and at the same time the demand for wood and other forest
products increases.
Man in his quest for economic development has been carrying out many activities. When such
developmentalactivitiesextend over a wide range of systems withno considerationfor ecology,
it leads to degradation of nature. There is now a growing awareness of the importance of natural
environmentand a seriousconcern that resources essentialfor human developmentand survival
are being depleted and destroyed at an alarming and increasingpace. Habitat destruction and
the extension of agriculture to forest areas and the gradual diversion of forest land for non-
forestry uses promote speciesextinction. Biological diversityis essentialfor achievingsustainable
gains in productivity per unit of land, water, energy and time. In developing countries, the
threat to reserve forests and biosphere resources comes from human communities who perceive
protectionas being in conflict with their economic survival. Conservation strategiesshould help
to strengthen and not erode the livelihood security of the people of the concernedarea.
IMPORTANCE OF RAIN-FORESTS
Rain-forests are a highly structured terrestrial ecosystem. The ecosystem is very stable as long
as the magnitude of destructionis kept at a reasonable minimum,but becomes extremely fragile
with largescale deforestationas practised by the industrial man. The fragility of the system is
accentuated by the large biomass that the rain-forest supports on a nutrient-deficient highly
leached soil, resulting in a delicate balancing of nutrient cycling so characteristic of rain-forests.
Yet, the rate at which conversion of rain-forests is occurring all over the World, for timber for
industrial needs, fuel wood, for the local people and for shiftingagricultureby the forest farmer,
is really alarming. According to reasonable estimates, all the rain-forests World over, except
perhaps few pocketsin Central Africa and parts of Western Amazonia, would disappear by the
turn of the century if the present rates of conversion persist. In India too, the rain-forests of
the Western Ghats and North-east India are being converted so rapidly that very little of the
primary forest is still left intact. The Silent Valley rain-forest ecosystem its conservation and an
understanding of the ecosystem function become important in this context. Accordingto Singh
and Ramakrishnan (1982), the tree species computed for the Silent Valley (114 vascular plants
of 84 species in 0.4 hectares) is very high, as compared to the range of 60 to 80 species that
characterise the other known tropical rain-forests.
The rain-forest ecosystem is an important World heritage, both for academic and applied rea-
sons. The rich germplasmreserve that the rain-forestsharbour would be an important basis for
future development of plant resources for human welfare. Apart from wild germplasm for our
S. Kedharnath 73
conventional food resources, man in the developing World would have to depend more and
more on "lesser known plants of food" which abound in the humid tropics. With the rapidly
increasinghuman population in developingcountries,this food resource would assume greater
importance.Much of the needs of the industrial man, such as fibre, medicine and a variety of
organic products of diverse use, will come more and more from the genetic diversity of plants
in the rain-forests.
Based on most conservative estimate, the tropicalmoist forests of the World contain about two
million plant species, of which only less than one per cent of the plants have been scientifically
examinedfor their usefulnessto human beings. Forest managementpractices currentlyfollowed,
aim to extractfew species which are in demand and are not based on an adequate understanding
of the ecological principles. Some of the changesbrought about by this approach are irreversible,
leading to the loss of valuable genetic resources. Many of the species may become extinct even
before their multifarious uses are known. Conservationof these forests which provide important
source for sustaining agriculture, horticulture, etc. Breeding for insect resistance and disease
resistance is crucially dependent uponthe availabilityof wild cultivarsand species. Deforestation
and the resultant habitat destruction of species has been the multifacedmajor threat leading to
degradation, depletion and disappearance of the biological diversity of the Western Ghats in
India besides affecting ecological balance (Nair and Daniel, 1986). This awareness has led to a
global concern, and national and international agencies are devoting considerable attention to
evolving appropriate conservationstrategies.
REFERENCES
Ghosh, R.C. and O.N. Kaul. (1977). Nature reserves in India. Indian Forester 103(8) : 523—532.
Heslop-Harrison,J. (1974). Genetic Resources Conservation: The end and means. J. Roy. Soc. Arts
157—169.
IBP Handbook No.11. (1970). In : O.H. Frankel and E. Bennet. (Ed.s). Genetic resources in
plants —their exploration and conservation.
Myers, N. (1978). Conservation of forest, animal, and plant genetic resources in tropical rain-
forests. Proc. 8th Forestry Cong. Jakarta F Q L/26—1. 13 p.
Nair, N.C. and P. Daniel. (1986). The floristic diversityof the Western Ghats and its conservation:
A review. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci./Plant Sci.) Suppl.: 127—163.
Raintree, J.B. (1986). Designationagroforestry for rural development : ICRAF's diagnosis and
design approach. In : P.K. Khosla, S. Pun and D.K. Khurana (Ed.s). AgroforestrySystems, a
New Challenge. pp. 131—150.
S. Kedharnath 75
Singh, J.S. and P.S. Ramakrishnan. (1982). In: Ecological aspectsof the Silent Valley. Department of
Environment,Governmentof India.
Swaminathan,M.S. (1983). Genetic conservation : Microbes to man. Presidential address at In-
ternational Genetics Congress, New Delhi, India.
Vergara, N.T. (1982). New directions in agroforestry The potential of tropical legume trees for agro-
forestry. East West Centre, Honolulu, Hawaii.
CONSERVATION OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES
C.S. VENKATESH
INTRODUCTION
Most of our agricultural crop species have had long histories of domestication behind them.
This is far from true of forest tree species. The latter are still essentiallywild populations that
have never been subjected till recently to either unconscious or conscious selection by man.
Consequently a good deal of natural variability prevails within forest tree populations.
Althoughmany of the tree specieshave bisexualflowers or are monoecious (with male and female
flowerborne on the same individual tree) still out-crossingin nature is the rule in several of them.
For example, Pines and most other Conifers are typically wind pollinatedwhich encourageout-
crossing, in them, selfing leads to strong inbreeding depression. (Pinus resinosa of Canada is a
notable exception where selfing does not lead to such depression). In Leucaena leucocephala,only
the tetraploid race is self-fertile whereas the diploid race and the remaining species are self-
incompatible. Out-crossing helps maintain heterozygosityand genetic diversity within species.
Usually multiple traits are used in evaluating and selecting plus trees for establishingin the first
cycle orchards. The whole tree is evaluated using a total score or selection index. The tandem
method of selecting for one trait at a time is used only in certain special circumstances, e.g.,
breeding for disease resistance, oleoresinyield, bole straightnessin habitually crookedstemmed
species. With a view to saving time, establishment of first-generation seed orchards is never
delayed till the results of progeny testing are availableand heritabilities can be calculated, which
in tree species is bound to take several years and even decades. Further, such first-cycle seed
orchards should be based on many parents selected at low intensity early in the rotation. This
is to ensure a wide genetic base. Selection should be continuous and increasingly rigorous as
plantation area, experienceand staff efficiency increase. Althoughin such multiple trait selection
the differential obtainable per individual trait is reduced, the cumulative effect of increase in
growth rate per tree, survival, quality of stem and crown, and in some cases resistanceto disease
or pests, may greatly add to the total growth and yield per hectare of forest.
The selected 'plus tree' material is establishment as grafts, cuttings if feasible or sometimes as
seedlings, in polycrosslayouts,the seed orchards,where the assembledclonesnaturally out-cross
by wind (in conifers), insects and sometimes birds in Bombax) to produce improved seed. Plus
tree material is concurrentlyalso establishedin clone banks or clone archives for preservationof
the genotype of the plus trees and forestall their loss by lightning, fire or felling.
To reduce selfing and encourage panmixy among the assembled clones, the ramets in a seed
orchard (but not in clone banks and clone archives) are planted in a fully randomised manner.
Nowadays computer-generateddesigns effectively ensure this.
Both seed orchards and clone banks facilitate controlledbreeding work.
By inter-specific hybridisation it has been possible to incorporate blister rust resistance into the
White pines (Pinus strobus, P. lambertiana, P. mon ticola, etc.) of North America from Himalayan
Blue or Kail pine (P. wallichiana) and the Japanese (P. parviflora) and Balkan (P. peuce) white
pines. Armand's pine (P. armandii) of China is another possible source of blister rust resistance.
In North Americaagain, Jeffrey >< Coulter (P.jeffreyi x P. coulteri) x P. jeffreyi back-cross hybrids
are known to display a degree of resistanceof Pine weevil attack.
INTRODUCTION
In the convention on Biological Diversity signed by many nations at the UN Conference on
Environmentand Development (UNCED) held at Rio De Janeiro, Brazil —early in June 1992, bi-
ological diversity has been defined as "the variability among living organisms from all sources,
including inter cilia, terrestrial, marine and other ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosys-
tems". It is anticipated that by the year 2000, the human population living within 0 km of the
shoreline will grow to 75 percent from the present 0 percent. Two thirds of the World's cities,
with populations of 2.5 million or more, are near tidal estuaries. Many of the World'spoor are
crowded in coastal areas and coastal resources are vital for their livelihood security. Therefore,
this Exclusive Economic Zone is important for the developmentas well as protection of natural
resources in the coastal areas of the World.
IDENTIFICATION OF SITES
Recommendations were invited from various countriesin South and South-east Asiaand Oceania
and West and Central Africa on potential sites for the proposed mangrove genetic resources
conservation centres. Listed below are the 23 sites recommended from nine countries in these
regions:
Out of the above-mentionedsites, four most suitable sites were selected, two from the 21 sites
in Asia and Oceania and one from the two sites in West and Central Africa.
TERMS OF REFERENCE
1. To identify sites for the establishment of an international network of mangrove genetic re-
sources conservation centres, which can help to preserve for current and future use, a repre-
sentative sample of the existing genetic diversity at the levels of (a) ecosystems, (b) species
and genera, and (c) intra-specific variability.
2. To prepare detailed reports on each site with reference to the following:
a. genetic merits with reference to variability for both, qualitativeand quantitative traits.
b. physiologicalmerits, in relation to estuarine characteristics and nutrient cycling.
c. socio-political merits, including commitmentof Governments.
M.S. Swaminathanand Sanjay Deshmukh 89
INITIALINFORMATION ON SITES
While inviting recommendations of sites from various countries, brief basic information was
sought on the sites nominatedby the respective national governments. This included information
on physical, eco-geographic, anthropogenic and biological features. It was made available to
the review team prior to site visits. While evaluating the sites for their suitability as MGRCC,
respective initial site informationwasusedalong withthe informationgatheredduring site visits.
Following10 broadly classified criteria were adopted
1. Genetic aspects : Introgression, potential for ex situ preservation,visual polymorphism.
2. Ecological aspects : Species richness, nutritional level, environmentaldegradation.
3. Utilisationlevel: Human use and exploration.
4. Neighbouring flora and fauna : Associated ecosystems.
5. State of forest : Levels of degradation.
6. Accessibility : Distance from main population centres, transportation facilities.
7. Personnel : Training, turn-over rate, etc.
8. Anthropogenic factors : Threats, level of dependence, etc.
9. Socio-political factors : National commitment,land tenure and public awareness.
10. Land size : area availableat the proposed site for MGRCC.
METHOD OF EVALUATION
Each member of the team evaluated the sites largely according to the 10 criteria listed earlier.
However, respective areas of expertise were given due considerationduring final discussions
and scoring. For each criterion, an ordinal score between 1 and 9 was assigned to each site,
where 1 —best or most desirable and 9 = worst or least desirable. Scores given independently
by the members were averaged to determine the final score of a site for each criterion. These
average scores are summarised in Tables 1 to 8.
M.S. Swaminathanand Sanjay Deshmukh 91
1 = Best or most desirable, 9 = Worst or least desirable; ** = Based on equal weight for all criteria
M.S. Swaminathanand Sanjay Deshmukh 93
1 = Best or most desirable, 9 = Worst or least desirable; ** = Based on equal weight for all criteria
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The maintenance of Biological diversity has become an important part of national and interna-
tional development activities. As far as mangroves are concerned, the patterns of distribution
and abundance of species in different areas have not been well documented.This was evident
from the trips made by site selection team to different mangrove-richcountriesin Asia, Oceania
and Central, and West Africa.
For the assessment of the nominated forest areas in these countries, visually observeddiversityin
the predominant species existingin that particular area was consideredas the prime criterion, as
the degree to which a population representsthe genetic diversity available in the species is more
important than its size. During field visits, members of the team could define the inter-specific
differences withthe help of samples (flowers, fruits and leaves) collected. Major differences were
also observedwithin individuals. The morphological variation could be related to regional and
94 Mangrove genetic resources centres evaluation methods
localised environmentalfactors, including temperature, rainfall, Intertidal position and upriver
range. The state of forest was determined based on the 'stand height' occurrence of species,soils
and distribution and association of different species of mangroves.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are made for deriving a strategy for the conservation and man-
agement of mangrove forest genetic resources.
GENERAL RECOMMENDATION
1. The tropical habitats, e.g., mangrove ecosystems are all being altered on an unprecedented
scale throughout the World. Furthermore, a considerable amount of genetic diversity within
species that might survive is likely to be lost. The mangrove forest areas nominated by the
governments of the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia are extraordinarily rich
in the number of rare species. However, there are many different types of rarity. The time
available with the team for studying these areas was not adequate to (a) determine the exact
number of rare species and (b) to assess the frequencies of various types of rare species. The
genetic consequences of rarity may vary with the type of rarity. It is therefore, necessary to
undertake a detailed survey and prepare an inventory of mangrove forest.
2. Some areas in South-east Asia were earlier treated as 'concession areas' where deforestation
and fragmentationof habitatshas taken place. Some dominant speciesmust have been reduced
to such low numbers due to this activity that they may not constitute viable populations. In
such populations, genetic drift and inbreeding may prevail and reduce the level of genetic
variation. This can influence the abundance of many common species and the genetic vari-
ation contained in such species. Therefore, comparative data on levels of genetic variation,
inbreeding and inbreeding depression for populations of rare species should be gathered in
addition to the distribution and abundance of common species prevailing in the nominated
areas.
3. While assessing the nominated areas for comparative scoring, emphasis was placed on the
visually observed diversity in predominant species of mangroves occurring there, as it was
more difficult to assess genetic variation than more common species.
4. The conversion of rare species requires large areas as individuals scattered over an extensive
area are held together by gene flow. Reduction in the size of an area could gradually lead
to inbreeding among the limited number of individuals in a given reserve. It is therefore
proposed that more area should be made availablefor genetic resourcesconservationcentres
in case of smaller nominated areas.
On the basis of the various criteria developed for assessmentof differentforest areas in all the
countries visited during this phase, the areas which attained the highest scores (as seen from
Tables 1 to 8) can be consideredas the most suitable sites in the respectivecountries.
There was difficulty in arriving at this conclusion as some of the sites gained almost equal
scoring.
M.S. Swaminathanand Sanjay Deshmukh 95
It is clear from the foregoing that there are several outstanding sites, worthy of being pre-
served for posterity.We therefore,recommend that a few of them may be developed into Global
Mangrove GermplasmConservation Centres during 1994. We were impressed by the steps and
interest taken by the Governmentsof these countriesin conservingmangrove on the following
lines
1. Strengtheningnational efforts to conserve and enrich the designated sites in each country
through national, bilateral and internationalresources.
2. Identifying at a workshop organised by ITTO-CRSARD—ISME suitable sites for inclusionin
the global grid of Mangrove Genetic Resources Centres, based on a detailed considerationof
the reports of the three site visit teams sponsored under the present project.
3. Preparing a detailed proposal for preserving for current and future needs a representative
sample of existing genetic variability in Mangrove species and for linking such conservation
Centres, for financial support from the Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF).
QUARANTINE
1. It is quite likely that one genetic conservation centre many not be able to hold all types of
mangrove germplasm, therefore, it will be advisable to establish link centres at the national
level which would make acquisition and maintenanceof new germplasmmaterial easier. As
collections grow in size, it will be important to develop procedures that would allow them to
be used easily and managed efficiently. It will be necessary for the respective governments
to develop and enforce quarantine regulations,informationmanagement and other aspects of
preserving large collections of mangrove genetic resources.
2. Each country should eventually develop "Mangrove GermplasmQuarantine Centre" at the
National Level to facilitate exchange and importation. The collections made for maintenance
should be managed both as national and regional resources,in accordance with the provisions
of the Global Biodiversity Convention.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the InternationalTropical Timber Organisation (ITTO), Japan for financing this
unique project. Our thanks are also due to Prof. S. Jana, Dr. A.G. Untawale, Dr. Norman Duke,
Dr. Ong Jin Eong and Dr. V. Balaji for assistingin the preparation of the strategiesfor evaluation
of mangrove forest areas.
BIOSYSTEMATICS
PLANTS INHABITING MANGROVE HABITATS
INTRODUCTION
Mangrove forests are complex ecosystems that occur along intertidal accretive shores in the
tropics. Dominatedby estuarinetrees, they draw many of their physical, chemical and biological
characteristics from the influences of the sea, inflowing fresh water and upland forests. They
serve as ecotones between land and sea and elements from both are stratified horizontallyand
vertically, between the forest canopy and subsurface soil.
Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant formations of sheltered tropical and subtropical
coastlines. They have been variously described as "coastal woodland", "mangal", "tidal for-
est" and "mangrove forest". Where conditions are suitable,they form extensive and productive
forests.
A distinctive character of a 'mangal' is its diversity. The most consistent feature is the vegeta-
tion itself, easily recognised because there are few species. Nevertheless, in its most commonly
expressed features, the community has a distinct aspect. The existence of extensive mangrove
communitiesappears to depend on a number of basic requirements,although there is some dis-
agreement as to the exact number of these requirements.Jennings and Bird (1967) describedthe
six most important geomorphological characteristics which affect estuaries,and therebyprovided
the first summary of the main factors relatingto mangroveestablishment. The characteristics as
listed by them were: 1. aridity, 2. wave energy,3. tidal conditions,4. sedimentation,5. minerology,
and 6. neotectonic effects.
Walsh (1974) identified five characteristics as essentialmangrove prerequisiteson a global scale
to which Chapman (1975, 1977) added two others. These seven, apart from their biological slant,
are very similar to the six derived from geomorphological considerations by Jennings and Bird
(1967). They are: 1. air temperature within a certain range, 2. mud substrate, 3. protection, 4. salt
water, 5. tidal range, 6. ocean currents, and 7. shallow shores. They are reviewedhere briefly.
1. Temperature
Walsh (1974) and Chapman(1975, 1977) maintainedthat extensivemangrovedevelopmentoccurs
only when the average air temperature of the coldest month is higher than 20°C and where the
seasonal range of variation does not exceed10 degrees.Also the world distributionof mangroves
particularly at the Northern and Southern limits, appears to correlate reasonablywell with the
16°C isotherm for the air temperature of the coldest month (Chapman, 1977). However, Barth
(1981) has shown that equally good correlations can be obtained using water temperatures;
the presence of mangroves seem to correlate with those areas where the water temperature
of the warmest month exceeds 24°C, and the limits occur in those waters that never exceed
24°C throughout the year. The occurrences of mangroves in South-western Western Australia
and Victoria and in the North Island of New Zealand appears to be an exception regardless of
whether air or sea temperatures are used as a criterion of significance.
Although mangroves are able to grow on sand, peat and coral, the most extensive mangroves
are invariablyassociatedwith mud and muddy soils. Such soils are usually found along deltaic
coasts, in lagoons,and along estuarine shorelines. The mangrovesthemselves, may influence the
sediment composition, even acceleratingmud accretionon coral islands (Steers, 1977).
3. Protection
Walsh (1974) and Chapman (1975, 1977) argued that protected coastlines are essential as man-
grove communities cannot develop on exposed coasts where wave action prevents establishment
of seedlings. Bays, lagoons, estuaries and shores behind barrier islands and spits are suitable
localities.
4. Salt water
While there is increasingevidence that most mangroves are not obligatehalophytes, it has been
shown that a number of them have their optimal growth in the presence of some additional
sodium chloride (Stern and Voigt, 1959; Connor, 1969; Sidhu, 1975. Chapman (1977) suggested
that Rhizophora is probably an obligate halophyte, with growth being poor or reduced in the
absence of salt. Vu-van-Cuong (1964) reported that Ceriops tagal and Avicennia officinalis would
not growin the absence of salt. However,Walsh (1974) and Chapman(1975, 1977) maintainedthat
the real importanceof salt lies in the fact that mangroves are slow-growingand that they cannot
compete with faster-growingspecies unless these species are eliminated or reduced by salt. In
this sense, they argued, salt is an essential ecological requirement for mangrove development,
rather than a physiological necessity.
5. Tidal range
Tidal range, coupled with local topography, influencesprimarily the lateral extent of mangrove
development. There greater the tidal range, the greater the vertical range availablefor mangrove
communities. For a giventidalrange, steep shorestend to have narrowermangrovezones than do
gently sloping ones. Although Walsh (1974) and Chapman (1975, 1977) considered tidal range
to be important, there are reports of mangroves from tideless areas (Beard 1967; Stoddart, et
a!., 1973). Although not a direct physiologicalrequirement, tides play an important role in the
functioning of the ecosystem.
6. Ocean currents
Favourable currents are essential since they disperse mangrove propagules and distribute them
along coasts. Chapman(1975) noted that the Southernlimit of mangroveson the Western coastof
Africa coincideswiththe boundary between a Southerncold-water upwelling and warm currents,
and that a similar situation occurs on the Western coasts of Australia and South America. Apart
from the temperature of cold currents, Chapman (1975) argued that in all cases in the Southern
hemisphere such currents flow Northwards, thereby inhibiting the Southerly drift of floating
propagules.
A.N. Rao and Sanjay Deshmukh 101
7. Shallow shores
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
From the beginning,mangrovesare consideredto be the inhabitants of tropicalshores—a climate
suitable for their continuous growth. They are always restricted to intertidal regions and river
mouth and migrate with tidal current, not towards land. The origin and distribution of man-
groves is well-documented. The geological history and evidences show that mangroves appeared
between Eocene and Oligocene period (30—40 millionyears ago). Plant remainsor fossils of major
mangrove genera like Rhizophora, Nypa and others provide important landmarks. Oldest among
these species is Nypa which is supposed to have originated during end of Cre.taceous period,
while species like Pelliciera, Rhizophora are from Eocene period which perhaps makes them some
of the oldest members. Table 1 highlights geological time scale of mangroves.
Table 2 Distribution of plant genera that occur only in mangrove swamps (Chapman, 1970).
Families Total Indian Ocean Pacific Atlantic West
and genera species West Pacific America America Africa
Rhizophoraceae
Rhizophora 7 5 2 3 3
Bruguiera 6 6 0 0 0
Ceriops 2 2 0 0 0
Kandelia 1 1 0 0 0
Avicenniaceae
Avicennia 11 6 3 2 1
Myrsinaceace
Aegiceras 2 2 0 0 0
Meliaceae
Xylocarpus 10 8 0 2 1
A.N. Rao and SanjayDeshmukh 103
Nypa 1 1 0 0 0
Myrtaceae
Osbornia 1 1 0 0 0
Sonneratiaceae
Sonneratia 5 5 0 0 0
Rubiaceae
Scyphiphora 1 1 0 0 0
Total 55 44 7 9 7
The distribution of several species found only in mangrove swamps as per Table 1 shows that
(a) the greatest number of genera and species occur along the shores of the Indian and Western
Pacific Oceans, (b) there are no species common to East and West Africa and (c) the species of
the Americas and West Africa are related taxanomically.
List of plants which form major and minor componentsof mangroves as well as theirassociates
can be seen from Tables 3—8.
/
(220 4000)
Lythraceae Pemphis 1 1
(21/500)
Meliaceae Xylocarpus 2 2
(40/600)
Myrsinaceae Aegiceras 2 2
/
(35 1000)
Myrtaceae Osbornia 1 1
(90/2800)
Pellicieraceae Pelliciera 1 1
(Theaceae 24/375)
Plumbaginaceae Aegialitis 2 2
(10/280
Pteridaceae Acrostichum 4 3
Rubiaceae Scyphiphora 1 1
(450/550)
Sterculiaceae Heritiera 4 3
(48/600)
Family Genus
Asclepiadaceae Dischida
Ericaceae Vaccinium
Melastomataceae Medinilla
Rubiaceae Hydnophytum
Myrmecodia
Urticaceae Pokilospermum
DISCUSSION
With applicationof advanced technologies such as Remote sensing and GIS (Geographical Infor-
mation Systems) technologies, it is.possible to estimate the total mangroveresourcesavailablein
a community,nation, region and even the whole world. Dependingupon the area of the country
under consideration, if an attrition rate of 5—10% per annum is allowed, the evaluation would
give one, the quantitative value of reduction for a given place or area in relation to time. The
genetic losses may not be known by this method, but they could be estimated on the basis of
genera or species that were present in a given community. The more the number of speices of
their varieties present, the greater will be the genetic value of the community. The qualitative
spects will have to be determined too, comparing the number of species and their varieties
present in a given area or the country in question. Incidentallythe available information from
various countrieshas shown that mangrove vegetation regrows as a secondary or tertiary for-
mation with changesor depletion in the number of species, size and form of trees. Only in a few
of the virgin forest areas, the different species remain intact, which could be used as a baseline
to understand the development of the community.
Natural ecosystems will remain viable and continueto flourish if they are left undisturbed.But
most of the ecosystems in the world are disturbed or destroyed by human activity, turning
them from natural to damaged or altered ecosystems like a secondary forest. Mangroves are no
exception to this general trend. Due consideration should be given to the natural factors that
108 Plants inhabiting mangrove habitats
contribute to the growth, development, and diversification of the mangrove associationsin the
first place. Wherever possible, the natural vegetation and the genepool should be saved. The
more successful such efforts are, the greater will be the chances for the mangroves to survive
and develop themselves in future.
REFERENCES
Abeywickrama, B.A. (1964). The estuarine vegetation of Ceylon. In : Les problems scientifiques
des delas de a zone tropicale humid et leurs implications Colloque de Dacca. UNESCO, Paris.
pp. 207—209.
Barth, H. (1981). The biogeography of mangroves. In : D. N. Sen. and K. S. Purohit, (Ed.). Con-
tributions to the ecology of halophytes, Volume 2. Tasks for Vegetation Science, Dr. Junk, The
Hague. pp. 66—131.
Beard, J.S. (1967). An inland occurrence of mangroves. WesternAustralian Nat. 10 : 112—115.
Bews, J.W. (1916). The vegetation of Natal. Ann. Natal. Museum 2 : 253—331.
Biswas, K. (1927). Flora of the saitmarshes.Journal of Department Science 8 : 1—47. University of
Calcutta.
Boergesen, F. (1909). Notes on the shore vegetation of the Danish West Indian islands. Bot.
Tidsskrift. 29 : 201—259.
Boughey, A.S. (1975). Ecological studies of tropical coastlines I : the Gold coast, West Africa.
Journal of Ecology 45 665—687.
Chapman,V.J. (1975). Mangrove phytosociology. Tropical Ecology 11: 1—17.
Chapman, V.1. (1975). Mangrove biogeography.In : G.E. Walsh, S.C. Snedaker, and H.J. Teas,
(Eds.). Proceedings of the International Symposium on Biology and Management of Mangroves,
Volume 1. IFAS, Universityof Florida, USA. pp. 3—22.
Chapman, V.1. (Ed.). (1977). Introduction. In Ecosystems of the world I : wet coastal ecosystems.
Elsevier Scientific, Amsterdam.pp. 1—29.
Connor, D.J. (1969). Growth of grey mangrove,Avicenniamarina in nutrient culture. Biotropica 1
36—40.
Good, R. (1953). The geography of flowering plants (2nd ed.). Longmans, Green and Company,
London.
Jennings, J.N., and C.F.Bird. (1967). Regional geomorphological characteristics of some Australian
estuaries. In :G.H. Lauff (Ed.). Estuaries. AAAS, Washington, USA. pp. 121—128.
Oyama, K. (1950). Studies on fossil biocoenosis I : biocoenological studies on the mangrove
swamp with descriptionsof new species from Yatuo Group. Report of the Geological Survey of
Iapan 132 : 1—14.
Sidhu, S.S. (1975). Culture and growth of some mangrove species. In : G.E. Walsh, S.C. Snedaker,
and H.J. Teas, (Ed.). Proceedings of the International Symposium on Biology and Managementof
Mangroves, Volume 2. IFAS, Universityof Florida,USA. pp. 394—401.
I:
Steers, J.A. (1977). Physiography.In : V.J. Chapman (Ed.). Ecosystems of the world wet coastal
ecosystems. Elsevier Scientific, Amsterdam.pp. 31—60.
A.N. Rao and Sanjay Deshmukh 109
Stern, W.L., and G.K. Voigt. (1959). Effect of salt concentration on growth of red mangrove in
culture. Botanical Gazette121 : 36—39.
Stoddart, D.R., G.W. Bryan, and P.E. Gibbs. (1973). Inland mangroves and water chemistry,
Barbuda, West Indies. Journal of Natural History 7 : 33—46.
Van Steenis, C.G.G.J., (Ed.). (1958). In : Flora Malaysiana 1(5) 429—493.
Vu-van-Cuong, H. (1964). Flore at vegetation de la mangrove de la region de saigon Cap Saint Tacques,
Sud Viet-Nam. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Paris.
Walsh G.E. (1974). Mangroves : a review. In : R.J. Reimhold, and W.H. Queen (Ed.). Ecology of
halophytes. Academic Press, New York, USA. Pp. 51—174.
ECOLOGY OF MANGROVES
A.N. RAO
INTRODUCTION
Mangrovesare tropicalforest plants that form an Intertidal community. Depending on the rich-
ness of vegetation, the community can be an exclusive or a mixed one.
Two terms are commonly used to describes this vegetation; while 'mangal' is the name for
the whole community, ' mangrove' represents the constituents of the community. Generally,
mangrovesare subjectedto two changesof daily tidal action and the fresh water at river mouths.
The number of density of species change from the coast to the inland, sometimes with the
transition from the coastal to inland species. The composition change of the species may be
either gradual or abrupt between marine and freshwater swamp forest.
On the sandy coast there may be a gradual transition from herbaceous forms to woody species;
the former consisting ofbeach vegetation- Ipornoea,certain grasses, Scaevola, Glochidion, Pczndanus,
Casuarina and others followed by mangrove species. On muddy or muddy-sandy coasts, this
gradual transition disappears and the mangrovesgrow right into the sea or ocean. If the coast is
somewhat dry and with little rainfall, only some halophytica herbaceous forms grow. Absence
of uniformity in mangrove coastal vegetation is common except in very mature communities
like that of Nypa. Otherwise the colonisers of various species extend to the sea showing many
changesin the habitat.
Extensive mangrove formations have been recorded in tropical areas where the big rivers like
Brahmaputra and Ganges in India, Fly and Purari in Papua New Guinea, Mekong in Vietnam
and form extensiveshallow delta areas at the river mouths. Some of them are very well studied.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS
The mangrove ecosystem displays several important features, some of which are enunciated
below:
1. The community comprisesdiverse taxonomic groups.
2. Solid is soft, consisting of soft clay mud. It is water-logged, anaerobic and smells of H2S.
3. Canopy uniform, with short or tall trees or even bushes, depending on the geographical area.
Some species grow either luxuriouslyor in stunted forms depending on waterconditionsand
degree of disturbance.
4. Carps, mudskippers,ants, bees and wasps are the common animals.
5. Undergrowthvery little to none, light conditionsvary depending on the density of vegetation
and height of trees. Epiphytes are common.
SCHEMATIC PROFILES
Schematic Profiles varyfrom place to place, depending on species richness and distribution.Sea-
ward and Landward profiles and species distribution vary. Sonneratia, Avicennia and even Rhi-
zophora spp. may become colonisers growing into the open sea or shallow mud-flats. Succession
of species is very variable and there is no definite guiding rules.
Salinity of soil and pH play a minor role. Colonisation is largely helped quality of soft soil and
mild tidal conditions.
Studies by using quadrats, remote sensing and mapping are the common methods used to
determine the quantity and quality of mangrove vegetation.
A stand my consist of one or several species and the structure is effected by the relative stability
of the substrate. When once the community is mature, it generally remains stable for many
centuries. By using the method of radio carbon communities as old as 2000 years dating have
been identified.The geomorphological pattern of the soil and ground water salinity
The Several limitation factors influences the above processes, Briefly states, some of them are
1. Rainfallwhich represent the source of ground water,
A.N. Rao 113
ABIOTIC FACTORS
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Mangroves do not change the major land building processes, but they do contributein a major
way to stabilisingthe coastline. The presence of mangrove thus safeguard the coasts.
TIDE VARIATIONS
PHYSIOLOGICALADAPTATIONS
Sea water 33-38 ppt; extending upto 90 ppt in extreme conditions. Species of Avicennia, can
withstand such fluctuationof salinities.
BIOTIC FACTORS
1. Propagules of seaward species are generallyheavy. Theyget themselvesfixed in muddy water.
Avicennia, Rhizophora,Sonneratia are some examples.
2. Certain species are pioneer and successfully colonise. Having once colonised, they establish
and maintain themselves well. There is no successional development, no undergrowth, no
under story, no stratifications. Competition is very intra-specific.
3. Species distribution is governed by salinity and frequency of inundation. Once established
they increase their numbers by a series of effective reproductivemechanism
114 Ecology of mangroves
Table 1: Ecological functions of mangrove biodiversity
Function Roles played by species in Performing Organism
mangrove ecosystem
Primary production Photosynthesis,Food production for Some bacteria cyanaobacteria
themselvesand all animal life using all algal groups, lichens, ferns
simple organic compounds; energy flowering plants
from the Sun
Oxygen production Generateand supply 02 to the All chiorophyllus forms
atmosphere, fresh and marine water; 02
essential for all life and for ozone layer
formation
Herbivory and Eating of primary producers Filter feeders, protozoans,
carnivory enrichingBiodiversity. Herbivorus molluscs, crustaceans, insects,
moderates populations of primary fish amphibians reptiles, birds
producers; Eating herbivorus and and mammals.
other carnivores, thus enriching
evolution of animal diversity
N2 fixation Using free N2 produce nitrate and Only one report of
nitrates for primary producers Cyanobacteria within the
barks of Avicennia
Symbiosis Intimate association of 2 species, Epiphytes, algae on leaves, stem
interdependencebenefits for both; In parasites, and ants
parasitism one species depends on
another
Population Natural limitations, one control the Viruses, bacteria, fungi,
moderation others, infectionsand predation invertebrates,carnivorous,
herbivores
Nutrient transport Move nutrient — externally;Tidal Fungi root system, mobile
actions,NPK—movethem from one animals, faeces, death
place to another
Salt balance Unique to mangroves,salt Special structures within or
absorption,retention, transpiration outside the plant
Dispersal (vivipary) Spore/seed dispersal
:
both near and far Air, water, man, birds,
mammals
Soil conditioning Continuous changes of upper Almost all groups Bacteria,
Sediment, layers, nutrients, organics contents, Cyanobacteria, algae, fungi,
Bioturbation aeration or no aeration required for plant debris (root, leaf, wood),
maintenance,productivity of plant animal matter
and animal communities
A.N. Rao 115
Table 1 (contd.)
Function Roles played by species in Performing Organism
mangrove ecosystem
Prevention of soil Extensive root development;Litter All plant remains;Dead
erosion accumulation organic matter
Mineralisation Reduction of organic molecules to Bacteria— a major function of
inorganic phosphate in soil and having a very significant positive
water; Toxic substances, H2S global impact
Decomposition; Primary detritivory absorptionof Primary detrivores,Bacteria,
—
L.P. MALL
INTRODUCTION
Mangroveforests, also known as 'Coastal woodlands' and 'Tidal forests' have aroused great cu-
riosity among scientific communityand receivedalmostgreatest amount of attention.Theophras-
tus in his 'Historia plantarum' (305 B.C.) quotes from the reports given by Aristobulusof the
voyage by Nearchus in 325 B.C., who describes from Indus Delta to the Persian gulf occurrence
of trees around 45 ft. tall, in blossom with white flowers, scented like violets growing in sea
with trunks "Led us by their roots like a poly". Mangroves were known only for their wood
as timber, fuel and coal wood and many other routine uses like plants of other habitats. The
paper by Heald and Odum in 1970 about the mangroves of Florida point out their importance
in commercial fisheries. It was a starting point for their recognition as a habitat of human food.
Subsequentlyin 1978, a SCOR Working Group - 60 (ScientificCommitteeon Oceanic Research)
was formed and this, in collaborationwith IUCN'sCOE (Commission on Ecology) group drafted
a paper 'Global status of Mangroves' which was published in 1983 under editorship of Saenger,
Hegerl and Davie, withan aim to "present a biosphere inventoryof mangroveland, to determine
their currentstatus managinginstitutions and research direction, in order to collate existing infor-
mation on the global status of mangroves for internationaluse in guiding the management and
conservation of this natural resources." A simple definition of mangrove vegetation was given
to them as "Mangrovesare characteristic littoral plant formations of tropical and sub-tropical
sheltered coastlines". Every word of the definition is important and deserves considerationto a
length, in the following:
Mangroves are highly characteristic due to their specialphysiognomy(look) as they are bright to
deep green dendroid or shrubby vegetation and become more marked when there is rain-forest
in the background with lofty trees having white, shiny and thick bark. Various types of aerial
roots—prop, stilt, strut, pneumatophores, knee roots, etc., full of lenticels for exchange of gases
with external atmosphere are present.
Likewise apparent vivipary in all the members of the familyRhizophoraceae, which form nearly
half of mangroveplants of any mangrove area, give a special look to the vegetation.
In South Africa the mangroves grow well at the Bashee Estuary (32°S) where average daily
minimum in coldest month (July) is 12°C and absolute minimum recorded in 37 years in 4.4°C
but not at East London where the average daily minimum in July is 10°C and the minimum
recorded in 68 years is 2.8°C. This suggests that an absolute minimum of around 4°C is extreme
that can be tolerated. The yearly mean at Bashee is 19°C, and at East London 17.7°C and these
two are almost certainly significant (Macnae, 1968). A. marina is much more low temperature
tolerant than either the Eastern African or East Asiatic domes).
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
The mangrovesare richly represented by a veryhigh number of animals. Young ones of several
varietiesof fish,shrimps, etc. receiveshelter and feed and have normal growth. Huge populations
of molluscs, crustaceans,polychaetes,etc. are found. Many molluscs damage mangroveseedling.
Crabs (Sesarma taeniolata) do not cause damage to seedlings. Thalassima species of shrimps pro-
duce ventilating chimneysby bringing mud from lower level of soil in which live fiddler crabs
120 Mangroves: ecology and special features
with one claw monstrouslydeveloped and thus Thalassima act like earthworm and on hammocks
produced by Thalassima, grow Acrostichumand later some mangroves of dry situation come up.
REFERENCES
Cair,S.A. (1934). A comparisonof quadrat sizes of quantitative phytosociological study of Nash's
woods, Posery County, Indiana. Amerc. Midi. Nat. 15 : 529-560.
Curtis, J.T. and R.P. McIntosh, (1950), The inter-relationsof certain analytic and synthetic phy-
tosociological characters. Ecol. 31 : 434-455.
Heald, E.J. and W.E. Odum, (1970). The contribution of mangrove swamps to Florida fisheries.
Proc. Gulf and Carib. Fish. Inst. 22: 130-135.
Holdridge, L.R. (1967). Life Zone Ecology. Tropical Science Centre, Sangose, Costa Rica. 206 p.
Macnae, William. (1968). Fauna and Flora of mangrove swamps. Adv. Mar. Biol. 6 : 73-270.
Pool, Douglas, J. (1977). Structureof mangrove forest in Florida,Puerto Rico, Mexico and Costa
Rica. Biotropica 9 : 195-212.
Saenger, P. (1983). Global status of Mangroveecosystems C.O.E. Paper No.3.
Semeniuk, V. 1980. Mangrovezonation in N.W. Australia.J.Ecol. 68: 784-812.
Teas H.J. (1976). Effects of man on the shore vegetation of Biscayne Bay. Published as part of Univ.
of Miami Sea grant Special Report No.5.
Troll W., and D. Dragendorf. (1931). iiber die Luft Werzeln Von SonneratiaLi. undihrebiologischee
Betiung Miteinem rechnerischon Anhang Von Hans Fromherz. Planta 13 : 311-473.
Watson, J.G. (1928). Mangroveforest ofMalayan Peninsula. Malayan Forest Record—6.
MANGROVES : MORPHOLOGY, ANATOMY AND
REPRODUCTION
A.N. RAO
Aerial roots or exposed roots are common in the tropical swamps and they can serve as organs
of 02 absorption. Several types —descending, emerging,adventitious roots, branching exist and
are exposed during tidal fluctuations.
There are many types of roots in mangroves,but very few have been well studied.
STILT ROOTS
Very common in all species of Rhizophora and Avicennia (only A. a/ba, and A. officinalis), are
adventitious with limited or extensive dichotomy, sometimes the roots with more secondary
growth than in stem. In Bruguiera and Ceriops, they become hollow and multifunctionalafter a
particular stage.
BREATHINGROOTS (PNEUMATOPHORES)
Angiotropic, erect structures common in many mangrovesin general, main part of regular roots
buried in soil; aerial roots arise, and emerge out of the soil; frequency, size, number vary. These
roots are green and contain chlorophyll. Some of the mangrovespecies possess peculiar structure
of pneumatophores.They are as follows:
1. Avicennia: Rootshave a length of 20-30cm; surface smooth/ spongy,with very little secondary
growth. In Sonneratia, roots exhibit secondary growth upto 3 m, flaky bark present.
2. Laguncularia : Blunt tipped, upto 30 cm; such roots absent in some locations;
3. Bruguiera, Ceriops : The roots form characteristic loops; uneven secondary growth, more to-
wards the top of the loop, many laterals from the ioop size, shape; density variable from
species to species. More studies needed.
4. Lumnitzera : Knee roots, less conspicuous than in Bruguiera and Ceriops.
5. Xylocarpus: Very prominent erect roots; veryintensive cambial activity, 50 cm, very extensive
lateral root systems, plank roots.
6. Aeg-iceras, Aegialitis, Excoecaria, Kandelia, Osbornia, Scyphiphora, Nypa: No aerial roots reported
in Nypa, leaf base forms extensive spongy tissue, providing aeration.
Other mangrove associates hardly produce aerial roots.
ROOT ANATOMY
TREE ARCHITECTURE
The number, spread and frequency of branching decides the shape of the three. The model is
referred as the architecture of the tree. Other factors such as mechanical damage,predators, light
and shade conditions—all influence the growth pattern.
ORTHOTROPIC
Main axis, trunk axis, continues to grow.
Plagiotropic
Branch axis, horizontal spread.
Shootgrowth and crown developmentshouldbe studied developmentally. Types of shoo growth
are summarised as follows:
Attims's model
Trunk—continuous growth, so also branches, inflorescence lateral, e.g Rhizophora
Pattit's model
Trunk with rhythmic growth, branches have terminal inflorescence. There are less number of
lateral branches, substitution growth, e.g., Lumnitzera
Sympodial
Hypocotylor adventitious branches, e.g. Rhizophora
Rauh's model
Rhythmicgrowth, branches not differentiated,lateral inflorescence, e.g. Xylocarpus
Aubreville's model
Rhythmic growth, plagiotropiccondition, e.g., Terminalia.
Nypa Pattern
Dichotomousrhizome—keeps on branching, vegetative and reproductivegrowth.
Axillary buds prominent, alternate, opposite decussate arrangement, all common. Prominent
stipulesin Rhizophora and Bruguiera.Collatesproduce lot of liquid in the stipule sheaths,flooding
the apical region.
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Generallyvery few mangrove species propagate well vegetatively; coppice shoots in Avicennia,
Excoecaria
Clumps of Nypa get washed out, re-establish themselves; rhizomes may branch off and start
again.
Avicennia, Rhizophora, Sonneratia— long branches drop down and touch the ground; thigmotropic
response— produce roots.
Main apex damaged; buds lateral branches even at the hypocotyl stage; this is common.
Grafting is possibleespeciallyat hypocotylstage.
124 Mangroves morphology,anatomy and reproduction
LEAF
—
Rhizophora mangle, each leaf stays for 6-12 months, exception 17 months. In Florida, leaves
formed in winter stay for a shorter period than those that develop in summer.
— Leaves are produced and also drop off in summer than in winter
—
Major componentslike Rhizophora and Avicennia are always evergreen,whereas the landward
tree forms like Excoecaria, Terminalia, Xylocarpus are deciduous. Evergreenness helps to main-
tain salt balances. If salt accumulationis greater, then there are no mangrove trees in that
region.
—
Rhizophora mucronata —Thailand— ever growing condition— shedding 0.30%, production
0.33%; average life 330 days.
— Unimodal peak (Rainfall)— Scyphiphora, Lumnitzera (Thailand),
— Bimodal peak—R. apiculata, Ceriops tagal, Avicennia marina (tidal flooding) Lumnitzera—9
months Avicenniamarina —24 months.
Queensland unimodal
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Ceriops tagal; bimodal —Rhizophora stylosa, R. x lamarckii, Trimodal —
R. apiculata;both rainfall and temperature are the influencingfactors.
Leaf outline
As good as 18 species of mangroves are ovate, to elliptic in outline;very few species have specific
diagnosticcharacters. Leaves dull, texture fairly smooth, some hairy, e.g., Avicennia, cork warts
in Rhizophora.
Leaf anatomy
Mostly uniform and no diagnosticcharacters.
Stomata and cuticle
Normal, no unusual features.
Mesophyll
a. Assimilatory; Non-assimilatory tissue ratio is low; waterconductingtissue, tannin filled tissue
greater in quantity.
b. Leaves both dorsiventraland isolateral,contrasting features in sister species.
c. Sclereids : Aegiceras, Bruguiera,Rhizophora, Sonneratia,Aegialitis, Pelliciera, Heritiera : very thick
leaves.
d. Oil cells— Osbornia; mucilage tissue—Rhizophora, Sonneratia; Laticifers—Excoecaria. More re-
quires to be studies, available data very scanty.
e. Wood anatomy— no growth rings, exception Diospyros ferea (mangrove associate). Avicennia
and Aegialitis have successive anomalous cambialbands.
A.N. Rao 125
Vessel size
/
Range 50-250 lim 150/mM2. Vessel size/ density is proportional to the frequencyof inundation.
These are high values —High tensionshavebeenmeasuredin xylem of mangrove stems.
Perforationplates, simple or scalariform, no uniform characters for all mangroves.
MANGROVES : REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is by flower and seed production. In mangrovesreproduction is mostly be
seeds since vegetative propagation is very limited or almost unknown.
a. Floral biology, pollination methods and details, breeding mechanisms, isolatingmechanisms,
sterilitybarriers, incompatibilitymechanismshave broadly been studied in mangroves.
b. Most of them are outbreeders; hermaphrodite flowers. Dioecism is rare, estimatedto be 4%,
monoecism (flowers on the same plant) is about 16% among the mangroves. Nypa, sexual
segregation is enforced because it is protogynous. In Xylocarpus the difference between male
and female flowers slight. In male flowers pollen is sterile, in female ovules are abortive or
nonfunctional. Pollen transfer and pollination is carried out by the insects because of Nectar.
Protandry in Avicennia and Scyphiphora weak protandry in Rhizophora; heterostyly in Pemphis.
126 Mangroves : morphology,anatomy and reproduction
POLLINATION BIOLOGY
Transferof pollen from one plantto the other; pollinationis mostlyby animalswith the exception
of Rhizophora which is wind pollinated.
a. Rhizophora — wind pollinated,selfcompatible
stamens dehisce at bud stage, epipetalous hairs help in the dispersal of pollen,
high pollen/value ratio
pollen, powdery and light,
absence of odour or pollinator award like honey, epidermal glands etc.,
flowers inverted.
stamens and petals drop off within 12 hours,
only selectedflowers set fruits.
Rhizophora is self compatible (experimentalevidence) flowers covered by fine mesh bags
still produce fruits.
b. Sonneratia—Selfpollinated, flowers open in the evening, stamens drop off in the morning,
pollen, powdery, floral disc produces Nectar. Hawk moths are some of the other pollinators.
c. Ceriops—Small months are the pollinators, sweet scent produced at anthesis.
d. Bruguiera—Flowers are facing down and pollinated by birds. Nectar present in floral cup,
calyx red coloured,protandry. Stigma becomes sensitive 2—3 days after anthesis. Pollenis not
usually discharged without the disturbance by birds. Pollen scattered on bird's head and is
transferred when it visits the next flower. B. parviflora is pollinated by butterflies.
e. Lumnitzera—L. littorea is bird pollinated and L. racemosa by ants.
f. Avicennia, Excoecaria, Aegiceras, Scyphiphora— These are pollinated by bees and ants.
g. Other aspects
none of the species are totally dependent on any one pollinator, but some are more fre-
quently visited by certain groups of animals than by other.
there is no competition among differentanimals that frequent these flower.
Bruguiera and Ceriops show explosivemechanisms,visited by birds, butterflies and moths.
in many of the mangrove plants the anthers dehisce in the bud stage.
pollinatorslive outside the mangrovecommunity and they are not dependent on mangrove
plants. e.g., Bats in Malaysia—they travel upto 40-50 km and pollinate Sonneratia a/ba. Bees
and wasps live within the mangrove community.
Avicennia—4 species in Malaysia, but each one flowers at different times, non-synchrony
in flowering but all pollinated by the same group of ants and other small insects. Non-
synchrony helps to extend the period of Nectar availabilityto the insects and avoid inter-
specific hybridisation.
PALYNOLOGY
Pollen-grains of mangroves are very variable and have been recorded from the tertiary period.
e.g. Pelliciera
a. Scyphiphora —Large pollen-grains.
A.N. Rao 127
A.N. RAO
INTRODUCTION
Mangroves form the natural forest wealth of a country. Like any other type of forest, there is
biomass increase but in details they differfrom the regular conventional forests for the following
reasons.
1. It is waterlogged or water dependant community and yet they use the water in a very eco-
nomic way;
2. Sunlight is used. So also the plant remains are recycledthrough aquatic medium, lining cel-
lulose and animal remains are part of the nutrient recycling components;
3. Difficult to assign a definiteeconomic value because it is arduous to assess any definite capital
value and the annual economic value. In Puerto Rico, a claim was made that it would cost
$ 751,400 /- per hectareto restore the mangroves to their original condition after they were
partly destroyed or damaged by oil pollution;
4. Rural people benefit greatly;
5. Mangroves are the rich bio-productivity centres, encouraging the growth of many types of
organisms; and
6. Administrationwise; Forest department may want to use it on a suitable basis which would
disturb the ecosystem, it is not good for fisheries either. Agriculture department may want to
convert the land totally, removing the vegetation which destroys many life forms.
FORESTRY
1. ECONOMICS
Mangrove forests can contribute only 2-3% of the total value of all the forests in the country.
2. PRODUCTION
Production of woodon a sustainable basis—Watson (1928) put up a plan for biomassproduction
on a sustainablebasis. Clearfelling is recommended for poles, pulp wood etc. But what is the
regenerationrate? How long is the cycle? What is the rate of natural regeneration? What are the
plantation methods?Matang reserve is the oldest management project running continuously.
3. TIMBER
Timber produced from mangrovesis of great value. Heavy hard wood of excellent quality, espe-
cially Rhizophora —used mostly for boat building; resistant to termites and sea animals. Heritiera,
and Xylocarpus give valuable timber. Regeneration rate is very low, very difficult to bring back
the original vegetationafter the timber is harvested.
4. POLES
Extraction of unsawn poles are most common and useful. Short rotation is very important, and
must be planned carefully. The data available are limited. Regeneration and growth rates have
to be calculated.
5. FUELWOOD OR CHARCOAL
This is an important utilisation in many countries. Short-term rotation cycle has to be worked
out.
6. TANNINS AND DYES
Mangroves were the main source of tannin for tannin industry once-nowgradually replaced by
synthetic tannin. The danger is not that great. Rhizophora bark is the main and rich source. A
black dye is also produced from some mangroves and used for colouring of Polynesian Tapa
Cloth.
7. FOREST PRODUCTS
Minor forest products are sources of irritant gaps. Cerbera seeds are poisonous.Fish poisons are
extractedfrom roots of Derris and Barringtonia.
8. ECONOMIC BENEFITS
a. Good breeding and nursery groundfor a variety of organisms, shell fish, oysters, etc.
b. Provide nutrition for various organisms recycling of plant and animal remains.
c. Protectionof coastline; Typhoon proof or minimise the disasters.
d. Fish production with and without mangroves— data available in many countries.
10. AGRICULTURE
a. Very few mangroves are directly edible. Bruguiera and Avicennia seeds, if cooked,and boiled,
can be eaten as famine food.
b. Some epiphytes like Hydnophytum provide fruits for birds.
c. Honey production in a limited way.
d. Conversion of mangrove lands rice fields—limited value,becauseof clayeysoil, not worth
the effort, becomes wasteland in course of time.
e. Marine aquaculture—practiced in manycountrieswith minimal disturbanceto the vegetation
or the system.
A.N. Rao 131
No need to destroy mangroves for conversion to salt production, natural flat beaches can be
used. Examples of mangroves destruction are Bahamas, Western Australia.
13. POLLUTION
Sewage treatment in large cities. Long term and excessive usage is harmful to the community
though there is a natural recycling system readily available.
14. COASTALPROTECTION AND USE
Small, thickly populated areas, e.g., island with drive population not feasible, Singapore, Florida,
an ethical dilemma. But countries with flat coastlines like the Philippines,and Bangladesh, get
protection through mangrovesprotect against tropical storms.
15. WILDLIFE
CONCLUSION
"Mangrove Community is a microcosm of the socio-economic complicationattendant on the
human as a natural resource". What is the real value? To whom/ How much is a given time?
These are verysubjective questions.We do not know all the facts yet, because studies are limited.
Withlimited usefor fuelwoodgathering,etc.,the communityshould be allowedto thrivebecause
the uses that mangroves offer are far greater than what we realise at present. More studies are
required to assess the detailed value of differentcomponents.
REFERENCES
Watson, J.G. (1928). Mangroveforests of the Malay Peninsula.Malayan Forest Record No. 6. Fraser
and Neave, Singapore. 275 p.
HABITAT STUDIES
MANGROVES OF BAY ISLANDS
A.K. BANDYOPADHYAY
INTRODUCTION
The Andaman and NicobarIslands comprisea chain of 572 islands, islets, reefs and isolatedrocks
spread in the Bay of Bengal at a distance of about 1,200 km from the East coast of mainland
India. They extend to a length of 700 km between the lower Burma and the upper Sumatra
region of Indonesia (Latitude 6° and 14°N and Longitude 92° and 94°E). The Andaman group
forms the Northern part of the chain, while the Nicobar group in the South is separated from
the main group by 160 km high seas around 100 channel. The major land mass is occupiedby
North, Middle and South Andaman Islands which are separated from each other by narrow
channels. The coastline is about 1,962 km (one-fourthof the Indian coastline). The irregularand
deeplyindented coastline of these islands resultsin innumerablecreeks, bays and estuarieswhich
facilitate the developmentof rich and extensivemangroveforests. The mangroveplants generally
prefer clayey soil and areas well protected from high waves and strong winds, usually within
the tidal reach. They are also dependent on the regular accretions of silt which is regularly
deposited by rain and river water washed down from inland forests. Along with the above
basic requirements, the average temperature of the coldest temperature change is only 5°C or
less, which is characteristic of humid tropical regions and facilitates the luxuriant growth of
mangroves. The mangal formation of these Islands is among the most luxuriant, covering about
115,000 ha (Untawale, 1987); however, estimate varies from survey to survey. The area figures
of mangroves of Bay Islands as per the existing working plans of the forest department are as
follows:
FLORISTIC COMPOSITION
There are 60 exclusive species of mangroves distributed over 16 familiesconfined to mangrove
habitats only and about 23 non-exclusive species in that habitat and elsewhere too. In Andaman
and Nicobar Islands the distribution of species per any standard of measurement is very rich
and there are 34 exclusive species distributed among 17 genera and 13 families.
The dominant species are Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia
caseolaris and Excoecaria agallocha. Bruguieraparviflora is found only in Car Nicobar. A little in the
interior, the muddy banks of rivers, nalas (channels) and creeks are fringed with pure stands of
Nypafruticans and occasionally with patches of Acanthus.
ZONATION PATTERN
In general, three conspicuouszones can be identified of mangroves on these islands.
DISTALZONE
This zone is towards the inland forest. Trees such as HeritieralittOralis, Thespesiapopulnea,Colubrina
asiatica, Pongamiapinnata, Manilkara littoralis, Pandanus tectorius, Hernandia peltata, Licuala spinosa,
Cerbera floribunda, Cynometra ramiflora, C. iripa (rare), Excoecaria agallocha, Hibiscus tiliaceus,Intsia
bijuga, Calophyllum inophyllum, Xylocarpussp., Phoenix paludosa, etc., form the outer boundary of
the mangroves.
A.K. Bandyopadhyay 141
REGENERATION
Natural regenerationof mangroves is found satisfactory in Bay Islands in undisturbed sites. At
a less disturbed site, seedlings of Bruguieraparvzflora were 87 to 119 m2 while those of B. gym-
norrhiza,Rhizophora apiculata and R. stylosa were 13—43, 2—17 2—7/m2, respectively. In an average
their seedlings had a height of 10 to 28 cm. At one more site the number of seedlings/rn2 of
Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata,R. stylosa,Bruguieragymnorrhiza, xylocarpus sp. and Ceriops tagal
were 12—23, 8—12, 6, 12, 12—24, 3—7 and 3—21 m2, respectively.
142 Mangroves of Bay islands
Table 4 Yield and numberof boles in different diameter class in Andamans
Division Parameters Diameter class (cm)
1—10 11—20 21—30 31—40
Table 4 (contd.)
Division Parameters Diameter class (cm) Total
41—50 51—60 61—70 71—80 81—90 91—100
North Andaman No. of boles 3.8 0.4 0.3 0.1 - - 1431.0
Yield (m3/ha) 4.8 0.8 0.7 1.2 - - 115.1
Middle Andamans No. of boles 3.4 1.1 - - - 2.3 734.8
Yield (m3/ha)) 9.9 2.6 - - - 19.0 120.8
South Andamans No. of boles - - - - - - 1100.0
Yield (m3/ha) - - - - - - 58.9
Source : Balachandra(1988)
MANGROVE MANAGEMENT
A review of mangrove literature and documents issued by the UNDP/UNESCORegional Man-
grove Project for Asia and Pacific outlines the following for managing mangrove resources:
1. Undisturbed and managed mangrove forests are better left in their natural state. In other
mangrove areas, particularly those denuded or degraded, other land uses such as paddy
cultivationand aquaculturecan be introduced based on economic and ecological suitabilities.
2. Decision-makers evaluating the demand for various mangroveresourcesshould considerboth
the economic and ecological aspects of development, guided by the principles of sustainability
of the resource and preservation of ecological balance.
3. Since the mangrove ecosystem is an open system interactingwith other systems in the coastal
areas, mangrove development can be best pursued by integrating with developmental con-
cerns for other natural systems in the coastal zone, such as beach vegetation, sea grasses,
corals and coastal fisheries.
4. There are generally three major developmental alternatives for the management of mangrove
areas, namely : (a) conservation of resources exploitation at sustainable level, (b) preserva-
tion or ban against exploitation; and (c) conversion to other uses like fish ponds, salt beds,
agricultural areas and human settlements.
5. Knowledge of the various mangrove ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycling, detri-
tus, food chain material and energy flow, primary and secondary productivities,is a basic
requirement for mangrove management.
A.K. Bandyopadhyay 143
Source : Balachandra(1988)
6. Various mangroveareas exhibitsite-specific, physical-chemical, biological and other ecosystem
characteristics depending on existing ecological parameters, for example, soil salinity, vegeta-
tion, tidal pattern, climate, temperature, and the degree of human interventions.Management
approaches should depend on existing conditions in specific mangrove areas.
7. Due to the dynamic nature of mangroves and their interaction with other adjoiningnatural
systems, the impact assessmentof development projects should include both on-site and off-
site effects on the whole coastal zone.
144 Mangroves of Bay islands
8. Mangrovemanagement,even at the national or site specific level, can have regional or inter-
national implicationsas in the case of wildlife and marine migration and the preservation of
gene poois.
REFERENCES
Balachandra, L.A. (1988). Comprehensive account of the mangrove vegetation of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands : Indian For. 114: 741—751.
Dagar, J.C., A.D. Mongia, and A.K. Bandyopadhyay.(1991). Mangrovesof Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Oxford & IBH Pub. pp. 1—66.
Gopinathan, C.P. and M.S. Rajagopalan. (1983). Mangrove resources. Bull. Cent. Mar. Fish. Res.
Instt. 34 : 44—46.
Mall, L.P. and Billore and D. Amritphale. (1982). Certain ecological observations on the man-
groves of the Andaman Islands. Trop. Ecol. 23 : 225—233.
Radhakrishna,K. (1978). Primary productivityof the Bayof Bengal. IndianJ. Mar. Sci. 7(1) : 58—60.
Rajagopalan, M.S. (1987). Mangroves as component of coastal ecosystem of the Andamans. In
Proc. Symp. Managt. CoastalEcosystems andOceanic Resources ofAndamans. Andaman Sci. Assoc.
pp. 1-7.
Untawale, A.G. (1987). Country Reports : Asia, India. In : Mangroves of Asia and the Pacific
Status and Management.Tech. Rep. of UNDP/UNESCORes. and training pilot programme
and mangrove ecosystems in Asia and the Pacific. pp. 51—87.
SYSTEMATIC NOTES ON MANGROVES OF ANDAMAN
AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
H.S. DEBNATH
INTRODUCTION
Mangroves form a rather uniform, evergreen fringe which is most profusely developed in rela-
tivelyshelteredareas along estuaries,coastallagoons and backwaterswhere the periodic ebb and
flow of the tides bring along mixing of fresh water from rains and land drainage with marine
coastal waters. Thus mangroves are well developed in the East coast of Andaman Islands. Even
in some places like Baratang and Austin Strait, the species Rhizophora apiculata and Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza may attain a size of 50 cm in diameter and 50 m in height.
Mangroves are also developed, although in a scattered manner, in sandy or rocky beaches or
on old coral-reefs covered with a thin sheet of sand or mud. In these localities the height of
the stands is low, the trees are dwarfed and crooked, and the fringe is very narrow and sparse.
It is observed in some places of Middle and South Andaman that Rhizophora mucronata and
R. apiculata sometimes grow together on rocks or old coral reefs by making a small isle.
Within the mangrove formation the different species occupy different zones. In places where
the shore is steep, Rhizophora grows nearest to water and invades it. In places where the shore
is not very steep, Avicennia and Lumnitzera also come to the edge of the formation alongwith
Rhizophora. Away from the shoreline towards inland where the water stagnates duringhightide,
other species ofAvicennia,Aegiceras, Bruguiera,Ceriops, Excoecaria and Lumnitzera are found. These
species are often intermixed with each other, although in some localities they have a definite
zonation. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza is found as a dominant in Dugong Creek of Little Andaman.
Here there is practically no wave action.
The species distribution also varies depending on the salt concentrationof the water. Avicennia
marina shows a wide tolerancefrom high salt concentratedzone to near the tidallimit where the
salinityis low. The occurrence of Sonneratiaa/ba at the seaward edge of the mangroveis due to its
preference for near-normal salinity. The speciesRhizophora stylosa and R. mucronata can growwell
in more saline conditionsthan R. apiculata which prefers less salinity. Aegiceras corniculatum is
found in fresh water on the shores of bays along seepage line and at the junctionbetween fresh
water swamp and mangroves. So each species occupies a zone of particular salinity.
COMMUNITY, STABILITYPROPERTIES
The important role of substrate in determining the dominant species growing on them is well
demonstrated by the spatial distribution of the genus Rhizophora. Observations of mangrove
communities on differentislands showed that Rhizophora mucronata grows on muddy substrate;
R. stylosa on sandy coast or reef flat; while R. apiculata occupies the transitional area between
the two. Thus the type of substrate in combination with other physical factors such as salinity,
mineralcontent and tidal actions are the underlying factors that foster the occurrence of zonation
in most mangroveecosystems. In the entireterritory, the commongenerarecorded are Rhizophora,
Bruguiera, and Ceriops. As stated above, Rhizophora is the dominant genus in the area while
Bruguiera occupies the secondposition in order of abundance.Species of Xylocarpus are relatively
poor in occurrence compared to Ceriops species. Avicennia and Sonneratia are poorly represented
in the area.
STRUCTURE
On the basis of the height of plants, three categories of forest stratification are observed. The
widest trunk with spreading crown is found in the species of Sonneratia.The species of avicennia
have relatively less spreading crown but in height they are close to Sonneratici. The species
of Xylocarpus represent crown structure between Sonneratia and Avicennia. These three genera
together with Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza constitute the top
canopy of the forest. The second categoryis contributed by shrubs and small trees, e.g., Aegiceras
corniculatum, Bruguiera parviflora, B. cylindrica, Excoecaria agallocha, and species of Ceriops. The
third one is occupied by small shrubs and ferns such as species of Acanthus, Nypa fruticans,
Aegialitis rotundifolia and Acrostichuinaureum.
whether those species have been made extinct or identified in some names. The recorded 57
speciesinclude plants that occur on land at the limit of salinityinfluence, i.e., at the transmission
between the mangrove forest and the back vegetation,fresh water swamp or peat water swamp
forest. On the basis of their habitat, the Andaman - Nicobar mangroveelements can be classified
into two groups.
1. Obligate or exclusive group consisting of 35 species in 21 genera, which comprise plants
obsoletely bound to salty or brackish water.
2. Facultative or fringe or back mangroves consisting of 22 species in 17 genera, which comprise
plants belongingto the littoral vegetation which regularly make their appearance in the back
mangroves.
Thesetwo occasional species of coastal forest and back mangal communities are very closely
related and have been much confused.As a result, differentauthors have used the names manghas
and odollam for bothentities despitethe clear distinctionbetween them, so there are controversies
regarding the delimitationand proper status of these two species.
After careful observationsof the specimensof Cerbera manghas, C. odollam of Andaman-Nicobar
Islands, it was found that thought the two species are vegetativelysomewhatclose to each other,
yet a few morphological characters show the differentiation between them. These two species
may be distinguished as follows:
REFERENCES
Blasco, F. (1977). Outlines of ecology, botany and forestry of the mangals of the Indian sub-
continent, chap. 12. In : V.J. Champan (Ed.). Ecosystem of the World : Wet Coastal Ecosystems.
Vol. I. New York: Elsevier.
Hiern, W.P. (1875). In : Hooker, J.D. Fl. Brit. md. 1 : 560. (as Aglaia cucullata Roxb).
Lakshmanan, K.K. and Rajeswari Mahalingam (1983). Distribution of organic contents in the
leaves of Rhizophora species, Abstract No. 405. Proc. 70th md. Sc. Cong. 3. Abstracts.
Lakshmanan,K.K. and S. Poornima. (1988). Microsporogenesis in Rhizophorax lamarckii Montr.
Curr. Sci. 57(19) : 1034—1085.
Muniyandi, K. and Natarajan, R. (1895). Incidence of seedling formation in Rhizophora lamarckii
Montr. at Pichavaram Mangrove, Tamil Nadu, India. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 82
441—442.
Parker, R.N. (1925). Ind. For. 51 : 507—510.
Parkinson,C.E. (1923). A Forest Flora of the Andaman Islands. Shimla.
1934. The Indian species of Xylocarpus Ind. For. 60: 136-143.
Singh, V.P., Mall, L.P., George, A. and Pathak, S.M. (1987). A new record of some mangrove
species from Andaman Islands and their distribution. md. For. 113(3) : 214—217.
Tomilson, P.B. and J.S. Womersley. (1976). A species of Rhizophora new to New Guinea and
Queensland,with notes relevant with genus. Contrib. Herb. Aust. 19: 1—10.
Tomlinson, P.B. (1978). Rhizophora in Australia: some clarification of taxonomy and distribution.
J. Arnold Arbor. 59: 156—69.
Tomlinson, P.B. (1986). The botany of mangroves. CambridgeUniversityPress.
CHARACTERISTICSOF MANGROVE SOILS OF BAY
ISLANDS
A.D. MONGIA
INTRODUCTION
The Andaman Nicobar Islands comprise a chain of 572 islands, islets, reefs and isolated rocks
spread in a Bay of Bengal at a distance of about 1200 km from the East coast of mainland
India. They extend to a length of 700 km between the lower Burma and the upper Sumatra
region of Indonesia (latitude 6° and 14°N and longitude 92°E to 94°E. The coast line is about
1962 km. The islands show warm humid climate with mean daily temperatures ranging from
20°C to 33°C. There is a net water deficit between February and April. The mean relative hu-
midity is 79% and the normal annual rainfall is about 3000 mM. The important tidal creeks,
which harbour mangroves include the Austin Strait, Mayabunder, Kalighat, and Laxmipura
(North Andaman); Porlobjig, Bamlungata, Charulungata, Hamfrey Strait, Lakdalungata,Yoldig
and North Passage (Middle Andaman); Baratang, Havelock, Wrafter Creek, Alexandra Island,
Red Skin Island, Burmanalah,Chidiatapu, Manjeri, Wandoor, Bambooflat, Wright Myo to Shoal
Bay, Sipighat, Mile Tilek, PochangCreek, Rutland,WoodMason Bay, Richie's Archipelago (South
Andaman);Dugong Creek(little Andaman);creeksof Car Nicobar; Katchchhal, Kamorta (Central
Nicobar) and mouths of rivers Galathea, Dugma and Alexandra,etc. (Great Nicobar).
ppm
B 101 80 95 86
Zn 12 14 10 9
Cu 25 27 12 15
S 95 86 95 86
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The bulkof the soilmaterial in the creeks of the Andaman and NicobarIslands consists of heavy
clay with frequent inclusionsof fibrous roots of Rhizophora community alongwith other woody
material.The mineral fraction contains more than 50% clay (Tables 2 and 3). The organic matter
content is high leading to high lateral and vertical permeability. Consequently the tidal waves
penetrate soil bodies upto many meters from the creek banks. The basic colours of the unripe
clay are normally dark grey (10 YR 3/1; 4/1) and these turn to brownish grey (10 YR 4/2 -
5/2) in the half ripe and nearly ripe horizons. At the same time brown and yellow and rarely,
red mottles appear. Typical is the pale yellow Jarosite, initially associatedwith the root remains.
In some creeks of Great Nicobar, the patchy occurrence of very fine sandy soil material causes
irregular pattern of ripening and waste content. Textures vary widely among horizons. Mature
surface horizons and sandy sub-soil layers may occur together with half ripe peaty sandy clay
horizons. Structureand mottling of top layers in these rather sandy soils are similar to those of
heavy clay soils.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Nearly all the soils of the mangrove areas contain potential acid sulphate material within 50 cm
of the surface, with total sulphur content exceeding 5% for clay and 2% for sandy mud. In some
sandy sub soils, potential acidity (pyrite) is exceeded by potential alkalinity (shell fragments).
Except for these sediment layers rich in shells, in soil horizons acidify strongly upon drying.
Air dried samples give pH values of 2.5 to 3.5 (Tables 2 and 3). The field pH in soils of bare
mangroveland crusted with salts, varies from 3.0 to 3.8 down to 100 cm, except for a temporary
rise to pH from 5 to 6 in the surface soil, shortly after rains or spring tide. A plot of the soil
pH-(CaC12) against exchangeable Al gives a sigmoidcurve, having an inflection at pH 4.2. Below
this pH the exchangeable Al content increases steeply and above this starts disappearing. It is
evident that the soil pH is buffered by the clay minerals. The pH - (CaC122) below 4.2 coupled
with presence of yellow mottles are characteristics of acid sulphate soils (Singh et a!., 1989).
ORGANICMATTER
The fibrous root remains of Rhizophora and associates are common in the soils under mangrove
community and in the reduced sub soils of bare marsh lands. These roots often form the most
conspicuous constituent of the soil. Organicmatter content is commonly high with low degree
of decomposition.
SULPHUR
Sulphur contents of parent materials range from 1 to 4% for mud sands and 3-100% for mud
clays. Most of the sulphur comesfrom microcrystalline clustersof pyrite embedded in the organic
matter especially in the fibrous root remains of Rhizophoraassociation. In bare marsh lands, soil
horizons with Jarosite mottles have lower sulphur contents. The lowest sulphur contents (0.5%)
are found in the half ripe or nearly ripe surface soils without Jarosite mottles. Soils having a
water soluble sulphur content of more than 0.5%, may be consideredas potentiallyacid sulphate
in nature (Mongiaand Ganeshamurthy1989; Singh et a!., 1989).
0
q3.
Table 3 Analysis of some acid sulphate soils from the andaman and nicobar islands
Baratang,South Andaman
0—20 60 40 80 85
40—80 90 70 85 250
Great Nicobar
0—20 170 — 150 280
40—60 110 — 210 310
80—110 40 — 320 370
Table 5 Analytical data of creek and ground waters in typical vegetation and soil sequence
from South Andaman
Sequence pH EC C1 SO HCO3 Ca2 Mg2 K2 Na
/
dS m
February 1988 Pongibalusite
1. Creek 7.1 50.3 620 106 2.40 25.0 120.4 10.0 520
2. Rhizophoracommunity 6.2 65.8 900 103 2.15 35.7 195.0 15.9 770
3. Avicennia community 6.4 80.0 1250 130 1.59 40.7 260.5 20.0 1070
4. Bare land daily inundatd 4.2 85.0 1300 125 — 35.5 280.0 20.2 1080
5. Bare land with saline surface 3.5 110.3 1700 240 — 37.2 450.0 18.5 1400
crust
March 1988 Wandoor site
1. Creek 7.3 48.4 360 50.8 1.0 12.3 700 10.0 340
2. Rhizophoracommunity 7.5 45.6 340 42.9 2.1 11.0 690 8.9 300
3. Avicennia community 7.8 49.7 400 58.7 1.3 12.8 127 12.0 340
4. Bare land dail inundated 3.9 75.0 570 85.3 1.6 27.4 — 16.0 380
5. Bare land with saline surface 2.9 110.8 830 130.6 — 45.0 224 25.0 790
crust
A.D. Mongia 155
The change in SO4 content of Rhizophora community fibrous mud on drying folowed the same
trend as in case of pH. On the other hand the Avicennia community mud did not show any
change in SO4 content during drying except for a small increase when completely oven dried.
At this point the pH also dropped to a lower value in Avicennia mud showing the possibility
of chemical oxidation of sulphur. Drying did not change acid soluble phosphate in fibrous mud
and incubationincreased the phosphate content at a stage where pH dropped sharply resulting
in the dissolution of Fe and Al phosphates. Drying of non-fibrousmud also behaved similarly.
A steady increase in N03-N occurred when the fibrous mud was dried and a further increase
was noticed during incubation. The non-fibrousmud when dried gave larger increase in NO3-
N than the fibrous mud inspite of the higher organic matter. This is in part due solubleto the
acidity in the fibrous mud which inhibits the rate of oxidation. These results explain as to why
the lands cleared out of Rhizophora communityand empoldered for rice cultivationdo not retain
favourable conditions for rice growth for longtimeswhile those out of Avicennia communitycan
be cleared and empoldered with impunity.
REFERENCES
Chapman, V.J. (1976). Mangrove biogeography.In : Proc. Intnl. Symp. Biology and Managementof
Mangroves Vol.1: 3—22. Institute of Food and Gril. Sci., Univ. Florida.
Chapman, V.J. (1976). Mangrove Vegetation. J. Cramer, Vaduz. 447 p.
MacNae, W. (1968). A general account of the fauna and flora of mangrove swamps and forests
in the Indo-West Pacific region. Adv. Mar. Bio. 6 : 73—270.
Sidhu, S.S. (1963). Studies on mangroves.Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 33(80) : 129—136.
Singh, N.T., A.D. Mongia, and A.N. Ganeshamurthy. (1989). Soils of brackishwatermarshes of
South Andaman. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 37: 355—362.
Walsh, G.E. (1974). Mangroves: a review. In : Reimold R.J. and W.H. Queen (Ed.s). Ecology of
Halophytes. Academic Press, New York. pp. 51—174.
LIFE CYCLES AND POPULATION DYNAMICS
POPULATIONDYNAMICS IN MANGROVES
S.B. CHAPHEKAR
INTRODUCTION
On the West coast of peninsular India, mangroves are distributed along the creeks and a large
number of river mouths in fringed state. Most of these West-flowing rivers are short, monsoon-
fed, rapidly flowingstreamswithonlya few kilometersof estuarinezone alongwhich mangroves
prosper. In the regions where mangroves are left undisturbed, a generalisedzonation pattern is
perceptible, viz., Rhizophora in waters near the low tide area, Avicenniamarina on the upper side
and a sprinkling of Sonneratia apetala trees and bushes of Ceriops tagal and Excoecaria agallocha
in the region in between. The back-mangroveregion is very short, occupied by grassy patches
of Aeluropus lagopoides, Acanthus ilicifolius, clustersof Cyperaceaespecies and some low-growing
perennials like Clerodendrum inerme, Salvadora persica and a straggler, Derris scandens (Figure 1)
(Navalkar, 1951; Chaphekar, 1959).
36 ', Phoenixsylvestris
38
Aleuropus lagopoides
40
2
•
•
•
. Avicennia Alba 42
Acanthus ilicifolius
J
46
6 48 Road
10
Acanthus ilicifolius
50
52 .
•
Sonneratia apetala
Road 56 } —
Avicennia alba
12 58
60
•
} Aegiceras corniculatum
Exceptional 3
tide
2
High tide
Low tide 1
hardly explained by mass transportation of the plant material on tidal swells and ebbs. Seedlings
of Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Avicennia, etc., are often found associated with the respective
parent plant, but when they are carried on water currents, all may be found along the same
receding water line, lack of evidence to explain the zonation pattern.
It is common observation that the seedlings of Rhizophora keep lying on winds for some time
before anchoragein muds. Theseseedlingsare larger than any other seedlings among mangroves.
When they germinate, the plumule is raised well above the ground, some 20-30 cm or more.
Chances of the delicate plumules remaining unhurt during tidal swells by water or water-borne
organisms are good undersuch raised conditions.Plumules of successfully grown seedlings were
often seen adversely affected by predators or other organisms, carried by tidal waters, during
our plantation trials on Vikhroli shores of Thane creek. Cryphalus littoralis has been identifiedas
a borer of seedling of Rhizophora mucronataby Khan et at., (1990). Untawale (1986) recommended
plantation of tall seedlings of Rhizophora to ensure better survival. It is possible that smaller
seedlingof other mangroves (Ceriops, Bruguiera) may not succeed in their growth, even if planted
in deeper waters at low tide line. Stilt roots of Rhizophora, virtually liftingthe crown a couple of
metres above the water level, may also prove an asset for survival to high tides, a facility not
provided to other common mangroves. Avicennia and Sonneratia, with their pneumatophoresat
groundlevel, are at a disadvantage for survival at the same tidal level, which would clog the
lenticels on pneumatophores.
SALINITY REGIMES
Within the reaches of the tidal waters, salinity levels are not expected to vary to an extent that
would determine differentiationof habitat of mangrovespecies. Soil salinityas well as salinity of
pore waters are recorded to be indistinguishable(Chaphekar, 1959; Kanvinde, 1992). Teas et at.,
(1975) have reported that the type of substrate did not affect establishment of mangroveseedlings.
Osmotic pressure of cell sap was found to be low, i.e., nearer the value of osmotic pressure of
soil, in the case of Sonneratia alba, Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia marina and Ceriops decandra
(Chaphekarand Deshmukh, 1987). Whether this contributes to the preference (or survival) of
Rhizophora at waterfront belts is not known with certainty.
ALLELOPATHY
Dilution effect of tidal waters may also neglect any possibilityof allelopathic phenomenawithin
mangrove plants, contributing to zonation. No report in this respect, however, is available in
literature.
HORIZONTAL SPACING
Plants like Bruguiera, Sonneratia, Avicennia,etc., have theirpneumatophoresborne on very strong
cable roots around the base of their trunks. These may occupy circular areas with 2-5 m radii.
Few companionsare reported with Rhizophora at low tide lines, though different species of the
genus are known to be sharing the waterfront to form impenetrable belts (Status Report on
Mangroves, 1987). Avicennia and Sonneratia have often been noticed to be sharing the ground,
forming mixed stands in many places. Bruguiera at Chidiatapu in Andamans, however, shows
162 Population dynamics in mangroves
a monocultureand excludes all other species effectively by its powerful knee roots around the
tree bases. It appears that in mature stands, the space occupied by pneumatophores proves to
be the determinant of the density of individuals in the stand.
GENETIC FACTOR
Virtuallynothing is known about the genetic attributes of mangrove species that impart them
the ability to survive in their peculiar habitats. As a result, we are unable to answer questions
like : a) are there differentploidy levelsin a species that determine success or failure of particular
individual, by the stress exerted at a particular tidal level within the saline habitat, or (b) is
preference within a mangrove habitat by Rhizophora made according to its inherent ability to
tolerate the worst of the conditions at low tide levels?
the Ulhas river, has been exposed to removal of wood during the last four decades, it presently
shows acres and acres of coastal land occupiedby monoculturesof Acanthus ilicifolius.
INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS
A relatively better studies example is that of industrial effluents from a number of factories in
coastal marshlands, affecting species composition. In this zone, located at the upper limits of
the Kalu river estuarine zone, there were hardly ten species of floweringplants, as compared to
the unpolluted zone with twenty species (Mhatre et at., 1980). Only two of the species —Pycreus
macrostachyos and Cynadon dactylon were found to be and abundant while the other species
—
Estimated spectrophotometrically by the dithozone method; other metals were estimated by AAS
It is not easy to understand the reasons for the success of a particular species in pollution loaded
sediments, when most others had succumbedto the toxicity of pollutants. Antonovics et al. (1971)
recognised several strategies of plants for overcoming heavy metal toxicity in the substratum.
It appears Pycreus macrostachyos has developed strains which accumulate absorbed metals in
non-toxic form.
To what extent a similar strategy of evolving pollution-tolerantstrains exists among mangrove
species is difficult to guess. But this phenomenon, described critically by Bradshaw (1976), is
of great significance in the determination of the nature of coastal vegetation of the future, since
creeks and estuariesare the most commondumping grounds ofindustrial effluents and municipal
wastes in most countries of the World.
CONCLUSIONS
Mangrovesare finally receiving the attention due to them, and the need for conservation of this
unique and highly productive ecosystemis no more questioned.The threat of sea level rise in the
164 Population dynamics in mangroves
next century has added a sense of urgency to know more about this ecosystem, already ravaged
by the forces of urbanisation, industrialisationand as a source of fuel for the poor. The present
state of our ignorance in the matter should urge us to undertake intensive research in several
aspects of this vegetation some of which are identified here.
REFERENCES
Antonovics, J., A.D. Bradshaw and R.G. Turner. (1971). Heavy metal tolerance in plants. Adv.
Ecol. Res., 7: 1-85.
Aswani Kumar, A.V. and S.B. Chaphekar (1985). Ecology of estuaries— a case study of Ulhas
river. In : D.N. Rao, K.J. Ahmad, and Mohd. Yunus (Ed.s). Print House India, Lucknow.
pp 67-85.
Blasco F. and C. Caratini (1973). In : F. Blasco (Ed.). Les Mangrovesde L Inde. Institute Francais
de Pondicherry. All India Press, Pondicherry.75p.
Bradshaw,A.D. (1976). Pollutionand evolution. In : T.A. Mansfield.(Ed.). Effects of air pollution
on plants. Cambridge, Univ. Press, London. pp. 134-159.
Chaphekar, S.B. (1959). Studies in Ecology of Thana district with special reference to Ghodbandal
area. M.Sc. thesis, Bombay University, Bombay.
Chaphekar, S.B. and S.V. Deshmukh. (1987). Mangroves.Encology 1:1-13.
Kanvinde, H. (1992). Studies on estuarine ecosystem at Ratnagiri. Ph.D. Thesis, Shivaji University,
Kolhapur.
Khan,S.M., A.K. Nath and S.D. Badrinath (1990). Environmentalimpact on mangrove ecosystems
with reference to India. Ecology 5(7) : 1-11.
Lattoo, C.S. (1987). Ecologicalobservations on the vegetation of Elephanta island. Ph.D. Thesis, Bombay
University, Bombay.
Mhatre, G.N., S.B. Chaphekar, I.V. Ramani Rao, M.R. Patil and B.C. Haldar (1980). Effect of
industrial pollution on the Kalu river ecosystem. Environ. Pollut. (A) 23 : 67-68.
Ministryof Environmentand Forests.(1987).Mangroves of India Status report. New Delhi.
Navalkar,B.S. (1951). Succession of mangrovevegetation of Bombay and Salsette islands.J. Born.
Nat. His. Soc. 59 (1).
Teas, H.J.,W. Jurgens, and M.C. Kiball. (1975). Plantings of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.)
in Charlotte and St. Lucie Counties, Florida. Proc. 2nd Ann. Conf. on Restoration of Coastal
Vegetation in Florida, Tampa. 1-16. pp.
Untawale, A.G. (1986). How to grow mangroves. NIO, Goa. 9 p.
PLANT REPRODUCTIVEBIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Interest in plant reproductivebiology is as ancient as settled agriculture. Farmers have always
shown a keen interest in the reproductivebiologyof plants and mechanism of fruit production.
So much of our agricultural production depends upon pollination and pollinationsystems have
longbeen recognisedas a model for understanding the interplay between natural selection and
evolution. Charles Darwin wrote several books and papers on pollination systems and plant
reproduction,and many of his conclusions are still valid today.
Study of plant reproductivebiology includes:
1. Floral morphology floral biology,
2. Pollination biology,
3. Plant-Pollination vector interaction, i.e., pollination ecology,
4. Breedingsystems,
5. Phenology of reproductiveevents,
6. Seed and fruit dispersal,
7. Seed biology (seed physiology, seed generationand seedling ecology),
8. Seed and fruit,
9. Regeneration, and
10. Population genetic structure and genetic variation accompanyingthe reproductiveevents.
Autogamy— The flower receives its own pollen (self-pollination) and leads to successful
fertilisation
Allogamy— Flower receives pollen from another flower (cross-pollination) and leads to
successful fertilisation
Geitonogamy — Successfulfertilisation followingcross-pollination between two flowers on the
same plant
Xenogamy — Successfulfertilisation following cross-pollination betweentwo flowers of sep-
arate plants
Hybridisation — Between two flowers of separate species
Homogamy— Stigmas and anthers mature simultaneously. Potentially these flowers can be
self-fertilised
Herkogamy — Bisexual flowers in which seif-fertilisation is prevented by the (Herkos-
barriers) positioning of stamens and stigma.
AGENCIES OF POLLINATION
Anemophily- Pollination aided by wind
Hydrophily — Pollination aided by water
Entomophily— Pollination by insects
Ornithophily — Pollination by birds
Cheropterophily — Pollination by bats
Cantharophily— Pollination by beetles
Myophily— Pollination by flies
Meliottophily — Pollination by bees
Sapromyophily — Pollination
by canon and dung flies
ABIOTIC POLLINATION
Abiotic pollination with few exceptions is a wasteful process, as the transfer is non-directional.
The pollen-grains are scattered accordingto the law of nature (chance).
No. of effective pollen n/N = a/A area of stigmatic surface
Total output Total area of the surroundings
Wind pollination is the most dominant form of abiotic pollination in Graminae, Cyperaceae, Jun-
caceae, etc. Within angiosperms,entomophilyis the more productive condition. Anemophilyis
derived from entomophily. The relict occurrence of Nectaries in blossoms of many anemophily
e.g., Cannabis, Urtica are evident from specific odour. Anemophily seems to be active together
with entomophilyin some plants although the two modes of pollination have differentrelative
importance.AnemophilorsPlantago media is more or less regularly pollinated by insects. Nectar
is produced in Calluna flowers, the flowers are visited and pollinated by insects. On the other
hand, great amount of Calluna pollen are also spread by wind. The great quantities of pollen in
anemophilesmay attract pollen-collectors, which may effect some pollination. Anemophilyhave
heavy pollen production. The effective stigmaticsurface is greatly enlarged.
Hydrophily is a derived condition, as the aquatic habitat generally is a derived one for higher
plants. Most aquatic plants like Nymphaea are pollinated in air.
BIOTIC POLLINATION
Biotic pollination introducesinto the sequenceof events a second organism, the pollinationagent,
or the pollen vector and a certain relationship is establishedbetween the agent and the blossom
to be pollinated.
I.A.U.N. Gunetillekeand Savitri Gunetilleke 167
The pollinator should visit this particular blossom regularly, and these visits should constitute
a regular part of the life activity of the animal (accidental visits).
Such a relationship is generally establishedby means of some kind of direct attractant, vector,
pollen, odour, etc.
Definitions of terms describing blossom —visitor relationship and blossom relationships
cialised.
Strongly adopted to being utilised by specialised visitors
—
Euphilic
These plant animal relationship with respect to pollination are called floral syndromes and a
range of such syndromesare given in Table 1 and salient feature of reproductivebiologyof main
mangrove species are given in Table 2.
168 Plant reproductive biology
Table 2 Pollination and phenological details and mangroves
Family, genus Distribution Floral sexuality Pollen vector, Breeding Fruit Dispersal Germination
and species and morphology and vector system
(flowering period) rewards
Acanthaceae
1. Acanthus Tropical Asia, Hermaphroditic Entomophilous or Protandrous Capsule Explosive
ilicifolius Africa Ornithophilous and cross- release of
pollen pollinated seeds
Apocyanaceae
2. Cerbera Tropical Asia Hermaphroditic Animal Pollinated Cross-pollination 2-seeded Water Hypogeal
manghas, (?) pollen favouredas drupe
C. odollam the flower
visitor
encounter
stigmastic
disc before
it touches
pollenmass
Avicenniaceae
3. Avicennia Pantropical Hermaphroditic Meliottophious Protandrous 1 seeded Incipiently Epigeal
marina and actinomorphic Nectar and pollen capsule viviparous
4. Avicennia Pantropical Zygomorphic -do- Protandrous 1 seeded -do-
officinalis capsule
Bignoniaceae
5. Dolicandrone South Asia to Hermaphroditic Sphingophily Hawk-moth(?) Semi woody, Epigeal
spathacea Pacific and zygomorphic capsules. long
cross-pollination Seeds corky,
favoured. Nectar winged
and pollen
fragrant (May-
July)
Combretaceae
6. Lumnitzera East Africa Hermaphroditic Sun-birds and Protandrous Water Hypogeal
racemosa Western Actinomorphic honeyeater
Pacific ornithophily.
Bees and Wasps
Meliottophious
7. Terminalia Tropical Asia Zygomorphic Meliottophious Andromoecious Drupaceous Hypogeal
catappa Actinomorphic
Euphorbiaceae
8. Excoecaria East Africa Entomophilous. Dioetious Epigeal
agallocha Pacific Nectar and
pollen. Glands
on catkin bracts
and leaves
Meliaceae
9. Xylocarpus East Africa to Meliottophilous. Monoecious Seeds with Water
granatum Indo-Malaya Nectar and and corky testa
pollen protogynous
Myrsinaceae
10. Aegiceras Australia Hermaphroditic Entomophilic Epigeal
corniculatum and Nectar and
Zygomorphic fragrant
Palmae
11. Nypa Old World Trigona and Monoecious Water
fruticans tropics flies
Meliottophily
and Myophily
Rhizophoraceae
12. Rhizophora West Africa Anemophilous Protandrous Water
Pacific,Indo-
Malaya
I.A.U.N. Gunetillekeand Savitri Gunetilleke 169
PRIMARY ATTRACTANTS
POLLEN AS AN ATTRACTANT
Pollenis a rich source of food, especiallyproteins. 16—30% protein, 1—7% starch and 0—15% sugar,
3—10% fat, and 1—9percent ashes. Pollenis eaten directlyby beetles, and permeativelepidopterans
and in a more indirect manner (digestionby diffusion) by other insects.
170 Plant reproductivebiology
Insects withbroad-management-bees, rode bees etc. use great quantitiesofpollen for their larvae.
Pollen-grain consists of three concentric layers: exine, intine and protoplast.
Intine — pectin and cellulose membrane—indigestible
Exine — unknown substances, extremelyresistant to everything
— utilisation
Protoplast by digestionby diffusion
NECTAR AS AN ATTRACTANT
Nectar is peculiar to angiosperms. However, from evolutionarypoint of view it is not easy to
decide whether Nectar production arose in connection with pollinations or whether Nectar-like
substances was produced by plants before pollination came into existence. As a matter of fact,
even today very much Nectar is secreted extra-nuptillary,i.e. independently of the floral region.
An array of chemical substanceshave been reported from the Nectarsof various flowering plants.
Sugars (hexose monosaccharide glucose, and fructose, closaccharide, sucrose bigthree, galac-
— —
tose, arctinose, mannose, manosacchemaltose and melibrose, - disaccharides melezitose and
—
raffuiose —trisachcheols.
— Amino acids
— Proteins
—
Lipids
— Antioxidants (ascorbicacid)
— Alkaloids
—
Glycosides
— Thiamine, Riboflavin, Nicotinic acid, Pantolhnic acid, Pyridoxin, Folic acid, mesoinositol
—
Organic acids (Sumaric, Succinic, Malic, Oxalic, Citric)
— Allantion and allantoicacid
— Dextrins
— Sulfate
Bees usually forage on Nectar and pollen. Pollen is presented to insects only during certain
periods. Pollen presentationmust be synchronized with Nectar presentationwhere Nectar is the
chief attractant.
Certain pollen types are reported to contain phytosterols as pollen attractants to insects. Odour
may possibly be associated also with the sticky substances on the outer region of the grains.
Where pollen is the sole attractant of a flower, it is frequently produced in great quantities, as
much as in anemophiles. Rosa, Papaver and Parkia (Bat-pollinated) belong to this clan of pollen
flowers, can thus be easily recognizedby stamens.
However, many stamens are found in flowers that posses Nectar in addition (e.g., Ranunculus).
Anemophiles, also producing great quantities of pollen are potential sources of this attractant.
These are exclusive pollen flowers
— Exclusive Nectar flowers —
butterfly pollinated
— Pollen or Nectar at
any quantitative
— Pollen and Nectar in the same visit. Colour as an attractant - visual attractants
I.A.U.N. Gunetilleke and Savitri Gunetilleke 171
Pollinators are to enticed to visit a flower by colour or any other single attractant not acting in
isolation,but rather by a complex syndrome of characters to which the pollinator is intimately
attracted or behaviorally entertained.
Natural selection has acted to control the elaboration of numerous floral pigments in several
chemicals classes, with absorption-reflection properties over wavelengths to which pollinator
visual systems are sensitive and which provide strikingvisual contrastbetween floralplants and
surrounding background vegetation.
In general visual attractants at over much longer distancesthan alfactory ones.
In insects however, the visual spectrum is shifted substantiallyto shorter wavelengths making
insects sensitive to near ultraviolet wavelengthsbut often insensitive to red colouration.
ODOUR AS ATTRACTANT
1. Bees - floral fragrancesor dancelanguageof the worker bees.
2. Bats - mostly guided by Nectar but partly by floral fragrance. Diacetyl are chemical com-
pound identified as a bat attractant.
3. Flies - attracted to flowers with the odour and appearance of decaying meat —aminoid
compounds. Fruit flies —methyl eugenol.
4. Beetles- Arum likes —The inflorescenseproduces indole or skatole and the heat produced
helps to volatise and disperse the others. The beetles and indigos are attracted by
the odour and fall into the floral chamber.
SEXUAL ATTRACTION
Oplyrys speculum—attracts a male by municing a female—pseudo copulation
FOOD BODIES
In trap flowers of some Araceae, the insects are said to eat food bodies. Amorphophallus species,
which beetle pollinates, have edible substance at the bottom of the spats.
In Anilumism and Aruins, stigma exudes liquid which attracts insects.
Fracynatia have intrusive inflorescences and subtending tracts as food for bats —the pollinators.
The major pigments imparting colourationto flowers are divided among three classes:
(a) flavanoids, (b) carotinoids, and (c) betalains.
172 Plant reproductivebiology
Table 4 Colour preferences and qualities pollinator classes
Pollinator Preferences
a. Bats Green, Purple, greenish (drab)
b. Bees Yellow, blue (bright)
c. Beetles Green, greenish (drab)
d. Birds Scarlet (bright)
e. Butterflies Red, yellow, blue, pink (bright)
f. Moths
- Nocturnal White
- Diurnal Red, purple, pink (bright)
g. Flies
- Carrion, dung brown, purple (dull)
- Others Green, white
h. Wasps Brown (dull)
POLLINATION
Table 5 "Harmonic" relations betweenpollinators and blossoms
Blossom class Pollinator Colour preference
Dish bowl Wasps Brown
Bell-beaker Bats Drab
Beetles /
White off-white
Yellow Flies Brush
Gullet Bees Blue/violet
Moths
Flag Butterflies Red
Tube Birds Green
Recent reviews have demonstrated that allozyme variation within populations are associated
with the life history traits of species;. e.g.,
1. Geographicrange,
2. Effective population size,
3. Mating system and mode of reproduction,
4. Seed dispersal mechanism,and
5. Communitytype in which the species most commonly occur.
Efforts to preserve genetic resources must take into account the components of genetic varia-
tions, both within and between local populations. The latter is of practical importance to the
conservationof genetic resources, once it is concernedwith the way in which genetic variation
in partitioned within and among populations. It is important to know whether the majority of
the genetic variation of a species is resident within populations or whether it occurs among
populations.
In order to manage the genetic resourcesof naturally occurringspecies in a more intelligent and
effective manner, we must understand how genetic variation is distributed,and what character-
istics of the environs of the species influencesits distribution.
In specieswith small populations,vegetative reproductionand limited pollen and seed dispersal
would be expected to have relatively little variation within populations and relatively more
variation among populations. Similarly, species with limited distributors or colonising species
might also be expected to have relatively high levels of inter-populationalvariation.
The extentof geneticvariationin a species is largely determinedby the effect of three fundamental
evolutionaryforces: (a) genetic drift (b) migration (gene-flow), and (c) natural selection.
The action of these force on the distributionof genetic variation in natural populations analysed
using population genetics theory and a series of computer simulations.
174 Plant reproductivebiology
GENETIC VARIATION
Tropical species > Temperate or cosmopolitan
Habitat generalists > Habitat specialists
Mainland populations > Island populations
1. Geographicisolation
2. Mode of reproduction
3. Mating systems
a. Out-breeders —High heterozygosity and high recombination
b. In-breeders —Low heterozygosity and Low recombination
c. Asexual —High heterozygosity and no recombination
4. Seed dispersal mechanism
5. Population size (effective)
6. Ploidy level
a. Diploid —High segregation and rapid response to selection
b. Polyploid —Low segregation and fixed heterozygosity 30—35% all flowering plants—poly-
ploid
GENETIC DIVERSITY
1. Species diversity
2. Allele diversity (polymorphisms)
3. Allele frequency differences between individuals and between populations
Hr total allelic diversity;H = mean allelic diversity within populations; the ratio of the
allelic diversity among populations to the total allelic diversity; Ar mean number of alleles
=
per polymorphic locus; a the proportion of the total number of alleles found within each
population.
DISCUSSION
The contributionof research in reproductivebiologyto the management of mangrove ecosystems
comes from following areas.
PHENOLOGY
The knowledge of leafing, flowering and fruiting periodicityboth at community and individual
level would reveal considerable information on temporal and spatial variations in phenological
patterns. Individual species differ with respect to timing, duration and frequency of flowering
and fruiting. Communitiesdiffer in terms of overall phenological patterns. (Table 4).
Out understanding of the factorsthat regulateinitiation,periodicityand frequencyof flowering of
mangrovespecies is extremely poor. The effects of disturbanceincludingloggingon phenological
patterns is not known. But it is an area that should be of priority concern to the forest managers.
Logging may change the environmentalregime and the spacing patterns of the location-specific
trees. Both changes may influence the amount of flowering, fruit and seed set. Altered spac-
ing and phenological patterns may also change the mating relationship with unknown genetic
consequences.
Characterisation of phenological patterns at the levels of species— population is of utmost im-
portance to the conservation planner as well as to the tree breeder. In order to identify suitable
conservation areaswithincreasedgenetic diversity, phenological patterns of different populations
need to be studied.
Faegri K. and L. Vander Pigi. (Ed.s). (1979). The principlesof pollination ecology. Pergamon Press,
Oxford, Toronto.
Gilbert-Lawrence E. and P.H. Pavan Ument. (1980). Co-evolution of animals and plants. Texas Press,
USA.
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF MANGROVES
S.M. KARMARKAR
The consistent efforts of mangrove biologists, aimed at the preservation or restoration of this
unique ecosystem, have to some extent been thwarted due to a lack of understanding of the
physiology of mangroves; the present discourse thus attempts to highlight some of the fun-
damental but essential physiologicaladaptations which enable mangrove species to survive in
habitats which, by and large, are hostile to other species.
In spite of the wide diversity in taxonomic and morphological charactersexhibited by the man-
groves, they share one common feature, namely their ability to survive in areas where salt
concentrations often reach toxic level. A basic problem thus confrontingthese species is that
of salt/ion regulation. The need for salt regulation becomes all the more pronounced because
of the wide fluctuations in the salt concentrationof the environmental water from one season
to another. Human interference with the coastal ecosystem compounds this problem. Nature
has endowed mangrove species with an inherent ion regulatory mechanismwhich enables such
species to thrive in regions showing wide differences in their levels of salinity.
Since sodium ions constitute the dominant cations in saline soils/waters, these media are char-
acterisedby a high exchangeable sodium percentage(E.S.P.) and a high sodium adsorption ratio
(S.A.R.). When sodium is adsorbed on 15% or more of the soils total cation adsorption capacity,
it alters the physical and chemicalproperties of the soil, leading to the developmentof a high
pH accompaniedby a gradual reduction in soil permeability.As a consequence of the high ESP
and SAR of the soil/waterthe availabilityof waterto the root system is affected; therebyseveral
mangrovespeciesdevelop mechanismsfor the retentionof water particularlyin their leaf tissues.
Due to the high ionic content of the sea/soil water, and the consequent high osmotic potentials
of the externalmedium, the mangrovesexhibitadaptations wherebytheir internalinorganiccon-
tent is regulated through periodic adjustments of the osmoticaof their tissues. This is achieved
through ion transport between roots, stems and leaves or sometimes even by extension of salts
from the root tissues (as in Rhizophora, Kandelia, etc.) on by excretion of salts in species provided
with salt glands (Avicennia, Acanthus,Aegiceras, etc.) or even though a dilution of internalsalt lev-
els through the retention of water in plant tissues and the developmentof succulence. (Sonneratia
apetala, Luinnitzera racemosa). The regulation of internal salt levels may also be accomplished by
means of bladders (Atriplex,Chenopodium), vesicles (Atriplexconfertifolia), etc. While the bladders
have been shown to possess an active mechanismfor salt excretion, vesicles release salts as they
burst. In addition, the storage of inorganic ions in the old xylem tissues and the bark and the
subsequent shedding of bark, also contributesto salt regulation.
In spite of the fact that the concentrationof sodium ion, in the environment as well as within
plant tissues, is generally high, the mangroves exhibit a preferential selection for potassium
ions. It is now believed that the salt tolerance capacity of mangroves is intimately linked to
their efficiency in regulating potassium uptake. Most mangroves are known to possess a well
developed mechanismfor potassium adsorption. This preferentialabsorptionof potassiumions
SUGGESTED READINGLIST
Waisel. Y. (1972). The biology of halophytes. Academic Press, New York, London.
Reimold R.J. and W.H. Queen. (Ed.s). (1974). The ecology ofhalophytes. Academic Press, New York.
Sen D.N. and K.S. Rajpurohit. (Ed.s). (1982). Contributionsto the ecologyof halophytes. Dr. W. Junk
Publishers.The Hague, Boston, London.
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF SALT TOLERANCE
S.M. KARMARKAR
The saline areas of the World comprise the salt marshes of temperate latitudes, the mangrove
swamps of the tropics and sub-tropics, interior salt marshes found adjacent to the salt lakes
in the U.S.A. and Austria, salt deserts and small areas around small springs. By far the most
productive among these saline areas are the mangrove swamps but, paradoxically, they are one
among the World's most endangered ecosystems. According to a recent estimate, the mangrove
ecosystem constitutes a habitat for more than 2000 species of fish invertebratesand plants. More
than 55 species of mangrove trees and shrubs cover approximately240,000 sq km of coastal
land throughout the World (Lean et a!., 1990). Unfortunately,World developmentstrategieshave
ignorednature's gift to mankind and as a consequence of the wanton destructionof these forests,
the once serene and bountiful ecosystem has been ravaged almost to the point of no return; in
its aftermath,soil erosion and devastation of the coastline have become common features. Thus,
deforestation, land reclamationand industrialisationhave mainly contributed to the depletion of
our natural wealth. It is fortunate that environmentalconcern, more so duringthe last decade or
so, has led to a revival of human interest in this once neglectedecosystem. Efforts are now on not
only for the preservation of the mangrove ecosystem but also for its restoration. Several of the
developed as well as developingcountrieshave now drawnup programmesfor the management
of the ecosystem and its resources. The efforts of the environmentalbiologists have,to some extent
been thwarted owing to theirimperfectknowledgeregarding the behaviouralcomplexities of the
mangrovespecies and also their responses to environmentalstresses.Against this background it
was felt necessary to highlight some of the fundamentalbut essentialphysiological adaptations
which enable mangrove species to survive in habitats which, by and large, are hostile to most
plant species.
Essentially, a mangrove swamp constitutesa complexin which the canopy of trees is inhabitedby
flora and fauna characteristic of a tropicalrain forest. The lower parts of the tree trunks of some
species are immersed in salt water for various periods of time throughout the day, depending
uponthe tide cycles (Walsh, 1974). In others, the roots penetrate the substratumwhichis saturated
withsalt water. As early as 1883, Warmingrecognisedthe adaptive capacityof the mangroves by
virtue of which they can survive in a saline habitat. Some of the morphologicaland anatomical
adaptations are
a. the ability to bring about a mechanical fixing of the plants in loose soil,
b. the development of pneumatophores for overcoming the scarcity of oxygen, caused by a
waterlogging of the soil,
c. viviparity,
d. the development of special mechanismsfor dispersal, and
e. the development of xeric structures to withstand salinity.
Plant Na Ca Mg S.A.R.
Table 3 Osmotic potential of soiL/sea water and corresponding osmotic potentials in man-
grove species
Species Leaf Soils
Sonneratiaacida (fresh water) 20 0.3
S. acida (high tide) 27 6.0
Rhizophora conjugata 31 23
Avicennia officianalis 45 23
/
the environment.Table 3 recordsthe osmotic potential of the sea soil water and the correspond-
ing osmotic potential developed in Rhizophora, Avicennia and Sonneratia.
As mentioned earlier, seasonal variations occur in the mineral content of the soil!sea water;
obviously, such changesare accompanied by changesin the osmotica of these media. Mangroves
are adapted to withstand the environmentalfluctuationsin osmotica, thus their ability to bring
about corresponding changes in the osmotica of their tissues. Such changes are brought about
by a periodic ion transport between roots, stems and leaves, or sometimes even by extrusion of
salts from their root tissues (as in Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Kandelia) or by excretion of
salts in species provided with salt glands (Avicennia, Laguncularia,Aegialitis, Aegiceras, Acanthus).
Plant species which have the abilityto exclude salts from the water that enters the xylem have an
in-built ultrafiltrationmechanism. Such a mechanismpermits the separation of saline water from
fresh water. While Scholander(1968) was able to demonstrate such a mechanismin Rhizophora,
on the basis of changes in osmotic and hydrostaticpressures in the roots, stems and leaves, Teas
(1979) demonstrateda similarmechanismwith the use of radiochlorine. According to Scholander
(bc. cit.), a very highnegativepressure develops in the xylem as a result of which water is rapidly
drawn into the xylem; since the salts cannot pass through the cell membrane,more or less pure
water enters the xylem. Teas (bc. cit.) confirmedthe existence of such a mechanismin Rhizophora
through experimentsin which chlorinewas found to be absent in leaf tissues despitethe fact that
roots of Rhizophora seedlings had been dipped in sea water containing radiochlorine for 24-36
hours. On the basis of the observationthat radioactivitypersisted in the root cells of Rhizophora,
Teas (bc. cit.) lent support to Scholander's (1955) hypothesis that the separating membrane is
probably located in the Casparian strip of the endodermis. It is thus evident that mangroves
S.M. Karmarkar 185
such as Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Kandelia are able to withstand the high salt levels in
/
their environmentalsoils waters because of the presence of such an ultrafiltrationmechanism
in their root tissues.
Mangrove species such as Avicennia, Laguncularia,Aegialitis, Aegiceras and Acanthus are charac-
tensedby the presence of multicellular salt glands through which the salts are secreted. Arisz et
al. (1955) and Atkinsonet al. (1967) observed that cyanides and other respiratory inhibitorsalso
inhibit salt secretion through salt glands, thus indicating that salt secretion involves an active
mechanism. The regulationof internal salt levels may alsobe accomplished by means ofbladders
(Atriplexhenopodium) or vesicles (Atriplexconfertifolia). Like the salt glands, the bladders possess
an active mechanismfor salt excretion. In most species of Atriplex, bladders excrete excess Na+
and Cl—; however,in A. facata they help in the removalof excess K+. In contract, vesicles release
the excess salts as they burst.
In addition to the above two mechanismsdevelopedby mangrovesfor counteractingthe harmful
/
effects of the high salt concentration in theirenvironmentalsoils waters, other mangrovespecies
avoid salt toxicitythrough a dilution of their internal salt levels through the retention of water
in the tissues and the development of succulence (Sonneratiaapetala, Salvadora persica, Acanthus
ilicifolius). As is characteristic of halophytic species, these mangroves absorb large quantities of
salts from their environment. As a result, higher solute potentials are maintained within their
tissues than the solute potentials of the external medium, thereby ensuring a free flow of water
from the soil into the plant tissues. In such mangrove species, salts tend to accumulate in the
tissues, and thereforeto overcometheir toxic effects, large volumes of water are stored in their
tissues; salt toxicity is thereby avoided through a dilution of the internal salt levels (Table 4).
In these accumulator species there is a periodic shedding of leaves or even the bark of stems
and roots which act as storehousesof excess salts. Through a shedding of such plant parts, the
mangroves are able to regulate their internal salt levels (Table 5).
Table 4 Concenhations of various elements in the leaves and bark of halophytes
Na K Ca Mg P Cl
Rhizophora mucronata1 37.4 0.24 0.13 - - 25.9
Prop Root bark 21.7 6.2 6.5 - - 10.1
Prop Root xylem 32.6 3.9 6.0 - - 16.1
- - 42.0
Prop Root pith 41.7 4.9 22.5
Mature leaf 53.0 3.1 42.0 - - 38.9
Mature stem
Salvadora persica2
Root Bark 354.52 80.0 43.8 5.17 4.5 259.71
Stem Bark 486.48 75.95 58.0 2.5 2.8 407.43
Root xylem 28.26 1.05 5.1 1.33 10.0 26.29
Senescent leaf 331.65 55.51 300.5 87.5 19.5 280.14
1. Values expressed as meq per 100 g fresh tissue (Joshi, 1976)
2. Values expressedas meq per 100 g dry tissue (Amonkar, 1977)
In spite of the fact that the concentrationof Na+ in the environment as well as in the plant
tissues of mangroves is generallyhigh, these species have an efficient mechanism for K+ uptake.
186 The physiologyof salt tolerance
Table 5 Elemental composition on mature and senescent leaves of halophytes : avoidance of
salt toxicity through dilution
Plant Moisture Na K Ca Cl
Acanthus ilicifolius1 Mature % dry wt - 163.50 62.40 108.30 136.60
% fresh wt 77.45 36.90 14.08 24.44 30.83
Senescent % dry wt - 177.10 65.30 75.00 146.40
% fresh wt 80.09 35.26 13.00 14.92 29.15
Salvadora persica2 Mature % dry wt - 310.09 99.05 145.00 215.20
% fresh wt 68.30 98.27 31.79 45.97 68.19
Senescent % dry wt - 331.65 55.50 88.17 278.64
% fresh wt 86.10 46.10 7.71 12.26 38.37
Values expressed as meq per 100 g leaf tissue
1. Siddhanti (1977), 2. Amonkar (1977)
It is now believed that the salt tolerance capacity of mangroves is intimately linked with their
efficiency in regulating K uptake. Rains and Epstein (1967) demonstrated such an efficient K
uptake mechanism in Avicennia wherein the Na : K ratio is altered from 40:1 in the sea water to
7:1 within the leaves of the plant. Thus, according to them, the effect of preferential absorption
of K+ was not to exclude Na+ but, on the other hand, to raise the concentrationof K+ was not
to exclude Na+ but, on the other hand, to raise the concentration of K+. Table 6 records the
Na : K ratios for various mangrove species. It is obvious that these species are well adapted to
withstand salinity. Rains and Epstein (bc. cit.) also noted that in Avicennia a dual mechanism
exists for K+ uptake, one operating at low concentrations of Na+ and the other operating at high
concentrations of Nat. Subsequently, studies conductedby Joshi (1976), Jamale and Joshi (1976),
Amonkar (1977), Lokhande(1986), Ambike(1986) and Geeta (1988) have confirmedthe existence
of an efficient K+ uptake mechanism in various mangroves/habophyteswhich occur along the
West coast of India.
It is now understood that the adenosine triphosphatases (E.C. 3.6 : 1.3) - ATPases - mediate salt
transport across cellmembranes.Kylin and Gee (1970) have observedthat in a number of species
there is a correlationbetween ion transport and ion-simulated ATPases activity in the roots. The
effect of NaC1/KC1 on the ATPases, in vivo and in vitro, from the roots of Acanthus ilicifolius
has been studied by Mukundan (1981). She observed that in the absence of NaCl in the growth
medium there was a loss of ATPases activity in the roots of A. ilicifolius; however, addition of
NaC1 to the growth medium resulted in a restoration of ATPases activity. Through studies on the
long-term effect (in vivo) and short-termeffect (in vitro) of NaC1 on ATPases activity, Mukundan
(loc.cit.) was able to demonstrate that ATPases activity was stimulated to a greater extent in
the presence of salts, in vivo, than when salts were added in vitro. The higher enzyme activity
in the presence of salts, in vivo, gives credence to the view that salts are compartmentalised
and thereforethe high concentrations of salts in the cellular environmentdo not interfere with
normal metabolicprocesses. The ATPases are thus believed to play a major role in transporting
salts across the membrane. It has been suggested that the ATPases so function at two sites,
namely, the plasmalemma and the tonoplast, that the excess sodium ions can be extended into
the surrounding medium or transported the vacuole.
S.M. Karmarkar 187
plays a role in preventing inhibition of enzymes in plants exposed to NaC1 (Wyn Jones et aL,
1977a, Flowerset al., 1978; Pollard and Wyn Jones, 1979).
The activities of several enzymes are altered due to the presence of NaC1 in the cellular envi-
ronment. Studies on the long-term effect (in vivo effect) and short-term effect (in vitro effect) on
malate dehydrogenase(MDH) from the leaves of Acanthus ilicifolius (Siddhanti, 1977, Sanglikar,
1982) have indicated that the activity of the enzyme in the leaves of plants raised in a salinated
medium is much higher than that of the enzyme obtained from plants raised in an NaC1 free
growth medium. On the basis of changes in isoenzymesof MDH obtained from the leaves of
A. ilicifolius subjected to long-termNaC1 treatment, Sanglikar(1982) has suggested that salinity,
in addition to bringing about conformationalchanges in the enzyme,also induces the synthesis
of new proteins.
Various aspects of the mechanismof photosynthesis in mangroveshave been studied. Since the
leaves of most mangrove species lack the typical 'Kranz anatomy' generally associated with C4
photosynthesis,it was presumed that these plants photosynthesisedby the C3 pathway. Treguna
and Downton (1967) were the first to report that the halophyte Salsola kali photosynthesisesby
the C4 pathway. Subsequent studies by Osmond (1966) and Hatch and Slack (1966) revealedthat
among severalhalophytic species of Atriplex, some fix CO2 through the C3 pathway while others
do so by the C4 pathway. Later, Osmond et al. (1969) and Hatch and Salck (1966) revealed that
among several halophyticspecies of Atriplex, some fix CO2 through the C3 pathway while others
do so by the C4 pathway. Later, Osmond et al. (1969) demonstrated that in Atriplex spongiosa,
the initial products of photosynthesis are C4 compounds, malate and aspartate; and among the
carboxylating enzymes, while phosphoenolpyruvatecarboxylase (PEPC) showed an enhanced
activity, ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (RBPC) activity was lower than that in C3 plants.
Shomer : Ilan et al. (1975) also reported that Suaeda monoica photosynthesisby the C4 pathway
even in the absence of 'Kranz anatomy' or dimorphism of chioroplasts.
Intensive studies on photosynthesisin mangrovesand other halophyteswere conducted inJoshi's
laboratory at Koihapur. The mangrove/ /halophytic species studied were Aeluropus lagopoides
(Waghmode and Joshi, 1979), Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, Avicennia officinalis, A. marina,
Acanthus ilicifolius, (Joshi et aL, 1980), Lumnitzera racemosa (Joshi and Waghmode, 1981) and
Bruguieragymnorrhiza (Bhosale, 1981). In general,these species displayed typicalC4 characteristics
such as:
(a) Aspartate or alanine as initial products of CO2 fixation,
(b) A significantly higher PEPC activity than RBPC activity,
(c) A low CO2 compensationpoint,
(d) The presence of pyruvate phosphate dikinase activity, and
(e) A low glycolate oxidaseactivity.
However, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza shows features common to C3 and C4 plants. In addition to
noting the above featuresin Suaedanudiflora, Gokhale (1983) also reported that the enzyme RBPC
and PEPC in this species displayedthermostabilityin the presenceof aspartate. This apparentlyis
an ecological adaptation. Mangroveand other halophyticspecies as display a stomatalbehaviour
similar to C4 species,i.e., the stomata generally open during the dark period and remain closed
for the major pat ofthe day. Allthe above characteristics indicatethat mangrovesphotosynthesise
S.M. Karmarkar 189
essentially by the C4 pathway. Thus the major evidence supports the operation of the C4 pathway
in most mangrove species. In spite of the above evidence, doubt has been expressed in some
quarters regardingthe functioningof a C4 pathway in mangroves,sincethe 613C ratios for carbon
assimilationin most speciesresemblethose of C3 species. (Andrewset al., 1984). As of today, this
controversy still remains unresolved, although major evidence is in favour of the C4 pathway
being operationalrather than the C3 pathway.
REFERENCES
Ambike, V.V. (1986). Physiology of senescence : Studies on senescence in Acanthus ilicifolius Linn.
Ph.D. Thesis, Universityof Bombay.
Amonkar, D.V. (1977). Physio-ecological studies in halophytes: Studies Salvadora persica Linn. Ph.D.
Thesis, Universityof Bombay.
Andrews, T.J., B.F. dough, and G.J. Muller. (1984). Photosynthetic gas exchange properties
and carbon isotope ratios of some mangroves in North Queensland. In : H.J. Teas, (Ed.)
Dr. W. Junk. Physiology and Managementof Mangroves. The Hague. pp. 15-23.
Arisz, W.H., Camphis, I.J., H. Heikens, and van A.J. Tooren. (1955). The secretion of the salt
gland of Limonium latifolium,KTZE, Acta Bot Neerl 4 : 322-338.
Aspinall, D. and Paleg, L.G. (1981). Proline accumulation : Physiological aspects. In : L.G. Pa-
leg and D. Aspinall (Ed.s). The Physiology and Biochemistry of Drought Resistance in Plants.
Academic Press, Sydney, New York, London,Toronto, San Francisco. pp. 206-242.
Atkinson, M.R., G.P. Findlay, A.P. Hope, M.G. Pitman, H.G.W. Saddler, and K.R. West. (1967).
Salt regulation in the mangroves, Rhizophora mucronata Lam. and Aegialitis annulata. R. Br.
Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 20 : 589-599.
Bhosale, L.J. (1978). Photosynthetic carbon metabolism in a salt marsh plant, Bruguiera gym-
norrhiza Lamk. 114C02 light fixation products, enzyme activities and aspartate utilisation.
Environmentaland Experimental Botany 21: 163-170.
Blum, G. (1941). Uber osmotische untersunchungen in der Mangrove. Ber Schweiz. Bot. Ges.
51:401-420.
Eaton, F.M. and C.R. Horton. (1940). Effect of exchange of sodium on the moisture equivalent
and wilting coefficient of soils. J. Agri. Res. 61: 401-425.
Flowers, T.J., P.F. Troke, and A.R. Yeo. (1977). The mechanism of salt tolerance in halophytes.
Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. 28 : 89-121.
Flowers, T.J., J.L. Hall, and M.E. Ward. (1978). Salt tolerance in the halophyte, Suaeda maritima
(L) Dum : Propertiesof malic enzyme and PEP carboxylase. Ann. Bot. 42: 1065-1074.
Gardner, R. (1945). Some soil properties related to the sodium salt problem in irrigated soils.
U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 902. 28 p.
Geeta, M. (1988). Physiology of Halophytes: Studies on senescence in Sonneratia apetala, Buch.Ham.
Ph.D. Thesis, Universityof Bombay.
Gokhale, M.D. (1983). Physiological Studies in Halophytes : Studies in Suaeda nudiflora Mog. Ph.D.
Thesis, Universityof Bombay.
190 The physiology of salt tolerance
Hatch, M.D. and C.R. Slack. (1966). Photosynthesisby sugarcane leaves. A new carboxylation
reaction and pathway of sugar formation. Biochem. 1. 101 : 103-111.
Jamale, B.B. and G.V. Joshi. (1976). Physiological studies in senescentleaves of mangroves.Indian
I. Exp. Biol. 14:697-699.
Joshi, G.V. (1976). Studies in photosynthesisunder saline conditions. Final Report on the PL 480
Project no.A-7 SWC-95. Shivaji University, Kolhapur.
Joshi, G.V., S.D. Sontakke, and L.J. Bhosale. (1980). Studies in photosynthetic enzymes from
mangroves. Botanica Marina 23 : 745-747.
Joshi G.V., and A.P. Waghmode. (1981). Photosynthesisin mangroves.Indian J. Bot. 4: 15-19.
Kylin, A. and R. Gee. (1970). Adenosine triphosphatase activities in leaves of the mangrove
Avicennia nitida Jacq. Plant Physiol. 45 : 169-172.
Lean, G. (1990). Atlas of the Environment.Hutchinson,London,Sydney, Auckland, Johannesburg.
Lokhande, E.D. (1986). Eco-physiological Studies in halophytes : Studies in Pentatropis cynanchoides
Br. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bombay.
Measures, J.C. (1975). Role of amino acids in osmoregulation of non-halophilic bacteria. Nature
398-400.
Mukundan, U. (1981). Physiological studies in marine plants : Studies in Acanthus ilicifolius Linn.
Ph.D. Thesis, Universityof Bombay.
Osmond, C.B., J.H. Troughton, and D.J. Goodchild. (1969). Physiological, biochemical and struc-
tural studies of photosynthesisand photo respiration in two species of Atriplex. Z. Pflanzen-
physiol.61: 218-237.
Pollard, A.and R.G. Wyn Jones. (1979). Enzyme activities in concentrated solutions of glycine
betaine and other solutes. Planta 144 : 291-298.
Rains, D.W. and E. Epstein. (1967). Preferentialabsorption of potassium by leaf tissue of the
mangroveAvicennia marina; as aspect of halophytic competence in coping with salt. Aust. I.
Biol. Sci. 20 : 847-857.
Sanglikar, R.N. (1982). Physiology of marineplants : Studies in Acanthus ilicifolius, Linn. Ph.D. Thesis,
Universityof Bombay.
Scholander, P.F., L. van Dam, and S. Scholander. (1955). Gas exchange in the roots of mangroves.
Amer. J. Bot. 42: 92-98.
Scholander, P.F., H.T. Hammel, E.D. Bradstreet, and E.A. Hemmingsen. (1965). Sap pressure in
vascular plants. Science 148 : 339-346.
Scholander, P.F. (1968). How mangrovesdesalinate water. Physiol. Plant 21 : 251-261.
Schirmer, V. and S.W. Breckle. (1982). The role of bladders for salt removal in some Chenopodi-
aceae (mainlyAtriplex species). In : D.N. Sen and K.S. Rajpurohit. (Ed.s.) Tasksfor Vegetation
Science Vol.11. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. pp. 215-231.
Shimony, C. and A. Fahn. (1968). Light and electron microscopical studies on the structure of
salt glands of Tamarix aphylla L. I. Linn. Soc. London Bot. 60 : 283-288.
Shomer-Ilan, A., S. Beer, and Y. Waisel. (1975). Suaeda monoica, a C4 plant without typical bundle
sheaths Plant Physiol. 56:676-680.
Skelding, A.D. and Winterbotham, J. (1939). The structure and development of the hydathodes
of Spartina townsendii Groves. New Phytol. 38 : 69-79.
S.M. Karmarkar 191
Siddhanti, L.N. (1977). Physiological Studies in halophytes : Studies in Acanthus ilicifolius Linn. M.Sc.
Thesis, University of Bombay.
Stewart, G.R. and Lee, J.A. (1974). The role of proline accumulationin halophytes. Planta 120
279-289.
Storey, R. and Wyn Jones, R.G. (1978). Salt stress and comparativephysiologyin the Gramineae
III. The effect of salinity upon the ion relations and glycinebetaine and proline levels in
Spartina x townsendii . Aust. I. Plant Physiol. 5 : 831-838.
Treguna, E.B. and Downton,J. (1967). CO2 compensationin membersof the Amaranthaceae and
some related families. Can. J. Bot. 45 : 2385-2387.
Waghmode, A.P. and Joshi, G.V. (1979). Kranz leaf anatomy and C4 dicarboxylic acid pathway
of photosynthesisin Aeluropus lagopoides, L. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 17 : 606-607.
Whitney,R.S. and Peach, M. (1952). Ion activitiesof sodium clay suspensions. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.
Pro. 16 : 117-122.
Walter, H. and Steiner, M. (1936). Die Okologie der ostafrikanischen Mangroven. Z. Bot. 30
65193.
Walsh, G.E. (1974). Mangroves : A Review. In : R.J. Reimold and W.H. Queen (Ed.s). Ecology of
Halophytes.Academic Press, New York and London. pp. 51-174.
Warming, E. (1883). Tropische Fragmente. II. Rhizophora mangle L. Bot. J. 4:519-548.
Wyn Jones, R.G., Storey, R., Leigh, R.A., Ahmed, N. and Pollard, A. (1977). A hypothesis on
cytoplasmicosmoregulation. In : E. Marre and 0. Ciferri (Ed.s). Regulation of cell membrane
activities in plants. North Holland, Amsterdam.PP. 121-126.
Wyn Jones, R.G. Storey, R. and Pollard,A. (1977a). Ionicand osmotic regulationin plants, particu-
larly halophytes.In : M. Thellier, A. Monnier,M. Demarty and J. Dainty (Ed.s). Transmembrane
Ionic Exchanges in Plants. C.N.R.S., Paris. pp. 537-544.
Wyn Jones, R.G., C.J. Brady, and J. Spiers. (1979). Ionic and osmotic regulation in plants. In
D.L. Laidman and R.G. Wyn Jones (Ed.s). Recent advances in the biochemistry of cereals. Aca-
demic Press, London.
MANGROVES : NITROGENMETABOLISM AND
SENESCENCE
D.V. AMONKAR
MANGROVES : NITROGENMETABOLISM
Mangroveswhich constitute typical halophytic plants, exhibit patterns of nitrogen metabolism
which are apparently closely related to their adaptation to saline environments. It is well known
that growth of higher plants in many ecosystems is limitedby nitrogen supply. The occurrence of
perennial mangrovespecies in habitats characterised by a low nitrogen availability suggests that
some modifications are taking place in theirnitrogen assimilationprocess which are linked to the
efficient conservation and recycling of nitrogen within the plant. The study of nitrogen uptake
and its metabolism under saline conditions provides valuable information about the survival
strategy of halophytes.
In halophytes,compartmentalisationof nitrogenouscompounds and the control of their synthe-
sis are a fundamental part of the adaptive mechanism, and a close relationship exists between
N assimilationand adaptation to the saline environment.It has been observedthat since salin-
ity does not influence nitrate uptake and there is no competitionbetween external nitrate and
chloride, it is the high tissue chloride levels which inhibits nitrate uptake. However, in spite
of accumulationof chlorides, halophytes contain appreciablelevels of nitrate. This suggests an
active inward transport of NO3 against the electrochemical gradient.
Assimilatorynitrate reduction is catalysed by two enzymes, nitrate reductase (NR) and nitrite
reductase (NiR).
In a majority of mangroves, both the root and shoot play a vital role in the assimilation of
nitrate. However, the actual contribution of root and shoot tissue to this process is dependent
on the external nitrate concentration.At low external levels of nitrate, the root system assisted
by the enzymes NR and NiR becomes the major site of assimilation. NR is a substrate inducible
enzyme and its activity is a sensitive metabolic marker under stress. Although both the above
noted enzymes show a decrease in their activity under the influence of increasingsalinity, NiR
appears to be much less sensitive than NR. It is now well establishedthat in higher plants the
product of NO3 reduction (NH) is assimilated via the glutamine synthetase (CS) - glutamate
syntheses (GOGAT) pathway.
Cs
L - Glutamate + 2-oxoglutarate )
2-L-glutamine+ Fdt
GOGAT
Senescence is a co-ordinateddevelopmental change that leads to the loss of function and ulti-
mately to the death of a cell, organ or organism. It brings about recoverythrough re-translocation
of the bulk of the nutrition from the senescing organs, thereby resulting in the shedding of the
ineffective organs. In halophytes, it also serves to achieve a partial desalinationof plants.
ENZYMES
During ageing, anabolic activities are affected and hence enzymes of photosynthetic pathway
and biosynthesisof metabolitesshow a decrease in their activity. Activities of RubPase, PEPase,
catalases, alkaline phosphatases decrease gradually. On the other hand, cellular hydralases, pro-
teases, nuclease,RBPases show an increase in their activity. In mangroves,the accumulatedsalts
in ageing leaves also contributeto the altered activity levels of enzymes.
In the senescentleaves, NR activity is affected more than that of N:R. There is a subdued func-
tioning of the GS/GOGAT system with a simultaneousgreater involvementof GDH. Studies on
the senescent leaves of mangrovesindicate that GDH, coupled with aminotransferases, reduces
the toxic level of ammonia caused by increased proteolytic activities. This contributes to the ef-
ficient re-translocationof nitrogen reserves to young vegetative and reproductivecentres. GDH
has a significant role in the process. The enhanced de novo synthesis of this enzyme is coupled
with the modulatory effect of ammonia on the activity of GDH.
196 Mangroves : nitrogen metabolismand senescence
REFERENCES
Lee, J.A. and G.R. Stewart. (1978). Ecological aspects of nitrogen assimilation in higher plants.
In : H.W. Woolhouse (Ed.). Advances in Botanical Research 6: 1-43. Academic Press, London,
New York.
Waisel, Y. (1972). Biology of Halophytes. Academic Press, New York.
Paleg, L.C. and D. Aspinall. (1973). (Ed.s). The Physiology and biochemistry of drought resistancein
plants. Academic Press, Sydney, New York.
Kozlowski, T.T. (1973). Shedding ofplantparts: physiological ecology. A series of monographs.Texts
and Treatises. Read Press, New York.
Contributions to the ecology of halophytes. (1982). In : D.N. Sen and K.S. Rajpurohit (Ed.s). Task
for vegetation science. Vol. 2. Dr. W. JunkPublishers,The Hague.
ASPECTS OF PRODUCTIVITYOF MANGROVES
SAYEEDA WAFAR
The term 'mangroves' refers to an assemblage of differentflowering plants which can grow in
salinebrackishwater areas like creeks, backwaters,estuaries and deltas. Mangroveforest coverin
the tropicalarea is about 0.5 millionkm2 and this sorts intotwo distinctgeographical assemblages
(a) Indo-Pacific region, comprising of South-east Pacific archipelagoas far East as Samoa and
(b) West Africa - American region comprising of Atlantic coast of tropical America and the
Galapagos Islands. The total number of plants that exclusively occur in mangrovehabitats is 60
including two genera of palms - Nypa and Phoenix.
PRODUCTIVITY
Elements of mangrove productivity are phenology, litter production and litter transformation to
aquatic detritus, and aquatic algal production.
LITTER DECOMPOSITION
The litter is not consumed directly by the herbivores, but is broken down to smaller fractions
by microbial action, prior to consumption. This renders the litter more suitable for herbivorous
feeding and also enhancesits nutritive value. The average element ratios of litter are as follows;
C : N = 48 + 11; C : P = 523 + 158; N : P = 11 ± 1 and the production in terms of these elements
in Indian mangroves is about 500 kgC ha yr, 98 kg N ha yr, and 7 kg P yr1 1 yr—1.
Decomposition of litter follows a first order kinetics, with decay constants varying from about
20 to 100 depending on the species. Aged (decomposed) litter has a better nutritive value and is
easily consumed,well assimilatedby herbivores,yielding good growth.
AQUATIC PRODUCTIVITY
This is of little importance in mangroves, being around only 1-2% of the overall productivity.
The most important reason for this is the high turbidity zone and rapid light extinctionin these
waters, reduces considerablythe depth of the euphoric zone. Lack of hard substratum prevents
the growth of other macroalgae. However, species like Enteromorpha can be found in abundance
at a few places within the mangroves.
CONSTRAINTS IN SUSTAINABILITY
Because of their proximity to human habitations,many mangroveshave been adverselyaffected
by human activities. The most important is reclamation of mangrove areas for urban develop-
ment which causes irreversible damages. The secondis unplanned conversion of mangroveareas
for farming (agricultural and aquacultural). Ranking in importance successively are pollution,
over-exploitation and unintentional effects that arise from human activities in other areas. Best
example for the last case is the construction of dams across rivers in the highlands which re-
duces freshwaterflow into mangrove in the lowlands, affecting productivity and survivalof the
mangroves.
MANAGEMENT OF MANGROVES
The elements of management follow two paths. The first concern is the mangroves which are
practicallydegraded but yet can be recovered. In this case, suitable steps would be to halt recla-
mation!conversion, control of discharge of pollutants, rationalisationof resource uses, and de-
velopment of latest potential of mangrovesto maximize the yields. The second case concerns the
mangroves which are declaredbeyond redemption by simple management techniques. The only
solution applicable here is afforestation, wherein seedling of mangroves are grown in nurseries
and transplanted to areas where once mangroves prevailed. This naturally is time consuming
but its success rate is quite high.
INVENTORY OF MANGROVE FOREST GENETIC
RESOURCES
APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING IN THE STUDYOF
MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS
SHAILESH NAYAK
INTRODUCTION
Mangroves are salt-tolerantplants found mainly in tropical and sub-tropical tidal regions. They
not only help in the production of detritus/ organic matter and recycling of nutrients thereby
enriching the coastal waters to support benthic population of the sea, but also prevent soil ero-
sion and act as a buffer for the mainland from storms to protect the coast from erosion. They
provide feed, spawning and nursery grounds to many organisms and a vast range of direct
and indirect products, benefits and servicesto human beings. Above all, they support the most
fundamental needs of the coastal population, e.g., food, fuel, shelter and monetary earnings.
Important factors whichinfluencethis ecosystemare the extent, conditionand production poten-
tial of mangrove areas, geomorphic processes, viz., erosion, deposition and sediment transport,
soil, climate and population in coastal waters. In India, mangroves are under pressure due to
increasing population, development of aquaculture,salt pans and ports, locationof effluent dis-
posal sites, development of various chemical, petrochemical, fertiliser and allied industries, and
petroleum explorationactivitiesin coastal areas. Because of the complexityof data requirement
for decision-making, it becomes difficult to manage this ecosystem.
In order to understand various components of the mangrove ecosystem, considerableamount
of field data have to be collected. Conventionalmethods require a lot of time, effort and funds,
and present a picture of only a small area. On the other hand, orbital remote sensing gives
a synoptic, multispectral and repetitive coverage, which is very useful in the observation of
various biotic and abiotic factors and interactionsbetween them. The components that can be
observed through remote sensing include spatial distribution of mangrove areas, their status,
changes in their conditions through time and space, association of other plant communities,
biomass estimation, coastal land forms, shoreline changes, suspended sediment concentration
and its dynamics, circulation pattern in estuaries,lagoons and gulfs, coastal currents, pollutants,
etc. In addition to this, remote sensing data can also help in delineatingmeaningful boundaries
of the mangrove ecosystem.
Management of mangrove ecosystem, which includes a rational exploitation of resourcesand /
or protection of the environment,needs good knowledge of the above-cited components.
MANGROVE AREAS
The knowledgeabout aerial extent,conditionand destructiveuses ofmangrovesand surrounding
wetlands is vital for mangrove ecosystem management programme. Tidal wetlands provide a
vital linkin the marine energy flow through transfer of solar energy into forms whichare readily
usable by a wide variety of estuarine organisms (Odum, 1961).
MANGROVE MAPPING/INVENTORY
Remote sensing data provide information about aerial extent, condition and boundary of wet-
lands. The potential of Skylab imagery MSS data for mapping major vegetation communities
in the coastal areas has been demonstrated (Anderson et a!., 1973; Carter and Schubert, 1974;
Carter, 1982). Digital and visual analysis of Landsat MSS data have provided information on
condition, boundary and areal extent of wetlands (Bartlett and Klemas, 1980). Wetland maps
on 1: 250,000 scale of the Gulf of Kachchh have been prepared through visual interpretation
of Landsat MSS data of the 1975, 1982 and 1985 period (Nayak et a!., 1986; Pandeya et a! 1987).
Figure 1. Supervised classification for tidal wetland studies of Sikka area, Gulf of Kachchh,
using satellite data.
Mud-flats,coralreefs, mangrovesas well as high and low water line (upperand lower boundaries
of wetlands) have been mapped.
In the State of Karnataka, coastal land forms and wetlands such as beach, mud-flat,rocky coast
and mangrove could be mapped, however, mangrove areas could not be identified (Rao et al.,
1987). Landsat MSS digital data were classified using maximum likelihood classifier around
Kandala, Navalakhi and Sikka area (Figure 1).
IRS LISS Il/Landsat TM data proved extremely useful for wetland mapping as well as delin-
eating high and low waterline in the Gulf of Kachchh. It was possible to distinguish between
mangroves and other plant communities (Pandeya et al 1987; Nayak et al 1988). These stud-
ies helped in standardising classification system, methodology,map-representationscheme and
image-interpretationkey.
IRS LISS I and Landsat MSS data meet accuracy standards at 1: 500,000 scale or smaller. The
principal limitation of IRS LISS 1/Landsat MSS data is the coarse spatial resolution. Wetlands
/
having large species diversity and or sharp spatial zonation may yield non-specific spectral
signature and this is not identifiable with certainty.
BRIEF METHODOLOGY
In this study, false colour composites (FCC) with green, red and infrared bands of IRS 1A LISS
II/Landsat TM belonging to low-tide period of December-February were visually analysed on
1 : 250,000 scale. The classification system and legends used are given in Table 1. An image
/
interpretation key indicating tone colour, size, shape, texture, pattern, location and association
for each category (Figure 2) was prepared using ground truth information, topographicalmaps
and aerial photographs (wherever available). Categories less than 25 ha were not mapped. The
classification accuracy was tested on a samplebasis assumingbinomial distributionfor the prob-
ability of success /failure of sample tests. Sample size was decided using look-up table prepared
employing 2x2 mM size. These points were verified in the field. Confusion matrix was then
drawn and classification accuracy was estimated.
DISTRIBUTION OF MANGROVES
The distribution of mangroves along the Indian coast can be explained by one representative
coastal wetland area.
206 Application of remote sensing in the study of mangrove ecosystems
Table 1 Classificationsystem and legends for coastal mapping
Level I Level II Level III Symbol
• Non-vegetated Mud-flat • High-tide flats
Wetland • Intertidal =1=
• Sub tidal =S=
Sand • Beach ::B::
• Spit
• Shoals ::R::
Coral reef • Fringe TF
• Platform TP
• Patch
• Atoll 14'
• Coral pinnacles C
Rocky coast
• Vegetated Mangroves • Dense D
wetland • Sparse S
Figure 2. Satellite photographs show (A) dense mangroves with intricate network of creeks,
(B) degraded mangroves, (C) salt-marsh vegetation (1) and associated mud-flats (2)
of Sunderbans. (D) High tidal (1), Intertidal (2), sub-tidal (3), mud-flats and (4)
paleomud-flats in the Gulf of Khambat area.
208 Applicationof remote sensing in the study of mangrove ecosystems
GUJARAT
Mangrovesare found mainly in the Gulf of Kachchh, the Kori creekand as sporadic occurrences
at a few places. In the Kori creek, mangroveand saltmarsh vegetationgrows on Intertidal slopes
and high-tidal flats made up of dark-colouredclayey mud. Marsh vegetation consists of dwarf
undershrubs like Suaeda fruticosa (quite common), certain members of the Graminae and the
Cyperaceae family, e.g., Aeluropus lagopoides, Cenchrus spp., Sporobolus marginatus, etc. Sparsely
distributed mangroves, e.g., Avicenniamarina and A. officinalis, are present along the Kori creek
in the form of narrow discontinuouspatches. They are bushy with multiple vegetative shoots
attaining a height of about 2 m. Rhizophora spp. are rare (Blasco, 1977).
Mangrovesof the Gulf of Kachchh are of scrubby type withstunted growth, formingnarrow dis-
continuouspatcheson soft clayey mud. Avicennia spp. generallygrows as a tree under favourable
conditions, but under stress it grows in a scrubby stunted form (Blasco, 1977). Rhizophora mu-
cronata grows more towards the seaward side. Conditionof mangrovesin this area is degrading
due to continuous grazing by camel, and their use as fodder and fuel. Due to this indiscriminate
use, the area has become barren or with scattered, stunted trees or with only exposed pneu-
matophores. Such patches of degraded mangroves (Avicennia spp.) are observed near Okha,
Poshitra,Pindhara, Dhani, Narara, Sikkara,Jindra, Pirotan and the Jakhau port.
Marsh vegetation grows on the Intertidal mud-flats,and sometimes extends as far as supra tidal
area. It is found growing in between mangroves or after the mangrove belt towards landward
side. This vegetation prefers saline sandy mud as its substrate. In the Gulf of Kachchh, marsh
vegetationis found near Balachhadi and from Navlakhito Kandla.Suaeda fruticosa, Tamarix dioica,
etc., are some examples of commonly observed species in the Gulf. A rich gregarious growth,
e.g., the mat-like growth of Ulva spp. and Saragassum spp. is found on the edges of the reefs and
reef flats of Bural Chank, Ajad, Paga, Munde Narara, Pirotan and other coral pinnacles.
On the Saurashtra coast, sparse patches of mangroves occur along the creeks on the Intertidal
mud-flats, near the Jafarabad creek, the Buthrani creek, etc. Sparse Avicennia spp. are present
near the Ghogha jetty, on the Pipavavbandar, the Narara Bet near Miyani, Porbandar and Diu.
Extensive mud-flats ranging from 6 to 8 km wide are distributed all along the coast of the
Gulf of Khambhat except along the Narmada estuary. These mud-flats are generally devoid of
mangroves. They are composed of fine-grained silt and clay, and are fluvial marine in nature.
Tidal currents play an important role in the formation of these mud-flats.Most of the sediments
have been deposited duringslackperiod (Nayak and Sahai, 1985). Mangrovesare found growing
on the Intertidalmud-flats in the Gulf of Khambhat at a few places. Avicennia marina, in stunted
and sparse form, is distributed along the coast near the Mahi, the Dhadhar, the Narmada, the
Kim and the Sena rivers. A small patch of dense mangrovesis observed on the Aliabet island.
The Intertidal mud-flats between the Sabarmatiand the Tapi estuaries have a scattered growth
of marsh vegetation. It is more prominent between the Mahi and the Dhadhar estuaries. The
o
vegetationcomprises Suaeda spp., Salicornea brachiata,Aeluropus spp., etc.
On the South coast of Gujarat, a patch of mangrove, mainly consisting of Avicennia officinalis,
lines the South of the Kolak estuary and a small creek near Umargaum.To the South of Kolak
river, a luxuriant growth of Rhizophora spp. is seen., attaining a height of about 2 m. Marshy
vegetation occurs along the creeks from the Puma estuary to the Daman Ganga estuary.
The area under dense and sparse mangroves is about 160 and 890 sq km, respectively.
Shailesh Nayak 209
MAHARASHTRA-GOA
Mangroves mostly occur along the Intertidal regions of estuaries and creeks. Large patches are
noticed along the Mandovi estuary, the Vasishthi estuary, the Savitri estuary, the Kundalika
estuary, the Dharamtar creek, the Panvel creek, the Vasai creek and the Vaitarna creek. Small
and discontinuous patches were detected along almost 40 estuaries and creeks but were not
mapped. The area under mangroves is approximately150 sq km.
KARNATAKA
Mangroves are sparsely distributed in the estuarine areas of Karnataka. The substrate is made
up of fine-grainedclay particles and is rich in nutrients. The condition of mangrovesis good in
the Mulki river, the Sita-Swarna river, the Chakra-Haldi-Kollure riverine complex, the Sharavati
estuanne region, the Tadri creek, the Aganashani riverine complexand in the Kalinadi estuarine
complex. Rhizophora spp. Avicennia spp. Sonneratia alba and Acanthus ilicifolius are among the
commonlyfound species.
KERALA
Kerala coast is devoid of extensive or wide mud-flats. The mangrove vegetation in the coastal
zone of Kerala is very sparse and thin, ruling out any possibility of mapping it using satellite
data, especially on a 1 : 250,000 scale (Nair et al., 1991). The increase in the population density
and the developmental activities in the estuarine shores are the main reasons for decline in
mangroves of this region.
TAMIL NADU
There are well-developed mangrove forests at Pichavaram, Vedaranyam and Point Calimere.
Pichavaram forests occupy 13.6 sq km of mangroves (Venkatesan, 1966). There are about 20
species known to the Tamil Nadu coast. Commonly occurring species are Excoecaria agallocha,
Avicenniaalba, A. marina, Rhizophora mucronata,R. apiculata, Ceriops tagal, Bruguieracylindrica, Sesu-
vium portulacastrum,Avicennia spp., etc., dominatewhere soil is sandy mud. Excoecaria, Rhizophora
etc., dominate where the soil is clayey mud. Salt-tolerant species grow in between mangroves or
on the supra tidal mud-flats. Dominating species on the Tamil Nadu coast are Suaeda monoica,
S. maritima, Salicornia brachiata, etc. The area under mangrovesis about 30 sq km.
ANDHRA PRADESH
On the North Andhra coast, no classical mangrove vegetationis found. A few small pocketsof
degraded mangrovesare observed on Intertidal flats at the mouth of the Sarada river, South of
Uppada. Small patches of marsh are seen at the high tide at Bavanapadu (Vaidyanathan et al.,
1991).
Mangrove swamps occur in profusion in the Intertidal mud-flats on both sides of the creeks in
the Godavari-Krishna deltaicregions. The creeks provide the channel for brackishwaterintrusion
during high and low tides. Thick vegetation consists of tall, dense, halophytictrees along with
other plants speciesalso. It is observedthat dense mangrovevegetationis towards the coast rather
210 Applicationof remote sensing in the study of mangrove ecosystems
than upstream region. Dense mangrovesare identified on ancient tidal delta at Machilipatnam.
These are more widespread on tidal flats on the Western side of the Krishna delta-lobe. Such
formations are also seen over recent spits in the Nizampatnam bay. Degraded mangroves are
found on the landward side of the Intertidal mud-flats and are also seen on the Eastern side of
the Krishna delta. Scattered mangrovesare seen over mud-flats,inundated only by exceptionally
high tides.
It is observed that in recent years some of the vegetated wetlands are reclaimed for paddy
cultivation, artificial fishing ponds and firewood. The area under dense and sparse mangroves
is about 235 and 95 sq km respectively.
ORISSA
Mangrovesof the Mahanadi delta occur along creeks in fringed manner. The mangrove vegeta-
tion possessestree, shrub and palm species. Important species in this locality include Avicennia
spp., Achrosticum and Phoenix spp. The area is also endowed with rich wildlife.
The mangroves of Bhitar Kanika,which are the second largest mangal formationsin the Indian
sub-continent, harbour high concentrationof typical mangrove species and a wide spectrum of
genetic diversity. Important mangrovespeciesinclude Avicenniaalba,A. officinalis, Excoecaria agal-
locha,Heritiera minor, Sonneratia apetala, Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops decandra, Xylocarpus, grana-
tum, Phoenix paludosa, Aegiceras Corniculatum, Suaeda maritima, Porteresia coarctata,etc. (Das et aL,
1991).
Mangroves of the Balasore coast are quite different due to the absence of fresh water inflow
and the salinity levels remain very high except during the rainy season. The species in this area
include Avicennia alba,A. marina, Ceriops spp., Aegialitis rotundifolia and Suaedamaritima. The area
under dense and sparse mangrovesis 110 and 85 sq km respectively.
WEST BENGAL
The mangroves along the cost of West Bengal mainly colonise in the Sunderban area, which is
the largest single block of mangroves in the World. Topographically, the Sunderbans exhibit a
number of anastomoticdistributories.
The mangrovesalong river banks and the swampy forests are typical halophyticmangrovetypes.
The major speciesof the dense mangroveforest include Heritierafomes, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mu-
cronata, Bruguieragymnorrhiza, B. parvziflora, Ceriops decandra, Sonneratia apetala, S. caseolaris and
Avicennia spp. Nypa fruticans is the major species found along the banks of the creek and in the
sparse form (Das et al., 1991). Phoenix paludosa covers almost all the tidal zones of the Sunder-
bans, but exploitation of this species in these areas has prevented its rapid growth. Sunderban
mangrove forest is famous for the Royal Bengal tiger and crocodiles. The area under dense and
sparse mangrovesis 580 and 855 sq km respectively. Other marsh vegetationincludes Aeluropus
lagopoides, Suaeda nudiflora, S. maritima, and Tamarix sp.
dense and diverse mangrove flora. The tidal creeks often form the outlets to the rain-fed stream
that flows from the interior and carry silt to the shore to form muddy plains facilitating the
spread and regenerationof mangroves (Ananda Rao and Chakraborty, 1987).
The islands alone account for about 18% of the country's total mangrove area. The mangrove
flora of the Andaman group of islands comprise 27 species (Jagtap, 1985) and those of the
Nicobargroup of islands compriseonly 10 species (Jagtap, 1991). The dominant mangrovespecies
are Rhizophora mucronata and R. stylosa, and the co-dominant is Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Nypa
fruticans occurs in the upstream regions of estuaries and neritic inlets. The area undermangrove
is 770 sq km.
CLASSIFICATION ACCURACY
The classification accuracy of the coastal wetland maps achieved is 85-90% at 90% confidence
level. The State wise details are given below:
Gujarat 89% Tamil Nadu 85%
Maharashtra-Goa 84% Andhra Pradesh 87%
Karnataka 83% Orissa 85%
Kerala 86% West Bengal 83%
CHANGE-DETECTION STUDIES
The knowledgeabout long-termchangesin the mangrovevegetationis important to manage this
ecosystem. The repeatabilityof Landsat and IRS data (16 and 22 days, respectively) is suitable for
monitoring such changes. However, the length of record for IRS data is too short for monitoring
long-term changes. Changesin the wetland conditionscan be done beforeand after classification.
The techniques available are given below
1. Pre-classification changes can be detected using:
a. Red band (one data) and negative or red band (other date), and
b. Red band (one date, a ratio of red (two dates) and infra-red bands (one date).
2. Post classification change detection can be accomplished using:
a. Percentage matrix (listing of each class),
b. Change matrix (comparisonof classes of two dates),
c. Binary theme prints (changes in map forms), and
d. Conflict characterassignment (map showing changes on pixel basis).
IRS data in conjunction with Landsat data were found to be extremely useful for monitoring
degradation of mangroves. In one such study, in the Marine National Park, Jamnagar (Gujarat),
significant changes in the mangrove vegetarian and coral reef areas were observed during the
period 1975 to 1988. These changeswere shown in map form, i.e. binary themeprints. Mangroves
were reduced from 140 sq km. to a mere 35 sq km during 1975-1985 (per cent matrix). This reduc-
tion was attributed mainly to their use as fodder, fuel, excessive grazing and proliferationof salt
pan industries. Coral reef area got reduced from 115 sq km to 55 sq km during the same period.
The main cause for this destruction was carbonate sand mining by a cement company, along
with dredging, filling and weapon testing. These activitiesled to a tremendous disturbance on
212 Application of remote sensing in the study of mangrove ecosystems
the coast and loose particles were swept along with tidal currents and were ultimately deposited
on reefs. The depositionresulted in the death and decay of living corals. Nomination of this area
as a marine national park in 1983 to protect and conserve the environment, helped to reverse
the trend after 1985 as steps taken by the marine park authorities started showing results, and
helped towards restoring the environment.The satellite data of 1988 show that the area under
mangroves and coral reef has increasedto 50 sq km and 75 sq km. respectively(Pandeya et al.,
1989), since then.
PLANTCOMMUNITIES DISCRIMINATION
The spectral properties of canopies of different plants are produced by a combination of opti-
cal properties of individual vegetative components, effects of plant growth forms, density and
height, tidal stage and soil type (Johnson and Munday, 1983). Reflectance of 'leafless' and grami-
neous canopies is highly dependent upon solar elevation angle whereas 'broad-leaf canopies'
reflectance is not. This informationis useful for estimatingbiomass (Gross et al., 1988). Dottavio
and Dottavio (1984) concluded that middle JR wavelength region provides a clear separation
between brackish low marsh and high marsh communities. Textual pattern observed on the
high-resolutionspace photograph alongwith physiographic conditions can be used to identify
different mangrove associations(Panigrahi and Parihar, 1986).
Various digital enhancementtechniques were attempted to identify differentplant communities
using Landsat MSS data in the Navalakhi-Kandlaarea (1975, 1982 and 1984), Sikka area (1975
and 1982), Aliabet area (1975, 1982 and 1986), Coondapur area (1984 and Karwar area (1984).
Band ratio combinationof 5/4, 5/7 and 6/5 and principal componentanalyses were found to be
most suitable for studying wetland conditionsand classifying vegetationtypes (Fig. 4). It is seen
/
that various combinationsof MSS band 5 and 7, either ratioing or addition substraction, greatly
enhance subtle difference in the reflectance of the vegetation and thus different vegetation types
could be distinguished. On the Karnatakacoast, edge enhancementFCC (MSS bands 4, 5 and 7)
was found to be useful for wetland studies (Shaikh et al., 1989). Seaweedswere detected using
digital enhancementof Landsat TM data (Gupta and Nayak, 1989).
The identification of various wetland features using digitally enhanced LISS II and Landsat TM
data is quite comparable. However, Landsat TM data give more information about wetland
conditionsand density of mangroves due to better radiometricand spatial resolution (Nayak et
cii., 1988).
The combination of colour and colour-infra-red photography provides the best plant community
discrimination.
BIOMASS ESTIMATION
Radiance measurements in the near infra-red and red region are used for estimating biomass.
Field spectral measurementshave confirmedthat biomass is related to the canopy reflectance in
the near infra-red and red bands. The difference in reflectance at two wavelengths and ratio of
two wavelengths are found to correlate with biomass more highly than did reflectance in either
band alone (Pearson and Miler, 1972, Bartlett, and Klemas, 1979).
Shailesh Nayak 213
Landsat MSSCCT's were analysed to get some informationon standing crops,biomassof selected
wetland plans (Bartlett and Klemas, 1979, 1980). An attempt is being made to estimate biomass
/
of seaweeds in the Gulf of Kachchh using Landsat TM IRS LISS II data. In the study, plant
community maps are prepared and convertedinto productivity maps by assigningproductivity
value to the plant community.
COASTAL PROCESSES
Coastal processes of erosion, deposition and sediment transport, flooding and sea level changes
continuouslymodify the shoreline. The following parameters are studied to understand coastal
processes:
a. Shoreline change,
b. Coastal land form,
c. Tidal boundary, and
d. Offshore bar and underwater features.
The identification of depositional areas proves useful as these areas are likely to be colonised by
mangroves.Orbital data have yet to prove their operationaluse in these studies, mainly because
of their limited spatial resolution. However, they are useful for large area sediment transport
studies and detectinglong-term changesin the entire coastline.
LAND FORMS
The study of land forms gives a clue to the processesoperatingin an area. They are best studied
on aerial photographs in conjunction with topographical maps. In the absence of stereo aerial
photography, considerable information on the dynamics of topography may be inferred from
sequential satellite data. The recently available stereoscopic data from SPOT are ideal for land
form studies.
Coastal land form map of the Gulf of Khambhat on 1: 250,000 scale using satellite data was
prepared. IRS LISS I and II data gave more or less the same information, could replace Landsat
MSS and TM data respectively, and compared well with the aerial data (Shaikh et a!., 1988,
1989a). However, identification of different vegetation types in LISS II standard products was
superior and it helped in identification of certain land forms like reclaimedmud-flats. This was
because of use of region-specific look-up tables in the generationof IRS data products.
Land form mapping for the entire Indian coast has been completed on 1 : 250,000 scale using
Landsat TM/IRS LISS II data alongwith tidal wetland mapping.
TIDAL BOUNDARY
The average height of the high waters and mean low waters over a 19-year period gives Mean
High Water (MHW) and Mean Low Water (LMW). The accurate demarcationof I-lW and LW is
important as they control the boundaries of the mangrove ecosystem.
The high and low water line for the entire Indian coast on 1 : 250,000 scale is being mapped
along with tidal wetland mapping. It was possibleto demarcate high water line accurately.
COASTAL WATERS
Turbidity/suspended sedimentsand colour/chlorophyll are indicators of water quality. Chloro-
phyll indicates trophic status, nutrient load and possibly the presence of manmade pollutants
in the coastal waters. Suspended sediments affect navigation, fisheries, aquatic life and recre-
ational potential of sea resorts. They also carry absorbed chemicals and create an environmental
problem. Roots of mangrove trap sediment and influence progradation of the coast.
C-
SUSPENDED SEDIMENT DYNAMICS
Suspended sediments are easily observed on the satellite imagery. They help in studying the
dynamic relationship between sediment input, transport and deposition. Recent studies have
demonstrated the potential of estimatingeither qualitativelyor quantitatively the concentration
of suspended sediments in water-bodies. Many authors have suggested the use of a single band,
Shailesh Nayak 215
for increasingthe sensitivityas well as analytical range, howeverit is desirableto useall available
bands as possible (Nayak, 1983). Shorter wavelength introduces atmosphere noise while longer
wavelength suffers from high absorption of water in upper few centimeters and therefore, the
best single wavelength used should be between 550-650mM (Johnson and Munday, 1983). Field
measure reflectance indicates that IRS band I (blue), 2 (green) and 3 (red) show high correlation
with the Sacchi disc and suspended sediments, respectively (Gupta et al., 1990). Band ratio of
IRS bands 3/2 shows high correlation with the Sacchi disc (Chauhan et al., 1990).
With density slicing technique, semi-quantitative maps of suspended sediments in the Gulf of
Khambhat were prepared using all four bands (Nayak, 1983). Here, a large tidal range gives rise
to strong tidal currents and provides mechanismfor transport of suspended sediments.The net
transport of sediments was towards land, which was evident from extensive mud-flats (Nayak
and Sahai, 1984, 1985).
The currents in the Gulf are observed to be mainly influencedby tides, riverine discharge and
shoreline configuration. The slope-inducedcurrentsnear Aliabetare clearly visible on the satellite
imagery (Nayak and Sahai, 1985). As the suspended sediments carry absorbed chemicals and
fronts are associatedwithpollutants, the knowledgeabout their movementwill help in predicting
waste effluent transportation paths and their effect on mangroves.
CHLOROPHYLL
Satellite data indicated colourvariations whichin turn, correlate well withchlorophyll. IRSbands
1 and 3 show a fairly high correlation with chlorophyll 'a' concentration. Recently Landsat
MSS, Nimbus-7 CZCS, Ocean Colour Radiometer and aerial photographic data was used to
estimate primary productivity in oceanic waters off the Cochin coast. This information helped
in estimating the third level productivity,i.e., fish catch.
TEMPERATURE
The temperature distribution can be measured using thermal and microwave spectral ranges.
LandsatTM hasthe capacityto measure temperaturesbetweenrange 260° - 340°K + 1.50 (Johnson
and Harris, 1980). At present, NOAA data are being utilised to generate SST map for the entire
EEZ. The low resolution of data has limited use in coastal zone studies.
SALINITY
Obtainingwater salinity using remote sensing is one of the most difficult things. This parameter
/
is very useful as pelagic fish such as tuna move along thermal and or salinity fronts. Salinity
distributionscan be measured using microwave spectral range. NASA Langley Research Centre
(LaRC) has developed a dual-band radiometer operating at L and S band (1.43 and 2.65 GHz)
which determinessalinity and temperature with 1% salinity and 1°C accuracy.
WASTE OUTFALLS
Waste outfalls in the coastal regions are difficult to detect as nearshore waters are turbid. The
combination of colour infrared and colour photography at the scale 1: 5,000 to 1: 10,000 is
preferred to detect coloured pollutants. The reconnaissance mapping (at 1 : 50,000 scale) and
216 Applicationof remote sensing in the study of mangrove ecosystems
low tide time photography are some of the useful techniques for detecting waste outfalls. The
thermal plumes can also be detected using thermal infra-red imagery.
OIL POLLUTION
Oil rises to the surface, spreads across the waterbody and is thus amenableto remote detection.
Dielectric constant. refractive index, absorptivity, fluorescence and emissivityare measured for
a variety of petroleum products and naturally occurringbiological oils.
Near ultraviolet (UV) is excellent for imaging slick edges and thin regions of various oil slicks.
Blue band is next best for mapping slick areas. Green wavelengthis useful for mapping thick oil
slicks. Oil is about 2.7°-4.O°K cooler than water. As the thickness of slick increases, the temper-
ature decreases. Thus the difference between the temperature of oil and water can be correlated
to the thickness of slicks.
Spatial resolution of geosynchronous satellites is too coarse for surveillance while polar orbiting
satellites have inadequate repeat cycles. Therefore, satellite detectionof oil becomes difficult.
CONCLUSION
The mapping of mangroves at 1 : 250,000 scale has various limitations and constraints. The
scale is appropriate only in delineatingthe mangroves in a broader perspective.Coastal wetland
mapping should be carried out at 1 : 50,000 scale for better understanding of the condition of
wetlands. At this scale, mangrove areas larger than 1 ha can be mapped. These maps should be
used a baseline data and for classifying the coastal zone into preservation,conservation,utilisa-
tion and development zones. This will be the first step towards a rational mangrove ecosystem
management. Coastal wetland mapping in the scale of 1 : 50,000 scale has been taken up for
Shailesh Nayak 217
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka coasts. These maps will provide information up to level 111
and will be used for planning conservation measures at the district level (Desai et al., 1991).
It is observedthat the areal extent of tidal mangrovevegetationis reducing year by year, because
of reclamation. This reclamation may be worthwhile in some places, but in a majority of cases
it ultimately results in the disturbance of the ecosystem. Moreover, mangroves are threatened
by the indiscriminate cutting of the forest for fuelwood and small timbers by the local people.
Conversion of mangrovearea for agriculturalpurposes, aquacultureand residentialdevelopment
is also creating loss of important mangrove forest areas.
Heavy grazing by the cattle is another problem encounterednear the mangrove areas. Based on
the above observations,a concerted and co-ordinatedeffort is necessary to undertake manage-
ment plans to conserve the mangroves.
The mangrovesare vulnerable to the biodegradableand stable compounds from the land. Point
and non-point pollution near the estuarine are due to anthropogenic causes is also another
threatening factor to the coastal wetlands.
This dynamic an ever-changing environment of the coast, especially at the delta fronts and
mouths of rivers, should be studied through largescale images and aerial photographs on a
minimum of 1 : 50,000 scale. This will enable measurements and mapping of small changes
occurringin the coastline.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Dr.George Joseph, Deputy Director, Remote Sensing Area, SAC, for his keen interest
and useful suggestions.I am extremely grateful to Dr.Baldev Sahai, Mission Director, Remote
Sensing Applications Mission and Group Director, Remote Sensing Application Group, for his
guidance during the course of this study. I am thankful to Dr.Pranav Desai, head, Meteorol-
ogy and OceanographyDivision, for critically going through the manuscript and for his useful
comments. Thanks are due to Dr.A. Narain, Head, Marine and Water Resources Division, SAC,
for useful suggestions.Discussions with our colleagues at SAC and other participatingagencies
were of great help; my sincere thanks to them. Thanks are also due to Shri.R.K.Pandya, Manager,
Remote Sensing Applications Facility, for providing all necessary facilities in the course of this
study.
REFERENCES
Ananda Rao, T. and Chakraborty, (1987). Distributionalresume of coastal floristic elements in
the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Current Science 56 (20): 1045-1051.
Anderson, R.R., V. Carter, and J. McGinnes, (1973). Application of ERTS to coastal wetland
ecology and special reference to plant community mapping and typing and impact of man.
In : S.C. Freden, E.P. Mercantiand M.A. Becker (Ed.s). Proc. of the Third ERTS Symp. 1(B):
1225-1242, GSFC, NASA, Washington, D.C.
Bartlett, D.S. and V. Klemas, (1979). Assessmentof tidal wetland habitat and productivity.In
Proc. of the 13th Inter. symp. on remote sensing of environ. 2: 693-701 ERIM. Ann Arbor, MI.
218 Application of remote sensing in the study of mangrove ecosystems
Bartlett, D.S. and V. Klemas, (1980). Quantitative assessment of tidal wetlands using remote
sensing. EnvironmentalManagement4(4): 337-345.
Blasco, F. (1977). Outlines of ecology, botany and forestry of the mangals of the Indian sub-
continent. In : V.J. Chapman. (Ed.). Ecosystems of the World 1:wet coastal ecosystems. Elsevier
Scientific Company,New York. pp. 241-258.
Blasco, F. (1977a). In : Mangroves of Asia and the Pacific: status and management. Technical Report
of the UNDP/UNESCOresearch and training pilot programme on mangrove ecosystem in
/ /
Asia and the Pacific (RAS 79 002). Ministry of Natural Resources, The Philippines.53 p.
Carter, V. (1982). Applicationof remote sensing to wetlands. In : C. Johannsen and J.L. Sanders
(Ed.s). Remote sensingfor resource management. Soil Conservation Soc. of America,Iowa 50021.
pp. 284-300.
Carter, V. and J. Schubert. (1974). Coastal wetland analysisfrom ERTS-MSS digital data and field
spectral measurements. Proc. of the 9th Inter. Symp. on Remote Sensingof Environ. 5: 1279-1288.
ERIM, Ann Arbor, MI.
Chauhan, H.B., M.C. Gupta, and S. Nayak. (1990). Spectral signature and correlation studies of
estuarinewateraround Madalla port. ScientificNote, Space ApplicationCentre, Ahmedabad.
IRS/UP/SAC/MCE/SR/28/90. 10 p.
Das, N.K., S.C. Samal, and P. Kumar. (1991). Mapping of coastal wetland and shorelinechange
along the West Bengal and Orissa coasts using satellite data. Scientific Note, Space Applica-
/ / /
tion Centre, Ahmedabad, RSAM SAC COM SN/06 91. 38 p. /
Desai, P.S., A. Narain, S.R. Nayak, B. Manikkam, S. Adiga, and A.N. Nath. (1991). IRS 1A Ap-
plications for coastal and marine resources. Current Science 61 (3 & 4): 204-208.
Dottavio, C.L., and F.D. Dottavio. (1984). Potential benefits of new satellite sensors to wetland
mapping. EnvironmentalManagement50(5): 599-606.
Gross, M.F., M.A. Hardisky, and V. Klemas. (1988). Effects of solar angle on reflectance from
wetland vegetation. Remote Sens. Environ. 26: 195-212.
Gupta, M.C. and S. Nayak. (1989). Application of digital enhancement and classification tech-
niques for wetland mapping of Sikka area. Scientific Note. Space ApplicationCentre, Ahmed-
abad. IRS-UP/SAC/MCE/SN/18/88. 14 p.
Gupta,M.C. and S. Nayak. (1989). Wetland classification of the part of the Gulf of Kuchchhusing
Landsat MSS digital data. In : Remote Sensing Applicationin CoastalStudies. Scientific Note.
Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad,IRS-UP/SAC/MCE/SN/08/07 pp. 13-25.
Gupta, M.C., M.G. Shaikh, S. Nayak, Y.V. Chandrashekhariah, and S.N. Sohale. (1990). Spec-
tral signature and correlation studies of coastal water around the Mangalore coast. ibid.
IRSUP/SAC/MCE/SN/27/90 31 p.
Jagtap, T.G. (1985). Studies on littoralflora of the Andamans IslandsIn : Krishnamurthy,K. (Ed.).
Proc. of the All India Symp. on marine plants, their biology, chemistryand utilisation. pp. 43-50.
Jagtap, T.G. (1991). Marine flora of Nicobar group of islands in Andaman Sea. Indian Jour, of
Marine Sciences (in press).
Johnson,R.W. and R.C. Harris. (1980). Remote sensing for water quality and biological measure-
ments in coastal waters. Photogram. Engg. and Remote Sensing 46(1): 77-85.
Shailesh Nayak 219
Johnson, R.W. and J.C. Jr.Munday. (1983). The Marine Environment.In : R.N. Coiwell. (Ed.).
AmericanSoc. of Photogrammetry,Falls Church. Manual of Remote sensing (2): 1371-1496.
Nair, N.J.K. G. Shankar,S. Nalinakumar, S. Nayak, and M. Shaikh. (1991). Scientific Note, Space
/ /
Applications Centre, Ahmedabad. RSAM SAC/COM SN/08 91. 17 p. /
Nayak, S.R. (1983). Orbital monitoringof suspended sedimentsin water-bodiesIn : Baldev Sahai,
R.S. Chaturvediand H.S. Iyer. (Ed.s). Proc. ofthe Nationalsymp. on Remote sensingin development
and management of water resources. ISPI&RS, Ahmedabad. pp. 134-147.
Nayak, S.R. and B. Sahai. (1983). Morphological changes in the Mahi estuary. In : Proc. of the
National conf. on application of remote sensing to natural resources. CSRE, ITT, Bombay. pp. 152-
154.
Nayak, S.R. and B. Sahai. (1984). Coastal geomorphologyof the Gulf of Khambhat. In : S.S. Merh
and N.M. Vashi. (Ed.s). Proc. of quaternary episodes in India. Deptt. Geol., M.S.U., Baroda.
pp. 87-96.
Nayak, S.R. and B. Sahai. (1985). Coastal morphology : a case study in the Gulf of Khambat
(Cambay). Inter. I. Remote Sens. 6(3) & 4): 559-568.
Nayak, S.R. A. Pandeya, and M.G. Shaikh. (1991). Coastal zone classification system : a remote
sensingapproachIn : N. Desai, S. Ganapathyand P.K. Patel. (Ed.s). Proc. oftheNational Seminar
on quaternary landscape of Indian subcontinent. Dept. of Geology, M.S.U., Baroda. pp. 73-78.
Nayak, S.R., M.C. Gupta, and H.B. Chauhan. (1985). Monitoringof wetland and shoreline on the
part of Gujarat coast using Landsat data in Proc. of the 6th Asian conf. on remote sensing,
Hyderabad. pp. 348-353.
Nayak, S., M.C. Gupta, H.B. Chauhan, A. Pandeya and R.S. Rao. (1986). The application of
Landsat data for coastal zone monitoring: a case study on the West coast of India. In : Proc.
of the regional seminar on the application of remote sensing techniques to coastal zone management
and environmentalmonitoring. BangladeshSpace Research and Remote Sensing Organisation
and UNDP/ESCAP,regionalremote sensing programme, Dhaka, Bangaladesh. pp. 320-327.
Nayak, S., M.C. Gupta, A. Pandeya, and C.R. Trivedi. (1988). Evaluationof IRS data for coastal
wetland mapping in the Gulf of Kuchchh. Scientific Note Space Application Centre, Ahmed-
abad. IRS-UP/SAC/AD/02/88. pp. 99-119.
Odum, E.P. (1961). The role of tidal marshes in estuarine protection. New York State Conser. 16
12-14.
Pandeya, A., S. Nayak, and J.P. Aggarwal. (1989). Monitoring of ecological changes in the marine
national park using satellite data. ibid. IRS-UP/SAC/MECE/SN/24/89.20 p.
Pandeya, A., S.R. Nayak, C.R. Trivedi, S.A. Kadri, and K.N. Prasad. (1987). Wetland mapping of a
part of the Gulfof Kachchh using Landsat data in Remote sensing applications in coastal stud-
ies. Scientific Note. Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad. IRSUP/SAC/MCE/SN/08/87.
pp. 1-12.
Panigrahi, S. and J.S. Parihar. (1986). Optimum spectral bands for identification of mangrove
vegetation in Results from the Joint Indo-Soviet Remote Sensing Experiment Terra on board
Salyut-7. ISRO-SP 17-86, ISRO, Bangalore. pp. 139-142.
Panigrahi, S. and J.S. Parihar. (1992). Monitoringof Bhitar Kanika and Gahirmatha wildlife re-
serves of Orissa using multidate remote sensing data. Indian Forester (In press).
220 Applicationof remote sensing in the study of mangrove ecosystems
Parihar,J.S., S. Panigrahi,and K.C. Das. (1986). Environmentalassessmentof parts of Mahanadi
and Brahmi river deltas of Orissa using Salyut-7 space photographs. In Results from the
Joint Indo-Soviet Remote Sensing ExperimentTerra on board Salyut-7. ISRO-SP-17-86, ISRO,
Bangalore. pp. 21-31.
Pearson, R.L., and L.D. Miller, (1972). Remote spectral measurements as method for determiningplant
cover. U.S. Inter. Biological Programme,Colorado State Unit., Tech. Rpt. No. 167. 49 p.
Shaikh, M.G., H.B. Chauhan, S. Nayak, P.V. Suresh, A.N. Sherieff, and T. Anand Rao. (1989).
Digital enhancement techniques for wetland studies of the Karnataka coast. Scientific Note,
Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad. IRS-UP/SAC/MCE/SN/26/89. 5 pp.
Saikh, M.G., S.R., Nayak, O.N. Shah, and B.B. Jambusaria.(1989a). Coastal land form mapping
around the Gulf of Khambhat using Landsat TM data. Jour. md. Soc. Remote Sens. 17 (1)
41-48.
Saikh, M.G., S. Nayak, and B.B. Jambusaria.(1988). Evaluation of IRS data for coastal land form
studies in the Mahi estuary. ibid. IRS-UP/SAC/AD/01/88. pp. 87-98.
Vaidyanadhan, R., Y. Ramesh, S. Nayak, and M.G. Shaikh. (1991). Shoreline change and wetland
mapping of the Andhra Pradesh coast. Scientific Note, Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad.
RASM/SAC/COM/SN/09/91. 38 p.
Venkatesan, C. (1986). Distributionof the Indian Mangroves. In : Mangroves ofIndia: Status Report.
Mm. of Environmentand Forests,Govt. of India, New Delhi. 46 p.
GENETIC DIVERSITY: CONCEPTSAND MEASUREMENTS
V. ARUNACHALAM
Genetic diversity is the base on which programmes of improvement for desired attributes are
planned. It plays an important role in the process of decision- making on the conservation of
biodiversity.Unless the concepts of genetic diversity and methods of its measurementare clearly
understood,it willbe difficult to judge how much to conserve and how oftento renew/regenerate
biodiversity.
One must define for this purpose, a genetic entity in its qualitative and quantitative characters.
The difference between a qualitative and quantitative character is very thin and, for all practical
purposes, it would be useful to deal only with quantitativecharacter,flower colour, is qualitative
in nature having two states, red or white (corresponding to two alleles of a singlegene controlling
flower colour). But if it is possible to make measurements more accurately so that the degree
of redness or whiteness can be measured with accuracy, then flower colour would be scored
as a continuouslyvarying trait so that it now obtains the rank of a quantitative character. with
present-day knowledge, more and more character are being classed quantitative (for example,
disease resistancebeing measured on a continuous scale as disease severity index).
The basic assumption in genetic theory is that all quantitative characters follow a normal distri-
bution with its associated statistical properties.
OTUs can be differentiated, in principle, on a set of quantitative characters. It is difficult a priori
to identify characters that are sufficient to bring out the differences between OTUs; however,
methods are available for identifying such a minimal set of characters for differentiation. The
question of giving weightage to various charactersin differentiation has receivedwide attention.
It would seemthat it is always beneficial to avoid associating differential weights withcharacters
for the major reasons explained by Sneath and Sokal (1973). In essence:
1. Rational grounds for allotting weights are usually absent,
2. The very existence of variation in the characteristics defining OTUs leads to the logic that it
is irrational to associate weights with them,
3. Direct assignment of weights to characters will imply judging taxonomic importance a priori
which would be questionable,
4. There are no exact rules for allotting weights and, therefore, different investigators are highly
likely to arrive at differentconclusions on the same set of OTUs,
5. Taxonomists, geneticists, breeders and others would look at characters at different levels of
their specialisation leading to arbitrarinessin weighting.
6. The weighty reason against weighting is the logic behind the hypothesis— decisions based
on a number of characters would eventually even out differences arising out of conceivably
differingimportance of characters.
However,invariant characterswould not be of any use in differentiatingbetween OTUs.
SEEDLINGPHASE
— Seedling viguour measured as the dry weight of seedlings
— Shoot: root dry weight
— Number of leaves
— Specific leaf weight
FLOWERINGPHASE
—
Days to first flowering
— Number of primary branches
— Number of
secondarybranches
— Photosynthetic area
HARVESTPHASE
— Number and weight of mature pods
— Number and weight of mature seeds
— Harvest index
— 100-seed
weight
—
Weight per unit volume
V. Arunachalam 223
These characters were found to be useful for the material handled in a project and need not nec-
essarilybe unique in differentiatingbetween any set of OTUs in peanut. However, the concepts
used to identify such a set of characters are repeatable and can be used for any set of OTUs.
GENETIC DISTANCE
A measure is needed to geneticallydifferentiate any two OTUs on the basis of set of quantitative
characters. a large number of measures have been tried, of which Mahalanobis' D2 distance
statistic merits application. This distance statistic is a multivariate analogue of the euclidean
distance in two dimensions.
We now explain the concept of distance using two OTUs, G1 and G2.
Let two characters, X1 and X2, unequivocally define the OTUs. The OTUs have the following
values for the two characters:
G1(x11,x21)
G2(x12, x22)
then the distance between the two OTUs, G1 and G,, will be given by d2 = + d.
The generalised distance (D2) scores over the distance function used in, for example, single
linkage clusteringleading to dendrograms(Sneathand Sokal, 1973). Let the two OTUs be denoted
by L1 ad L2 and let measurements on five traits, X1 to X5, be made. Let - value of trait j for
x
OTU i (1 = 1,2; j = 1,5). Then the distance d between L1 and L2 is given by
d2_—(x21 _xi1)2=df
where d1 X2j
—
X13.
(sii) is the inverse of the dispersion, matrix (S) = (so). An estimate of (S) is provided by the
common dispersionmatrix correspondingto error variancecovariance matrix. Thus, generalised
224 Genetic diversity:concepts and measurements
distance is a function of phenotypic values and the inverse of the error dispersion matrix. In
effect, therefore, the generalised distance measure would be much closer to genetic divergence
than the distance postulated by Sneath and Sokal (1973).
If the distance is to effectively measure genetic divergence between the two OTUs, it must be
rememberedthat the charactershould completely define the performancepotential of the OTUs.
This requirementemphasizesagain the importance of the proper choice of characters.
In general, a OTU will be definedby a set of characters, say'n' in number. The geneticdivergence
between any two OTUs will then be measured by the multivariatedistance statisticbased on
characters. Procedures of computation are detailed in Rao (1952). Computer algorithms are now
available to compute D2 (Murthy and Arunachalam,1967).
REFERENCES
Arunachalam, V. (1981). Genetic distance in plant breeding. Indian Journal of Geneticsand Plant
Breeding41: 226—236.
Murty, B.R. and V. Arunachalam(1967). Computerprogrammesfor some problems in biometrical
genetics - I. Useof mahalanobis'
D2 in classifactory problems. Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant
breeding 27: 60—69.
Rao, C.R. (1952). Advanced StatisticalMethods in Biometrical Research. John Wiley, New York.
Sneath, P.H.A and R.R. Sokal (1973). NumericalTaxonomy. Chapter 3 W.H.Freeman, San Francisco.
METHODS OF STUDYING MANGROVE VEGETATION
SANJAY DESHMUKH
INTRODUCTION
Over the past decade the number of research studies focusingon mangroves and the mangrove
environmenthave significantly increasedas a result of public and scientific interest in their role in
nature and their value to mankind, although the totalnumber of published reports exceed some
7,000 titles (cf. Rollet, 1982), many major gaps in our scientific understanding persist. Confound-
ing the problem are the difficulties of conducting research in the mangrove environmentand
the absence of recommendedresearch protocols which would facilitate comparative evaluations,
and general synthesis of specific topics. Many research efforts focus on "community structure
and description" for the purpose of preparation of general inventories of 'what is there' and
in what number (or mass), describing how the componentsare structured, and making general
assessmentsof the abiotic conditions. We have tried to outline the traditional approach to char-
acterizationwhich might be considered to represent the minimum requirementof any general
survey. The taxonomical identification of the mangrove species is in general very poor; most
researcherscan identify the genera, but species determinationsin many areas remain question-
able. The basic protocol for quantitatively determiningthe physiognomic structure of mangrove
communities is presented here. This approach places emphasis on relatively simple techniques
that yield much useful data and information that have significant value in both, basic ecological
studies and the management of forested areas.
MANGROVE VEGETATION
The predominant plants in a mangrove swamp are the trees, and it is these species that are
generally listed. However, phanerogamicepiphytes may occur while some phanerogams may
appear as ground flora, especiallytowards the high-tidemark. Any study of a mangroveswamp
should take cognizance of all these plants.
An important feature of the major coastal land from is that it frequently provides an optimum
habitat for mangrove forest development, this overview demonstrates the fact that the spatial
patterns of mangrove development are closely associated with land form types and that local
mangrove formations tend to be controlledby the constantly changingcoastal geomorphology.
Fieldresearchthat does not take these fundamental,processes into accountcan lead to erroneous
conclusion concerning species zonation, successional status and the causes of differences in re-
gional patterns. It is important to characterise the differences in mangrovespecies distributionas
a function of broad latithdinal gradients in climate. Therefore, in the finalaccount of any swamp,
it is recommendedthat all speciesbe listed and placed in the relevant genera and families.
Where the swamp abuts on elevated land, all species that occur up to the high-water mark of
spring tides should be included. In places where the mangroves give may to a riverine forest
or swamp, all species should be recorded up to the point where distinctly saline water (1 per
It is desirablethat all lists should be divided into (a) regular componentsof the association, and
(b) casual componentsof the association.
The study of the structure and composition of plant communities or associations hasbeen devel-
oped largely in Europe. The Zurich-Montpellier school of vegetational analysisled by J. Braun
Blanquethas developed detailed methods and this branch of study has been termed "phytoso-
ciology".
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE
Plants growing together have mutual relationshipsamong themselves and with the environment.
Such a group of plants in one area forms a stand. Several similar stands represent a community.
A community is a part of an ecological system (the ecosystem) in which transformation, accu-
mulation, and flow of energy are involved. The functioningof this system is intimately related
with the componentsof the community. The componentsvary in quality as well as in quantity
and impart a structure to the community.
The structure of a community can be studied by taking into considerationa number of charac-
ters, which are usually grouped under two heads, viz., analytic and synthetic. Certain analytical
characterviz., frequency, density, abundance, and dominance can be expressed quantitatively.
While others, viz., sociability, vitality, periodicity, and stratification find only qualitative expres-
sion. Synthetic characters include presence, constancy and fidelity of componentsand may be
computed through analytical charactersof several stands of a community.
The analyticcharactersof a communityare determined through three main samplingunits -area,
line, and point, as employed in quadrat, transect,and point methods, respectively.
SAMPLING
It is difficult to analyse all members of the entire community and even if it is done the results
will not be different from when only an adequate number of samplesof the whole are analysed.
It, therefore, becomes important to arrive at size, shape and numbers of adequate samples. The
next question is to determine where, how, and what is to be sampled. No sampling should
be done without a thorough knowledge of the history, physiography and topography, geology,
climate and vegetation of the region as a whole. Before starting the preparation of a detailed
map, the area or the association is surveyed repeatedly in differentparts of its range and more
particularly in its local variants. The specific stands to be examined are then chosen keeping in
view the obviousvariations, extent, limit and transitionsof vegetationto contiguousassociations.
QUADRAT METHOD
It is actually the sample-plotmethod of Clements (1998). A quadrat is of many kinds and sizes.
Most of the ecologists have used in with slight variation here and there.
Structure of a piece of vegetation is determined in a quadrat which may be plotted at random
or on a certain transect run across the local topography or geology.
228 Methods of studying mangrove vegetation
TYPESOF QUADRATS
a. List quadrat: The list quadrat gives merely a list of the species present in a quadrat. It should
include all species botanicallyidentifiedor otherwise.
b. Count quadrat: In count quadrat, in addition to listing, number of individual plants of each
species is also counted. Some difficulty is faced in forests with respect to coppice stumps. The
sprouts grow as individuals and those which are taller and thicker, i.e., whose crowns give them
chance of suppressing others may be counted as separate individuals.
c. Area quadrat: In area quadrats, the ground covered by every species is evaluated. This can
be done by setting up cross strings and counting the number of parts of squares occupiedby all
the individuals of a species, when put together. In forests also strings may be put. Basal area is
taken in forests.
d. Chart quadrat: Chart quadrat is used for details and for the scale recording of growth and
distribution of species. Charting is usually done on cross-ruled paper with similar string-cross
on the vegetation. A pantograph is generally employed for more accurate work. From these
charts actual area of a species can be measured by adding up all the small squares that a species
covers, or individuals of the same species occupy separately. A planimeter may be used for
direct reading of these areas on the cross-paper. Such studies are done in grasslands.
A chart quadrat may be made a permanent quadrat. Periodic readings are taken. This gives
the dynamism of an association as to its structure, pattern, and composition. This also gives
successional trends in vegetation, when studied for some years.
e. Experimental quadrat: an Experimentalquadrat is a permanent quadrat employed to study
such environmentalfactors as temperature, rainfall, evaporation,light intensity, humidity, etc.,
in addition to records of growth, survival, invasion and spread of speciesin time. Such quadrats
are generally set up in adjoining situations. When an experimentalquadrat is subdivided into
smaller squares by cross strings and is used for long term analysis of vegetation,it is called grid
pattern quadrat.
f. Point-observation quadrat: A Point-observation quadrat is employed to determine the plant
coverage more accurately. The method was designed by Hutchings (1936) for grasslands, but
can be profitable used for forests after modification, as given by Gates (1949).
g. Denuded quadrat: In a denuded quadrat, vegetation is first removed by some means like
flooding, burning, salting, covering, scrapping or by excavatingthe top 15 cm of the ground and
then studying the details when the quadrat gets regenerated.
h. Clip quadrat: For studying the amount of yield of vegetable matter the vegetation is clipped
from a quadrat. This is done at the ground level or at various heights. The clipped matter is
determined in terms of fresh weight or dry weight. For studying seasonal variations in a field,
periodic clipping is done. These quadrats are generally employed in grasslands and for range
management studies.
SIZE OF QUADRAT
With the help of a string and 3 nails from a L-shaped structure in the field. Thereafter, with the
help of another string and a nail differentiate an area 1 x im. Note down the species present
within this area. Now enlarge the area, to 2 x 2m and note down the additional species coming
in. Again increasethe area to 3 x 3 m and record new species. Thus go on increasingthe area,
and recording the additional species till you make up a 15 x 15 m large quadrat. Summarise
your data in a table as given below:
Area Total no. of species
lx im
2x2m
3 x 3m
15 x 15 m
Now on a graph paper, plot the number of species on the Y-axis against the areas on the X-axis.
The point at which the curve starts to flatten, representsthe minimal area of the quadrat required
for sampling that field.
The minimum size of a quadrat in case of mangrove forests is observedto be 10 m x 10 m.
NUMBER OF QUADRATS
When the requisite size of the quadrat has been ascertained, lay 30 to 50 quadrats of that size
in a stand under study. Record the species occurringin each quadrat. Tabulate your data as per
the procedure mentioned earlier utilising the first column for number of quadrats.
Plot the number of quadrats on the X-axis of a graph sheet against the number of species on the
Y-axis. Here also the point at which the curve starts to flatten gives the minimum number of
quadrats required for adequate sampling of all the stands of the same community.
TRANSECTMETHOD
A transect is a sampling strip extending across a stand or several stands (Oosting, 1958). It is
useful where one is concerned with analysis of vegetation changing in composition through an
ecotone (transitional zone between any two community) or along the gradient of some environ-
mental factor. Depending upon the objective one may employ "Line transect" (also known as
"line intercept") or "belt transect". Size and number of transects vary with the extent of the area
to be studied.
Line Transect
A measuring tape or calibratedstring is run across the vegetationto be analysed and the plants
touching and along the tape are recorded as also the length of the tape to interceptedby the
individual plant cover. From these basic data various analytic charactersare computed through
calculations as will be dealt with in subsequentexercises. This method is useful especially for a
bunch or tussock grasses. The constructionof a profile or bisect diagram is also possible along
a transect.
230 Methods of studying mangrovevegetation
Belt Transect
In this case instead of the line, a belt of definitewidth (usuallyone meter) is studied across the
vegetation. This strip is divided into a number of small sectionsand plant species and number
of individuals of each species coming in each section are recorded. In simplewordsit is laying of
quadrats along a line. By mapping the sectionson graph paper a useful picture of the vegetation
is obtained.
POINT METHOD
The sampling unit in this method is represented by a point. On this basis two main methods
for the vegetationanalysis have been developed: (a) Point-frame method, and (b) Point-centered
quarter method.
Point-Frame Method
A wooden frame in which 10 movable pins are inserted at an angle of 45° is constructed. The
usual size of a pin is 50 cm and, the length of the frame is also the same. The height at which
this frame is fixed on two folding wooden-crosses is also 50 cm.
This apparatus (knownas point-frame) is placed at a number of places in the field, usually in a
random way. Each time the plants hit by one or more of the ten pins, when they are lowered, are
recorded. From this information,various analytic charactersare computed through calculations.
This method is useful for extensivegrassland surveys, and hence is of no relevance here.
Point-Centered-QuarterMethod
In this method of hits as in the case of the previous one, the distance of the nearest plant in
each quarter from the base of the pin (needle) and their diameter are recorded. The needle is
not mounted in any frame. This method is suited for study of bunched grass and hence is of no
relevance here.
For this purpose transects are laid generally 50 m apart, from the channels of different orders in
the estuarine region to the points near the barren or unplaned boundary, i.e., upper Intertidal
region. The lengths of the transects and the distancesbetween them may vary accordingto the
Intertidal expanse of the mangrove vegetation.
Each level of identified degradation is given a representationfor study with quadrats. This can
be achieved by moving in the swampy area, during low tides and in canoe during high tides,
when the channels are navigable. Trees, larger than 2.5 cm diameter at the base are recorded in
each plot for the following:
1. Number of species of individuals
2. Height of canopy, and
3. Basal area.
Dispersion of plant species in a community (frequency), their numerical strength (density), and
dominance can be studied, following the methods given by Misra (1968) and Pandeya et cii.
(1968).
FREQUENCY
Frequency indicates the number of sampling units in which a given species occurs and thus
expresses the distribution or dispersion of various species in a community. From this, percentage
frequencyis calculated as follows:
Number of sampling units in which the species occurs x
% Frequency= . . 100
Total number of units studied
BASAL AREA
Basal area refers to the ground actually penetrated by the stem and is readily seen when the
leaves and stems are clipped at the ground surface (Hanson and Churchill, 1961). It is one of the
chief characters determining the dominanceand the nature of the community. This is measured
232 Methods of studying mangrove vegetation
either at 2.5 cm above groundor at the ground level. The values obtained in the latter case are
less flexible.
The measurement of basal area at ground level was done with the help of Vernier Calipers for
every quadrat and the average diameter was calculated.
ir where r (radius)
. Average diameter.
Average basal area = 2
2
Density for each species can be determined in this way and this value is multiplied with that of
the respective basal area. The results are expressed as m2 ha—1.
DOMINANCE
Dominance is the relative prevalenceor predominanceof individualsof a species that results from
their numbers and massiveness. Each species of the community can be assigned some degree
(percentage or class) of dominance according to the relative area or volume of the community
that is occupied by it. It is also used to express the phenomenon of actual predominance in a
communityof the individuals of a species (Cain and Castro, 1959).
IMPORTANCE VALUE INDEX (IVI)
In order to express the dominance and ecological success of any species, with a single value, the
concept of importance value index has been developed. This index utilises three characteristics,
viz., relative frequency, relative density and relative dominance.
All the above-mentioned values could be obtained by evaluating frequency, density and basal
area for all the species growing in the study area, using methods already described and the
following values are calculated (Phillips, 1959).
Total basal area of the species
1. Relative dominance= . x 100
Total basal area of all the species
2. Relative density = Number of. individuals of the species x
. . . 100
Number of individuals of all the species
3. Relative dominance Number of occurrences of the species x
. 100
Number of occurrences of all the species
The above three values are added to get the importance value index (IVI). It is calculatedfor all
the species and for all the levels of degradation.
COMPLEXITY INDEX
It is the numerical expression where the number of species, tree density, height (m), basal area
(m2) and a factor iO on 0.1 hectarebasis are multiplied (Holdridge, 1967).
COMPARISONOF STANDS
To know whether the stands studied belong to the same communityor how far they differ from,
or resembled each other, the concept of community coefficient has been developed. Percentage
Sanjay Deshmukh 233
frequencies of all the species found in four different types of stands are determined. All the
four stands are compared with each other. Results are calculatedby using the formula given by
Kulczynski (1937).
CommunityCoefficient (C.C.) = a X 100
PHENOLOGY
For floral phenology, variations are recorded and phenophases are observed every week for
each species. Phenophaseslike budding, blooming,fruiting and seedling developmentare noted.
Observationsare generally made for two years, and the data are recorded.
preferred for all forests. The development of regressions of biomass on structural measurements
of harvested trees allows estimationof standing biomass from easily measured parameters, such
as dbh and height. Allometric biomass estimation is non-destructive,once a samples have been
taken and the regression equations calculated.
Stand Biomass
The biomass of an entire stand can be estimated by multiplying the biomass of the stem of
the mean basal area by stand density. This estimation technique is reported to give acceptable
results (Loetsch et al., 1973). Another technique is to determine the frequencydistribution of the
diameters in a stand and estimate the biomass of each diameter class separately. The average
biomass of a class is multiplied by the number of stems in that class and the results for all the
class are summed to obtain total stand biomass.For plots containinga reasonablysmall number
of trees (30—40), it is practical to calculate the biomass of each tree from the allometric relation
and sum to obtain the plot's total biomass.
It is worth nothing that the LAI of a stand can be calculated if the foliar biomass is known. Leaf
weight must be convertedto leaf area by using a leaf-weightleaf-area relationship(remembering
that for purposes of LAI, one-areais divided by stand area (in m2) to obtain forest LAI.
CONCLUSION
The methods discussedin this paper are suggested standard fieldresearchmethods for mangrove
ecosystems. Comparative standardised data from diverse locations and settings are needed to
interpret the complexrelationships between structure and the major forcing functions. A more
complete understandingof the structural responses of mangroveecosystems to natural variations
in the energy signature of the environmentwill undoubtedly lead to a better understanding of
the responses of these systems to stressorsand human manipulations.
REFERENCES
Aksornkoae, S. (1980). In: Symposium on forest regenerationin South-east Asia. Biotropical Special
PublicationNumber 13. pp. 23—27.
Cain, S.A. and E.M. de Oliviera Castro. (1959). Manual ofvegetation analysis.Harper and Brothers,
New York, USA. 325 p.
Clements, F.E. (1898). A method of determiningthe abundance of secondaryspecies. Minn. Bot.
Stud. 2: 19—24.
Curtis, J.T. and R.P. McIntosh. (1957). An upland forest continuum in the Prairie region of Wis-
consin. Ecology 32 : 476—496.
Dansereau, P. (1957). Biogeography : An ecological perspective. The Ronald Press Co., New York,
USA.
Hanson, H.C. (1958). Principles concerned in the formation and classification of communities.
Bot. Review 24: 65—125.
Holdridge, L.R. (1967). Life Zone Ecology. Proceedings of the Tropical Science Conference, Sen Josp,
Costa Rica. 206 p.
Sanjay Deshmukh 235
Hutchings,5.5. and G. Stewert. (1936). The point-observationplot (square foot density) method
of vegetation survey. I. American Soc. Agron. 28: 714—726.
Kulczynski, 5. (1937) In: Oosting, H.J. (1958). The study of plant communities. W.H. Freeman and
Company, San Francisco, USA.
Loetsch, F., F. Zohrev and K.E. Hailer (1973). Forest Inventory. Vol.11, BLV Verlagsgesellschaft.
Munich, Germany.
Misra, R. (1968). Ecology Workbook. Oxford and IBH, Calcutta, India.
Oosting J. (1958). The study of plant communities. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco,
USA.
Pandeya, S.C., G.S. Pun and J.S. Singh (1968). Research methods in plant ecology. Asia Publishing
House, Bombay.
Phillips, E.A. (1959). Methods of vegetation study. Henry Molt and Co. Inc., New York, USA.
Snedaker, S.C. and J.G. Snedekar. (Ed.s). (1984). The mangrove ecosystem: research methods. Mono-
graph on oceanographic methodology8. UNESCO, Paris, France.
SAMPLING DfSIGNS FOR SURVEYS, RESOURCE
ASSESSMENTAND FOREST INVENTORIES*
INTRODUCTION
The objective of sampling is to gather reliable information at low cost. In view of the problems
posed by accessibility and working conditions in mangroves, it is strongly recommended, in
designing a survey, to incorporate any element that may contributeto increasingthe accuracy of
forest classification while at the same time making the field enumeration less time consuming.
Low altitude aerial reconnaissance, stratificationand other sampling procedures such as multi-
phase and cluster samplingare some approacheswhich deserveconsideration.The descriptionof
these designs and the associatedstatisticalformulas are extensively discussed elsewhere (Lanly,
1973 and others), and are thus only briefly summarisedbelow.
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
Stratified sampling designs are frequently applied in surveys and forest inventories. The object
of stratification is to subdivide the forest into more homogenous parts, in order to reduce the
variability of the parameter to be estimated.
The allocation of sampling units to strata can be proportional to the strata area or to the vari-
ance of the strata. These approaches are discussed in various forest inventory documents. The
optimum allocationapproach requires advance estimates of the variation in each stratum, which
can be provided from pilot surveys or, if available, from past surveys and inventoriesin similar
areas.
MULTI-PHASE SAMPLING
Basically, the procedure involves the selection of large units in the first phase, named primary
sampling units. Within each primary, a number of smaller units—secondary units—is drawn.
The procedure can have more than two phases and can use varying methods of selecting in each
phase.
Its disadvantagehowever, is that the concentrationof the ultimate sampling units results in a
larger varianceof the estimate comparedwitha one phase design of the same samplingintensity.
DOUBLE-PHASE SAMPLING
The application of double-phase sampling for stratification in a forest survey results in an im-
provement in the stand characteristic estimate through a better estimate of strata areas.
In this method, a large number of photo plots are drawn in the first phase, and a sub-sample
n' of the first sample is selectedin the second phase to be used in the field. The main objective
*Reproduced from Mangrove ForestManagement Guidelines. FAQ Forestry Paper No. 117.
Conservationof MangroveForest Genetic Resources : A Training Manual
Edited by Sanjay V. Deshmukh and V. Balaji. © CRSARD 1994 237
238 Samplingdesigns for surveys, resource assessment and forest inventories
of the survey is to provide an estimate of strata proportions in the first phase, based on some
stratification rule allowing the first phase sampling units to be classified into land-use classes,
vegetationcover classes or other classification criteria. The second phase plots are used to check
the photo classification and collect data on forest and tree characteristics.
Advantages of this technique have been found to be substantial in surveys of large areas. The
design is more complexthan a single stage random samplingbut it is more efficient.
The application of this design usually involves aerial photography in the first phase. Satellite
imagery can also be used but because of its low resolution, it might be very tedious or even
impossibleto correctly locate the sub-sample units on the ground.
In non-forest classes and areas where the forest has been so severely disturbed, that no com-
merciallyvaluable trees exist or the forest is poorly stocked,data collection may be restricted to
simple observationson vegetationstatus.
Areas are estimated from the first large sample of photo plots.
n —
n
where
h is the number of photo plots falling in stratum h and
n is the total number of photo plots in the first large sample.
The area Ah of stratum h is estimatedby:
Ah = h *A
where A is the total area concernedby the survey, assumed to be known.
The information collected from the ground plots is usedto correct biases in area estimates caused
by various sources of misinterpretation.The adjustment is applied to strata proportion in the
following manner:
h
The adjusted stratum proportion is obtained by:
M
Adjusted h = Ph * Ph]
where,
m is the number of strata and
n.
P
withinnhf being the number of ground plots actually falling in stratum j, but classified h on
photos and
h being the number of photo plots classified in h.
The variance of the adjusted stratum area proportion is computed by the expression:
mphPhJ(PhJ)
1 m m 2
V(Adj.Ph)=
[PhP_ (PhPhJ) ]
Fao Forestry Paper 239
which is a simplified formula for double sampling for stratification with a discrete random
/
variable having attribute 1 or 0, and where the term P11 n has been droppedbeing considered
negligible.
Data obtained from ground sampling units can also be used to estimate mean values of stand
characteristics such as timber volume, stocking, etc. The estimate of the mean value per unit over
the whole area concernedby the survey, is given by the expression (Lanly, 1973).
= 12i2"hPhIYhJ
where YhJ is the mean value per sampling unit of the characteristic y in the part of plots actually
in stratum j, classified in stratum h by photo-interpretation.
j
The mean value per unit in stratum is estimated by:
— PhphJyhj
Y
i
m
P11phj
The estimate of the total Y over the whole area inventoried is obtained by multiplying the
estimate of the overall mean Yst by the total area A, and the total in stratum is computed
j
by multiplying the mean of stratum by the term A(>Phph) which is the corrected area for
stratum j.
Double-phasesampling for regression is another technique which involves two variables, the
main (y) and the auxiliary (x). It is a powerful procedure which is frequently used in forest
inventory sampling. It is particularly useful when the cost of enumeration of the main character
is much higher than the cost of the auxiliary variable, the latter being correlatedto the first one.
The approach is recommendedwhen the inventory can make use of both aerialphotographs and
fieldenumeration.In the first phase, a large sample n of photo plots is drawn from the population
N. The stand characteristic of interest (representedby the auxiliaryvariable (x) is first measured
on photo plots. This can be a gross volume estimate for example, based on measurementsof the
stand height or the crown density on the photos. In the second phase, a sub-samplen' of the first
phase large sample is taken and measurements are made on both x and y. y may well in this
case be the volume per plot, which is determined in the field through conventional techniques,
while x is ground measurements of either stand height or crown density.
Double sampling for regression is also used in inventories on successive occasions. It may in-
volve completely independent samples, or in case of permanent (CFI) plots, it uses sub-samples
of the original sample or samples which are partly independent and partly sub-samples. The
latter case is termed sampling with partial replacement. In either case, change evaluationis de-
termined through regressionanalysisbetween measurementsmade on successive occasions. The
technique involves rather complex computations. Relevant estimators are presented in various
forest inventory and statisticaltextbooks.
THREE-PHASE SAMPLING
The design is similar to that of double-phase samplingfor stratification exceptthat more phases
are considered. In the first phase a simple random or systematicsample n of large size is drawn
240 Samplingdesigns for surveys, resource assessment and forest inventories
from the population concernedby the forest survey or inventory, and sampling units are classi-
fied into pre-defined strata. From this first phase stratification, n1, n2,. n, sampling units are
h
obtainedwhere in the number of units in stratum h. (h 1,. . L).
The second phase consists of selecting a sub-sample mh from h• The selectedm11 units of phase
one are further stratifiedinto the same or differentstrata as in the first phase one, and m1 second
phase samplingunits are obtained for each stratum j of secondphasein each stratum h of phase
one.
In the third phase a sub-sample in each second phase stratum is drawn. The units selected
in the third phase noted bhf are then used for measurements of the characteristics of interest.
Observations are noted Yhjk' where k = 1,. . b3.
A typical three-phase sampling design incorporates satellite imagery (phase one), aerial pho-
tography (phase two) and ground sampling (phase three). A four phase design can as well be
employed if both small and largescale aerial photography are used in the second and the third
phases respectively.
Onequestion which may be posed concerns the sample sizes in eachphase. Theoretically, sample
sizes in each level should be determined in such a way that the total survey cost is minimized.
The problem becomes one of optimization which is out of the scope of the present discussion.
For more details on the question and the computation of the variance of estimates, the papers
of Frayer (1979) and Jeyaratnam et al. (1984) are recommended. More simply,sample sizes asso-
ciated with each phase, can be defined arbitrarilybefore the first phase selection. It is, however,
not recommendedto use less than two sampling units per stratum.
In the three-phase sampling case, the estimate of the total value of the population parameter is
obtainedby:
The application of a three-phase sampling and the above formula to mangrove forests can be
illustrated by the following example: Let N be the total number of sampling units contained in
a given area to be inventoried. Let each sampling unit be associated with a pixel from Landsat
imagery (say of 1:250 000 scale), used in the survey as the first level of sampling. We consider
further that medium scale (1:30 000) aerialphotography of the samearea is availableand couldbe
usedin the second phase. The third phase is the samplingin the field where stand characteristic
measurementsare taken. The sequenceof the method is described as follows:
STEP 1
From the total number N of sampling units, say 262 144, a sample n is drawn at random or
systematicallyon satellite images. Out of a total of N units, n = 13107 (5% sampling intensity)
units are then classified accordingto defined land-use classes on satellite images. The number of
different classes (L) will be a function of the sensor and classification procedure used. The latter
can be computer-aidedor visual. For sake of simplicity, let us assume that three classes (strata)
are defined in this first phase: Forests, non-forestand water.
Fao Forestry Paper 241
STEP 2
In the second phase, samples are drawn from the first phase samples. Using some pre-defined
sampling fraction (1% for instance), these phase two sampleswhich are noted in1 = 983, m = 197
and in3 = 131 are located on aerial photographs and stratified according to a more detailed
interpretationusing photo variables such as crown density, tree height, etc., and other criteria on
non-forestareas such as agricultural lands, salt ponds, fish ponds and shrimp farms. We assume
in the example that the first phase stratum "forest" is refined into three strata in phase two,
namely "dense", "open" and "degraded". The second stratum of phase one is split into three
strata also. They are "agriculture", "aquaculture" and "other".
Finally, we consider that the third stratum of phase one which is "water" remained unchanged
in the second phase. According to this scheme, the results of classification are:
>m = 1 311
STEP 3
In the third phase, samples are selected from phase two samples to be located in the field.
Assumingagain a sampling fraction of 1%, the final number of sampling units to be measured
in the field will be:
242 Samplingdesigns for surveys, resourceassessment and forest inventories
bhf
Stratum number Land cover Sample size Y;k
k=1
=1 dense b11 = 46 2 760
j=2 open b12 = 20 1 930
3 degraded b13 = 32 530
j == 1 agriculture b21 = 10 0
2 aquaculture b22 = 6 0
j=3 other b23= 4 0
j=1 water b31=13 0
• bhJ is the number of third phase samples drawn from the second phase samples mhf
• YhJk is volume measured on the ground plots.
The values in the last column are assumed to be the total values of timber volume in each
third phase stratum expressed in m3. In no-forestclasses and areas where the forest has been so
severely disturbed, that no commercially valuable tree exists or the forest is poorly stocked,data
collection in the field may be restricted to simple observationson vegetation status.
The estimate of the total timber in the whole area concerned by the survey is given by the
formula presented above, which yields the following result:
L'°°
1966 1100
+--
= 10436884.25 m3
59 1311
+--
131
---(0)
Other parameters such as the total forest area may also be estimatedusing multi-phase sampling
techniques. In that case, the variable YhJk takes on the value 1 when the sampling unit falls in
the stratum forest and zero otherwise.
In a two-phase sampling design, followingthe same pattern as above, the estimate of the pop-
ulation total is given by:
Y= Y/ij L
h=1 j=1
CLUSTER SAMPLING
Cluster samplingis also a commonlyapplied techniques,which has often been usedin extensive
forest surveys, resource assessments and inventories, particularly in the tropics. With cluster
sampling,the elementaryunits, on which the observations ar to be made, are grouped in clusters
of pre-assignedsize. When all elementaryunits of the cluster are included in the sample we have
Fao Forestry Paper 243
a single phase sampling design. Clusters can be also of unequal sizes. The cluster size refers to
the number of elementaryunits that compose the cluster.
Like in double-phase sampling, plots which are grouped in clusters, reduce the overall travel
distance.However, a cluster sampling design—when compared to simple random sampling—is
efficient only if the variancewithin clustersis large relative to the variableobserved.With cluster
sampling the variance of estimate is generally larger than that obtained by a simple random
sampling of the same intensity. This increase in variance is due to the correlation between units
within clusters.
REFERENCES
FAO, (1994). MangroveForest ManagementGuidelines. FAO Forestry Paper No. 117. 319 p.
Lanly, J.P. (1973). Manual of Forest inventories with special references to tropicalforests. FAQ, Rome.
200 p.
METHODS OF GERMPLASMSAMPLING
B.R. MURTY
INTRODUCTION
Many theories have been developed to provide background to good and efficient samplingand
limiting costs (Cochran, 1963). In statisticalterms, sampling is a tool for referring to the 'popu-
lation'. In fact, any biological event may be regarded as forming an individual of a population
of events which might occur under the identicalconditions. Series of events is a 'sample' drawn
from the population.
The efficiency of a method satisfies the main objective of the conservation allowing for reasonable
expenditure of 'effort'. The effort in this context stands for any resource such as time, manual la-
bor, funds, etc. which may be expended for successfully conductingthe project (Yonezawa,1985).
Sampling in the field can be carried out accordingto two main criteria, probabilitysamplingand
prepositive sampling.
Probability sampling is a general name given to samplingplans in which every member of the
population has a known (and not necessary equal) probabilityof being included in the sample.
The sample is drawn by some methods of random selection consistentwith these probabilities.
The estimates from the sample are drawn taking account of these selection probabilities.
Conversely, prepositivesamplingis a general term used for a samplingplan in whichthe sample
is restricted to units typical of the population or convenientor for a fixed purpose (Jana; 1988).
We shall examine here some of the features offered by probabilitysampling since it is designed
to take advantage of any available information on the structure of the population. This often
leads to a desired degree of precision with the minimum expenditure of resources.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
In order to apply probability sampling, the population must be subdivided into units called
"sampling units". These form the basis for selection of the sample. The sample units must be
distinct and together they must consist of the entire population. There are various methods for
sample selection.
NON-RANDOMSAMPLING
If the distribution of the sampling units is extremely random, samples of the same number of
units is collected. It has the advantage of requiring less time for collectingthe sample. When the
distributionof the sampling units is patchy, it gives the same precision as using simple random
samplingbut with a smaller size.
SYSTEMIC SAMPLING
This method allocates the samplingpoints at regular intervals on a grid. Systematic samples are
the easiest to select and if the sampling grid is aligned with the map grid, they are very easily
located. There are, however, two drawbacks. The first concerns the periodicity of maturity in
the population and possiblebias that can be introduced withit. The second disadvantageis that
method does not give an entirelyvalid estimate of the sampling error as the sampling points are
not located entirely at random.
UNALIGNED SAMPLING
This method is also known as stratified systematic unaligned sampling.It combines the advan-
tages of a regular grid and randomization.The sample is extractedby dividing the survey area
first into sub-areasby means of a coarse grid and then superimposing a fine grid, as a reference
system, on each sub-area. The method provides unbiased estimates of means but does not easily
estimate the sampling error.
B.R. Murty 247
MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
The procedure mentioned above pre-suppose that the sampling unit has to be sub-sampledin
each area. The first stage is the sample of primary samplingunits. The second stage is the taking
of a sub-samplefrom each selected primary unit. Thus, the sampler can choose both the size of
the sample of primary units and the size of the sample that is taken from a primary unit. An
added advantage is that it facilitates the task of listing the population.
Often it is relativelyeasy to obtain a list of primary units but difficultor expensiveto list the sub-
units. It is usually easy to list the areas in a region and the villages in an area but the problem of
making a random selection of the farmers' fields may be difficult. With the multistagesampling
the problem arises only in this last stage.
Another advantage of this method is that it permit an estimate to the financial cost of adding an
extra primary unit to the sample, relative to that of adding an extra sub-unit in each primary
unit; the most economical plan for collection can then be prepared.
This conclusionis also supported by the evidence that almost all the intra-populationvariability
is concentrated among families, and very little or none within families. The sample size required
to conserve the geneticvariabilityfound in a population for heading time and accordingto which
B.R. Murty 249
the method used for calculationis that proposed by Sokal and Rohif (1969).
n 2(a/6)2[t c(v)+t2(l—P)(v)j2
wheren is the desired size of the number ofplants per populationa is the truestandard deviation
(the square root of the variance), d is the smallest truce difference that is desired to detect, v
is the degree of freedom for the sample standard deviation, 6 is the significance level of t
(table value at 0.01 level), and P is the desired probability that the differences to be found are
significant (at 95% level) and t (v) and t/2 (1-P) (v) are values from a two-tailedt-table with v
degrees of freedom and corresponding to probabilities of and 2(1-P), respectively. The results
for the Ethiopian, Algerian and Italian population,utilizing the heading time as a test character,
indicate an average sample of 100 plants as optimum i.e., 112 for Ethiopia, 100 for Algeria and
107 for Italy.
Adary (1978) using an identical formula for six characters from the same populations grown at
Davis, California, U.S.A. obtained results shown in Table 2.
They indicate that the sample should contain between 6 and 133 plants when heading time is
the test character, between 1 and 72 when plant height is used, between 20 and 452 for spike
length, between 17 and 192 for the number of caryopsis per spike, between 1 and 60 for seed
weight, and between 6 and 40 when the spikelet number is considered. The use of all the six
characters simultaneouslyindicates that the sample size should be between 20 and 133 plants.
The result is similar to that obtained by Marshall and Brown (1975) using a different approach.
It should be noted that the analyzed material was collected adopting the methods proposed by
Marshall and Brown (1975). In the absence of detailed indications, the collections were made on
the hypothesisthat all populationshad the samevariability, which is untrue accordingto Brown
(1978).
The range of 20-130 plants seems advisable also for other valid reasons. These number of plants
will account for 95% variability existing in the populations, the size of samples still remaining
a workable one. It should, however, be noted that a detailed observationis difficult during a
collecting mission, hence the figures reported should be considered only as estimates. In case of
large-seededcrops, such as faba beans, the number of reproductiveunits per individual plant
may have to be reduced to sample an adequate amount of variability in a population. Hence,
instead of an individual spike, a single pod could be sampled from 20-130 plants. This will not
only ensure that an adequate quantity of germplasm is collected, but also that nearly all the
variabilityhas been sampled.
Mean 35 38 77 18 61 34 46
A17971 43 20 173 21 192 60 85
A17982 16 17 205 10 114 59 70
A17988 34 21 73 9 65 21 37
A18031 16 4 102 9 52 15 33
A18037 9 5 76 9 37 25 27
Mean 24 13 126 12 92 36 50
Overall 32 25 120 19 88 34 53
mean
ARUN H. PARULEKAR
INTRODUCTION
/ /
Benthosaccounts for those biotic entities which dwell in on above the substratum.Ecologically,
the mangroveenvironment,bordering tropicaland sub-tropical estuaries and open seafront, rep-
resents a transitionalarea between the marine and terrestrialbiotopes and thus forms an integral
part of the Intertidal or littoral zone. However, depending upon the natural gradient coupled
with tidal amplitude, the horizontal expanse may extend either upshore to the infraterrestrial
region or downshoreto the sublittoralregions.
A general belief that animals are of minor significance in the mangroveenvironmentdoes exist.
It is only recently that the distribution, abundance and importance of the benthic fauna in a
mangrove environmenthas been recognised. The benthic communities of the mangrove ecosys-
tem find themselvesin a stressful situation of widely fluctuating ecological parameters. Here the
tidal influence is appreciablystrong which determinesthe distribution and zonationof the biota.
Due to the lack of vigorous water motion, the fine sediments settling on the bottom give rise
to soft substratum, where poor interstitial circulation, high organic content and high microbial
populations lead to anoxic conditions.
The effect of thermal gradient in a mangrove benthic environment is three-dimensional. Air
temperatures have a telling effect during low tide when mud-flats are exposed whereas soils,
due to soft but compact nature of sediments display a temperature range of higher magnitude
than the air and water temperatures. Salinity of the interstitialwater remains higher than that of
the overlyingwater, by an order of magnitude. Due to the large amount of suspended matter
causing oxidation reactions, the oxygen content of both the overlyingand the interstitial water
is generally low in a mangrove environment.
Typical sedimentsof mangrovesare peaty, soft, sandy (towards land) and clayey mud (seaward).
However, the particle size is of great importance,as it controls the ability to retain and circulate
water. If the particle size becomes fine, the circulation practically ceases and the result is the
formationof anaerobic conditionswithin the substratum. As a combinedeffect of weak circulation
and high organic inputs mainly from decaying foliage and debris, there is a large amount of
organic matter in the sediments.However,the rich organicmatter content being highly oxidative
in nature,ends up creatingdifficult living conditionsfor the benthic communities of the mangrove
environment.
do not occur in other habitats, though some species may occur in various mangroveecosystems
within the same faunistic region. Followingtypes of benthic fauna are found in the mangrove
environment:
Type Distribution
Terrestrial Species Upper Littoral and InfraterrestrialFringe
Aquatic Species Mid and Lower Littoral; Estuarine
Marsh and Mud-flat Species Planktonic in Larval Stages; Mangrove
Inhabitant throughout the Life
All these types occur in most of the mangroves. However, the distribution characteristics are
subjectedto variations in the overlapping, which are locality specific. As far as the distribution
and abundance are concerned, the benthic fauna of a mangroveecosystem can broadlybe divided
into:
1. Those inhabiting the hard substrate offered by mangrove vegetation (trunk, stilt roots, pneu-
matophores, etc.):
a. Wanderingor mobile forms, and
b. Fixed or sessile forms;
2. The ones inhabiting the muddy substrate:
a. Infauna or burrowing into substratum, and
b. Epifauna or forms errant on the substratum.
Qualitative and quantitative distribution of benthic communities in mangrove environment is
governed by tidal amplitude, light penetration, nature of substratum and distance from the sea,
and accordingly it can best be studied in relation to (a) tidal amplitude, i.e., vertical distribution,
and (b) the expanse, i.e., horizontal distribution.
Broadly, the following five zones have been delineated for studying the benthic communitiesof
mangrove ecosystem:
LITTORALZONE
Extends upwards of highest high water of spring tide and is comparablewith the littoral zone
in rocky Intertidal region. Dominantorganism is the periwinkle gastropod.
NERITA ZONE
Bounded by mean sea level on lower extent and highest high water of spring tide towards its
upper extent. Dominant organism is Nerita sp., a gastropod, which varies in extent as per the
tidal range.
BARNACLE—OYSTER ZONE
Extends between mean sea level and mean lower low water of spring tide and is populated
mainly by Balanus and Crassostrea species.
Arun H. Parulekar 255
UCA ZONE
Lies below mean lower low water of spring tide and extends below lower low water of spring
tide. Dominantspecies are fiddler crabs (Uca spp.) and important faunal associates are Cerithidea
spp. and hermit crabs.
POLYCHAETAZONE
Narrow vertical delineation but maximum horizontal expanse. Populated by a variety of crabs,
mud lobsters,gobiid worms, distributed up to 10 cm within the soft substratum.
Commonest epifaunal species are gastropod molluscs, represented by snails, whelks and top
shells; bivalve molluscs like oysters and blood clams; crustaceans represented by crabs, mud
lobsters, shrimps and barnacles; fishes, the commonest form being the mud-skipper.In contrast,
the infaunal species are few and mainly represented by the polychaete worms. Migrant forms
are many, but commercially important ones are the young stages of shrimps and fishes like milk
fish, pearl spot and mullets, which use the mangrove ecosystem as shelter and nursery grounds.
Quantitativestudies on benthic faunaof mangroveenvironmentare rather few, probablybecause
organisms like crabs and those living on mangrove bark or burrowing among pneumatophores
are difficultto trap and enumerate. Comparatively, the infauna is slightly better known.
In a comparative study of the benthic fauna in three estuarine mangrove biotopes of Goa, the
population density and biomass of infauna was found to vary from 9—1700 m2 and 0.03—33.30
gm—2 respectively. The epifauna formingthe mainbulkwas dominated by detritivoresas against
the infauna which was composed of either omnivores and/or deposit feeders. Suspension of
filter/cirral feeders were represented only by oysters and barnacles.Thus, the predominanceof
detritus-basedfood web is clearlyreflected by the dominanceof detritus feeders in the energetics
of mangrove environment.
REFERENCES
K. BALASUBRAHMANYAN
Decapoda—Caridea Amphipoda
Alpheus malabaricus Heteropanope indica
Ptychognathusaltimanus
—Anomura
Decapoda Neoepisescirma(Neopisesarma) mederi
Uca (Celuca) lactea annulipes N. (Muradium) tetragonum
Macrophthalmus depressus N, (Selatium) brockii
Macrophthalmuserato Parasesarmaplicatum
Metapograspsus maculatus Nanosesarma (Beanium) batavicum
Metapograpsus messor N. (Beanium) andersoni
1.8 cm
Perinereis sp., Tanais sp., Cirolanafluviatilis, Grandidierella sp., Corophium triaenonyx, heteropanope
indica and Nanosesarma batavicum were found associatedwith oysters while Mercierella enigmat-
ica, Dostia Crepidularies, Assiminea nitida and Bctlanus amphitrite occurred on stilt and breathing
roots. Heteromastus similis, Euclymene annandalei, Crassostrea madrasensis, Apseudes gymnophobia,
Halmyrcipseudes killaiyensis, Paracalliope sp., Clibenarius padavensis, Scylla serrata, Scylla trangue-
barica, Metapograpsus messor, Thalamita crenata and Nanosesarma andersoni occurred subtidally,
and Cerithidea fluviatilis, Telescopium telescoplum, Aipheus malabaricus, Uca annulipes, Macrophthal-
mus depressus, M. erato, Metapograpsus maculatus,' Ptychognathus altimanus, Neoepisesarma mederi,
N. tetragonum and N. brockii occurred intertidally. Most of them lived in burrows. Parasesarma
plicatum was found concealed among the roots.
Terrestrial gastropods are Cerithidea obtusa, Littorina scabra, Pythia plicata, Melampus ceylonicus,
Cassidualnucleus,and the isopod Ligia exotica. Their membersare declining in Pichavaram forests
K. Balasubrahmanyan 259
and Pythia plicata can be considered as an endangered species in this area. (Figure 1) Sphaeroma
terebrans and S. annandalei are the wood-boringisopods. An amphipod Talorchestia sp. occurred
among stranded algae.
Out of forty-fouranimal types recorded in Pichavaram mangroves, sixteen were crabs and nine
gastropods. The other groups were represented less. Uca annulipes and Cerithidea fluiatilis were
numericallydominant in the Intertidal area, while amphipods and tanaids were dominant sub-
tidally. Most of the animals,viz., crabs and gastropods, are detritus feeders. The mangroves are
rich in detritus and hence the detritus feeders are the dominant groups of macro-invertebrates
that occur in Pichavarammangroves.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Help rendered by Dr. S. Ajmal Khan and Dr. A. Shanmugamis gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Kasinathan,R. and A. Shanmugam. (1986). Molluscan fauna of Pichavaram mangroves, Tamil
Nadu. Proceedings ofNat. Symp. on Biology, Utilisationand Conservation ofMangroves Nov.18-20,
1985 Shivaji Univ. Kolhapur. pp. 438-443.
Sethuramalingam,S. and S. Ajmal Khan. (1991). Brachyuran crabs of Parangipettai coast. CAS Ma-
rine Biology Publication. 92 p.
REMUNERATIVE ROLE OF FORAMINIFERAIN COASTAL
ECOSYSTEM
RAJIV NIGAM
Due to the direct relationship between climate and economy (through agriculture),predictive
models for climatic changes are very much needed. Climatic prediction is a delicate task and
depends uponhow well we know the past climate. Since the direct observational data for climate
(temperatureand rainfall)is availablefor only the last 100-150 years,paleoclimatic reconstruction
has to be based on indirectevidences (proxy data) of climaticchanges. Attemptsare made to use
fossilised floral evidence to reconstructthe past climate of the Indian region (Singh, 1971; Van
Campo,1986; Caratiniet a!., 1991)However, credibilityof paleoclimatic reconstructionsbased on
floralevidencesalone can alwaysbe increasedbycomparing them withparallelrecordsgenerated
through other evidences availablein the form of tree rings, coral bands, lake sediments, marine
sediments,etc.
Main objectives are
1. How marine sediments can be used to reconstruct paleoclimate?
2. In which way such records can be used to supplement information derived through floral
evidences ?
THE STRATEGY
First, foraminiferal content in surface sediments from the sea bed should be studied. By com-
paring the distributionpattern with modern environmentalparameters (like salinity) the proper
techniques can be developed to generate proxy data for paleoclimates. A few such techniques
developed so far are : (a) Species distribution, (b) Morpho-groups of benthic foraminifera, (c)
Coiling directions, (d) Isotopic (180/160) variations, (e) Dimorphic ratios, etc. Depending upon
the requirement, any of the above techniques can be used. For example, freshwater discharge
through rivers is one of the cruciallimiting factorsfor propergrowth of mangroves. Anyonewho
is interested to know the history of paleoprecipitation can reconstructthe same by studying the
remains of mangrovevegetation and also faunal remains in coastal marine sediments deposited
over thousands of years.
REFERENCES
Caratini et a!. (1991). A major change at Ca. 3500 years B.P. in the vegetation of the Western
Chats in North Kanara, Karnataka. Curr. Sci. 61 (9 & 10) : 669-672.
Singh, C. (1971). The Indus Valley culture seen in context of post-glacial climatic and ecological
studies in North-west India. Archaeology and Physical Anthropology in Oceania 6(2) : 177189.
Nigam et al. (1992). Aclimatic shift Ca. 3,500 years B.P. Faunal and floral evidencesfor the shelf
region off Karwar (India) (communicated to Marine Micropaleontology).
Van Campo, E. (1986). Monsoon fluctuation in two 20,000 years B.P. oxygen isotope/pollen
records of South-westIndia. Quat. Res. 26 : 376-385.
MICROBIALLY MEDIATED DETRITAL FOOD WEB : THE
LINK BETWEEN MANGROVES AND COASTAL AQUATIC
ANIMAL COMMUNITIES
S. RAGHU KUMAR
INTRODUCTION
The importance of mangroves extends far beyond that which is offered by their vegetation. In
fact, mangrovesconstitute the driving force of the food web in coastalwaters adjacentto them, in
the form of detritus. Detritus, in simple terms,may be defined as any dead organicmatter and its
associatedmicrobiota. The detrital pathway is the most important one through which the energy
of coastal macrophytic primary producers is channelled into the food web of adjacent waters
(Pomeroy, 1980). When we consider the enormous amount of coastal macrophyticproduction,
the detrital aspect of tropic web assumes an even greater significance. The salient features of
this detrital pathway are the following: (1) Living marine macrophytes are grazed only to a
minimal extent. It is only after their death and transformation into detritus in the water that
they enter the food web. (2) The detritus is colonisedby micro-organisms and is biochemically
transformed. (3) Detritus forms an important food source of many marine animals.These aspects
are considered in detail here, with particular emphasis on the mangroves.
DEAD MANGROVE
TISSUE
DETRITIVORES
Colonisation: Colonisation of fungi on mangrove leaves and seedlings follows a distinct suc-
cession of species (Fell and Master, 1980; Newell, 1976). Several terrestrial species of fungi are
present on senescent leaves and healthy seedlings of mangroves, even when they are attached
to the plant. These may either occur on the surfaces of the tissue or penetrate the first on or two
layers of the cells to exist as 'weak parasites'. Some of these species may persist in the mangrove
tissues for several weeks after the latter fall into the water and may have a role to play in the
initial stages of decomposition. Withina few hours after mangroveleavesfall into the water, they
are colonisedby species of Phytophthora,which appear to be characteristic of decayingmangrove
leaves. Species of this fungus produce motile zoospores, which probably reach the detritus in
waterby chemotaxis (Newell et cii., 1987). By about 36 h, Phytophthoravesiculci could be isolated
wit 100% frequencyfrom such fallen leaves. The zoosporic, fungilike osmoherotrophic protists,
the thraustochytrids, are also early colonisers of such leaves (Newell, 1976; Fell and Master,
1980). Besides these, several of the fungal species present on senescent parts also persist for
some time in the water. All these forms, together,comprisethe first serial stage, or the common
primary saprophytes. The second seral stage is characterisedby 'secondary saprophytes',which
include typical marine species such as Luiworthia sp. and Cirrenauia spp. in leaves and Keissleriauia
biepharospora and Cytospora rhizophorae on seedlings. Very late stages of decomposition harbour
species of terrestrial genera, such as Aspergiiius, Penicillium and Trichoderma activity. Larger in-
vertebratesare involvedin detritus increase available of bacterialcolonisation. This also resultsin
enhanced bacteria activity. This process have implications in accelerating changesin the detritus.
One of the major changesbrought about in detritus is the reduction in the C:N ratios. The phe-
nomenon of decrease in C:N ratio was earlier explained as follows. Plant detritus has C:N ratios
much higher than those of bacteria. In order to utilise the plantorganic carbon,but to compensate
for the nitrogen deficiency, micro-organisms efficiently take up the inorganic nitrogen from the
ambient water and incorporatethis into the cell protein, a process termed 'nitrogen immobilisa-
tion' (Melillo et cii. 1984). Presence of micro-organisms in detritus under experimentalconditions
does indeed lower C:N ratios (Fell and Master, 1980. Reductionin C:Nwasequated with increase
in proteins and this was considered a major indicator of an improvement in detrital quality as
animal food. Therefore, this aspect has been studied by many (Fell and Master, 1980); Robertson,
1988; Tam et cii., 1984; Robertson, 1988; Crosby et al., 1990). It appears that much of the increase
in nitrogen may be ascribed to microbialexudates such as enzymes and mucopolysaccharides,
which combine with reactive phenolicsin the detritus to form humic, non-proteinnitrogen (Wil-
son et a!., 1986; Melillo et cii., 1984). The standing stock of bacteriogenicexudates may be several
times greater than living bacteria.
As the utilisable components of detritus are gradually used up, particulate detritus becomes
increasingly recalcitrant to microbial degradation. Microbial activity on such substrates, and
therefore their decomposition, is greatly retarded. Such detritus accumulates in the sediment
over a period of time.
C than from the detritus alone (Pomeroy, 1980). Moreimportantly,processingthrough the 'faeces
loop might make microbialcontribution very important in terms of supply of N of detritivores,
upto 73% of N coming from such a source in the case of kelp bed animals communities in South
Africancoastal waters.
Most studies have only looked into carbon and nitrogen contribution from microbial cells. How-
ever, much of microbial production might be released in the form of extracellular enzymes and
mucopolysaccharides which may be complexedwith reactivephenolicsand carbohydratesto pro-
duce non-protein,'humic' nitrogen (Wilson et al., 1986). Detritivores such as the fish Tilapia sp.
and the freshwateramphipod Gammaruspseudolimnaeus are capableof assimilatingsuch nitrogen
(Mann, 1988, Barlocher et al., 1989). Microbes of this origin might, therefore, play an important
role in the food of detritivores. Apart from carbon from carbon and nitrogen, microorganisms
may be extremelyimportant as suppliers of essentialnutrients (Phillips, 1984). Bacteria are rich
sources of essential amino acids (EAA) and vitamins. Polyunsaturatedfatty acids (PUFA5) are
now believed to be extremely important in the nutrition of many marine animals. Eucaryotes,
including diatoms, are a rich source of the PUFAs. The emphasis on microbial importance in
detrial food webs may, indeed, shift to these aspects in future.
Many aspects of detrital food in coastal waters, particularly those supported by mangroves, are
poorly understood. Most of these pertain to the role played by micro-organisms in detritus. We
do know, however, that dead mangroveplant parts contribute enormouslyto detritus in coastal
aquatic ecosystems, the animal community (including commercially useful ones) is supported
largely by these, and that the micro-organisms actively play a role in detrial transformation. The
importance of mangrove vegetation to the food web of adjacent waters, therefore, cannot be
overemphasised.
REFERENCES
Barlocher, F., P.G. Tippo and S.H. Christie, (1989). Formation of phenol-protein complexes and
their use by two stream invertebrates.Hydrobiologia 173: 242—249.
Benne, R. and R.E. Hodson (1985). Microbial degradation of the leachable and lignocellulosic
componentsof leaves and wood form Rhizophora mangle in a tropicalmangrove swamp. Mar.
Ecol. Prog. Ser. 23: 221—230.
Blum, L.K., A.L. Mills, J.C. Zieman and R.T. Zieman (1988). Abundance of bacteria and fungi in
seagrass and mangrove detritus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 42: 73—78.
Camilleri, J. (1989). Leaf choice by crustaceans in a mangrove forest in Queensland. Mar. Biol.
102: 453—459.
Crosby.M.P., C.J. Langdon and R.I.E. Newell (1990). Importance of refractory plant material to
the carbon budget of the oyster Crassostrea virginica. Mar. Biol. 100: 343—352.
Cundell, A.M., M.S. Brown, R. Stanford and R.Mitchell (1979). Microbial degradation of Rhi-
zophora mangle leaves immersed in the sea. Estuar. Coast. Mar. Sci. 9: 281—286.
Fell, J.W. and I.M. Master (1980). The association and potential role of fungi in mangrovedetrital
systems. Bot. Mar. 23: 256—263.
Kofoed, L.H. (1975). The feeding biology of Hydrobia ventrosa (Montagu) II: Allocation of the
componentsof the carbon-budget and the significance of the secretion of dissolvedorganic
material.I. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 19: 243—256.
270 Microbially mediated detrital food web
Mann, K.H. (1988). Production and use of detritus in various freshwater, estuarine and coastal
marine ecosystems. Limnol. Oceanogr. 33: 910—930.
Meillio, J.M., R.J. Naiman, J.D. Aber and A.E. Linkins. (1984). Factors controllingmass loss and
nitrogen dynamics of plant litter decaying in Northern streams. Bull. Mar. Sci. 35: 341—356.
Newell,S.Y. (1976). Mangrovefungi : the succession in the mycofloraof red mangrove(Rhizophora
mangle L.) seedlings. In : E.B.G. Jones (Ed.). Recent advances in aquatic mycology. Elek Science,
London.p.51-91.
Phillips, N.W. (1984). Role of differentmicrobes and substrates as potential suppliers of specific,
essentialnutrients to marine detritivores. Bull. Mar. Sci. 35: 283—298.
Pomeroy, L.R. (1980). Detritus and its role as a food source. In : R.S.K. Barnes and K.H.Mann
(Ed.). Fundamentalsof aquaticecosystems. Blackwell Scientific Publications. p.84—l02.
Rice, D.L. (1982). The detritus nitrogenproblem : new observationsand perspectives from organic
geochemistry. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 9: 153—162.
Robertson, A.I. (1988). Decomposition of mangrove leaf litter in tropical Australia.I. Exp. Mar.
Biol. Ecol. 116: 235—247.
Stuart, V., J.G. Fieldand R.C. Newell.1982. Evidence for absorptionof kelp detritus by the ribbed
mussel Aulacomya after using a new 51 Cr-labelled microsphere technique. Mar. Ecol. Prog.
Ser. 9: 263—271.
Suberkropp, K. and Ti. Arsuffil. (1984). Degradation, growth and changes in palatability of
leaves colonizedby six aquatic hyphomycetes.Mycologia 76: 398—407.
Sumitra-Vijayaraghavan and J.V. Ramadhas (1980). Conversion efficiency in the shrimp Metape-
naeus monoceras (Fabricius), fed decomposed mangrove leaves. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 9: 123—125.
Sumitra-Vijayaraghavan, V. Ramadhas, L. Krishnakumari and J.P. Royan (1980). Biochemical
changes and energy content of the mangrove Rhizophora mucronata leaves during decompo-
sition. Indian J.Mar.Sci. 9: 120—123.
Tam, N.F.Y., L.L.P. Vrijmoed and Y.S. Wong (1990). Nutrient dynamicsassociated with leaf de-
compositionin a small, sub-tropical mangrove communityin Hong Kong. Bull. Mar. Sci. 47:
68—78.
Untawale, A.G., N.B. Bhosle, V.K. Dhargalkar and S. Bukhari (1977). Biochemical changes in
mangrove foliage during growth and decomposition. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 6: 104—106.
Valiela, I., J. Wilson, R. Buchsbaum, C. Rietsma, D. Bryant, K. Foreman and J. Teal. (1984). Impor-
tance of chemicalcomposition of salt marsh litter on decay rates and feeding by detritivores.
Bull. Mar. Sci. 35: 261—269.
Wilson, J.O., R. Buchsbaum, I. Valiela and T. Swain (1986) Decomposition in salt marsh
ecosystems: phenolic dynamicsduring decay of litter of Spartina altraniflora. Mar. Ecol. Prog.
Ser. 29: 177—187.
HIGHER MARINE FUNGI FROM MANGROYES
(MANGLICOLOUSFUNGI)
S. CHINNA RAJ
INTRODUCTION
The mangrove ecosystem is a typical tropical and coastal vegetation,found in Intertidal regions
of river deltas and backwaterareas known for high organic matter production (Odum and Heald,
1975), which supports the nearby estuarine and offshore communityby detritus transport. Fungi
play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter in the mangrove ecosystem (Fell
and Master, 1980). Mangrove trees have certain adaptations like prop roots, pneumatophores,
knee roots and viviparous germination which facilitate their growth in the aquatic environment
(Tomlinson, 1986). The dead and damaged stems, prop roots,seedlings and leaves of the man-
groves which fall on the ground are exposed duringlow tide and submergedin the waterduring
high tide. The period of exposure depends on the tidal amplitude and place where the materials
accumulate. This environmentcreates a unique habitat for a certain group of fungi called "man-
glicolous fungi" which are well adaptedto this type of environment(Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer,
1979). The first review on manglicolous fungi recognised42 species of higher marine fungi which
included 23 Ascomycetes, 2 Basidiomycetes and 17 Deuteromycetes(Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer,
1979). Hyde (1990a) listed 120 species from 29 mangroves from all over the World this includes
87 Ascomycetes, 2 Basidiomycetes and 31 Deuteromycetes. Later on, the following species were
published : Helicascus nypae Hyde, Salsuginea ramicola Hyde, Phomopsis mangrovei Hyde, Ma-
grovispora pemphii Hyde et Nakagiri, Massarina lacertensis Kohim. et Volkm-Kdhlm., Bathyascus
mangrovei Ravikumar et Vittal, and Pedumispora mang-rovei Hyde et Jones. There are still more
species awaiting description.
COLLECTION TECHNIQUE
Thereare two differenttypes of techniques commonlyused to study manglicolousfungi: (1) Wood
baiting technique, where the terrestrial timber is used to collect the fungi. In this technique
wooden logs measuring 6 cm x 3 cm x 2 cm are immersed in the mangrove forests at different
tidal levels for a certain period, then retrieved and examined for fungal colonisation. The ad-
vantages are: the time of the exposureis known, sporulating stages can be identified, succession
of fungi couple with chemical composition and time can be studied; the disadvantagesbeing
the substrate does not exactly substitute the natural environment, generally very less species
diversity is observed. (2) Direct collection, where the dead and damaged parts of the mangrove
trees collected from mangrove forests directlyfrom the natural environmentcan be examinedfor
fungi colonisation. The advantage is that generally greater species diversity is recognised. The
disadvantagesare: it is difficult to identify the host and origin of the substrate if the substrate is a
driftwood, succession of fungi and change in chemicalcomposition and weight loss of substrate
cannot be studied.
Dactylospora haliotrepha — — — + + +
(Kohim. et Kohim.) Hafeliner
Haloserpheia marina — — — + — —
—
Leptosphaeria australiensis
—
+ +
(Cribb et Cribb) Hughes
Lignincola laevis Hohnk
— — — — +
Lophiostoma mangrovei Kohim + +
—
DISCUSSION
Hyde and Jones (1988a) reviewedthe occurrence of manglicolousfungi from three major oceanic
regionsand found that out of ninety speciesrecorded from all the World, 37 specieswere recorded
(e.g., Halosphaeria quadricornuta, Halosphaeria sauna Kohlm.), on persistent asci Halosarpheia
ratnagiriensis Patil et Borse, halosarpheia obonnis Kohim. Appendages and a gelatinous sheath
may enhance dispersal and attachment to the substrate. In general, most of species release
the spores passively;the presence of hyaline, appendaged and sticky ascospores indicates their
adaptation to the aquatic habitat. Species having dark-colouredascospores and an active spore
release mechanism which are normally restricted to the upper Intertidal region may be the
transition forms between the aquatic and terrestrial species. No experimentaldata are available
indicating whether the spores are released during low tide or high tide; such data would prove
very useful for a better understanding of the dispersal mechanism.
This paper is the first ever attempt to study the occurrence and distribution of manglicolous
fungi in the Indian region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Dr.A.G.Untawale,
Asst. Director for continuous encouragement,Head of the
Biological OceanographyDivisionfor facilities, and C.S.I.R. for financial assistance.
REFERENCES
Bore B.D. (1988). Frequencyof occurrence of marine fungi form Maharashtra coast, India. Indian
J. ofMarine Science, 17: 165-167.
Fell, J.W. and I.M. Master (1980). The association and potential fungi in mangrove detrital sys-
tems. Botanica Marina. 23 : 257-263.
Hyde, K.D. (1989a). Caryspora mangrovel sp. and notes on marine fungi from Thailand. Trans.
Mycol. Soc. Japan 30 : 333-341.
Hyde, K.D. (1989b). Internationalmangrove fungi from Sumatra. CanI. Bot. 67: 3078-3082.
Hyde, K.D. (1989c). Verticaldistributionof intertidal mangrovefungi.RecentAdvancesin Microbial
Ecology. Japan Scientific Societies Press. Tokyo. 302-306.
Hyde, K.D. (1990a). A comparisonof the intertidal mycota of five mangrovespecies. Asian Marine
Biology 7: 93-107.
Hyde, K.D. (1990b). A study of the vertical zonation of intertidal fungi on Rhizophora apiculata at
Kampong Kapokmangrove,Brunei. AquaticBotany 36: 255-262. Hyde, K.D. and E.B.G. Jones
(1988a). Marine mangrove fungi P.S.Z.N.I. Marine Ecology 9 (1) : 15-53.
Hyde K.D., Aniwat Chalermongse and Thirawat Boonthavikoon (1990). Ecology of Intertidal
fungi at Ranong mangroves,Thailand. Trans. Mycol. Soc. Japan 31: 17-27.
f)
Table 2 (contd.)
Name of the Species Am* Ra* Sa* Xg* Rm Ra Bg Rm Ao Sa
— — 12.0 — — — —
Luiworthia grandispora Meyres 13.0 10.5 17.3 8.0
Luiworthia sp. 18.0 — — — 6.0 — — — — — —
12.0 — — — — — 11.3 — — —
Marinosphaera mangrovei Hyde
— — — — — — — — — —
Massarina velatopora 9.0
Hyde et Borse
Passeriniella savoryellopsis — — — 12.0
Hyde et Mouzouras
— — — — — 11.3 10.1
Rhizophila marina
Hyde et Jones
— 9.0
Savoryella lignicola
Jones et Eaton
Verruculina enalia — — 7.0 — — 9.9 18.9 26.6 8.8 12.0 9.5
(Kohim.) Kohim. et Volkm-Kohlm
Basidiomycetes
10.0 — 30.0 10.0 — 10.2 — 11.4 — 9.5
Halocyphina villosa 11.3
Kohim. et Kohim.
Deuteromycetes
Cirrenalia pseudomacrocephia Kohim. — 7.0 — — — — — — — — —
Odum, W.E. and E.S. Heald. (1975). The detritus—based food webs of an estuarine mangrove
community. In :J.E. Cronin (Ed.). EstuarineResearch, Vol.1. Academic Press, New York.pp. 265-
288.
Tomlinson P.B. (1986). The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge UniversityPress. Cambridge. 413 p.
ALGAE ASSOCIATEDWITH MANGROVES
V.K. DHARGALKAR
INTRODUCTION
Mangroves are salt-tolerant plants of tropical and sub-tropical Intertidal regions of the World.
They play an important role in replenishing the fertility of the coastal regions and support
coastal inhabitants socio-economically. Other uses of mangrovesfor extraction of tannin, timber
products, aquaculture, etc., have been recently well organised.
The mangroveecosystem is a complexand dynamicone. The uniquenessof this ecosystem is that
the biota is constantly under physiologicalstress caused by extreme environmental conditions.
Despite such extreme conditions, mangroves have been successfully colonised by developing
morphological, reproductiveand physiological adaptations (Saenger, 1982; Clough et a!., 1982).
The mangrove community is not uniform structurally or floristically because of the number of
environmental factors that influence on individual mangrove species differently. The various
brought about by tide and coastal currents have made organisms of this ecosystem adapt to
continuous changingconditions.
The mangroveecosystems of the Worldcontain about 60 tree species and providea livingsupport
systemfor dependant biota—about2000speciesof fish, invertebratesand epiphyticplants. (Barth,
1982).
BENTHIC ALGAE
Algae are a primitive group of plants capable of synthesising the complex organic matter. In
spite of the considerablediversity in the thallus structure, the important characteristic that dis-
tinguishesmost algae from other photosyntheticplants is the formation of the reproductivecell
and unicellular reproductiveorgans or multicellularorgans.
Algae are classified into a number of systematic groups. Theyare found in shallowIntertidaland
sub-tidal area where 0.1% photosynthetic light is available. Their distribution in the Intertidal
areasand geographical regions of the World depends on various environmentalfactors, the major
ones being temperature, light, salinity, nutrient, substrate, etc. In the Intertidalarea, algae show
distinct zonation on the rocky shores while no zonation occurs in the mangrove area. The rise
and fall of the tide is the most important factor in colonisation of the mangrove-associated
algae because during low tide algae are subjected to the prevailing salinity conditions, high
temperature of the soil and loss of water from thallus due to exposure.
In a mangrove community, number of associated mangrove species are also observed. These
plants not only confine to mangrove areas alongwith exclusive mangrove species, but are also
found in other coastal ecosystems. This type of association may be considered as casual or
intimate which increases the diversity of mangrove community (Saenger et a!., 1977), Jagtap
(1986) has reported 44 species of algae belonging to 30 genera from Goa coast. (Table 1). This
type of variation in the number of algal species perhaps could be attributed to the tolerance
capacity of the respective algae in colonisingunstable mangrove areas.
Chiorophyta Rhodophyta
1. U/va fasciata 1. Grad/aria verrucosa
2. U. lactuca 2. Hypena musciformis
3. U. reticulata 3. Catenalla impudica
4. Enteromorpha clathrata 4. Caloglossa leprieuri
5. E. intestinalis 5. Polysiphonia macrocarpa
6. E. flexuosa 6. P. ianosa
7. Monostroma sp. 7. Bostrychia tenella
8. C/adophora sp.
9. Chaetomorpha linum Cyanophyta
10. Rhizoclonium knereri 1. Chiorococcus turgidus
11. R. riparium 2. Aphaniotheca saxico/a
12. Codium fragile 3. Oscillatoria earlei
13. Codium elongatum 4. 0. limosa
15. Dichotomosiphon salina 5. 0. nigrovirdis
6. 0. annae
Phaeophyta 7. 0. pinceps
1. Giffordia mitchellae 8. 0. marttinii
2. Dictyotta indica 9. Oscillatoria sp.
3. Padina tetrastromatica 10. Phormidium fragile
4. Spatoglossum asperum 11. Phormidium sp.
5. Colpomenia sinuosa 12. Spirulina sp.
6. Sargassum sp. 13. Schizothrix sp.
14. Macrocoleus echthnoplastes
15. Anabaena sp.
16. Calothrix crustacea
SUBSTRATE
Substrate plays very important role in algal establishnent in Intertidal and subtidal areas. Even
though substrate is meant only for attachment, it is vital for the algae to get attached to one
place without which it can be drifted away by water movements caused by the rise and fall
of tides and currents. In the rocky coastal area, algae attach themselves to the substratum with
discoidal type of hold-fast, while on the mud and sand or dead shell particles the attachmentis
with the help of rhizoidal hold-fast. Three microhabitatssuch as (a) mud surface, (b) surface of
tree trunk stilt roots, and upper branches and canopies of the trees, can be identifies based on
algal association in mangrove areas.
ALGAL ASSOCIATION
Algae colonising the mud surface are seasonal because of the unstable conditionscaused by the
erosion and accretion during the season. Mud surface harbours unicellular algae (diatoms) and
multicellularalgae dominatedby blue-green (Oscillatoria, Macrocoleus and Schizothrix spp.) form
a characteristic reddish, bluish or greenish mat on the mud surface.
V.K. Dhargalkar 281
The benthic algae of the mud surface are represented by the green filamentous Enteromorphci
clathrata, Rhizoclonium spp. and thalloid Monostroma sp., Ulva fasiata, etc. These algae are found
growing in extreme conditionsin the salinity range from 30 to 40% high temperature and nutri-
ents and high light intensity. Enteromorphaspp. shows luxuriant growth and is usually found
covering entire mud surface. During the afforestation programmeat Jaitapur (Ratnagiri) under-
taken by Social Forestry, Government of Maharashtra the canopy of the mangrove seedling of
Rhizophora mucronata was found covered with Enteromorpha sp. In many cases, seedlings were
bent due to the weight of this alga. Sometimes due to the strong cyclonic winds, algae growing
in the nearby rocky area are uprooted and enter the mangrove area. Sargassum spp., Spatoglossum
asperum,Padina teltrastromatica,Ulva lactuca, Ulvafasciata, Gracilariaverrucosa, Hypena musciformis,
Acanthophora specifera, Polysiphonia macrocarpa, Codium spp. are some such examples.
The epiphytic algal flora on mangrove trunks, pneumatophores,stilt roots, upper branches and
canopies are comparativelypoor. Red algae dominate in these groups and are represented by
genus Bostrychia spp., Caloglossa and Catenella. These algae grow in the open, more exposed
illuminated area, and form greenish-brownmat-like coveringon the tree trunk, pneumatophores
and stilt roots. On pneumatophores, Bostrychia-Catenella-Caloglosa-Catenella association is seen.
The level of settlement on these substrates depends on the tolerance capacity of the algae to
the environmentalfluctuations. It has been reported that Bostrychia tenella can grow above high
tide level if it is kept moist and shaded (Almodovar and Biebi, 1962) while Gayral (1966) found
that Bostrychia spp. can withstand a longer period of desiccation. There is not much information
on the tolerance capacity of the algal species under extreme conditions, however, based on
broad geographical distribution, most species appear to tolerate a wide range of water and air
temperature fluctuation.
BIOTIC FACTORS
With regard to the biotic factors there are a number of animals grazing on mangroveassociated
algal species. Cribb (1979) recorded traces of Cladophorci sp. in faecal pellets of gastropodLittorina
and Cerithidea spp. Algae in mangrove habitats generally constitute a significant food resource
for various species of mangrove creekfishes and mud-skippers(Beumer 1971, 1978 and Milward,
1974). Odum and Heald (1972) reported that molluscs and crustaceans are the major consumers
of diatoms and filamentousalgae of the mangrovecommunities. Competition in respect to space,
light and nutrients is another important biotic factor for the survival of the algal species. Green
filamentousalgae Enteromorpha spp. cover other smalleralgae of the Intertidalareas, thus depriv-
ing the smaller algae from sufficient light, space and nutrients, creatingunfavourableconditions
for their survival. However, some algae do survive in such conditions by minimising their re-
quirement, perhaps by modifying their metabolic processes. Some pneumatophores and tree
trunks were also found covered with Enteromorpha spp.
CONCLUSION
In general, mangrove habitat as a whole is unfavourable for the growth of the algal species
because of the lack of stable substrate, high turbidity and physiological stress due to the envi-
ronmentalextremes. Algae observedin the Intertidalregions of mangroveareasare very rich and
diverse in both quality and quantity. Over the years algae have probably developed resistance
282 Algae associatedwith mangroves
to the extremeconditionsand adapted to survive in this environment.The literature with regard
to algae associated with mangroves is meagre, and whatever information is available does not
give sufficient understanding of the mechanismof survival of algae in extreme conditions, their
interaction with other biota and genetic changes brought about in such environment over the
years. Therefore more in-depth studies in this field area needed to understand their survival
strategy for better utilisationand management.
REFERENCES
Almodovar, L.R. and R. Biebi. (1962). Osmotic resistanceof mangrovearound La Parguera,Puerto
Rico. Rev. Algol. 6 : 203-238.
Barth, H. (1982). The biogeography of mangrove. In : D.N. Sen and K.S. Rajpurohit (Ed.s). Tasks
for vegetation science : Contribution to the ecology of halophytes. Dr.W. Junk, The Hague.
Beumer, J.P. (1971). A preliminary investigationof the trophic ecology offour fishes from the North
Queensland mangrove creek. Unpubl. Hons. Thesis James Cook Univ. of North Queensland.
94 p.
Beumer, J.P. (1978). Feedingecology of four fishes from a mangrove creek in North Queensland,
Australian I. Fish. Biol. 12 : 475—490.
Cribb, A.B. (1979). Algae associatedwith mangrovesin MoretonBay, Queensland. In : A. Bailey
and N.C. Stevens (Ed.s). Proc. Northern Morton Bay Symp. Brisbane Roy.Soc. Qid. pp. 63-69.
dough, B.F., T.J. Andrews and I.R. Cowan. (1982). Physiological processes in mangroves. In
B.F. dough (Ed.). Mangroveecosystems in Australia: Structure,function and management Publ.
by AIMS with ANU Press. pp. 193-210.
Gayral, P. (1966). Les algries des Coters francausis (Manche et Atlantique). Paris : Doin-Desen
and Cie.
Jagtap. T.G. (1986). Ecological studies in relation to the mangrove environmentalong the Goa coast,
India. Ph.D Thesis, Shivaji Univ. Kolhapur.
Milward, N.E. (1974). Studies on taxonomy, ecology and physiology of Queenslandmudskipper. Ph.D.
Thesis, Univ. Queensland.
Odum, W.E. and E.J. Heald. (1972). Trophic analysis of an estuarine mangrove community. Bull
Mar. Sd 22 : 671-638.
Saenger, P., M.M. Specht, R.L. Specht and V.J. Chapman (1977). Mangal and coastal saltmarsh
communities in Australia. In : V.J. Chapman (Ed.). Ecosystems of the World I : wet coastal
ecosystems. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Saenger, P. (1982). Morphological, anatomical and reproductive adaptations of Australian man-
groves. In : B.F. dough (Ed.). Mangrove Ecosystem in Australia. Publ. by AIMS with ANU
Press. pp. 153-191.
SEAWEEDS OF THE MANGROVE AND ASSOCIATED
ECOSYSTEMS
L. KANNAN
Seaweeds are the valuable, natural marine resources which are renewable. They are useful to
mankind in many ways and are used as food, fodder, fertiliser and medicine. Agar and algin
extractedfrom the seaweeds have a variety of industrial applications. Such seaweeds occur not
only in the sea but also in various marine environs such as estuaries, backwaters,mangroves
and other associatedecosystems. In the mangroveenvironment,planktonicalgae are the primary
producers which indicate the pelagic food-chain. But microphytobenthos, mostly diatoms and
blue-green algae, macroalgae and seagrasses play a significant role in the benthic food-web
process.
In general, the mangrove environment is unfavourable for the growth of many macroalgae be-
cause of lack of suitable substratum. The substratum is unsteady and muddy. The mud in
suspension will cause more turbidity, thereby reducing light penetration into the water column
and affecting the growth of seaweeds. Furthermore, there is always some physiological stress
on these algae due to fluctuating salinity, as the mangrove environmentis bathed between sea-
water and freshwater. However, some red algae belonging to the genera Bostrychia, Caloglossa,
Catenella, Murrayella and Gracilaria constitute the unique algal vegetation of this environment.
Sometimes thick carpets of green algae like Caulerpa and Cladophorophis grow on the mangrove
mud under the shade provided by the mangrove canopy. But poor growth of such algae is a
common feature in the interior mangrove areas because of very heavy shading of the mangrove
thickets and relative stagnation of water.
In places of little or brief exposures of the mangrove environment,species of Bryopsis, Caulerpa,
Ceramium and Polysiphonia are present. These are filamentous, richly branched, very finely dis-
sected and delicate. On the roots of mangrove plants, especially the prop roots, a dense mat of
algae develop, protected from excess light and desiccation by the overhangingleafy branches.
In addition, these algae have water-holdingspongy mass of intergrownbranches to escape des-
iccation. In all, the best developed mangrove algal flora are found in the West Indies, in contrast
to the poorest development found in tropical Pacific Mexico (Dawson, 1966).
Zonation of algae in the mangrove environmentis governed by tides. In the supra-littoral fringe
where the tidal influence is negligible, no algae are found. In the mid-littoralzone where the tidal
influence is moderate, lesser number of algae (Chaetomorpha sp.) are present. In the infra-littoral
fringe which is frequentedby tides, algal vegetationis rich and is composedof mostly red algae
such as Caloglossa, Catenella,Bostrychia and Polysiphonia (Umamaheswara Rao, 1987).
On the East coast of India, the Pichavarammangroves represent a heterogenous assemblage of
plants with a striking seasonal distributionof algae (Muthukkannu,1983). During the post mon-
soon season, when the salinity is low, algae occur abundantly, depicting richness and diversity
(Enteromorpha clathrata, Padina gymnospora, Rosenvingea intricata and Hypnea cornuta).
During the summer season when the salinity is high, these species disappear. Algae such as
Bostrychia radicans and Caloglossa leprieuri, occurringon the roots of Rhizophora and Avicennia, are
found distributed throughout the year during all the seasonsby showing toleranceto fluctuating
salinities. Scattered distribution of Cladophora glomerata is found near the freshwater regions
of the mangroves. In the Godavari estuary, green algae (species of Chaetomorpha, Protoderma
and Phcieophilci) and red algae (Caloglossa leprieuri, Bostrychia tenella and Catene!la impudicci) and
common and they show a preferential distribution in low salinity (Umamaheswara Rao, 1987).
On the West cost of India, Nair et cii. (1982) have studied the macro algal composition of the
Ashtamudi estuary with the dominance of greens (Ulva lactuca, Enteromorpha linza, E. flexuosa
and Ciadophora spp.) and reds (Calogiossa ieprieuri, Polysiphonia spp., Hypnea spp. and Gracilaria
spp). Occurring in a salinity range of 10 to 35%. Algae of the mangrove regions of Goa are rich
and varied with about 44 species (Jagtap, 1985), dominated by green algae followed by red and
brown algae.
Salt marshes lying in the mangrove environment are subjected to partial inundation and the
channels of the marshlands serve as a good habitat for many algae such as Enteromorpha, Ulva
and Rhizoclonium. In New Zealand, the marsh fucoid, Harmosirsa lives either free in the marsh,
rising and falling with the tides or embedded in the mud.
Mangroves are in close association with seagrass and coral reef ecosystems. Coral reefs are
the spawning grounds of many fishes, and seagrass beds are important feeding grounds for
fishes which seek refuge as juvenilesin the mangroves (Rajeshwari, 1991). These ecosystems are
interlinked by many important functionalprocesses. Fortes (1990) has establishedthis fact and
has found that there is significant energy input from one ecosysteminto the other in the form
of material exports. He has estimatedthat the net export of organic matter from the mangroves
to the seagrass ecosystems to the nearshore areas is l5g/sq. m. He has also shown that there
are many inter-habitat similarities with fish (27 to 52%), crustacean (21-63%) and algal epiphyte
(28%) populations between the mangrove and seagrass ecosystems.
The importance of seagrass meadows in the coastal marine environmenthas been elaboratedby
Kannan and Veluswamy (1989). Seagrass ecosystems are highly productive and dynamic with
moreofN2 fixation. Theystabilise the bottom sedimentsby trapping the sediments.Theyimprove
the water clarity and quality to acting as a filter system for various pollutants, including heavy
metals. Theyform the direct sourceof food for many marine animals,including the economically
important ones. In addition, they provide important habitats and shelter to a variety of marine
animal species and thus very close to the shore in mangroves and seagrasses. By the transport
of organic matter in the form of seagrass detritus, nutrients may be lost, but replenishmenttakes
place in the seagrass ecosystems through capturing nutrients from ambient waters.
One the East coast of India, Rajeshwari (1991) has reported the monospecific and mixed occur-
rence of seagrasses, viz, species of Cymodocea,Halophila, Syringodium and Thalassia from the Gulf
of Mannar area. Veluswamy (1985) has recorded the occurrence of Halophila ovauis and Halodule
pinifolia in estuarine and mangrove environs of Porto Novo. On the West coast of India, Jagtap
(1985) has studied the seagrass distribution in the mangrove areas of Goa. Halophila baccarii is
rich and distributed throughout the year as compared to H. ovalis, and the seagrass populations
tend to disappear from monsoon onwards due to erosion, low salinity, low intensity of light and
high turbidity.
L. Kannan 285
Seagrass ecosystems are the most critical and linked habitats in the fisheries production as they
are sandwichedbetween the mangroves and coral reefs (Rajeshwari, 1991). Such coral reefs also
support a good growth of seaweeds. Halirneda opuntia is the predominant calcareous green alga,
and species of Caulerpa, and Gracilaria are the other dominant forms in the
Sargassum, Ai'nphiroa
coral reef areas (Project document of the Ministry of Environmentand Forests, Govt. of India,
1987).
Due to various demographic pressures, the mangroves and their associated ecosystems face a
World-widethreat of denudation. When the mangroves such as Rhizophora and Avicennia are
removed, the rich epiphytic growth of Caloglossa, Bostrychia, species gets disturbed and they
disappear in due course. Thick carpets of algae growing on the mangrove muds under the shade
provided by the mangrove canopy also disappear due to excess light and desiccation. When the
channels of the mangrove marshlands are disturbed for industrialisation, crop cultivation and
human inhabitation,the fine habitat of many important algae (Ulva, Enteromorpha, Rhizoclonium,
etc.) gets destroyed due to the concomitant loss of natural resource.
However, cultivation of algae in abandoned and discussed mangrove fish ponds can be under-
taken, for there is a great demand for seaweed colloids which are used as stabilisers and emul-
sifiers in the manufacturing industries. Further, there is always an important market for edible
seaweeds as they form the basis for many traditional recipes for soups, salads and desserts.
The green weed Caulerpa is cultivatedin the Philippinesin the abandoned mangroveareasfor its
edible nature. It is highly suitable for cultivation in the clear-felled areas because it can tolerate
poor watercirculation and low nutrient levels (Fortes, 1979). The red weed Gracilaria is cultivated
in the disused mangrove fish ponds previously stockedwith milkfish in Taiwan for it is a good
source of agar and it can tolerate estuarine salinities ranging from 8 to 25% (Chen, 1976).
In recent times, the mangrove environmentis also getting polluted with different kinds of con-
taminants. Heavy metals pose a serious problem due to their environmentalpersistence and
toxicity to marine organisms even at a lower concentration. Hence it is very important to mon-
itor the heavy metal pollution of taking suitable managerial measure to protect the valuable
resources. Physical and chemical monitoringwill help quantify the pollutants, but the biological
monitoring will be rapid and reliable and can detect even the subtle changes taking place in
their immediate environment through changes in species composition, diversity and biomass
increase. Among the differentbiological indicators, seaweeds can be employed successfully for
monitoringheavy metal pollution in the mangroveenvironmentas they are the 'sentinel' organ-
isms for heavy metals and their bioaccumulationis several thousand times with respect to water
concentrations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author thanks the Director, C.A.S. in Marine Biology, Annamalai University and the Uni-
versity authorities for facilities and encouragement.
REFERENCES
Chen, T.P. (1976). Aquaculturepracticesin Taiwan. Fishing News (Books) Ltd., Farhnam, England.
162 p.
286 Seaweeds of the mangrove and associated ecosystems
Dawson,E.Y. (1966). Marine Botany - an introduction.Holt, Rinehartand Winston, Inc., New York.
371 p.
Fortes, M.D. (1979). Studies on farming the seaweed Caulerpa (chlorophyta, siphonales) in the
mangrove areas in the Philippines. In : P.B.L. Srivastava, (Ed.). Proc. Symp. Mangrove and
estuarinevegetation in South-east Asia, Serdang,Malaysia. Biotrop. Special Pubi. No. 10. pp. 125-
138.
Fortes, M.D. (1990). Mangroves and seagrass connections : A status report from the ASEAN
perspective. Internat. symp. on the ecology of mangroves and related ecosystems, Kenya. Abstract.
Jagtap, T.G. (1985). Studies on the associatedflora of the mangrove environment of Goa, India,
Proc. Natl. Symp. Biol. Util. Conser. Mangroves, Koihapur. pp. 180-187.
Kannan, L. and K. Veluswamy. (1989). Seagrasses - novel marine plants. Biol. Education. 6(4)
245-248.
Muthukkannu, B.A., 1983. Ecological Studies of Marine algae in the Pichavaram mangrove (India).
M.Phil. dissertation, AnnamalaiUniversity. 88 p.
Nair, N.B., V. Sobha and M. Arunachalam(1982). Algae from South Korea coast. Indian I. Mar.
Sci. 11: 266-269.
Project document - 5 of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, 1987.
The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve. 105 p.
Rajeshwari Mahalingam(1991). Seagrass ecosystem. In : R. Natarajan, S.N. Dwivedi and S. Ra-
machandran (Ed.s). Coastal zone management. Ocean Data Centre, Anna University, Madras.
UmamaheswaraRao, M. (1987). Algae of Indian estuaries. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India 29 (1 & 2): 1-9.
Veluswamy, K. (1985). Studies on seagrasses of the Porto Novo marine environment(South-east coast,
India). M.Phil. dissertation,Annamalai University. 53 p.
MANGROVE FAUNA OF SUNDERBANS : ECOLOGICAL
FEATURES AND UTILISATION
P.V. DEHADRAI
INTRODUCTION
Mangroves are low-lying coastalvegetation, their adaptation alongwith other flora and fauna is
very much interesting. Tidal rivers and seawater inundate the flat low lands and lagoons, which
are the characteristics of halophytic adaptation. Coastline of India extends over 7,000 km. The
states of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, on the Eastern seaboard whereas
Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat occur on the Western Seaboard. The coastal
areas are highly variable in relation to soil characteristics, and water resources,but not the least
to their typical flora and fauna. Mangrovesact as bufferbetween land and sea prevent the coastal
lands from erosion and help in controllingthe balanceof eco-climatic factors. Besides all these,
they also provide fish protein to the urban areas.
The coastal vegetation, especially the mangrove, serve in two ways (a) fulfilling the energy re-
quirementofthe local population and (b) actingas a huge sink of unlimitedcapacityfor absorbing
pollutants from air and water which makes the surrounding environment free from pollution.
The metropolitan and industrial dischargecontainingnickel, chromium, chloride and excess nu-
trients like nitrate and phosphate alongwith high alkalinityact adverselyon phytoplanktonsand
ultimately affect the higher plants and animals.
Ruthless human and other biotic interferences are by and large responsible for decreasing the
water flow through the rivers resulting in silting up of the estuarine rivulets and disconnecting
the main flow of the rivers. This causes adverse effect on the natural growth of mangrove
ecosystems and reduces crop yields, hamper navigation, influence the water circulation and
growth of aquatic life. It is felt that the deterioration of these tidal mangroveforests has resulted
in frequent natural calamities along the coastal areas, causing enormous damage to life and
property.
This paper highlights some of the ecological features of mangrove environment,with particu-
lar reference to Sunderbans and efforts taken by both, national and internationalagencies for
preservation of diversity of plants and animals from this unique environment.
MANGROVE FAUNA : ECOLOGICALFEATURES
COMMON INSECTS
The common honey bees in the Sunderbans tidal forests are Apis dorsata (rock bee) and Apis
mellifera (Europeanbee). Aegiceras corniculatum, Excoecariaagallocha and the members of the family
Rhizophoraceae, Sonneratiaceae and Avicenniaceae are the important honey producing plants of
the Sunderbans.Flower Nectar is an important source of commercial honey, and the Apis spp.
collect honey from these tidal forests duringthe main flowering season, i.e., from March to May.
The weaver ants, Oecophylla spp., are very common on the mangrove trees belonging to the
familiesRhizophoraceaeand Avicenniaceae.Anopheles (Myzomyia) indigo,A. sundericus and Culex
fatigans are common mosquitoes found throughout the coastal strip of the Sunderbans.Aedes
butleri and A. niveus are some usual insects of these mangrove forests.
MOLLUSCS,CRUSTACEANSAND ANNELIDS
Several burrowing forms and climbing species - mainly crustaceans,a few bivalves, gastropods,
balanus, crabs, worms and small insects are abundant in the tidal mangroveswamps of the Sun-
derbans includingnematodes and small worms. The polychaetes(Dendronereis sp. and Marphysa
mossambica) are widespread throughout the deoxygenated soils of the mangals (Macnae, 1968).
The tube-dwellingpolychaete is identified as Diopteracuprea cuprea from the river-beds.
The fallen leaves of the mangroves provide shelter to the tiny gastropods like Melampus sp.
and Syncera brevicula. On the sandy shore area, Cardisoma carnifex forms burrows. C. hirtipes
occasionally comes in this estuarine water, where fresh water is also available. Mud lobster
Thalassima anomala is present in waterlogged areas and on clay soils of the mangrove areas.
It burrows in the river-banks, earthen banks or dykes causing soil erosion. The crabs Sesarma
fascinata and S. plicata are found in the brackish water areas. Uca lactea is abundant in the
landward regions. Macrophthalmus depressus takes shelterin wet sandand burrows in the mangals
of the Sunderbans.The species Telescopiurn telescopium and T. meuritsi are abundant on soft mud,
while Cerithidea alata, C. djadjariensis, C. cingulata, C. obtusa, C. quadrata and C. weversi are the
climbing forms. Most of these species climb up and take shelter on trunks of the mangrove trees.
Among these gastropods, members of the families Potamidideae, Ellobiidae, Ochidiidae and
Littorinidae are common in the mangrove areas inundated by frequent tides. Balanus amphitrile
is the most common species in mangrove forests, and is seen colonising on tree trunks, prop-
roots and on wooden structures on the riversides, which are very often inundated during high
tides.The tiny crabs Nanosesarma minuta and the hermit crabs Clibanarius longitarsus climb on
P.V. Dehadrai 289
tree trunks of the mangals. Some of the common mollusc and crustaceanorders/ familiesin the
Sunderbansmangroveforests are: Neritidae,Littorinidae, Assimineidae, Rissoidae, Amnicolidae,
Potamididae, Nassariidae, Ringiculidae, Ellobiidae, Oncididae, Osteodae, Teredinidae, Pholadi-
dae, Dictocardiae, Taemioglossae, Cerithiidae, Veermetidae, Turritellidae, Strombidae, Lanthimi-
dae, Cypraeedae,Turbinellidae, Mitridae, Olividae, Harpidae and Conidae.
AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES
The most common and largest reptiles in the Sunderbans are Crocodilus porosus and C. indigo;
these species are the 'top consumers' among the aquatic animals as they live on carnivorous
fishes and sharks of the estuarine water. Other reptiles of the Sunderbansare Varanussalvator,
Batagur baska, Lepidochelys olivacea; the common snakes are Najas najas, Viper russet, Trimeresurus
walgeri, T. purpureomaculatus, Bioga dendrophila, Fordonia teucoballa and Cerberus rhynehops. As the
crocodile population was gradually decreasing from the Sunderbanstract, a separate project was
been launched at Bhagabatipuron crocodile breeding and rearing. For valuable hide, hunters are
very much interested to kill reptiles from the core area. At present, the need for conservation of
wildlife is felt and strict rules are enforced.
Among other amphibians, Rana hexadactylla (a brackish water species), Bufo melanostictus (the
common toad), and Rhacophorus maculatus (tree frog) are very common. The last two species are
found almost all over the Sunderbans during the monsoon season, i.e., from June to September.
R. hexadactylus is generally found in peripheral zones of the Sunderbans.
BIRDS
Pillay (1954) has reported some fish-eating birds from the Sunderbansmangroveforests whichare
Phalacrocorax niger, Anhinga melanogaster, Alcedo atthia, Actitis hypoleucos, Heliaster indus, Bubulcus
ibis, Dicurus macrocercus, Ceryle rudis, Lobipluvis malabarica. These birds prefer mangrove forests
for abundant food potentialities and desolateness. Thousands of migratory birds visit the Sun-
derbans every year during the monsoon and post-monsoon months, and stay till September
October. They come from far-away countries, like Siberia. The birds generally take shelter on
lofty plants of Excoecaria agallocha and Avicennia spp. in the Pankhiralay area of the Sunder-
bans during the evening, and move throughout the forest during day-time for their food, i.e.,
fishes and other mangrove fauna. During their stay these migratory birds breed and rear their
young and fly away to other places with the onset of winter. About 24 migratory birds have
been identified from the Sunderbans habitats, so far, viz., Phalacrocorax niger (Little Cormorant),
Platalea lenocorodia (Spoonbill), Grus antigone (Sarus Crane), Sterna aurantia (River Tern), Phoeni-
copterus roseus (Flamingo), Netta rufina (Red Crested Pochard), Botaurus stellaria (Bittern), Ardea
cinerea (Grey Heron), Nycticorax nycticorax (Night Heron), Threskiornia aethiopica (White Ibis),
Anas strepera (Gadwall), Anas poecilorhyncha (Soft Bill Duck), Anhinga melanogaster (Snake Bird),
Alcedo meninting (Blue eared Kingfisher), Tringa nebularia (Green Shank), Podiceos ruficollis Capen-
sis (Dabchick), Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard), Anaxtomus oscitans (Open Bill Stork), Ardeola grayii
(Pond Heron or Paddy Bird), Porphyriopoliocephalus (Purple Coot), Sarkidioruis melanotoa (Comb
Duck), Anas acuta (Pintail), Fulica atra (Coot) and Ardea alba (Large Egret). Their faecal matters
enrich the water and soil of the Pankhiralay area shelter of these birds. Cormorantsare charac-
teristic species in rivers and estuarine areas of the Sunderbans.The Anhinga sp. are abundant in
290 Mangrovefauna of Sunderbans ecological features and utilisation
larger rivers and deltas but occasionally enter the pure marine channels of the mangals. Heron
and cormorant dwell on the riversides and on fishing grounds. Most of these birds are large-
sized and they eat fishes and crabs or molluscs throughout the day and take shelter at night on
the branches of mangrove trees.
MAMMALS
Among mammals, the World-famous Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is the most dom-
inant here. About 280 tigers dwell in mangrove forests of the Indian Sunderbans (according
to the 1986 census); the figure was 264 during 1983. These mangrove-inhabitanttigers solely
depend on the Chital deer (Axis axis), wildboars (Sus scrofa) and water monitors (Varanussalva-
tor). These mangrove tigers also eat cat fishes and crabs. According to the scientistsof the Tiger
Project, developmentof the Sunderbansmangrove forest solely depends on proper conservation
of tigers; being the top consumers, they maintain the ecological balance in the mangrove forests.
Next to the tiger, the most important wild animal in the Sunderbans is Chital deer (Axis axis)
with an estimated population of 1300. They prefer Porteresia coarctata, a wild variety of salt
tolerant rice and sometimes graze on the leaves of Avicennia spp. and several other mangrove
plants. Theycan run fast and can also swim equally fast across tidal rivers and creeks. Platenista
gangetica (Dolphin) is also very common in this estuary and this species solely depends on the
euryhaline fishes and prawns. The common mangrove monkeys in the Sunderbans are Macaca
mulatta, which feed on mangrove fruits and leaves and even on rhizomes of riverside grasses
and sedges. The other mammals in the Sunderbansare Felis viverrirna and Herperstes sp., which
live on birds and fishes. Otters (Amblonyx cinerea and Lutra perspicillata)are also present which
are fish eaters and occasionally feed on smaller animals.With the recent setting up of the Tiger
Reserve Project, wildlife of Sunderbansis now kept under strict conservation laws.
Among the culturable fishes, mullets and tiger shrimps are the most important membersin the
Sunderbans.These are cultured in about2,500 small to large-sizedbrackish water fisheries. Some
of the most important culture practices are as follows
Mullet culture
Several species of grey mullets belongingto the family Mugilidaeare distributed throughout the
mangrove swamps of the Sunderbans.The juveniles of mullets enter these estuaries alongwith
the tidal water but adult mullets migrate towards the bay for spawning (Jhingran, 1982). The
tropical mullet species belonging to the genera Liza, Mugil and Rhinoniugil are also suitable for
culture in the mangrove-associated areas of the Sunderbans (Charkraborty, 1981). Pillay (1954)
has mentioned that fishes of Liza group are most suitable for culture in the brackish water
fisheries because of their intimate association with the mangroves. Possibilities of potential yield
from intensive mullet farming in mangrove-associated brackish-waterfisheries the Sunderbans
were worked out by several cultural trials with Liza spp. and Mugil spp.
Prawn/shrimp culture
The genera Penaeus and Metapenaeus are commercially important prawns in the Sunderbans.
Adult penaeid prawns migrate towards the sea for maturation and breeding and in their post-
larval stage, returnto the mangroveforests which serve as nurserybeds(Chakraborty et al., 1981).
Post-larvae of prawns occur almost throughout the year in the mangrove estuaries, though the
abundance fluctuates seasonally.
Predators in the fisheries
Among the marine predator fishes in the Sunderbans the common species are sea-perch (Lates
calcarifer), nappers (Lutianusargentimaculatus),tarpen (Megalops cyprinoides), ten pounders (Elops
saurus), cat fish (Arus and Plotosus spp.) and Pungas (Pangasiuspangasius). These predator fishes
utilise these mangrove swamp forests for their food and shelter; they have cultural potentiality
in addition to supporting important inshore fishing (CMFRI Annual Report, 1978).
Mudskippers
Mudskippers such as Boleopthalmus and Periophthalmus spp. are very often seen in the mud-
flat areas of the Sunderbans mangrove forests. These fishes have not much potential in the
Sunderbansas well as other parts of India as these are low-valued fishes.
DISCUSSION
With the increase in industrialisation, urbanisation, and modernisationof agriculture most of the
coastal ecosystems are facing threat of extinction. Sunderbansthe largest of all mangrove forest
areas in India, is no exception to it. With the stresses on the environmentsof this kind and irra-
tional utilisationof natural resources, there is an urgent need to develop a proper, implementable
managementplan in addition to what is already being done both by national and international
agencies for conservation of biodiversityof Sunderbans.
It is therefore felt that this biosphere reserve needs immediate attention for protection, con-
servation and more importantly, ecologically friendly production intensification of the natural
resources.
P.V. Dehadrai 293
REFERENCES
Blasco, F. (1975). The Mangroves in India, French Institute, Pondicherry, India.
Chakraborty, K. (1981). Observationson effect of supplementary feed on growth and survivalof
grey mullet. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture, Cochin, India.
Chakraborty,K. (1984). Dynamicsof Flora and Fauna: diversity in the mangrovesof Sunderbans
and laterite tracts of West Bengal, India : A bio-ecological study. IndianJ. For. 7(3) : 220.
Jhingran, V.G. (1982). Fish and Fisheries of India. Hindustan Publishing Company, New Delhi,
India.
Khan, A.A. (1956). Mangrove Forests of Andhra State. Proc. Silver. Confer., Dehra Dun 9 : 182.
McIntosh, D.J. (1984). Fisheries and aquaculture significance of mangrove swamps with special
reference to Indo-West Pacific region. RecentAdvances in Aquaculture, London.
Macnae, W. (1968). A general account of the fauna and flora of mangroveswamps and prospects
in the Indo-West Pacific region. Adv. Mar. Biol. 6 : 73 - 270.
Pillay, T.V.R. (1954). Ecology of brackish water bheri with special reference to the fish culture
practices and biotic interactions.Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., India 20 : 899.
Qureshi, I.M. (1959). Botanical, silviculture features of mangrove forests of Bombay State. Proc
Mangrove Symp., Faridabad, India.
Rao, T.A. and K.K. Aggarwal. (1964). Ecological studies of Saurashtra coast and neighbouring
islands, Bull. Bot. Surv. India 6 : 173.
Sahani, K.C. (1959). Mangrove Forests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Proc. Mangrove
Symp., Faridabad, India.
FAUNA OF MANGROVES AND ITS MANAGEMENT
AJAI SAXENA
INTRODUCTION
Mangrove forests represent a highly specialised and complex ecosystem occurringin sheltered
coastal areas of tropics and sub-tropics. These are highly productive and economically very
important. In addition to their role as a buffer between the land and the sea, the mangrove
ecosystemcontains rich diversity of faunal elements and acts as a nursery for many varieties of
economically important fish species and other marine organisms.
Consideringtheirrole in checkingsoil erosion, producing economically important products such
as timber, fuel wood, fish and other marine products, proper conservation of mangroves has
becomevery important.There is an urgent need to manage this fragile ecosystem on a sustainable
basis. Uncontrolled utiisation may lead to the destruction of mangrove forests, which in turn
will lead to manifold damage to the coastal agricultural land as well as fisheries. The impact
of such damage will be far greater on small islands such as Andaman & Nicobar, which have
limited agriculturalland and are exposed on all sides to the sea.
In Andaman and Nicobar, mangrove forests are found in sheltered tidal creeks, channels and
bays. They constitute 9.4% of the land area and about 10.95 of the total forest cover of these
islands (Bandyopadhyay, 1991), coveringabout 77,769ha. In all, 34 mangrove plant species have
so far been identified from these islands, out of a total of 46 mangrove species occurringin the
Indian subcontinent. This species diversity makes Andaman & Nicobar Islands the richest area
of mangrovespecies in india (Rajpurohit, 1989). The faunal elements of mangrovesare still more
diverse, and yet to be explored on a full scale.
FAUNA OF MANGROVE
The mangrove ecosystem comprises and Intertidal area having creeks, channels, mud-flats,
rock!coral reef flats, estuaries, etc., which provide varied habitats for a variety of animal and
plant species. Due to tidal action and mixing of fresh water with saline water, this ecosystem
harbours highly specialisedfauna and flora.
The faunal communities of a mangrove ecosystem can be broadly divided into the following
categories:
a. Aquatic,
b. Semi-aquatic and
c. Terrestrial.
Although micro-benthic organisms of the mangroveof these islands have not been studied fully,
extensive studied have been made of meio and macro-benthic fauna of these islands. In all, 53
species of meio-benthos have been reported so far, while the list of macro-benthos includes 8
species of ploychaetes, 100 species of molluscs, 59 species of crustaceans, 6 species of echino-
derms and 2 species of sipunculids. Of fishes, 24 species have so far been recorded from man-
grove; of these islands. The most noticeable amongst fishes are mud-skippers (Periophthalmus
and Boleopthalmus)
TERRESTRIAL FAUNA
The rich floral diversity of mangroveforests, along with its associated aquatic and semi-aquatic
fauna elements, attracts a large number of terrestrial animal life-forms. Many of these terrestrial
faunal elements are residents of mangrove forests, while some of them, especially birds and
reptiles, come to such area during low tide for feeding on exposed mud-flats and tidal pools.
The major terrestrialfaunal elements can be grouped as follows:
INSECTS: Many varieties of insects have been found associatedwith mangroves. Most of them
utilises mangroves for food or shelter or both. While for mosquitoes and sand-flies, they pro-
vide and ideal breeding ground, many host-specific, gall, causing insects and mites have also
been found associatedwith mangroves. In all, 97 species of insects,mostly coccids, mosquitoes,
biting midges, beetles, termites, ants, honey-bees, bugs and bores have been reported form the
mangroves of these islands.
AMPHIBIANS:Theyare poorly representedand only 3 specieshave been found from mangroves.
REPTILES: They are represented by salt water crocodile (Crocodilus porosus) Andaman water
monitor lizard (varanus salvator andamanensis),Calotes sp., dog-facedwater snake (Cerberus rhyne-
hops) and pit viper (Trimeresurus sp.). During low tide, water snakes are seen actively feeding on
crabs and fishes, especially at night.
BIRDS: Mangrovesprovide food, roosting and nesting places for many varieties of birds. During
low tide, waders can be seen feeding actively on exposed mud-flats. In all, 53 species of birds
have so far been reported from the mangrove areas. These can be broadly grouped into the
following:
/
a. Water birds waders : Such as herons, egrets, bitterns, sandpipers,plovers, snipes,
etc. (13 sp).
b. Kingfishers : Theseare most noticeablein the mangrovesof these islands.
All the 8 spp. of kingfishers reported form these islands
are associated with mangroves. Ruby kingfisher (Halcyon
Ajai Saxena 297
MAMMALS
These islands are poorly represented by land mammals, due to isolationin the past. But species
such as wild pig (Sus scrofa andamanensis and S. s. nicobarica), crab-eating macaque (Macaca
fasicularis umbrosa), civet (Paguma larvata tytleri), spotted deer (Axis axis) and a few species of
bats (Pteropus and Cynopterus)have been found utilising the mangrove habitats.
MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES
/
The following main management objectives can be listed for the mangrove coastal wetland
protected areas (Salm and Clark, 1989):
1. to preserve a sufficiently large representativesample of ecosystem and its linked habitats for
conserving its genetic diversity,
2. to main the values of the areas for resident and migratory species,
3. to maintain the value of the area as a nursery and feeding ground for various commercial
fishes and other marine species,
4. to check encroachmentof valuable and critical habitats,
5. to enrich the deficient areas and depleted species,through better protectionand proper man-
agement techniques,
6. to conserve the ecological processesand life support systems,
7. to promote research, recreation and educate people about conservation values and related
sustainablebenefits to the society, and
8. to review and modify periodically the management techniques and objectives as per need,
because the system as a whole is dynamic, and it requires various treatments at different
stages of management.
CONCLUSION
Through a network of protected areas, conservation of mangrove and coastal wetlands will
help in preservingthe rich genetic diversity.Checkingtheir further degradation and subsequent
recovery, as well as increasing the fisheries and other commercially valuable natural resources.
This will lead to regulation and sustainable use of such renewableresources in the longrun.
REFERENCES
Das, A.K. and M.K. Deb Roy (1989). General Accountof theMangroveFauna ofAndamanandNicobar
Islands. Publishedby Z.S.I., Calcutta, India. 173 p.
Odum, W.E. (1982). The relationship between protected coastal areas and marine fisheries ge-
netic resources. Proc. 3rd World Congress on National Parks, Coastal andMarine Workshop, Bali,
Indonesia.
Rajpurohit, K.S. (1989). The biogeography of Indian Mangroves. MYFOREST : 25(1) : 4—5.
SaIm, R.V.and J.R. Clark(1989). Marine andcoastalprotected areas a guidefor plannersand managers.
I.U.C.N. Publication. Gland, Switzerland. pp. 117—138.
Sinha, B.P., Ram Het and Ajai Saxena (1991). Marine National Park, Wandoor (A&N Island) : A
difficult but novel management challenge. Indian Forester 117 (1) : 874.
ECO-RESTORATION: METHODS AND APPLICATION
PROPAGATION OF MANGROVES : SOME
CONSIDERATIONS
K. KATHIRESAN
INTRODUCTION
Mangroveforests dominate one-quarter of the World'stropicalcoastline (Chapman,1975). These
forests are of great ecological and economic importancein protectingthe shorelines and boosting
the fishery production (Macnae, 1968; Krishnamurthyand Jeyaseelan, 1980). The mangrovesare
fast disappearing at a time when there are clear indications of potential changes in climate, sea
level rise and influence of ultravio1et-3 radiation (Swaminathan, 1991). India has lost 40% of its
mangrove area over the past hundred years (Status Report, 1987). The mangrove forests will
be denuded from most of the shorelines of India by the turn of this century (Roy Choudhury,
1990). The fast depletion of mangrove forests has already caused soil erosion and a significant
fall in fishery production (Kathiresan, 1990). Hence there is an urgent need for propagation of
mangroves to reforest and protect the coastal economy. This paper describes some methods
involved in planning restoration programme.
VEGETATIVEPROPAGATION
To overcome the problemsofnon-availabilityof propagulesthroughout the year and also the poor
germinationrate is some mangrove species, it was decided to undertake efforts for propagating
MICROPROPAGATION
The tissue culture has found wide application in several tree species, and use of this technique
would have a great bearing on the propagation of mangroves.The serious constraintin this tech-
nique is the phenolicbrowning of mangroveexplants (Kathiresan, 1990). This could be prevented
by taking following precautions:
SELECTIONOF EXPLANTS
Correct choice of the explant can have a important effect on the success of tissue culture. The
explants which can be used for mangrovesare shoot tips, axillarybuds, leaf bases, leaf, petioles,
hypocotyls, cotyledons, stem nodes, etc.
The explants have to be surface-sterilised with 0.1 % HgC12, and each of them has to be tested
for latent infection of bacteria or fungi by growing them on standard media.
Explants frequentlyturn brown or black shortly after isolationresulting inhibitionof growth and
eventual death of tissue. This may be attributed to the oxidation of phenolics. This problem can
be overcome by
a. selecting young tissues,
b. soaking explants in running water or sterile water for a given period of time to remove
phenolics,
c. soacking explants in antioxidants (ascorbic acid or citric acid),
d. infiltration of tissues using soluble polyvinyl pyrrolidone,
e. reducing sucrose or KNO3 or Kinetin in the culture medium,
f. incubating cultures initially in the dark
g. culturing in liquid medium, allowing phenolics to leach out in the medium,
K. Kathiresan 305
CULTURE MEDIUM
For a plant part to grow in culture, it needs nutrients and hormones. Suitable media can be
prepared for successful tissue culture. MS medium and vitamins of SH medium can be useful
for the mangroves. The growth substances used at a range of concentrations from 0.1 to 10 mg/l
include (a) Auxins - NAA, IAA, IBA, 2, 4-D, (b) Cytokinins - BAP, Kinetin, (c) Gibberellins - GA3
and coconut milk (10—20%).
ENVIRONMENTALCONDITIONS OF CULTURE
Temperature, humidity and light conditions have to be standardised for ideal culture conditions.
MULTIPLICATIONTECHNIQUES
The shoot tip or axillarybuds can be induced to form axillaryshoots on multiplicationmedium.
The adventitious shoots can be induced directlyon explants or on callus culture. The embryoids
can be induced either on the surface of explants or callus tissue in solid or liquid media. Shoots
or plantlets derived from the above can be induced for rooting on special medium.
Hardening of Plantlets
The plantlets should be transferred into a medium containing vermiculite and sand, and kept
for several days in high humidity and reduced light intensity. After the hardening to exterior
environment, the plantlets can be transferred to field conditions.
CONCLUSION
Like most of the other genetic resourcesconnectedwith agriculture and forestry, the mangrove
resources are also dwindling- yielding to population pressure leading to disappearance of many
virgin mangrove areas from the coastal regions of India. Efforts related to identification of de-
graded areas and bringing them under mangrove vegetation are underway and several work-
ers have successfully attempted and implemented largescale afforestation programmes. There
is also an endeavour in propagation programmes. There is also an endeavour in propagating
mangrovesby artificial methods in view of which some suggestionsare made for modification
in the techniques which are normally adopted during tissue culture.
Due to high concentrations of phenolic compounds, tannins and salts, the response of most of
the mangrove species to tissue culture is very poor. It has therefore been suggested to adopt
strategiesduringvarious stages of this technique which after success, would help one to under-
take largescale eco-redevelopment programmes by using plantlets reproduced from genetically
superior varieties by tissue culture.
306 Propagation of mangroves: some considerations
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is thankful to Prof. A.L. Paul Pandian and Prof. K. Krishnamurthy of the Centre for
Advanced Study in Marine Biology, AnnamalaiUniversity, for encouragement.
REFERENCES
Chapman,V.J. (1975). Mangrovebiogeography. In: G.Walsh, S. Snedaker and H. Teas (Ed.s). Pro-
ceedings of the International Symposium on the Biology andManagementofMangroves. University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A. pp. 3—22.
Deshmukh, S.V., S.M. Karmarkar and S.B. Chaphekar. (1990). Regeneration of mangroves by
air-layering. National Seminaron MangroveAwareness in India, (Feb. 21—23, 1990), Bombay.
George, E.F. and P.D. Sherrington. (1984). Propagation by Tissue Culture: Handbook and Directory
of Commercial Laboratories. Exegetics Ltd., England.
Kathiresan, K. (1990). Prospects of tissue culture studies in mangroves. In : Ram Prakash (Ed.).
Advances in Forestry Research in India. Vol.6. International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun.
pp. 143—152.
Kathiresan,K. and T.S. Thangam. (1990). A note on the effects of salinity and pH on growth of
Rhizophora seedlings. Indian Forester 116 (3) : 243—244.
Krishnamurthy,K. and M.J. Prince Jeyaseelan. (1980). Impact of the mangrove ecosystemupon
coastalnatural resources. Proc. Asian Symp. MangroveEnviron. Res. Management. Univ. Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur.
Kunal Mukhopadhyay,J. Choudhury and Subrata Maity. (1991). In vitro responses of four differ-
ent mangrove species for callus induction. National Seminaron Conservation and Management
of mangrove ecosystem with special reference to Sunderbans (6—8 December 1991), Calcutta.
Macnae, W. (1968). A general account of the fauna and flora of mangrove swamps and forests
in the Indo-West Pacific region. Adv. Mar. Biol. 6 : 73—270.
Muniyandi, K. (1985). Studies on mangroves of Pichavaram (South-east coast of India). Ph.D. thesis,
AnnamalaiUniversity, Chidambaram,Tamil Nadu.
Patil, M.P. and M.M. Dongre. (1991). Response of stem cuttings in Excoecaria agallocha L. to fresh
waterconditions.National Seminaron Conservation andManagementofMangroveEcosystem with
special reference to Sunderbans (6—8 December 1991), Calcutta.
Roy Choudhury, P.K. (1990). Mangrove afforestation in coastal wastelands in Sunderbans,West
Bengal, India and its management. National Seminar on Mangrove Awareness in India. (Feb.
21—23, 1990), Bombay.
Status Report. (1987). Mangroves in India. Department of Environment and Forests, Government
of India, New Delhi.
Swaminathan, M.S. (1991) Foreword. In: Sanjay V. Deshmukh and Rajeshwari Mahalingam(Ed.s).
Proceedings of workshop on conservation and sustainable utilisation of mangrove forest genetic re-
sources. M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation, Madras.
Untawale, A.G. (1986). How to grow mangroves. National Institute of Oceanography,Dona Paula,
9p.
REGENERATION OF MANGROVES
P.V. SAVANT
INTRODUCTION
Increasing human pressure for domestic needs and developmental activities has virtually de-
stroyed a sizeable area of virgin mangrove vegetation all over the World. Reclamation of man-
groves for agricultureand housing, grazing, removal for fuel and poles, aquaculture,discharge of
industrial effluents and excessive release of pesticidesin the river systems have threatened'most
of the mangrovespecies. These degraded &reas need to be restockedand fresh mud-flatsneed to
be afforested with suitable mangroves. To achieve this, proper knowledge of the silvicultureof
mangrove vegetation, study of potential sites for afforestation vis-a-vis proper regenerationand
afforestation techniques would be necessary, as also in-depth knowledge of mangroveecosystem,
in particular rare and endangered species.
The paper deals with the regenerationand nursery techniques of restocking degraded and fresh
sites for increasingthe area under mangroves.
SILVICULTURALKNOWLEDGE
Amongst the mangroves, species like Rhizophora and Bruguiera are dominant with more than
75% of the composition. A sound silvicultural knowledge of dominant, co-dominant and rare
speciesof mangrovesis a prerequisitefor tacklingdegraded and freshlyformed sites. In addition,
adequate knowledgeon physiological and ecological aspects of the mangrovespecies of the area
would be necessary. Rhizophora generally grows at the outer edge towards water front, where
salinity is maximum,and wave actionand wind pressure are extremelyhigh. Withits dense root
system and prop roots, Rhizophora checks the soil erosion as well as protects other mangrovesin
the rearline,besides helping benthic fauna and other micro-organisms from being washed away.
Bruguiera growsjust behind Rhizophora line in the middle zone having deep soils where the im-
pact of wave action and windis at a reduced intensity.While Bruguieragymnorrhiza,the tallest of
all the mangrovessuppresses the surrounding vegetation, Bruguieraparvifiora -conspicuous with
yellowish green foliage, forms a pure crop amidst the mangroves and reproduces profusely.
B. cylindrica grows sporadically along with B. sexangula and B. gymnorrhiza. In the initial years
Bruguiera needs shade, while Avicennia demands light. Avicennia officinalis grows gregariously
upto ground. It produces seeds profusely; the seeds being light, float in abundance in the in-
coming tide. Sonneratia apetala is a gregariousspecies, and comes up well on pure patches in the
new alluvial land along the river banks and estuaries. Ceriops and Scyphiphora spring up like
a carpet in newly formed openings with deep mud and occasionally along the Rhizophora spp.
at the outer edge. Ceriops Sonneratia,Avicennia and Scyphiphora grow in marsh with deep mud
extending in upper stretches of tidal forests. Kandelia candel occurs upstream on banks of tidal
rivers, while Lumnitzera occurs in marsh, sporadic in the rear-line. Acanthus ilicifolius occurs in
dense patches towards landward side in stagnated saline water, which also produces prop roots
smaller Xylocarpus spp. occur in the outer edges of creeks alongwithRhizophora prominent with
SITE STUDY
Proper site selection is important for successful regenerationof mangroves. In the freshly formed
sites, colonisers such as Avicennia, Sonneratiashould be attempted. Both S. apetala and S. alba come
up very well here, while S. caseolaris occurs upstream. On newly formed mud-flats,rare species
which normally come up in a mixture should not be tried initially. In the outer periphery to-
wards water, Rhizophora shouldbe planted as a rule. The site selectedfor mangroveafforestation
should get the diurnal tidal effect regularly. Initially it is better to tacide the sheltered areas.
In areas where mangrove has been destroyed, substratum becomes hard due to direct action
of sunlight, its temperature increases and water evaporation rate shoots up which invariably
increases salinity. In such sites, the soil gets oxidised gradually and becomes acid sulphate in
nature. Barring Phoenix paludosa, it is difficult to grow any other mangrove species on such sites.
Efforts are on to inoculate micorrhiza and some bacteria to neutralise the acid sulphate soils.
Mangroves generally prefer soft clay muds, sandy loam substratum subjected to tidal flushing.
In the Sunderbans,various mud-flatsare formed due to silt deposits on account of varying de-
gree of release of water from Farakka barrage. For tackling such sites, coloniser species should
be preferred.
NURSERY TECHNIQUE
Both direct sowing/dibbling of seeds and propagule planting are practised. Nursery should
invariablybe establishedat a site where tidal water submersionis regular. Although the nursery
could be raised by use of fresh water, salt water applicationbecomes necessary at a later stage.
Few species such as Bruguiera and Ceriops prefer shade in the initial stage. For inspection of
nursery areas, criss-crossed bamboo walkway is convenient. Creek soil is normally filled in
polythene bags of size 10" x 6", with punch holes at the bottom. Damaged and decayed seeds
should be discarded. Collection of mature and fresh seeds gives maximum result, both for
direct planting and nurseries.For establishinga good nursery, proper knowledgeof autecologyis
P.V. Savant 309
necessary. Longer storage of seeds/propagule gives poorresults, hence seeds should be collected
and immediately sown before their viability is lost. Avicennia exhibits cryptovivipary, i.e., the
fruit contains a well-developedor germinated embryo. The viability of seed is very short, (about
one week), hence immediate sowing and dibblingmust be done. As the seed is light, it is to be
embedded at least an inch deep in the ground to prevent it from being washed away. Sonneratia
produces a large quantity of seeds in which the fruit wall bursts and seeds get released. Young
seedlings could also be collectedfrom the ground and transplanted without damaging the roots.
The fruit wall is hard, and it could be disintegratedby embeddingin soil. Aegiceras also exhibits
cryptovivipary. Heritiera gives best results by broadcasting. Generally good quality seeds are
obtained during rainy season, although in Rhizophora seedlings can be obtained throughout the
year.
Members of Rhizophoraceae, i.e., Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguierci, Kandelia could be directlysown
in polythenebags. In nursery, polythene bags should be partially embedded so that they are not
washed away due to tidal inundation. Beds should be normally of 5m x 1.2 m size. Although
Avicennia could be raised in mother beds, the results in polybags are better.
PLANTINGTECHNIQUE
It is better to follow natural zonation pattern while undertaking plantation in a new area. In soft
muddy soil, there is no need of soil work. Before planting, the salinity tolerancelimit of areas
various mangrove spp. has to be assessed. New and rare species could be introduced at a later
stage accordingto their silvicultural characters. Planting has to be invariablycarried out at low
tide. Proper planning is a prerequisitefor planting. Site selection, availability of manpower,boats,
requirementof planting material, and time frame have to be assessed in advance. In the cleared
area, brushwood clearance and debris removal have to be done beforehand,to obtain uniform
spacing.This would also accelerate the growth of seedlings. For afforestation in mangrove areas,
both sowing and planting of potted plants are practised.Polythenebags are to be properly placed
in the mud. Loose planting will wash away the seedlings. Wildings could be planted but they
get damaged while uprooting and suffer transplanting shock. Planting spacingshould normally
be 1 to 1.5 m. Success of potted plants is generally high.
In Sunderbans,trench planting is carried out with a spacing of 30 cm x 30 cm x 2 m apart with
a pit of 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm dug in between. Towards landward side six lines of trenches
are dug. Succession of Porteresia, Suaeda nudiflora, and S. inonoica is an indication of ecological
improvement. Avicennia could be tried both by direct sowing or dibbling after pressing the seed
in the round. Rhizophora, Bruguiera,Kandelia, and Ceriops come up well by potted planting.Even
Nypa grows well when potted plants are tried. Nypa should be planted along the upstream
regions on fresh sand deposits Aegiceras, Phoenix grow well when naked root transplanting is
carried out. Sonneratia and Heritiera come up successfully if potted transplanting is done. At
times, in fresh sites repeated planting would be necessary.
In Goa, a freshlyformed sand bar which was also a visiting ground for migratorybirds at Diwadi
on Mondoviriver was selectedfor plantation of mangrovesand species like Rhizophora, Avicennia
and Kandelia were tried repeatedly for three successive years. Initially green algae and barnacles
damaged the young seedlings. First, Porteresia a pioneering species in succession appeared and
the plants raised within the Porteresia establishedwith 1 to 1.5 m height in one year.
310 Regeneration of mangroves
GERMPLASM COLLECTION
To find out the adaptability of species from various mangroveregions, it is better to start with a
new species in a mangrovatum.Before introducingnew species, theirbehaviour pattern, growth
pattern and tolerance limit to various parameters and complete data on their original habitat,
such as light demander or shade bearer, salinity tolerance, tidal submersion limit, etc., should
be studied in detail.
CONCLUSION
Rare and threatened species of mangroves would be safe in virgin and undisturbed areas. In
already threatened zone no new species should be introduced as this may disturb the original
composition of the forest. Generally, introduction of new species could be tried along with
dominant species on fresh site in a mixture. Unless the regeneration technique is perfected, it
is dangerous to try threatened species directly in the field. Amongst threatened species, Nypa,
Xylocarpus and Heritiera should be given priority during planting programmes. Some of the
mangrove species occurring scantily along the East coast are found in sizeable proportions on
the West coast. such deficit areas can be gradually revived by stocking these species. At the
global level, conservationof representativegermplasmcollection of threatened mangrovespecies
needs to be done in the quickest possible time for propagation purposes. Once the gene bank
of threatened species is obtained in an adequate quantum, the endangered species could be
gradually introduced in the field for maintaining biodiversity which would otherwise lead to
the disappearanceof endangered mangroves from the gene pooi record.
REFERENCES
ARVINDG. UNTAWALE
INTRODUCTION
Indiscriminateover-exploitation of the mangrove resources without any coastal land-use plan,
has degraded this fragile Intertidal ecosystemin India (Krishnamurthyet cii., 1987). Some of the
major pressures are abiotic and biotic with special reference to the population pressure. All such
activities, aptly called 'human interferences', have denuded the mangrove forests along the East
as well as West coasts for the last few centuries (Blasco, 1975, 1977). Some of the impacts are
depleting fishery resources, increased coastal erosion and harmful pollution levels (Untawale,
1986).
Silvicultural techniques like regeneration, restoration and afforestation of mangrovescan be the
only answers to these otherwise serious problems (Hamilton and Snedaker, 1984). Efforts have
been made earlier in several countries to use various methods for improving the ecological
balance of these degraded areas (Karim et cii., 1984; Kogo, 1985, 1986; Kogo et cii., 1986). In India
also similar efforts were made but on limited scale and on short term basis (Mathauda, 1959;
Untawale, 1986a, 1987; Jagtap, 1985). It has been estimated that approximately 100,000 ha of
barren Intertidal mangrove area is availablefor afforestation programme along the Indian coast
(Untawale, 1987a). Recently, Space ApplicationCentre (SAC), Ahmedabadand Forest Survey of
India have also studied such areas with remote sensing techniques.
Ecological studies for differentmangrove regions along the East and West coasts of India have
been made (Krishnamurthyet cii., 1989; Untawale, 1986; Blasco, 1975, 1977; Wafar, 1987; Jagtap,
1985). Climatology, hydrology, e.g., tidalamplitude and inundation play an important role in the
distribution and growth of mangroves. The zonation of species depend mainly on the salinity
of the water. These data are of great significance in undertaking afforestation work. Very good
case studies have been presented by Dexter, et cii. (1986) and by Mohmad Nor et cii. (1986) on
the communitybased mangrove afforestationand the forest management.
MANGROVE NURSERY
Earlier attempts of restoration, regenerationand afforestation have been with direct planting of
mangrove propagules or seeds (Kogo, 1985, 1986; Karim et cii., 1984; Hamilton and Snedaker,
1984). There was, however, no attempt growing the seeds or propagules in an Intertidal nurs-
ery. Taking into consideration the non-availability of seedlings, distance of the transplantation
sites and also the size of afforestationarea, it was thought appropriate to develop an Intertidal
mangrovenursery.
Following criteria were used for the site selection of a mangrove nursery:
1. Upper or middle intertidal region with gentle gradient, generally protected from the strong
waves as well as currents,
SOURCE OF PLANTINGMATERIAL
There are different sources for collecting the mature propagules, seeds, etc. for largescale plan-
tation. For collectingmaterial at proper maturity, studies were undertaken for their distribution
and fruiting season. This material was then collected from
1. Naturally growing young (2 to 3 months old) seedlings. These can be directlytransplanted at
a permanent site.
2. Fully mature propagules, fruits or seeds from the trees, and
3. Nursery raised seedlings for transplantation.
NURSERY PLANTATION
Once the plantation material was carefully collectedand transported to the nursery site,it was
further sorted out to avoid injured, infected or tender propagules and seeds. Even the natu-
rally grown seedlings with disturbed or broken root system were discarded. This precaution
decreased the mortality rate and increased the survival percentage with good healthy growth.
Even seedlings with insect borers' or foulers' attack were be avoided.
Such selected plantation material was taken to the beds. The mature propagules with tapering
/ /
ends were gently pushedin the polybags up to 1 3rd or 1 4th of their length, while Avicennia
fruits were pressed in the polybagsfilled withmud. Separatebeds for differentmangrove species
were used. The number of polybags in each bed varied, depending on the area available and
the requirementof the plantation material. A moderate mangrove developed nursery at Chorao
Island, Goa had approximately40,000 to 50,000 seedlings at a time.
Normally, all the seeds and propagules were found germinatingwith 95 to 100% success. How-
ever, differentmangrove species showedvariable dormancyperiods. Rhizophoraceae propagules
and Avicennia seeds grew quite rapidly, however, seeds of Sonneratia, Heritiera, and Xylocarpus
tooklong timefor germination.Many times it wasfound economical and time saving to pick up
tiny seedlings of such species availablein plenty in the mangroveswamps, during low tide, than
waiting for their germination, artificially. There was no need for much aftercare of the seedlings
in the nursery till they were transplanted.
Arvind G. Untawale 313
TRANSPLANTING SEASON
Although the mangrove propagules and the seedlings can be transplanted throughout the year,
it has been noticed that the seedlings transplanted during the rainy season, when salinity of
water and soil is low, grow better with high survival rate. Attempts of afforestation made in
the mesohaline and oligohaline regions with more freshwater influence and low salinity were
successful. Use of appropriate species with suitable salinity tolerance range, was found to be
the key to this success.
TRANSPLANTATION TECHNIQUE
FINANCIAL ESTIMATES
There are different componentsinvolved in this programme as indicatedbelow:
1. Research and Developmentwork,
2. Salary of the staff (including labour cost),
3. Material cost,
4. Transportation cost (boat/vehicle), and
5. Maintenance cost.
Since the mangroveresearch and management is normally handled by the Governmentagencies,
the expenditure can be reduced with long-term planning and the benefits expected. The entire
programme can be a part of the Coastal Zone Management.
The mortality was mainly because of selection or collection of injured, infected or tender seeds
and seedlings. Needs proper care and training of staff.
ALGAL GROWTH
Dense mats of marine algae prevented growth or chokes the young mangrove seedlings. This can
be solved eitherby manual clearingof algal mat or using 1 or 2 year old nursery raised seedlings,
whose foliage would be beyond water column and prevent the seedlings from choking.
EFFECT OF SILTATION
Excessive siltation or turbidity resulted in sediments getting deposited on the foliage of young
seedlings and thus prevented photorespiration. Gastropods eventually attacked and destroyed
such seedlings. 1 or 2 year old nursery raised seedlings might minimise the problem.
FISHING ACTIVITIES
Operation of fishing nets usually damage the young seedlings. Educationto the fisher folks can
minimise the problem.
CYCLONES
The storms and cyclones with strong waves and winds can damage the mangrove nursery. It
is therefore, advisable to have mangrove nurseries within mangrove forests. More studies are
needed on this aspect.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author wishes to record his sincere thanks to the Director, NationalInstitute of Oceanography,
Dona Paula, Goa. Thanks are also due to the officers and staff of Forest Department of Goa
Governmentand Social Forestry Division, Koihapur Circle, Maharashtra for field support.
Arvind G. Untawale 315
REFERENCES
SUBRATA MAITY
ARTIFICIAL REHABILITATION
An initial study for identification and characterisation of eight species of mangroves for their
rehabilitationin the degraded forest land was undertaken. The propagules were collected from
the nearby forests and planted on pre-sited soil of the trenches dug earlier. Morphological,
anatomical and biochemical parameters duringthe growth phases were studied to analyse their
establishment. The area was a representative zone and was polyhaline in nature and hence
supposed to be an ideal habitat of most of the mangrove species (Untawale, 1986).
RESULTS
The species under study showed a clear inter-specific variation in their adaptabilityin the preva-
lent soil and exhibited differential response regarding growth and other parameters.Avicennia
alba recorded maximum height (102 cm) at two year growth stage, followed by A. marina and
A. officinalis, but A. marina produced maximumbiomass due to more number of branches and
foliage (Table 1). Maity and Maity (1989) also recorded the superior performanceof the same
species in a four year study on Avicennia. Rhizophora mucronata reached a height of 90 cm with
an average of 10 nodes and 30 leaves. Bruguiera cylindria also recorded a height of 62 cm with
15 nodes and 29 leaves whereas Ceriops tagal recorded 31 cm length, 10 nodes and 15 leaves.
LeavingAvicennia aside, Rhizophora recorded maximumrate of growth, followed by B. cylindrica,
B. sexangula, C. decandra and C. tagal. Variations were also found in the case of nodes and leaves
present on the main stem.This differential behaviour in their growth may definitely be accounted
Species Cuticle Epidermis Hypodermis Pallisade Spongy P/S Total green Epidermis Total leaf
I
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) tissue (%) (%) thickness
Avicennia alba 6.6 19.4 129.9 110.9 94.3 1.18 205.2 18.6 379.7
(1.7) (5.0) (64.5) (28.8) (25.0) (53.8) (4.8)
A. marina 7.4 16.01 90.4 185.5 120.0 1.55 305.5 19.0 441.3
(1.9) (4.0) (22.9) (41.9) (69.9) (4.3)
A. officinalis 10.5 19.6 30.4 104.1 262.9 0.39 36.0 17.9 443.5
(2.3) (4.4) (6.8) (23.4) (59.2) (82.6) (4.0)
Bruguiera cylindrica 10.3 1.9 30.4 104.1 262.9 0.39 36.0 17.9 443.5
(2.3) (4.0) (6.8) (23.4) (59.2) (82.6) (4.0)
B. sexangula 9.8 14.4 57.0 10.4.1 262.9 0.39 367.0 17.8 466.0
(2.1) (3.1) (12.2) (22.3) (56.4) (78.9) (3.8)
Ceriops decandra 9.8 14.4 57.0 104.1 262.9 0.39 367.0 17.8 466.0
(2.1) (3.1) (12.2) (22.3) (56.4) (78.9) (3.8)
C. tagal 9.9 17.5 51.0 66.2 313.8 0.21 380.0 16.7 475.8
(2.1) (3.7) (10.9) (13.9) (66.0) (779.9) (3.4)
R. mucronata 10.6 15.6 209.0 152.0 211.2 0.72 363.2 15.5 613.9
(1.7) (2.5) (34.0) (24.7) (34.4) (59.1) (2.5)
REFERENCES
Blasco, F. (1977). In : V.J. Chapman (Ed.). Ecosystem of the World : Wet Coastal Ecosystems.
Greenway, H. and R. Munns (1980). Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. 31: 149-190.
Joshi, G.V. (1976). P.L. 480 Project No. A7-SWC-95, Kolhapur. 195 p.
Joshi, G.V., H.B. Karchar, C.A. Gowada and L. Bhosale. (1974). Photosynthetica 8: 51-52.
Maity, S. and S.K. Maity (1989). Proc. Bio. Energy Society, New Delhi.
Mathauda, G.S. (1957). The Mangrovesof India. Proc. Mangr. Symp., Calcutta. pp 31-42.
Naskar, K.R. (1988). Mangroves of Sunderbans. S. Jay Prakashan,New Delhi.
Rains, D.W. and E. Epstein. (1967). Aust. J. Bio. Sci. 20 : 847-857.
Rao, A.N. (1986). Mangroves ofAsia and the Pacific. UNESCO Publication, Paris.
Sidhu, S.S. (1963). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 33(8) : 129-136.
Untawale,A.G. (1986). In : Introductory Training Course on Mangrove Ecosystem. UNESCO : 1521.
Waheedkhan, M.A. (1957). The mangrovesof India. Proc. Mangr. Symp., Calcutta. pp 97-109.
Yanny-Ewusie, J. (1980). Elements of Tropical Ecology. London.
REHABILITATING MANGROVES IN MAHARASHTRA
ARVIND G. RADDI
INTRODUCTION
Maharashtra has a coastline of about 720 km which is cut up by numerous creeks opening into
the sea and their deltas. In the past, mangroves were occurring naturally and in abundance in
the muddy environs of the creeks, deltas as well as in strips of varying width on the banks of
estuaries. Over the years in the past, these areas have suffered on account of biotic attrition.
Primarily this was because most of these areas are basically legally non-forest areas. That is to
say, their legal status was not that of a reserve forest, norwere they generally in the charge of the
Forest Department. Most of these areas were designated as revenue wastelands and were in the
charge of the Revenue Department. Consequently, although the Forest Department in the State
is over 100 years old, it had no control over these areas for their protectionor management.The
RevenueDepartment,which was the custodianof these areas,being constantlyunderpressure of
their multifariousother duties and responsibilities had little time for them and these areas were
treated as unproductive coastal wastelands and remained for long in a state of benign neglect.
CHANGING PERCEPTIONS
In the past few years there has been a noticeable change in the situation. With the changing
perceptionsthere has been increasing appreciationof the value of mangroves for coastal fishery
and theirutility in environmentalconservationon the coastas well as in helping to meet some of
the needs for fuel and fodder of people residing in coastal hamlets.The Social Forestry wing of
the Forest Departmentwhich was assignedthe role of generatingtree culture and promotingtree
growth in non-forest areas of the State, initiated rehabilitation of coastal mangrove wastelands
from 1986onwards through plantations of Rhizophora and Avicennia.This was a pioneering effort
in the State and exposedthe forestry staff for the first time to the mangrovehabitat and mechanics
of mangrove rehabilitation. The salient features of this exercise are described in the following
pages.
MANGROVE AFFORESTATION
AREA SELECTION
The first step was to identify areas where pilot-scale mangrove planting effort could be tried out.
In this context, an initial survey of the creeks in Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri districts was made
during 1986 and locations for pilot planting were selected.
The Social Forestry staff, who had no previous experiencewith mangrove planting, had to be
familiarised and educated in this respect through talks, field visits and demonstrations, and
motivated to venture into the muddy terrain and participate enthusiastically in the mangrove
planting programme in addition to their other work.
SPECIES SELECTION
Considering the locality factors, the existing relict mangrove vegetation, and the needs of the
villagers, it was decided to restrict the mangrove planting activity to two species. These were
Rhizophora mucronata Lam., locally known as 'Kandal', which is a good fuel wood, and Avicennia
spp. (A. officinalis L. and A. marina Forsk), locally known as 'Thiwar'. Avicennia is good fodder.
It is reported that cattle fed on Avicennia fodder have very high butter fat content in their milk.
Avicennialeaves also contain salt, iodine and other trace minerals,whichare not naturally present
in many other fodders and have to be artificially supplemented.Further, Avicennia coppices can
withstand periodic lopping. In addition, Avicennia flower is also reportedly a good source of
honey.
It has since been learnt that even they can be directly dribbled in the planting areas and give
good results.
At present,techniques for long-term storage of viable propagulesare not availableso as to enable
us to take full advantage of propagules' production duringthe production seasonand store them
for utilisation later in the year. Some attempts made to devise storage techniques were
1. Rhizophora propagules andAvicennia seeds were stored in plasticbags in cold storage available
at fishing centres on the coast. They did not survive in cold below zero temperature;
2. It was also observed that in nature Rhizophora propagules and Avicennia seeds remain free-
floating in creek or sea water for a considerable time and on finding suitable soil strata, strike
roots and establish themselves at the new site. Thus they retain viability in moving water
(under free-floating conditions) for a long time. This needs further study as a means of their
storage.
Polybag-raised saplings
Saplings of Rhizophora and Avicennia were also raised in nurseries in polythene bags. Surplus
propagules not planted directlyin the field were planted in polythenebags in such nurseries for
later use during the year.
Generally the nurseries were located near the planting site to reduce polybag transportation
problem. The nurseries consisted of sunken beds 13 x 1.3 m in which 12.5 cm x 25 cm size
polybags (250 bags/bed) filled with local creek mud were arranged. The Rhizophora propagules
and Avicennia seeds were planted in these bags. The nursery beds were within the Intertidal
zone and consequentlythe plants were watered daily, naturally, by the incoming tidal waters.
The beds, however, needed bamboo supports to ensure that the bags were not disoriented or
displaced on account of tidal water flow.
PLANTING WORK
The spacingadopted for planting was2m x 2m (2500 plants/ha). The plantingworkwas done at
low tide, when the area was exposed; Rhizophora propagules were planted in crow-barholes, as
this gave them a degree of stability after planting. Only where the mud was very soft (e.g., soft
mud-flats) Rhizophora propagules were planted by manually pushing them into the soft mud.
For planting Avicennia saplings (uprooted from nature) or polythene bag raised Avicennia and
Rhizophora saplings,it wasnecessaryto scoopthe earthwitha shovel and then plantthe saplings.
Taking a realistic view, underexisting circumstances it was felt that Rhizophora propagulesshould
be planted during the season of their availability, and later as required polybag-raisedRhizophora
plants could be used for planting in the rest of the year. Rhizophora saplings(one-year-old), col-
lected from nature did not stand transplanting well. So far as Avicennia was concerned, their
propagules being small and liable to be disrupted, got washed away from the planting site.
Therefore, planting their propagules in field was not adopted then. It was however, done using
seedlings. This could be cost-effective and needs to be tried out in the field. One-year-old natu-
rally found Avicenniaplants can also withstand transplantingand are advocatedfor transplanting
in the rainy season. For subsequent year-round planting (dry season), if any, stress may be laid
on planting nursery-raised polybag Rhizophora/Avicennia plants, and if they are not available,
one-year-old naturally produced Avicennia seedlings may be used for planting.
324 Rehabilitating mangrovesin Maharashtra
LABOUR
Labour availabilityis a problem in Konkan, as able-bodiedmen migrate to cities (e.g., Bombay)
and others work in paddy fields during the monsoon and in mango, cashew, coconut and are-
canut orchards during the fair season. Labourers other than fishermendo not prefer to work in
the creeks or swampy areas, because of the "skin itching" on account of long exposure to sea
water. Under the circumstances, payment of daily wage rate should be high enough, not only to
match the prevailingupland rate but also to attract labourers to the workof mangrove planting.
PROTECTION
The mangrove plantations were found to have some protectionproblems:
1. The planted areasat low tide oftenappearas open expanses.Buffaloes from the coastalvillages
love,to enter these areas at low tide and browse on the vegetation, e.g., Avicennia saplings.
2. At high tide, fishermenfish in the creek waters and while pulling up their nets may dislodge
submerged young planted mangrove seedlings.
3. Provisionof two-strand barbed wire fenceattached to bamboopoles helps identify and protect
a mangroveplantation duringhigh tide and low tide in its earlyvulnerablestage. Also leaving
traditional fishingboats a passage for anchoringby leaving some areas unpianted helps avoid
conflict with fishermen.
4. An algal form (Enteromorpha sp.) has also been observed in the young plantation as well as
nursery area. It comes in along with the high tide and envelops young mangrove plants,
particularlytheirleading shoots. This has to be removed manually periodically, otherwise the
young seedlingsget damaged. The algal menaceis observed'mostlyin the November—January
period. After a year or two, when the seedlings grow in height,become sturdy and their shoot
portion starts remaining out of water even at high tide, the algal form is not likely to have
an adverse effect. In such'algal—affected zones, planting tall nursery-raisedseedlings may be
a solution.
5. At some places insect damage to leaves of mangroveshasbeen observed. The species affected
was Rhizophora. The insect is a beetle identified as Monolipta sp. The leaves develop black
spots and the leading shoot also gets damaged. Consequently new shoots are developed by
the affectedplant from other buds down below, which in turn may also get affectedand the
sapling, though alive, develops a diseased, scrappy, stunted appearance.In upland areas, a
pesticide spray could have got rid of the menace. However,in the case of young mangroves,
even if pesticide is sprayed, there is the likelihoodof the next tide washing it away.
6. Rhizophora propagules have also been at places encrusted with barnacles, i.e., Balanus spp.
The infection is often heavy, but so far not serious enough to cause mortality in the areas of
plantation. This also needs to be studied.
PLANTING ACTIVITY
The Forest (Conservation) Act of the Indian Governmentprohibits non-forest use of forest land
unless permitted by the Government. Such permissions now are rarely forthcoming. Conse-
quently, developmentprojects on the coast involvingeven a very small area of forest land often
326 Rehabilitating mangroves in Maharashtra
get held up. The Government of India to the development of the region, may grant the per-
mission to use forest land provided the State Government makes available for compensatory
plantation activity, non-forest land equivalent to the forest land being lost in the project and in
some cases double of that. Mangrove wastelands, the bulk of which are legally not forest lands,
are now being increasingly offered by State authorities to the Forest Department for raising
compensatoryplantations.With formalisation of mangrove plantation techniques in the State, it
has now become possiblefor the Forest Department to take over such areas for compensatory
afforestation works. This is an important change from the past and offers an opportunity to give
a boost to mangrove planting in general. It has also contributed in the process to reduction of
friction between the Forest Department and some of the other developmental agencies of the
State Government.
Whereas one can fully understand the desire to develop prawn exports through aquaculture
methods, it must however be developed in the manner where mangroves are not disturbed in
the process. Perhaps aquaculturefarms can be located in the hinterlandjust beyond the mangrove
belt and water from the creeks pumped in and out of them. In addition, mangroves can also
be planted on a systematicbasis along aquaculturefarm bunds as an activity complementaryto
aquaculture. This may add a little to the cost of the aquaculture farm but in the process it will
contribute greatly to the conservationand developmentof mangroves in the coastal belt.
RESEARCH
To facilitte continued mangrove conservation and planting activity in the State, it is important
that research study be carried out to devise ways and means of tackling the enteromorphic
menace to mangrove plantations that is taking place in certain areas, as well as controlling
of insect pests through systemic inhibitors. Today, there are no widespread problems but it is
important to standardise the methodologyto tackle them without waiting for these problems to
reach epidemicproportions. It is also important to find out means of extending the viability of
Rhizophora propagules and Avicennia seed in a cheap and effective manner. If this is done, then
it may be possibleto even bypass the nursery stage altogetherand undertake direct planting of
propagulesand seed sowing on a year-roundbasis. This willalsoobviatethe need to transport the
plantingstock in polybagsover long distancesin boats. The issues of Kharlandbandharas (dykes)
and aquaculturefarms for prawns also need to be thoroughly examined and a via media worked
out. Over the years many new legislations covering forests, tree-growth,fisheries, pollution and
environment,etc., in coastal zone have been enacted. These need to be reviewed vis-a-vis their
effect on mangrovewelfare, and anomalies, if any, need to be rectified.
ECO-RESTORATIONOF MANGROVES : A CASE STUDY
SANJAY DESHMUKH
INTRODUCTION
Mangroveswamps are a prominent componentof the coastal vegetation, which occupy the flood
plains, margins of bays and tidal rivers in addition to shores. The mangrove ecosystem though
open, is quite complex, composed of various inter-related elements in the land-sea interface
zone. The mangrovesare known to keep to shorelines intact against tidal currentsby preventing
soil erosion and provide a habitat for several wildlife marine species including birds, shrimps
and fishes. In coastal areas, mangroves constitute an important renewableresourcefor fuelwood
and fodder. They control erosion, afford stabilisationand are not only the sources of primary
productivity involved in complexdetritus food webs (Odum and Heald, 1972), but also provide
a habitat and nursery ground for a variety of organisms(Macnae, 1974; Idyll et at., 1967). In view
of the ecological and socio-economic importance of these plants, their restoration has become
increasingly important, especially in recent years, when land and forest cover of the earth is
rapidly on the wane.
Mangroves have been successfully used for soil stabilisation in the tropics. Rhizophora apiculata
hasbeen planted in Sri Lanka to induce silt depositionand to stabilise the accreditedsoil (Macnae,
1968). In Java, Avicenniamarina and A. officinalis have been maintained at the mariculturesites to
provide protectionfrom the wind and waves (Schuster, 1952). Rhizophora mangle from Florida is
reported to have been introduced in Molokai, one of the hawaian islands, to controlerosion (Mac
Caughey, 1917). This introduction resulted in the spread of red mangroves along the banks of
many ancient Hawaian fish culture ponds (Teas, 1975). Bowman(1971) and Goforthand Thomas
(1979) have reported about planting of mangrovesin Florida Keys for reducing the erosiveaction
of the sea. In recent years, mangroveshave been planted as landscape plantings in South Florida
(Sevage, 1972; Teas, 1975a).
Development of suitable forestry methods for propagation of mangroves has been prompted
by the demand for the economically valuable mangroves for production of firewood, charcoal,
timber, fishing stakes and tannin (Macnae, 1968). Silvicultural techniques to obtain maximum
sustained yield have been developed in the mangrove plantations of South-east Asia (Watson,
1928; Noakes, 1955; Banijbatana, 1957; Macnae, 1968). In Asiait includes hand planting of propag-
ules, controlled harvesting and thinning, control of undesirable species and ditching to improve
tidal circulation. Recently, aerial planting technique for afforestation has been tested in parts of
the Saigon river delta where large areas of mangrove forests had been killed (Teas, 1972).
MANGROVES OF MAHARASHTRA
With a coastline as long as 720 kilometers, Maharashtra has many coastal villages. These often
have sizable wetlands along creeks, which are virtuallybarren, but suitablefor mangrovegrowth.
The most important amongst them are the areas on estuarine fringes and mud-flatswhich have
NURSERY EXPERIMENTS
A mangrove nursery was established near the swampy area of Vikhroli to evaluate the per-
formance of Rhizophora mucronata, alongwith the different mangrove species. The need to raise
mangrovenurseries was based on the considerationthat in nature, propagulesof differentman-
grove species are available only for some part of the year. Therefore, it would be possible to
raise propagules into saplingsby growing them in the nursery and the planting can be done in
the next year subject to planting stock.
Mangroves show different modes of seed germination, namely vivipary, crptovivipary and
ovipary.In case of seed germinationon soil, the seeds are thrown on the ground in the monsoons
when soil salinityis lowest. Germinationin halophyteshasbeen reported by many workers (Joshi
and Iyengar, 1977). Laboratory investigationsof seed germinationindicate that seeds of most of
the halophytic species reach their maximum germinationin distilled water (Seneca, 1969; Dietert
and Shontz, 1978) and that specification toxicity occurs when seeds are exposed to various salts
(Varshney and Baijal, 1977).
Based on the above observations, the propagules were sown in polybags filled with non-saline
soil or garden loam withFarm YardManure in the proportion of 3:1 and were irrigated with fresh
water. This experiment was conducted to ascertain the relationshipbetween propagule size and
seedling performance. The propagules of Rhizophora mucronata,collected from the Sindhudurg
Sanjay Deshmukh 329
district of Maharashtra were used for this experiment.They were arbitrarily divided into three
groups:
a. Propagules< 30 cm
b. Propagules > 30 < 45 cm, and
c. Propagules > 45 cm.
One hundred propagulesof each group were grown in three different sets of polybagscontaining
garden soil and Farm Yard Manure in the proportion of 3:1 and were irrigated with fresh water.
The data on their growth performancewere recorded when the approximate age of the plants
was one year. Growth parameters include the number of internodes, number of leaves per plant,
diameter of first internode, net growth in height and mean leaf area per plant. Mean leaf area
per plant was calculated by measuring the length and breath of all the leaves of a plant and
using the formula Leaf area (A) = Length (L) x Breath (B) x 2/3.
PILOT PLANTATION
A general approach for eco-restoration effort was worked out on the basis of the assessment of
the local factors. The observationswere based on the following points
Area Selection
The first step was to identify areas where pilot scale mangroveplanting effort couldbe triedout.
In this context, the initial survey and mapping of the vegetationwas undertaken. With the help
of maps prepared, one mud-flatfrom the lower shore region was identifiedfor the experimental
plantation.
Planting Technique
The propagules of Rliizophora mucronata were planted in rows parallel to each other and water
level from lower shore to the upper shore. Nearly 1/4 to 1/3 of a propagule was embedded in
the soil by direct sowing as the soil was loose and therefore this technique was adopted instead
of boring the soil and then planting the propagules.
OBSERVATIONS
NURSERYEXPERIMENTS
The morphometricparameters were studied for propagules sampled randomly from the planta-
tion area.
The net growth in height of27.57 + 0.55 cm was attained by Rhizophora mucronataseedlingsafter
3 months of sowing with average number of internode 2.37 ± 0.08. The number of leaves varied
from 6 to 10. After 12 months, the growth attained was found to the 67.12 ± 3.37 cm which
was considered good. The number of leaves had almost doubled compared to the previous
stage (15.97 ± 1.69) and the number of internodes also increased from 2.37 + 0.08 to 4.36 +
0.28 in 12 months. The propagules till this age did not show any infestation. Based on these
observations, a largescale plantation/ afforestation programmeswas undertaken which involved
the direct plantingof Rhizophora mucronatapropagates in the areas where they showed maximum
survival.
100
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 21
winds
w 70
90
80 iri3
0 60
z
LU 50
0
LU
40
0
30
20
10
Figure 1. Mortality of Rhizophora mucronata along a belt transect 3 months after sowing
PROBLEMS, ISSUES AND THEIR IMPACTON MANGROVE REHABILITATION
Field observationsrevealed that there are some biological stresses that influence the success of
mangrove plantations to a variable degree.
Infestation by barnacles
The worst marine organisms infesting mangrove plantations in the swampy regions of Vikhroli
were the barnacles. The peak season of infestationwas during the rainy season and this mostly
occurred where the main channel of the creek entered the swampy area. The attack by these
cone shaped shells during their larval stage on the newly planted propagules was visually seen
only after their growth on the hypocotyl. They were observed in a totally covered state on the
hypocotylsand thus resulted in wiping out of plantations. Planting the year old nursery-grown
seedlings was observed to be the best remedy over this problem, since the grown portion of
the elongated stem remained above the level of the high tide thereby reducing the chances of
infestationon the growing shoot.
Sanjay Deshmukh 333
Infestation by crabs
The plantations in their early stage were found to be infested by the species of Uca and Sesarma.
These crabs often girdled the root collars and fed on the fleshy tissues of the propagules.
Man as a stress factor
The areas near the mid-tide level were most frequently inundated by tidal waters. Due to this,
the newly planted propagules were covered by water during high tides and were not visible
above water level till a few months. The local fishermencaught shrimps, crabs and mangroves
dwelling fish species during high tides in the plantation areas. Plantations near the mouth of
the main channel of the creek, as well as near the peripheral areas of the swamp, were badly
damaged due to the injury to the hypocotyls caused by impact of small boats passing through
the plantations.
Other stress factors like (i) the wood borers which attacked the old plantations, (ii) epiphytic
green algae which choke the seedlings to death or clinged on to the hypocotyls thereby giving
an additional burden, leading to bending or breakage of stems of propagules, (iii) seaweeds
which affected species with smallerhypocotyls,e.g., Ceriops and Bruguiera,and (iv) the domestic
animals which roamed around the plantation areas during low tides and trampled over newly
planted seedlings were reported as important factors contributing to the heavy mortalityin the
plantation areas of coastal Maharashtra.
CONCLUSIONS
Mangrovesplay an important role in estuarine ecological systems as well as in shoreline protec-
tion. Many largeareas undermangroveshave been lost by dredging, land-fillingand othermeans.
It has, therefore,become necessary to develop techniques for restoration of mangrove areas.
From the view-point of eco-restoration of mangroves of the Vikhroli area in Bombay, besides
preliminary trials in a nursery, a great deal of emphasis was placed on largescale planting of
Rhizophora mucronata in the swampy area. Data collected on germinationand subsequentgrowth
and mortality indicated that in addition to the method of sowing, soil topography, texture,
chloride content and tidal condition appeared to strongly affect the growth performanceof the
species. The results obtainedfrom the largescale plantations of Rhizophora ?nucronata revealedthat
the species sprouted equallywell in lower and uppershore regions initially, but failedto survive
in raised, barren areas of the landward side in the swamp. Here the mortality appeared to be
predominantlyregulated by substrata level affecting inundation frequencyand causingdryness
in consequence. The mud-flats which were frequently inundated with tidal water and protected
from wave action, were found to facilitate the growth and survival of Rhizophora mucronata
saplings.The experiment related to comparative growth of the seedlings emerging from smaller
or larger propagules of Rhizophora mucronata revealed that a correlationbetween the propagule
size and the rate of seedling growth is in favour of bigger propagules.
The practicalimplicationof utlising larger propagules for plantationsis that rapid growth would
help the juvenile plant to cross the level of mean flooding of tidal water in a short span of time.
Moreover,the nursery-grown saplings revealed that the height of saplings reduced the chances
and extent of barnacle-infestation in the foliar region of the plant.
334 Eco-restoration of mangroves : a case study
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Prof. S.B. Chaphekar and Prof. S.M. Karmakar for their guidance and
encouragement. The financial support from the Soonabai Pirojsha Godrej Foundation, Bombay
is gratefully acknowledged. My thanks are also due to Prof. M.S. Swaminathan, FRS for his
sustained interest and guidance in my work.
REFERENCES
Banijbatana, D., (1957) Mangroveforest in Thailand. Proceedings of the 9th Pacific Science Congress,
Bangkok. pp. 23-34.
Bowman, H.H.M. (1971). Ecology and physiology of red mangrove. Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, 56 : 89-672.
Dietert, M.F., and J.P. Shontz (1978). Germination ecology of a Maryland population of a salt-
marsh bulrush, Scirpus robustus. Estuaries 1 : 164-170.
Goforth, H.W. and J.R. Thomas. (1979). Planting of red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle L., for
stabilisation of Marl shorelines in Florida Keys. D.P. Cole (Ed.). Proceedings of the 6th An-
nual Conference on the Restoration and Creation of Wetlands. HillsboroughCommunity College,
Tampa, Florida, USA. pp. 207-242.
Idyll, C.P., D.C. Tabb and B.J. Yokel (1967). The value of estuaries to shrimp. In : Walsh G.E.,
S.C. Snedaker, and H.J. Teas (Ed.s). Proceedings on the International Symposium on Biology and
Managementof Mangroves. IFAS, Universityof Florida,USA.
Joshi, A.J. and E.R.R. Iyengar. (1977). Germinationof Suaeda nudzjlora Moq. Geobios 4 : 267-268.
Mac Caughey, V. (1917). The mangrovesin the Hawaian Island. Hawaian Forester and Agriculture
14 : 361-366.
Macnae, W. (1968). A general account of the fauna and flora of the mangroveswamps and forests
in the Indo-West Pacific region.Advancesin marine biology 6: 73-270. Academic Press, London.
Macnae, W. (1974). Mangroveforest andfisheries. Report of IOFC Number 74/4 prepared under
the International India Ocean fisheries Survey and DevelopmentProgramme.35 p.
Mathauda, G.S. (1959). The mangrovesof India. Proceedings of the Symposium on MangroveForests
(1957), Calcutta, India pp. 66-87.
Noakes, D.S.P. (1955). Methods of increasing growth and obtaining natural regeneration of the
mangrove types of Malaya. Malayan Forester 18 : 23-30.
Odum, W.E. and E.J. Heald. (1972). Trophic analysis of an estuarine mangrove community. Bul-
letin ofMarine Sciences 22 : 71-738.
Schuster, W.E. (1952). Fish culture in brackish water ponds of Java. Indo-Pacific Fisheries Commis-
sion (Special Publications) 1: 1-143.
Seneca, E.D., (1969). Germinationresponse to temperature and salinity of four dune grasses from
the Outer Banks of North Carolina. Ecology 50 : 45-53.
Sevage, T. (1972). Florida mangroves as shoreline stabilisers. Florida Department of Natural Re-
sources Professional Paper Series 19 : 1-46. Florida,USA
Teas, H.J. (1972). Aerial planting of mangroves in the Rungsat region of South Vietnam. Report
of National Academyof Science Study. U.S.A.
SanjayDeshmukh 335
V. ARUNACHALAM
INTRODUCTION
Genetic divergence measures discussed earlier are mainly used to assess the genetic proximity
or otherwise of OTUs. This assessment is usually made by grouping together genetically close
OTUs. Such groups, also called 'clusters', help in identifyingOTUs that are genetically divergent
and making major decisions on conservationof genes using real genetic variants.
They also help in a purposeful choice of parents for hybridisationto obtain heterotic F1s with a
high probability, as would be seen later.
We then need to define a cluster. A cluster has the property that memberswithin it show lesser
variation compared to membersfrom different clusters.In other words, memberswithin a cluster
are homogeneouswhile membersbelonging to differentclusters are heterogeneous.This would
imply low intra-clusterand high inter-clustervariation.
This principle is mainly used in Tocher's method of clustering describedin detail by Rao (1952).
We describe in brief the following methods of grouping and identify the best for genetic
clustering
a. Single linkage clustering: dendrogram,
b. Multiple range test,
c. Principal componentanalysis, and
d. Tocher's method of clustering.
DENDROGRAM
There are a number of methods of clustering OTUs based on the information of various traits.
For a good description, one may refer to Sneath and Sokal (1973) from which we illustratea very
simple method called 'single linkage clustering'.
Table 1 gives the values of two traits X1 and X2 of 8 OTUs. The distance function d2 has been
explained in the earlier paper. Values of d2 and d = are appended in Table 1.
From row 3 onwards : distances below diagonal (marked*), distance values, above diagonal,
values of distance squares.
Samples varying in size between 15 and 20 plants per OTU were used for recordingobservations.
The analysis of variance (Table 2) showed significant differences. Using the error m.s., E, the
j
difference in means of populations i and was tested using l.s.d. as follows:
—
rn tn
t= _______
E +
kn1 11]
m1 and m1 are the means of the populations i and j for a trait and n1 and n1 are the sizes of
samples used for recording observationsin them. The test statistic 't' follows a t-distribution
with error d.f.
Table 2 Anova of 3 traits in 8 OTUs of peanut
Source d.f. mean squares
PW TW SP
Between OTUs 7 7984* 465* 732*
Within OTUs 147 428 70 47
The population means were arranged in groups based on t-test (and l.s.d). The topmost group
containingpopulations with the highest mean was given a score 1, the next best a score 2, and
so on. If 'k' was the number of groups for a particular character, the populations in group 1
/ /
were given a score = 1 k, those in group 2 with a score = 2 k and so on to standardise scores
across the characters for each one of which the populationscould arrange in varying number of
groups. When groups overlap, it is possible for a population to be found in group 1 and also
in group 2, for example. The score for that population was then taken to be the average which
would be equal to (1+2)/2k = 3/2k. Populations occurring in more than two groups would be
treated in a like manner for the allotment of scores. The above points would become clear by a
study of Tables 3 and 4.
V. Arunachalam 341
The individual scores for each character were added up to provide a total score for each popu-
lation. The populations were then ranked using the numerical values of total scores.
I I
1 A,B rn-s C,D,E m F rn+s G,H
Groupl 2 3 4
We note that there were only two groups which were also non-overlappingfor PW and TW, and
there were five overlapping groups for SP (Table 3). The total scores (Table 4) can be arranged
in ascendingorder. The group with least score was the best and so on (as we attached the score
1 for the topmost group). If, on the other hand, we intend to arrange the OTUs in four groups,
one method is to computethe mean (m) and standard error (s) of the total scores. It would then
be possible to partition OTUs as follows
342 Methods of classification based on genetic divergence
where 1 is the lowest value and h the highest value of total score obtained.
By this analogy, the eight OTUs of peanut could be grouped as shown at the bottom of Table 4.
Group OTUs
1 A,B
2 C,D, E
3 F
4 G,H
A more efficient procedureis to useDuncan'smultiple range test in place of l.s.d. test. In principle,
the above logic can be extended to obtain any number of groups as desired a priori.
Various approachesare in vogue to obtain a preliminarygrouping of OTUs. For example, breeders
assign a floor value to each character based on their experience and allot a population a core +1
or —1 when it exceeds or falls short of the floor value. The aggregate scores across the characters
are used for ranking the populations. Alternatively, an arbitrary weight is associated with each
character and a discriminant function is set up. Using the values of discriminant scores, the
populations are arranged in their order of merit.
When a number of characters are considered, there is, in general, sequential relationship in
biological populations.For example, poor germinationaffects seedling vigour that affects in turn
initial leaf area and hence photosynthesis.Hence decisionsbased on severalimportant characters
spanning the entire growth phase will be fair and precise due to an automatic weighting in the
expression of the various characters measured sequentiallyover the growth period.
Thus the three mechanisms— (scoring process, t-test of differences and decision based on a large
number of characters) ensure the superiority of the present method over the one where numerical
superiority over floor values of characters is considered. Such a superiority may not be upheld
by statisticaltests. Though apparently no weight is associatedwith each character,it is evident
the present method takes into adequate account the relative importance of the characters.
On the other hand, discriminantfunctiontechnique suffers essentially from arbitrary assignment
of weights to characters. Since no exact rules of weighting exist, classification by various workers
of the same biological populations can differ based on the weights given by them to characters.
The problem of character weighting has been considered in great depth by Sneath and Sokal
(1973) who defended equal weighting on several independent rounds. When many characters
V. Arunachalam 343
PRINCIPAL COMPONENTANALYSIS
The principal component analysis aims to constructlinear combinationsof variables that could
explain the total variation given by 'n' variables. There would be as many linear combinations
as the number of variables. The extent of variation accounted for by a linear combination is
measured by the proportionate contribution of the canonical root corresponding to the linear
combination. The combinationsare so constructed as to contribute to the total variation in a
descendingorder of magnitude.However,in many cases, the first two roots (or the first two linear
combinations) would accountfor a large percentageof totalvariation. These linear combinations,
called canonicalvectors or principal components, could be used to group OTUs. If the first two
roots account for a majority of total variation (normallyto the order of 80% or more), the values
corresponding to the first two canonical roots are obtained for each OTU by substituting the
mean values of characters in the linear combinations. The values of the first two roots of the
OTUs could then be plotted in a two-dimensionalgraph. The OTUs could be grouped taking
into account their proximityas judged by the investigator.The method hasbeen illustratedwith
an example by Rao (1952) (article 9c.3).
The efficiency of principal component analysis will depend on the extent of total variation ac-
counted for by the first two roots. In cases where the first two roots account for less than 50%
variation, it would be necessary to use more principal componentswhich will make it difficult
to represent the OTUs in a two-dimensionalgraph and consequentlythe clustering based on
it. Usually this analysis is used to confirm the classification based on distance statistic using
Tocher's method. It can, however,be used to constructpreliminarygroups which would further
be grouped using D2 statisticwhen the number of OTUs is large, as would be seen later.
and 25 collections in them, two clusterscontained 14 and 12, one contained4, and three a single
collection each. A detailed evaluation of those groups would be found in Vairavan et al. (1973).
A similar analysisusing four varietal groups of peanut led to equally interestinginformationon
the genetic diversity present in them (Durga Prasad et al., 1985).
Since the clustering is based on phenotypic values of traits measured for genetic divergence,
it is possible that clustering pattern in one environment or season may not agree with that of
another. As explained earlier, the basic strategy is to expect such variation and base decisions
on grouping made in a specific environment or season.
DISCUSSION
The best character set for genetic differentiation of OTUs is a debatable area. It would, however,
be desirable to run a completeassay of genetic, morphological, physiological, pathologicaland
biochemical (and all other known) characters on a known set of genetically divergent OTUs.
Using stepwiseregressionprocedures (see for example, Draper and Smith, 1981), it is possibleto
arrive at an optimal set of traits accountingfor a maximum percent of variation in a dependent
variable like grain yield, biomass, wood content, etc., depending on the biological entity. Such
an exercise coupled with a knowledge of the crop to identify traits essential for survival and
fitness, would help to decideon the minimal set of charactersto be used in the analysisof genetic
diversity.
REFERENCES
Arunachalam, V. and A. Bandyopadhyay.(1984). A method to make decisions jointlyon a num-
ber of dependent characters. Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding 44 : 419—424.
Arunachalam,V. and A. Bandyopadhyay.(1989). On the method of classification using D-square
statistics and the importance of characterscontributing to genetic divergence. Indian Journal
of Genetics and Plant Breeding 49 : 227—230.
Chandrasekhariah,S.R., B.R. Murty and V. Arunachalam.(1969). Multivariateanalysisof genetic
divergencein Eu-sorghums. Proceedings of National instituteof Sciences, India 35 : 172—195.
Draper, N.R. and H. Smith. (1981). AppliedRegression Analysis. Second edition. John Wiley and
Sons, New York.
Durga Prasad, M.M.K., V. Arunachalam and A. Bandyopadhyay.(1985). Diversity pattern elu-
cidating choice of parents for hybridisation in varieties of groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L.
Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) 82 : 237—242.
Murty, B.R. and V. Arunachalam.(1966). The nature of divergence in relationto breeding system.
Genetica 41: 179—189.
Murty,B.R.and V. Arunachalam. (1967). Factoranalysisof geneticdiversity in the genus Sorghum.
Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding 27: 123—135.
Murty, B.R., V. Arunachalamand O.P. Jam. (1970). Factoranalysisin relationto breeding system.
Genetica, 41: 179—189.
Murty, B.R., V. Arunachalamand I.J. Anand. (1973). Effect environmenton the geneticdivergence
among some populations of linseed. Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding 33 : 35—315.
346 Methods of classification based on genetic divergence
Rao, C.R., (1952). Advanced Statistical Methods in Biometric Research. John Wiley and Sons, New
York.
Singh, R.K. and B.D. Chaudhary. (1977). Biomedicalmethods in quantitativegeneticanalysis.Kalyani
Publishers,Ludhiana, India.
Sneath,P.H.A. and R.R. Sokal. (1973). Numerical Taxonomy. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco.
Vairavan, S., E.A. Siddiq, V. Arunachalamand M.S. Swaminathan. (1973). A study of the nature
of divergencein rice from Assam and North-east Himalayas. Theoretical and AppliedGenetics
43 : 213—221.
ANALYSIS OF DIVERSITYIN MANGROVES USING DATA
COLLECTED BY TRAINEES
V. ARUNACHALAM
Q2 Ii 4 13 17
12 5 10 15
Q3 Ii 3 9 12
12 7 20 27
Total 19 52 71
3354.433 23
in practice and they are beyond the control of the experimenter. What all is possibleis to retrieve
maximuminformationby fitting the actual data to the most appropriate statisticaldesign, taking
into primary account the specific objective of the experiment.
A sub-stable (Table 4) gives necessary sums and sums of squares computation. For instance,
correction factor, C.F. (over 71 trees in total) = 17672/71 = 43975.901
The mean squares (m.s.) for 1 work out to be corresponding s.s./degrees of freedom (d.f.) =
6709.5883.
The s.s. for other sources of variation are similarly worked out. For details of analysis of simple
designs, refer to standard text books (Snedaker and Cochran, 1980, for example). The gradient-
speciescombinationsnumbering4 have been denoted as GSP in Table 3, with further subdivisions
as G, SP and G x SP interaction. The variation among trees within species was pooled across G, I
and SP to provide an 'Error' variation for 'F' test of variance ratio. In fact, if intra-specific genetic
variation exists (which should rightly be) the error component of variation will be suspect. In
the strict sense, it is necessary to have genetic copies planted across environments(space, time,
etc.) so that error variation can reflect variation due to factors unknown (like soil, climate, etc.,
in traditional crop breeding experiments). However, interpretationscan still be made with the
ANOVA on the assumption that variation between species is substantial in comparison to that
within species, and that a priori it is not possibleto associatethe minor variation within a species
solelywithpossiblegenotypes.Methods need to be developed to sort ourintra-specific genotypic
variabilitybefore attempting sophisticatedanalysis.
V. Arunachalam 349
Table 4 Date on tree girth (cm) and accessory computations requiredfor ANOVA
Ao Bc Total
n x x2 n x x2 n x
Ii 4 387 47109 13 231 4621 17 618
Q2
12 5 194 8238 10 123 1693 15 317
Sub-total 9 581 23 354 32 935
Ii 3 211 25793 9 232 9232 12 443
Q3
12 7 132 2906 20 257 3537 27 389
Sub-total 10 343 29 489 39 832
Total 19 924 52 843 71 1767
REFERENCES
Gomez, K.A. and A.A. Gomez. (1984). Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research. John Wiley
and Sons, New York, U.S.A.
Snedaker, G.W. and W.G. Cochran. (1980). StatisticalMethods.Iowa State UniversityPress, Iowa,
U.S.A.
UTILISATION OF GENETIC DIVERGENCE
V. ARUNACHALAM
INTRODUCTION
Utilisation is as important as measurement of genetic divergence in germplasm. The concepts
of utilisation of genetic divergence can help not only in enriching diversity in mangrovesbut
can be used to simultaneouslyimprove its economic traits to enhance the utility of mangrove
species.
A number of attributes of economic importance (Table 1) make conservation of mangroves an
attractive need.
Table 1 Attributes of economic importance in mangroves
1. Biomass (High CGR, RGR)
2. Timber value (wood content, stem volume and density, plant height)
3. Easy regeneration (from seed, sapling, unsawn poles)
4. Tannins and dyes from bark (biochemical! genetic properties of bark)
5. Resistance of Rhizophoraceae species to herbivores
6. Mangrove sap—source of black dye for manufactureof Polynesian tapa cloth
7. Low floristic diversity (leads to low resourcediversity demanding sound genetic
basis of breeding)
8. Medicinal value from utilisablepoisonous plants
9. Industrial ethanol from Nypa palm
10. Mangrove—inshorecommercial fishesand shrimps by way of nutrition supply and
providing habitat; support of oyster and shellfish (demands study of mangroves
as a plant—animal interaction system similar to mulberry—silkworm)
11. Agriculturaluse through conversion to impounded mangal (notablyto grow salt
resistant rice varieties, e.g., Sierra Leone)
In addition, mangrove genetics, though yet to be studied in depth, points to several possibilities
of further genetic improvement through simple breeding methods. As reported in Tomlinson
(1986), the types of possible germination and the associated vivipary (Table 2), the pollination
biology in various species conducive to hybridisation (Table 3) and the diversity of breeding
mechanisms across species (Table 4) suggest wide possibilities of breeding for purposive ge-
netic improvement. However, no information seems to be available on intra- or inter-specific
hybridisationin mangroves.
HETEROSIS
Heterosisis defined as the percentageimprovementof an Fl hybrid over its mid- or better parent
for a particular metric trait. In practical breeding where a breeder is interested in producing a
Hypogeal
Nypa One seeded fruit + 10
Xylocarpus Seed — 7—6
Avicennia One seeded fruit and seed + 3—2
Osbornia Seed — 0.5
Sonneratia Seed — 0.2—0.1
*From Tomlinson
(1986)
Table 3 Pollination biologyin mangroves
Genus Mechanisms
Rhizophora /
Wind, high pollen ovule ratio, absence of elaborated stigma to catch
wind—borne pollen, flowervisitors, (bee, animals),flowerexudate (Nec-
tar) after floral organs lost, stigma unreceptiveuntilafter pollen release
(weakprotandry)
Sonneratia Bats, hawk moths
Ceriops Moths, small insects (wasp, fly)
Bruguiera Birds, butterfly
Acanthus Bees
Avicennia (Mangrove honey from Avicenniagerminans)
Xylocarpus Birds
hybrid outperformingparents or commercial checks, heterosis over better parent is the commonly
used measure.
V. Arunachalam 353
d. Crosses between parents chosen from the divergence class 3 or 2 (in that order) would give a
high frequencyof heterotic crosses with high magnitudes of heterosis also.
An example hasbeen provided in Table 5 from a 10 x 10 diallelic crosses in peanut. The range of
D2 values (from 4.9 to 19.6) has been arranged into four divergence classes as described above.
354 Utilisationof genetic divergence
Table 5 Parental genetic divergence and its relationship to F1 heterosis in peanut
F1 heterosis
Divergence class (DC) PY TW
n m n rn
h 19.6
DC1 3 170 1 84
m+s 16.7
DC2 7 177 3 71
rn 12.9
DC3 8 135 7 40
rn—s 09.1
DC4 1 51 — —
1 04.9
n : number of heterotic crosses; m : average heterosis over n; PY : pod yield; TW : 100- kernel
weight (Source : Arunachalamet al., 1984).
The frequency(n) and average magnitude of heterosis (rn) of heterotic crosses for pod yield (PY)
and 100-kernel weight (TW) point out clearly the superiority of DC3 and DC2. The limits for
parental divergence to realise heterosis are thus provided by the class DC2 and DC3; in this
example, the desired limits D2 values for parental choice were (a9.1 to 12.9 (DC3), and (b) 13.0
to 16.7 (DC2).
DISCUSSION
In general, heterosis is pronounced in cross-pollinating species. but in those species, genetic
maintenanceof parents poses problems as selfing leads to high depression in parental vigour.
Pedigree breeding to fix pure lines also suffers due to associated inbreeding depression.
Mangroves appear to have desirable edges for heterosis and pure line breeding. While hetero-
sis can manifest due to outpollinationmechanisms (Table 4), parental maintenanceor pedigree
breeding appear to cause no concern due to reported self-compatibility and self-pollination mech-
anisms. Granting possibilities for inter-specific hybridisation,it should theoreticallybe possible to
enhance genetic diversity through hybridisation.In particular, genetic bridge material appears
to be easily generated to fill gaps in plantations through organised hybridisationin or ex situ.
As a spin-off, desirable improvement in a number of economic attributes is also likely which
will trigger commercial cultivation of mangroves.
REFERENCES
Arunachalam, V. (1977). Heterosis for charactersgoverned by two genes. Journal of Genetics 63
15—24.
Arunachalam, V. and A. Bandyopadhyay.(1984). Limits to genetic divergencefor occurrence of
heterosis : Experimental evidence from crop plants. IndianJournal ofGenetics andPlantBreeding
44: 548—554.
V. Arunachalam 355
M.P. TAPASWI
INTRODUCTION
Coastal areas can be regarded as the interface between three habitat media—land, air and sea.
These areas contain three obvious habitats namely : (i) maritime zone—a homefor many ter-
restrial animals and plants, (ii) sea itself, and (iii) an intertidal or littoral zone at the sea-land
interface with a specialisedflora and fauna. In the littoral zones—where marine sediments and
soil meets—a specialised community of terrestrialhalophytic plants and associated animals de-
velop. Two of the most characteristic coastal communities of this nature are : (i) salt marshes
found mainly in temperature to sub-polar climates, and (ii) mangrove swamps—of tropicalto
sub-tropical occurrence. The term 'mangrove' hasbeen used to describeboth an ecological group
of flowering halophytic shrubs and trees (upto 30 m high) belongingto several unrelated fami-
lies, genera, completecommunity or association of plants which fringe sheltered tropicalshores.
Such swamps are inhabited by a variety of terrestrial animals including insects, birds, etc. The
complex root systems of plants provide suitable habitats for many marine crustaceans, fishes
apart from growth of filamentous algae on the substratum giving rise to complex ecosystem.
These habitats are studiedby specialistsfrom variety of basic disciplines. They c6llect data per-
taining to their interest thereby giving rise to a large amount of information requiring careful,
efficient management for future use. This information is mainly available in the form of docu-
ments like books, reports, journal articles, etc. and hence called'documentary sources'. Students,
R&D community are the main users of these sources. However,the process does not end here.
The generators of such documentary information sources themselves become nondocumentary
sources of information having large concern for policy makers and management personnel. In-
formation about various institutions involved in such king of studies, different projects apart
from personnel themselvesform part of the non-documentarysources of information. These ex-
ists other form of equally important information the resources data itself. Their availability,
distribution, ecology, classification, economic importance, social implications, etc., is of interest
to both, researchers and policy makers. The contemporarytechnologies help in archievingthis
informationin the form of data base(s) for their efficient retrieval and use. Several experiments
are being carried out in this line.
This paper describes the importance of clubing all pertinent information (documentary, non-
documentarysources) about any single aspect system (uS). While emphasizingon the uS, it also
touchesupon the areas of concernlike hardware/ software and compatibility issues. It also gives
an outline of the model of an uS developed for complextopics like 'mangrove ecosystem'.
If all these are put together in one single data base, for a querry— say about a mangrove foliage
and its decomposition, then the ITS shOuld be able to retrievenot only the bibliographical citations
on this topic but also an information on experts and/or institutions and projects working on it.
Whilethe principal objective behind this conceptis to provide users a wide range of information
as above, uS also offers other advantages such as:
a. Resource sharing: Multipleuse of the same data and of data bases provide for better resource
sharing and networking among componentsof the system.
b. Standardisation: Implementationof norms and standards for informationhandling and thus
ensuring greater compatibility among component systems and data bases. Exchange and
merger of data from different data bases become easier.
c. Co-operative efforts : Distributed data processing is facilitated enhancing the possibilities of
more optimal use of computing and human as well as computer resources.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
Once the creation and maintenanceof uS is decided upon, oneias to select appropriate hard-
/
ware software as per the requirements.The Data Base ManagementSoftwares (DBMS)are sys-
tem (Hardware) dependent. Comparativelylower investmentin IBM compatible microcomputers
/
and their increased easy use have made most of the institutions organisations to have atleast
one equipment with them. Large number of DBMS are also availablein the market. However,
the best known and widely advertised softwarepackages for data management are specialised
for numerical and tabulated data. The management of structured text information (such as bib-
liographicdescriptions) demand specific consideration. The size of the length of the data cannot
be predefined in the text information (e.g., length of a title or abstract). Similarly, number of
occurrences of specific information (e.g., authors of research articles or number of projects in an
institution)vary from record to record. The DBMSsoftwaresdevelopedfor predetermined length
/
of information(numeric tabulateddata) thus become uselesswhile handling textural data. There
M.P. Tapaswi 359
are few other softwaresavailablespecially for handling structured text information.The compar-
ative evaluationsof these (Besmer, et a!., 1987) have revealed that the CDS/ISIS (Computerized
DocumentationService/Integrated Set of InformationSystem) softwareused on IBM microcom-
puters and compatible is relatively powerful. Moreover, the licenced version of the CDS/ISIS
can be had by any non-profit organisation from UNESCO (Publishers of the software) or their
national distributingagenciesin respective countries without any charge.
COMPATIBILITY
Distributed data processing, theirsharing among componentsof the system and utilisationof the
products need/pressurise for use of standard machinery, methodology, etc., for their compati-
bility. The hardware, software, structure and design used by sharing entities within the system
should be compatible for easy transfer of such informationamong themselves. The availability of
IBM microcomputersand their clones has considerably reduced the botheration about hardware
compatibility issues. The use of CDS/ISIS software has also become a common place in last
five years. The data stored on this software can be produced and/or converted to International
standard format (ISO-2709) so that even if the entities within the system donot have 100% com-
patibility and the transfer is possiblewith little efforts. Thirdly the compatibility issues arise at
deciding the structure of the data base. UNESCO - developedCommonCommunicationFormat
(CCF) provides a detailed structural method for recordinga number of mandatory and optional
data elements in a computer readable bibliographicrecord for exchange purposes between two
or more computer-basedsystems.
The proposed model of ITS takes into account these considerations. It uses CCF as a
baseline for the structure, CDS/ISIS software for designing uS on the commonly available
hardware—microcomputers.
MODEL
The representationof the model is as shown below.
Table 2 (contd.)
Tag Name Len Typ Rep Delimitors DATA TYPES
DOCU INST PROJ PERS
333 Inst. Code 5 X I
334 Associated entities 320 X R aic I
335 Equipment 240 X R m I T
336 Services 240 X R I T
337 Collaborating Inst 320 X R aic I T
338 Annual Publications 4 N I
339 Inst. Code Ref 5 X T X
400 Publisher 240 X R ic D
410 Manufacturer 80 X D
By doing so, the size of the structure of the data base, defining uS, is reduced resulting in the
efficiency at the data entry, retrieval and indexing activities. In the structure, one would notice
that majority of the fields and for bibliographicinformation. This is due to the fact that this data
structure is operationalfor last few years at National Institute of Oceanography(NIO) library. It
is efficiently used for storage, search and retrieval of bibliographic data including housekeeping
operations. It is also used for Indian bibliographic information input to Aquatic Sciences and
Fisheries Abstracts(ASFA), one of the co-operative internationalinformationsystems supported
by FAO, IOC, UNEP, UNOALOS, etc. The publishers of ASFA have enquired about this structure
in recent past for its study and possibility of its use for machine readable input by all agencies
of the system in future.
DATA ENTRYOPERATIONS
One might thinkthat having created so complex structured data base, the job of entry operators
would be very difficult in searchingfor specific place (field) to add appropriate piece of infor-
mation. But that is not true. Excellent facilities of built-in software can call specific fields for
specific data type (journal article, personnel information, etc.). Such specified screens for data
entry for each data type are termed as worksheets. Different worksheets developed so far with
specific purpose are listed in Table 3. The last two lines of the screen display 'help' messagesas
an aid to the data entry operator while entering the information using these worksheets.
DISPLAY FORMATS
The data so entered can be displayed in a variety offorms (Table 4), depending upon userschoice.
The permutation of different data elements of thsame information is possible. The formats
named as MAIN, TITL, AUTH, SER are best examples of such shufflingused for printing main,
title, author and series entries of catalogues cards of books respectively. The default display
format (MGR), checks the kind of data type and displays informationin a standard form while
browsing the data base.
362 Data base developmentfor coastal ecosystems: a model
Table 3 Worksheets for data entry
Name of Worksheet Used for
MGR Default: having all fields defined Journal articles
JA Journal articles
BK Monographs, monographs with series, articles in monographs
(conference proceedingarticles), etc.
VENDO Vendors information from whom books! monographs are purchased
CP Catalogue of periodical holdings
INST Institutionalinformation
PROJ Project information
PERS Personnel (experts) information
SEARCH FACILITIES
CDS/ISIS has excellent facilities for indexing the data. It can index on eachof the words occurring
in any of the fields or even on completecontents. These indexes then provide powerful tool for
searching available information in that data base. The software can even search for complex
search strategiesusing boolean operators such as AND, OR, NOT, etc. Within this IIS, one can
thus search for an integrated informationon any specific aspect, i.e., retrieval from different data
types—bibliographic, institutional, project or expertise at single stroke of the key or limit the
output by searching on single data type alone.
SORTING/ PRINTING
Searched information on any specific aspect can be sorted in a given order for subsequentprint-
ing. The print facility has options like : (i) single or multicolumn printing, (ii) page-by-page(by
defining number of lines per page) printing and (iii) even in the form of a file for editing or
printing using other softwareslike DTP. Sample printouts of different data types are appended
(Annexure I—IV).
M.P. Tapaswi 363
/
EXPORT IMPORT
Within a network of any system, sharing of the data bases has become a common practice. The
compatibility issues discussed earlier find prime importance at such instance. The software has
excellent capabilityof exporting!importing data to ISO-2709 format.
RESOURCES INFORMATION
While the above discussionin confined to the 'sources of information', a resources data can also
be built. One such effort at internationallevel has been noticed (Matthes and Kapetsky, 1988).
Similar information can also be put on the CDS!ISIS software. The ITS on 'sources' have been
tried and tested but the idea about the data base for resourcesstill remains at conceptual level.
The structure of such data base will be based on two main bearings (i) flora!fauna available
in the ecosystem and (ii) physico-social conditions of a geographic area!ecosystem.Each of the
genus species available!identified in one or other ecosystems will be recorded with relevant
parameters such as distribution, ecology, biology, utilisation, conservation measures and man-
agement aspects, if any. The physico-social factors of a specific area where such ecosystem is
available include information on aspects like : temperature, salinity, humidity, tidal action, cli-
matic conditions, cyclones, rainfall, floods, soil!substratum type, sediment flow, etc. The social
aspects may also be highlighted. Examplesare industrialisation,educational!economic status of
familieswithin!surrounding that area, information from conservationpoint of view, etc.
These two aspects can be integrated by using flora!fauna code for specific ecosystem in geo-
graphic area as well as ecosystem code in specific geographic area having habitation of specific
flora and fauna. The information once documented, can be updated after specific periodicityif
such machineryexists. This would then eventually give a picture of biotic!abiotic changesin a
given ecosystem over a period of time for planners and policy makers. This conceptual design
needs to be tested on the data to correct the ideal concept, if any. However, it is felt that this
type of ITS could act as an expert system in long run.
CONCLUSION
The concept of uS has been tried and tested for the sources of information available for one
or more types of coastal ecosystems. The model so designed is within the possibilityof use in
practice. The design is also suitable for network operations so that maximum information can
be put-in by participatingcentres for sharing the same.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Author is grateful to the Director, NIO for providing facilities to develop this model at Nb.
The author also wishes to thank Dr. A.G. Untawale, Asst. Director, Nb, for rendering help,
support and encouragementwhile developingITS and also for going through the manuscript.
364 Data base developmentfor coastal ecosystems : a model
REFERENCES
Besmer, H. et a!. (1987). Microcomputer applicationsfor online and local informationsystems : a
comparisonof 30 softwarepackages. Leiden : VOGIN.
Matthes, H. and J.M. Kapetsky(1988). World-wide compendiumof mangrove-associated aquatic
species of economic importance.FAO Fisheries Circular No. 814. 236 p.
Sieverts, H. et al. (1988). Information retrieval on a microcomputer,the evaluation of software
for personnel information systems and CD-ROM products. In: Online Information 88. Proc.
of the 12th International Online Information Meeting, London: Learned Information 2 : 581—595.
December 1986, Oxford.
ANNEXURE I
PRINT FORMATS
For Monographic entry
DESHMUKH, S.V. and MAHALINGAM, R. Eds.
A global network of mangrove genetic resourcescentres. Project formulation workshop, January
15—19, 1991, Madras, India.
India, Madras : Cent. for Res. on Sustainable Agric. and Rural Dev. 1991 : 145 pp.
195531 N91 21562
ANNEXURE II
INSTITUTEINFORMATION
Institute Code : NIO
Institute Name : National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula 403 004, Goa,
India.
M.P. Tapaswi 365
Sen Gupta, R.
Biological resources of the exclusive economic zone of India;
Parulekar, A.H.
Description : Aimed at the studies of the brackish waters and seas in and
around India.
Available Equipment : R.V. Gaveshani; O.R.V. Sagar Kanya; Atomic Absorption Spectrometer,
model 4. Perkin-Elmar.
Services offered : Consultancyservicespertaining to the seas around India and abroad.
Source of Finance : CSIR, New Delhi, India
DOD, New Delhi, India
Annual Budget : 7,26,00,000.00
Annual Publications : 150
ANNEXURE III
PROJECT INFORMATION
Title of the Project : Environmentalimpact assessment on mangrove ecosystem
along the West coast of India.
Institute Affiliation : National Institute of OceanographyDona Paula 403 004, Goa,
India.
Telephone : 46253, 46254
Telex : 0194-216 NIO IN
366 Data base developmentfor coastal ecosystems : a model
Fax: 91-(0) 832 - 44612
e-Mail:
Working Language : English
Principal Person : Untawale, A.G. (Dr.) Asst. Director
Other Persons : Wafar, S., Jagtap, T.G.
Subjects Studied : Mangrove fauna, Mangroveflora, Effects of pollutants
ASFA Code : 08504, 08482
Description : Effect of wastes discharged by the industries along the West coast
of India on mangrove flora and fauna is surveyed. The control
measures are being suggested.
Sponsorer : Department of Ocean Development,New Delhi, India
Collaborating Institution(s) : M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation, Madras
Shivaji University, Koihapur
Infrastructure& Equipment : Microcomputer IBM PC386, HCL
Services Offered : Developmentof Mangrove Ecosystem along West coast.
Budgetory allocations : Rs.4,00,000.00
Contact Number : abcdl234
Dates
Proposal : 1991-01-14 Approval : 1991-05-10
Start : 1991-06-01 Expected Completion : 1993-01-30
ANNEXURE IV
PERSONNEL INFORMATION
Personal InformationAbout : Untawale, Arvind G., Dr.
Sr.Asst.Director
Office Address : National Institute of Oceanography
Dona Paula 403 004, Goa, India
Telephone : 46253, 46254
Fax: 91-(0) 832-44612
Telex: 0194-216 NIO IN
E-Mail
Residential Address : Sagar Co-operative Housing Society, Dona Paula 403 004 Goa,
India
Nationality : Indian
Birth Date : 1940-06-24
Language(s) : Working: En.
Other Known : Marathi, Hindi
Qualifications : M.Sc. (Botany),
Nagpur University (1966)
Ph.D. (Plant Embryology),
Nagpur University, (1972)
M.P. Tapaswi 367
USHA MUKUNDAN
INTRODUCTION
Mangrove forests are prevalent in the tropics and sub-tropics. They are unique in their structure
and function. They are fragile yet one of the most productive ecosystems of the World. Man-
groves are useful to mankind in various ways as they yield both direct and indirect products of
renewablenature. This fact hasgreatly contributedin the rapid deteriorationof the mangroveen-
vironment and biotechnologycould greatly contributeto the restoration of this rich environment
to its original state.
EXPLANTS
This can be carried out by using Ca (OC1)2 solution or by using 0.1% HgCl2, rinsed several
times—with sterile distilled water.
MICROPROPAGATION
These are often preferred over conventional practices of asexual propagation in several green-
house species because of the following potential advantages
1. Only a small amount of planttissue is needed as the initial explant for regenerationof millions
of clonal plants in one year.
2. The in vitro technique provides a method of speedy internationalexchangeof plantmaterials.
3. The in vitro stocks can be quickly proliferatedat any time of the year.
Compared to herbaceous plants, the micropropagation of woody species has lagged behind.
Mangroves fall in this category. The greatest difficulty is experienced at Stage III —the root
induction, especially when explants are taken from mature trees. Difficulty during stage I, when
the primary culture is established is also frequently encountered. This is partially due to the
existence of polyphenoliccompounds in the tissue of many woody species and partially due to
difficulty of breaking the physiological quiescent state of axillarybuds.
CULTURE MEDIA
White's medium (1943) was the most widely used medium during early days. Many improve-
ments have been made since then, the most noticeableof which are the enhancement of the N,
P and K levels, the reduction of the Ca level and the prevention of iron precipitation at high
pH. There are various media like MS (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) B5 (Gamborget a!., 1968), SH
(Shenk and Hilderbrardt, 1972).
GROWTH REGULATORS
INCUBATIONCONDITIONS
The incubation temperature is in the range of 20—28°C. The most commonly used photoperiod
regime is 16 h day vs 6 h night. The light intensity is usually 1—10 KIx. Since light stimulates
tissue browning for explants with high polyphenol content, in case of mangrovesit is advisable
to incubate in reduced light intensity or even in darkness.
Usha Mukundan 371
POLYPHENOLOXIDATION
Mangroves are rich in polyphenolic compounds. After tissue injury during dissection, such
compounds will be oxidized by polyphenol oxidases and the tissue will turn brown or black.
The oxidation products are known to inhibit enzyme activity, kill the explants and darken the
tissue and darken the culture media. Some of the proceduresusedby various workers to combat
this problem are
JUVENILITY
For hard-to-rootspecies, the age of the plant plays an important role in root regeneratingcapacity
(De Fossard et al., 1974).
TRANSPLANTATION
After rooting,the in vitro regeneratedplantlets are ready to be transferredfrom asepticcontainers
into pots. Factors that should be consideredin transplantationare infections and desiccation. In
mangroves this would be accompaniedby acclimatisation to a saline environment.
GERMPLASM PRESERVATION
Preservationof germplasm is a means to ensure the availability of genetic material as the need
arises. Since meristem cells are highly cytoplasmic and non vacuolated,a highpercentageof cells
could be expected to survive cryopreservation. One strategy used for germplasm preservation
is the maintenanceof cultures under minimal growth conditions(Morel, 1975). During the past
few years, considerable interest hasbeen generated in exploringthe possibilities of storing plant
meristems or vegetative buds at cryogenic temperatures, i.e., in liquid nitrogen at —196°C.
372 Biotechnological studies in mangroves
SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS
Somatic embryosare developed from somatic tissues. They closely resembletheir zygotic coun-
terparts with the appropriateroot, shoot and cotyledonaryorgans. For somaticembryogenesisthe
optimal concentration and form of nitrogen supplies appears to be dependent on auxin concen-
tration. The presence of auxin or auxin like substanceis critical for embryoinitiation and the low-
ering of the auxin concentration or its completeabsence fosters maturation (Stewardet al., 1967).
Reduced nitrogen is important for bothinitiationand maturation (Ammirato and Steward,1971).
The ability to raise somatic embryos in cell cultures creates a number of opportunities; one
distinct advantage is that somatic embryos are bipolar structures. In one step, both meristems
necessary for completeplant growth have been initiated. Embryos are natural organs of peren-
nation, many of which typically become dormant. If dormancy could be induced in somatic
embryos,the possibilityarises that they could be incorporatedinto artificial seeds either by coat-
ing or encapsulation (Durzan,1980; Murashige, 1980). These artificial units then can be handled
like normal seeds and stored, shipped, planted and so forth.
DISCUSSION
The Indian mangroves are one of the major forests of South-east Asia. More than 50 species of
mangrove plants occur here, making the flora rich but with an uneven distribution. Mangrove
forest are useful to making in various ways as they yield both direct and indirect products of
renewablenature. The overall status of mangroves and mangrove environmentwithin Asia and
Oceanica is sufferingrapid deterioration; this poses a grave doubt as to whether such a rich envi-
ronment could be restored to its original state. Various attempts are being made to conserve and
save this highly threatened ecosystem from deterioration and to cope with increasingman-made
alternationsof the environment.This can be achieved from use of biotechnology. The techniques
of tissue culture can be made use of for mass propagation of mangroves. This also allows for
creation of new genetic variations and finally molecular markers can be used for selection.
One of the main applied ares in which plant biotechnologyhasbegun to manifestits potential in
India is micropropagation using the tissue culturetechniques.Mangrovescan be mass propagated
using this technique. The media used for their culture will have a special requirement of NaC1
and antioxidants because of high phenolics present in the explant. Plants regenerated from a
tissue culture cycle involvinga de-differentiated(Callus) phase are known to show a wide range
of characteristics called somaclonal variations which can be used for creation of usable genetic
variability. Tagging of traits withrestrictionfragment length polymorphism(RFLP) markers has
Usha Mukundan 373
REFERENCES
Adams, R.M., R.S. Koenigsberg and R.W. Langhans (1979). Hort. Science 14: 512—513.
Ammirato, P.V. and F.C. Steward (1971). Bot. Gaz. 132: 149—150.
De Fossard, R.A., A. Myint and E.C.M. Lee (1974). Physiol. Plant. 30 : 125—130.
Durzan, D.J. (1980). I : Paper - Scienceand Technology - The cutting edge. The Institute of paper
chemistry Appletron,Wisconsin. pp. 31—60.
Evans, D.A., W.R. Sharp, P.V. Ammirato and Y. Yamada (1983). Handbook ofplant cell culture I:
1—10. MacMillan Company, New York.
Gamborg 01., R.A. Miller and K. Ojima (1968). Exp. Cell. Res. 50: 151—158.
Mc Comb, J.A. and S. Newton. (1981). J. Hort. Sci. 56: 181—183.
Monaco, L.C., M.R. Sandahi, A. Carvaiho, 0.J. Crocomo, and W.X. Sharp (1977). in : Reinhert
and Y.P.S. Bajaj (Ed.s). Applied andfundamental aspects of plant cell, tissue and organ culture.
Springer-Verlag. N.Y. pp. 109—129.
Morel, G.M. (1975). In: 0.H. Frankeland J.W. Hawkes (Ed.s). Cropgenetics resources for today and
tomorrow.
Murashige, T. (1980). In : F. Skoog. (Ed.). Plantgrowthsubstances. Springer-Verlag, NY. pp. 426—434.
Murashige, T. and F. Skoog (1962). Physiol Plant 15 : 473—497.
Shenk, R.U. and A.C. Hilderbandt (1972). Can. I. Bot. 50: 166—204.
Steward, F.C., A.E. Kent and M.0. Mapes (1967). Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 144 : 326—334.
White, P.R. (1934). Pytopathol24: 1003—1011.
BIOTECHNOLOGICALMETHODS TO IMPROVE
BIODIVERSITY
P. BALAKRISHNA
INTRODUCTION
Genetic diversity occurs in all biological systems, paving the way for the evolution of living
World and speciation. Being a natural phenomenon,evolution helps individuals to sustain their
existence in the over-growingWorld of competition and threat of total destructiondue to several
factors like struggle for space and food and to combat natural calamities. this struggle for ex-
istence and successfulsurvival has made all living organisms to adapt themselves by changing
accordingto need and necessity.
The simplest answer that one could give to the question of how an individual can adapt to
the situation is by natural selection or by mutations that occur within. Of these, natural selec-
tion takes a longer time to bring about the necessary changes, but mutations are spontaneous,
changingthe characters of the organism rapidly. These mutations may be due to insertions, dele-
tions, translocation, or inversions affecting the basic hereditary material of the DNA, have led
to the variations in the biologicalsystems which are presently referred to as biological diversity.
biodiversityis not only the variation that occursbetween species or genera but also within them.
Though the variationsthat are present between two differentspecies are well understood, easily
distinguished and documented, intra-specific variation is poorly understood as it is difficult to
distinguish the variations that occur within a species or a variety. It is therefore important to
study the variations that occur within a species, which otherwise may not have morphological
manifestations or physiologicalvariations.
Biotechnology hasbecome an integral part of most of the biological programmes, with a network
of availabletechniques and their applications, the techniques that are used in the study, covering
they polymorphismsor variations in the species are those of RFLP (Restriction FragmentLength
Polymorphism) and RAPD (Rapid Amplification of PolymorphicDNA). This paper aims at ex-
plainingthe techniques of RFLP and RAPD with details of their application, and use of studying
and creatingvariations at intra-specific levels.
fragment will reflect the distribution of restriction sites in the DNA. The fragments produced
/
will thus be specific for each target DNA restrictionenzyme combination and can be sued as a
"fingerprint" specific for a given target DNA (or for the organism containingthat DNA).
Relativelysmall DNAs, such as chloroplast DNA, will usually produce about 40 discrete restric-
tion fragments when digested with a typical restriction enzyme such as EcoRI. The restriction
fragmentsproduced by digestionof purified chloroplast DNA can be separated accordingto size
by subjecting the DNA to agarose gel electrophoresis after digestionwith a restriction enzyme.
After the gel is stained with ethidium bromide, the pattern of restriction fragments can be di-
rectly observed or photographed in ultraviolet light. ChioroplastDNAs which differ from on
another in base sequence, or have been rearranged by insertions, deletionor inversions, produce
restrictionfragments of different sizes. Such difference in fragment size, arising from restriction
enzyme digestionof DNA, length polymorphisms(RFLP) can be used as a direct measure of ge-
netic variability. Many studies which utilised RFLPs of chioroplast DNA to study phylogenyas
systematics in various plant groups, have show that the analysisof RFLPvariation in chioroplast
DNA Is very useful in unravelling systematic relationships in plants. Unfortunatelythe utility
of chloroplastDNA in plantbreeding is extremely limited. Most genes of agronomic importance
are located on nuclear chromosomes.
RFLPanalysiscan be applied to chromosomalDNA also, but is more complex becauseof greater
complexity of nuclear DNA. Digestion of the nuclear DNA from a higher plant with a typical
restriction enzymeproduces millionsof discreteDNA fragmentsin a continuousrange of sizes. If
digested, DNA is subjectedto gel electrophoresis and stained with ethidium bromide so distinct
fragments can be visualized. With large number of fragments produced, the DNA appears to
run as a continuous smear. However, individual restriction fragments are still well-resolved
in the gel, RFLPs can be reorganisedbetween DNAs from different organisms. More complex
techniques have to be used to resolve them, which involve the use of cloned DNA probes and
DNA hybridisation.
LIBRARIES OF CLONES/PROBES
Since RFLPs of nuclear DNA cannot be directly visualized, the usual procedure is to use small
pieces of chromosomal DNA as probesto detect individual restriction fragments. Using the high
specificity of DNA - DNA hybridisation,such probescan detectindividual fragmentsin the
complexmixture of fragments of nuclear DNA present in a restriction digest.
DNA from the plants to be compared for RFLP difference is isolated, digested with a restriction
enzyme, and then fractionated on an agarose gel. As explained above, the DNA will now be
in the form of millions of restrictionfragments fractionatedin the gel by molecular weight. In
order to useDNA-DNAhybridisationto detect specific fragments, the probe DNA and the DNA
in the gel must be single stranded (denatured). The gel is soaked in a base such as NaOH to
denature the DNA and to facilitate hybridisation,the DNA is transferred out of the gel onto a
membrane filter by a procedure called "Southern" transfer (or blot). A filter cut to the same size
as the gel is placed directlyagainst the gel and the DNA is elated out of the gel onto the filter.
Since the filter is in direct contact with the gel; the pattern of restriction fragments in the gel is
maintained on the filter. The denature DNA binds verytightly such filters, and the filter can be
repeatedly used for hybridisationexperiments.
P. Balakrishna 377
In order to see where the probe is hybridised, it is necessary to label it in some way. The most
common way to do this has been to radioactivelylabel the probe with phosphorus-32(32p). The
labelled probe is allowedto hybridisedwiththe DNA filter. Excess unhybridised probe is washed
off the filter, and the filter is subjected to autobiography to detect the restrictionfragments to
which the probe has hybridised. In this way, individual restrictionfragmentscan be detectedin
complex preparations of higher plant DNA. Currently,probe labelling techniques which do not
require the use of radioisotopes are being developed.
homozygotes and heterozygotes is not possible. But the variations can be easily detected like
those of a co-dominantmarker if the specific bands are used as probes themselves. It has been
established that PCR-based assays can have wider applicationsin varietalidentification, in iden-
tifying specific and foreign genes in trasgenic or other DNA studies. Effectively RAPDs can
replace RFLPs, and are cheaper,easier and efficient.
REFERENCES
Williams, J.G.K., A.R. Kubelik, K.J. Livak, J.A. Rafaiski and S.V. Tingey (1990). DNA polymor-
phisms amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic markers. Nucleic Acids Res.18
6531—6535.
ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE UTILISATION
AQUACULTURE IN MANGROVE ENVIRONMENT
ARUN H. PARULEKAR
Coastal ecosystems, of which mangrovesform an integralpart, are intricately diverse and equally
high productive biotopes, accounting for more than 60% of the World's sea-food production,
through capture and culture fisheries. Essentially an Intertidal or littoral space, the mangrove
ecosystem is a stressful habitat and is subjected to the lack of vigorous water motion, active
sedimentationof fine particles, relativelysheltered locationwith high decomposing detrital mat-
ter, all of which makes the biota adapt to a wide range of environmentalvariations or evolve
strategies to minimise the severity of stress.
No correlation is reported to exist between the phytoplankton biomass, benthic biomass and
exploitable fish yield from the mangrove ecosystem. A major part of the primary production
enters the mangrove food web as dead organic matter, i.e., detritus, which is either utilised
within the mangrove ecosystem or transported into the adjoining water body in a degraded
form. Several costly experiences have proven that mangrove environmentis not necessarily the
optimum locationfor aquaculture.In spite ofbeing a none-too-ideal aquaculturesite, the estuaries
/
and backwatersfringedby mangrovevegetationhave longbeen usedfor rearing and or fattening
of prawns, bivalves and finfishes.
In India such areas, to name a few, are "bheris" in West Bengal, "Chemmeen Kettu" in Kerala,
"Gazani" in Karnataka, "Khazan" in Goa and "Khar lands" in Maharashtra, and they reportedly
cover an area of over 45,000 hectares with an annual yield of 15,000 tons of shrimps and 20,000
tons of bivalves, crabs and finfishes. The general consensusbased on the analysis of cost factor,
pond management efficiency and annual production levels has indicated that the disadvantages
of setting up of largescale commercial aquaculture ventures in mangrove areas outweigh the
advantages and should be resorted to only in the absence of other options. The scientifically
managed aquaculture operations in mangrove ecosystems are relevant to less-developedand
developing countries where considerationsof minimum use of capital, simplicity of operation,
low cost-low price products and a substantial and effective market demand favour it.
In India especially in the last two decades, a number of experimentalaquaculture farms have
been developed in estuaries and backwaters fringed with mangrove vegetation. A fish farm
in the reclaimed mangrove swamp sustained prawn and fish production varying from 1400 to
2200 kg/ha, with prawns alone contributing 550 kg/ha. The culture of "mullets" and "pearl
spot" in a fish farm surrounded by mangrove vegetation showed a net increase in fish biomass
of 800 kg/haand a highrate of return of 75% on the investment. Similarly, in the culture of green
mussels on a floating raft in a mangrove-lined open estuarine site, a high yield of 4.8t/ha/yr
with a rate of return of 180% on the investment has been reported.
The aquaculturein mangrovessignifies a case of necessity rather than suitability. In specific cases
of aquaculture in the mangrove ecosystem of India as elsewhere, economic and social benefits
may outweigh management problems. Experience in Thailand, Indonesia, Ecuador and Panama
REFERENCES
Achuthankutty, C.T. and A.H. Parulekar. (1985). Indian Journal ofMarine Sciences 14 : 219—222.
Dwivedi, S.N. and D.V. Reddi. (1977). Fish Farming International 4: 14—16.
Hamilton, L.S. and S.C. Snedaker. (1984). Handbook on Mangrove Area Management. UNESCO-
IUCN-East-West Centre Publication, Honolulu, Hawaii. 123 p.
Ong, J.E. (1982). Ambio. 11 : 252—257.
Palomares, L.D. (1985). ICLARM Newsletter8 : 3—5.
Pant, A., V.K. Dhargalkar, N.B. Bhosle and A.G. Untawale. (1980). Mahasagar : Bull. Nati. Inst.
Oceanogr. 13 : 225—234.
Parulekar, A.H. (1986). In: Leela J. Bohsale (Ed.). The Mangroves. Shivaji UniversityPress, Koiha-
pur. pp. 112—118.
Parulekar, A.H. and S.G. Dalal. (1978). Research and Industry 9: 1—6.
Parulekar, A.H. and X.N. Verlencar. (1976). Journal of Indian Fisheries Association. pp. 53—63.
Parulekar, A.H. and X.N. Verlencar. (1987). Proc. International Symposium Coastal Aquaculture.
pp. 732—737.
Prabhu Matondkar, S.G. (1978). Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 7: 119—201.
Qasim, S.Z., A.H. Parulekar, S.N. Harkantra, Z.A. Ansari and A. Nair. (1977). Indian Journal of
Marine Sciences 6 : 15—25.
Shepherd, J.C. (1974). In: H. Barnes (Ed.). Oceanography and Marine Biology : Annual review
12:413—420. George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London.
UTILISING MANGROVE SWAMPS FOR AQUACULTURE
R. PAUL RAJ
INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms useful to man, is emerging as a successful bio-
industry, both in developed and developing nations of the World. the phenomenal growth of
human population and the growing threat of depletion of wild stock of commercially important
aquatic species due to excessive exploitation and environmental degradation during the past
few decades, have prompted governments of draw up plants and execute programmes in a
aquaculture to augment natural production by developinghigher to unutilised waste lands and
water resources. The age-old extensive aquaculture practices are being replaced by improved
extensive, semi-intensive and with adequate infrastructure, hatcheries, nurseries, feed plants,
processing plants and well-designedgrow-out systems added another dimension to the growth
of aquaculture and aquaculture-based industries. These hi-tech systems are capital and energy
intensive systems with very high production potentials. Planned aquaculture developmentcan
generate enormousgainful employmentopportunities,bothfor rural and urban populations,and
help improve the socio-economic status of the rural population and the production of exportable
commodities, which in turn would help to earn valuable foreign exchange.
Mangrove swamps found to coastal zone of the Indo-Pacific region are favored for the culture
of a large variety to finish, crustaceans,molluscs and seaweedsof commercial importance.How-
ever, it is essential to judiciously use these unique habitats for a aquaculture purposes, after
comprehensive studies on their ecology and by evolving appropriate mangrove-friendlyculture
techniques. This article highlights the aquaculturepractices in the mangrove swamps and their
vicinityin the Indo-West Pacific region.
CRAB CULTURE
The mud crab, Scylla serrctta, is a ubiquitous inhabitant in the sub-tidal and Intertidal regions of
mangrove estuaries and creeks in the Indo-West Pacific region. Live mud crab is a gourmet's
choice, commands an excellent price and is in great demand. Male crabs with large chelate legs
and females with ripe ovaries fetch a premium price in the markets. Extensive farming of the
mud crab is practiced in the Philippines,Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Taiwan, using wild
juvenile crabs. The non-availabilityof adequate juveniles (crablings) for stocking is the major
constraint since reliable hatchery production technology has not yet been established for the
mud crab.
Mud crab flattering is practiced by culturing the young crabs in bamboo cages or in fences
earthen ponds in brackish water areas (10 to 30 ppt) for periods ranging from 15 to 30 days to
attain additional weight. Animal protein diets such as marine trash fish, prawn heads, bivalve
meat, small crabs, etc., are fed to the crabs at the rate of 10% of the body weight initially to 5%
of the body weight at harvest. Under-fed animals become increasingly aggressive and restless
and cannibalistic. Crabs weighing 200—300 g caught in nearby natural habitats are stocked at a
PRAWN CULTURE
Prawn culture in mangrove swampsis about a century old, and the trapping and holding system
ofmarine prawncultivationis still in practice in South-eastAsia. However,tremendousadvances
have taken place in the technology employed in prawn culture, so that today we have an ar-
ray of technological packages to meet demands from small farmers to industrial entrepreneurs.
Although a number of prawn species enter into mangrove ecosystems, the most commonlycul-
tured species are the tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon), the banana prawn (Penaeus rnerguiensis) and
white prawns (Penaeus indicus and Penaeus penicillatus).
Based on the pond size, stocking density of seed, technological inputs, management measures,
water exchangeand production at harvest, prawn farming has been broadly grouped into tradi-
tional, extensive, semi-intensive and intensive systems. In the traditional system, ponds are not
adequately prepared or managed and there is no control over the quality or quantity of stock-
ing of the prawn seed, and the entire system is tide-dependent. The stocking density depends
on seasonal abundance of prawn seed. Shallow water depth and predation by carnivorous fish
account for considerableprawn loss from this system, Finish and prawns of low market value
often enter into these uncontrolled systems and compete for food and oxygen. The yield from
such a system ranges from 100—500 kg/ha/yr,mostly of low-valueprawns. The only advantage
in this system is that the developmentaland operational costs are very low. In India these types
of traditional systems are still used for culture 'bheris' of West Bengal and 'pokhali' fields of
Kerala. Improvementshave been made in these systems.
R. Paul Raj 385
In the extensive system of prawn culture, ponds are constructedwith a systematic layout of the
area. Each of the ponds is provided with a separate inlet and an outlet sluice gate to facilitate
water intake and flushing out of metabolites through feeder and drainage canals. The ponds are
either rectangular or square in shape with 0.5 to 1 ha size and 1.0 to 1.2 rn depth. The ponds
are dependent on tidal water exchange or are pump-fed. The ponds are prepared by drying
the bottom, ploughing liming and fertilising, density ranges from 30,000 to 100,000/ha/crop.
Supplementaryfeeding is done with compounded pelleted feeds, and in some farms fresh clam
meat, chopped trash fish and pila meat are given. Production ranging from 1 to 4 tonnes is
obtained in two crops in a year.
Ponds for the semi-intensive system require good clayey soil and a large amount of good quality
water with minimum fluctuationsin the environmentalparameters. Salinity, pH, dissolved oxy-
gen and ammonia in the water should be maintainedat optimal levels. The size of ponds varies
from 0.25 ha to 0.5 ha. In addition to daily water exchange, about 20 to 50% aeration is also pro-
vided for maintaining the water quality. Stocking density ranges from 2—3 lakhs/ha of species
like P. monodon and 3 to 6 lakhs/ha for P. indicus. Quality controlled artificial pellet diets with
polential feed conversionratio (FCR) of less than 1.5:1 (feed:prawn) are fed to the prawns. The
important characteristics required in the feeds are hydrostabilityexceeding six hours, balanced
nutrients profile, presence of attractants and feeding stimulants,anabolic agents which will not
have any residual effect, and preservatives in adequate levels. The feeding strategiesemployed
are very important. The ration offered, feeding schedules and feed dispensing methods are all
important factors in achieving maximum efficiency of the feed and in preventing wastage of
feed. Paddle-wheelaerators are required to maintain desirabledissolves oxygen levels. Control
of plankton blooms and diseases are also important in achieving high production. Removal of
waste metabolites, particularly ammonia,in the water is very important aspect of management.
/ /
Production achievable in this system ranges from 4 to 8 tonnes ha crop.
Intensive systems are specially designed tanks with concrete walls and earthen bottom and
central drain for the disposal of waste water. Continuous pumping of water, elimination of
wastes and aeration are done in this system. Stocking densities range from 100—150 prawns/rn2
and yields 6 to 12 tonnes/ha/crop.Specially compounded feeds containinghigh protein content,
balanced level of fatty acids, vitaminsand mineralsare fed to the prawns to maintain fastgrowth.
FINFISHCULTURE
Finfish as a group are abundant in mangrove creeks and estuaries. The rnilkfish Chanos chanos,
grey mullets of the genera Mugil, Liza and Valamugil, rabbit fishes, cichlids, mud skippers and
predatory fish like groupers,sea-bass, tarpons and catfish are found to be cultivablespecies. Two
systems of fish culture could be adopted in mangrove areas: cage culture in shelteredmangrove
lagoons with adequate tidal water exchange, and pond culture in the tidal flats found in the
vicinity of mangroves.
MILKFISH CULTURE
The milkfish Chanos chanos is a highly euryhaline fish which can tolerate wide fluctuations in
salinities and hence can be cultured in freshwaterto hypersalinewaterconditionsprovided other
386 Utilising mangrove swamps for aquaculture
water characteristics are optimal for the fish. However,low salinities (5—12 ppt) are reburied for
fast growth. Despitethe breakthrough achieved in the controlled spawning of the fish, milkfish
culture is dependent on wild fry collectiQns, and the area to be utilised for culture has to be
regulated with reference to the availability of natural seed. Milkfish is the principal species
reared in more than 400,00 ha of coastal mangroveponds in South-eastAsia (McIntosh, 1982). In
Taiwan, milkfish production as high as 3 tonnes/ha/yr has been achieved in some ponds (Chen,
1976).
Milkfish fry are collected from their nursery ground using sweep nets, scoop nets and shore
seines. Kumagiet al. (1980) mention that some of the best fry grounds border mangroves and
comment on a belief of local fishermen that chanos fry are positively attracted to mangrove
environments. Growout ponds for milkfish vary considerablyin size depending on locationand
topography, and intensity of the culture system. Some tambaks in West and central Jawa are
only 0.5—2 ha in area; in East Java 3—10 ha (Schuster, 1952). Ponds of 1—6 ha are used in Taiwan
(Chen, 1976) whereas in the Philippines ponds as large as 100—500 ha are operated (Ling, 1977).
Milkfish are microparticulate feeders and they graze the benthic organic complex of algae, di-
atoms, detritus and meiofauna. Milkifish show a strong preference for blue-green algae of the
'lab-lab'type (Blanco, 1973). Lab-lab is made up of a complexmixture of microscopic plants and
animals and is consideredto be more nutritious than filamentousgreen algae. The useof organic
fertilisers, particularly chicken manure, triggers the growth of lab— lab. In Taiwan, animal ma-
nure (500—1000 kg/has) or rice bran (300—500 kg/ha) is applied to pond soils deficient in natural
organicmatter. ling (1977) has shown that milkfish of mixed size groups utilise the benthic algal
crop more efficiently than fish or a single size class. Supplementary feeding is given with rice
bran25 kg/ha/dayor soya bean and peanut meal (25 kg/ha/day) together with applicationsof
animal manure. Shallow water depth promotes development of blue-green algae. Water levels
are kept low in milkfish ponds, about 12—15 cm in nursery ponds and 20—30 cm in grow-out
ponds. Stocking density in grow-out ponds normally varies from 1000—1500/ha and they are
grown to a marketablesize of 200—350 in 4 to 6 months. Thus two to three crops are obtainedin
a year, giving a total yield of 100 kg/ha.
MULLET CULTURE
Many species of grey mullets of the family Mugilidae are catedromous, entering estuarine and
brackishwater environmentswhen young, and as adults returning to the sea for spawning. The
mullets are extremely euryhaline finfish and are also cultured along with carbs in freshwater
ponds. Like the milkfish they feed on benthic algae, plant detritus and the associated micro-flora
and micro-fauna; and their juvenilestages enter mangrovewaters in large numbers. The brackish
water culturable species belong to the genera Mugil, Liza and Valamugil.
Sivalingam (1975) Surveyedthe mangroveareas in the Niger delta and indicated that L. falcipinnis
could meet the stocking requirementsof at least 10,000 ha of mangrove ponds. Mullets of the
Liza group are ideal candidates for culture in mangrove fish ponds because of their intimate
association with mangrove environments (McIntosh, 1982). Up to 239 Kg/ha of mullet were
produced in unfertilised experimentalmangrove ponds near lagos as a result of natural tidal
entry of mullet fry (Sivalingam, 1975), Liza parsia fingerlingsstocked at 36,000/haafter 180 days
gave production of 600 kg/ha and Liza tade (196 g) stockedat 6000/ha after 100 days of Iearing
R. Paul Raj 387
gave a net production of 87 kg/ha (ICAR, 1978). In polyculture of mullets (Mugil curema and
M. brasiliensis) and various species of Gerridae, in mangroveponds in Brazil, production figures
of 400-1500kg/ha have been obtained (Cavalcanti et al., 1978).
CULTURE OF SIGNAIDS
The rabbit-fish, Siganus canaliculatus,is a herbivore and can be acclimatedto withstand salinity
down to 5 ppt although it abundantly occurs in waters with 17 to 37 ppt salinity and 23 to
36° C temperature. Accordingtoo Lam (1974) the fish reaches 150 g at the end of the first year
in Singaporewater.
CULTURE OF CICHLIDS
Tilapia of the Sarottherodon and the pearl spot, Etroplus, are potentially suitable cichlid fishes
for mangrove pond culture in estuarine habitats (McIntosh, 1982). Etroplus suratenis is a brackish
water fish native to India and Sri Lanka and breeds readily in brackish water ponds provided
there are stones or other hard substrata present to which spawns can attach their eggs (Hora
and Pillay, 1962). Juveniles can also be collected by drag nets during the monsoon season for
stocking in ponds (ICAR, 1978), Jayabalan et al., 1980). Experimental culture trials in a fertilised
coastal pond of 0.16 ha area have shown that the fish reach a size of 50 g from initial weight
of 15 g with a survival rate of 37 per cent (ICAR, 1978). More experimentaltrials are needed
as the fish has high market value. Among the Tilapia, Sarotherodon mossambicus is cultured in
mangrove tambaks in Java. It is considered as pest in several countries as it breeds prolifically
and competes for food with other species. However, techniques to control sex and production
of an all-male population have already paved the way for their culture in coastal ponds.
CULTURE OF MUD-SKIPPERS
Mud-skippers are ubiquitous inhabitants of mangrove environments (McIntosh, 1982). In
Taiwan, Burma and some countries in South-east Asia, they are highly regarded as a
delicacy.Periphalmodonschlosseri and Boleophthalmus chinensis are two edible species.B. chinensis
is highest priced among local Taiwanese fishes (Chen, 1976). Mud-skippersare reared in brackish
water ponds of 0.1—1.0 ha size. Ponds are prepared with about 600 kg of animal manure and rice
bran to encourage development of an algal crop. Juveniles (1 to 1.5 cm) stocked at 50,000/ha
grow to marketable size of 24 g in one year with a production of around 600 kg/ha/yr (Chen,
1976).
OYSTER CULTURE
Oysters of the genus Cassostrea are the most suitable for culture in mangrove ecosystems. The
factors that influence distribution and survival of oysters include salinity, current velocity, dis-
solved oxygen concentration and temperature. C. madrasensis, C. cucullata, C. rhizophorae and
C. gasar are cultivable mangrove oysters. Moderate tidal and current movements are necessary
to provide oyster populations with a steady supply of food and oxygen, and to inhibit settle-
nwrit of sediments. for C. rhizophorae, water currents of 30 cm/second and dissolved oxygen
levels of 2—5 ppm are considered optimal (Nikolic et al., 1976). Nikolic et a!. (1976) have de-
scriut..d a low-cost culture system for C. rhizophorae developed in Cuba which utilises branches
of the red mangrove tree trunks or other inexpensive woods. Collectors are positioned so that
the majority of branches penetrate the water over which the greatestnatural spat fall occurs. The
collectors are raised out of water up to 24 hours once a months to eliminate fouling organisms
such as sponges and tunicates. Oysters are harvested as they attain commercial size, beginning
5—6 months after the initial spat settlement. Average yield per collector was about 5.2 kg for
374 oysters. The average life of a collector is about 9 months. Instead of felling the Rhizophora
trees for use as spat collectors, the combination of the fixedrack and floatingraft culture system
would help in developinga mangrove-friendlyoyster culture operation.
Experimental studies in Taiwan on the suitability of different culture materials have shown
that corrugated asbestos sheeting is the most suitable substrate for collecting spat of C. belchei.
Asbestos strips (10 x 22 cm) are arranged vertically in rows within wooden frames (Chin &n
Lim, 1975, 1977). In India spat of Crassostrea madrasensis is collected using lime-coated roofing
tiles in the oyster spwaning areas. After sufficient numbers of spat have settled, the frames are
placed on racks held above the substratum or vertical supports. After four months the oysters are
detached from their collectors and transferred to wire trays suspended from floating rafts. After
a rearing period of about 12 months, the oysters with an average meat weight of 14—21 g are
harvested. The yield is about 18,000 kg per ha. Water temperature, light intensity, food supply
and tidal exposurelevel all influence the meat weight/shell size ratio of oysters.
CLAM CULTURE
The blood clam (cockle) Anadara granosa is one of the suitable species for culture in mangrove
foreshore, particularly soft mud-flats, wee it lives particularly buried in the surface mud layer.
Experiments conducted in Kakinada Bay in India showed a production of 0.39 tonnes/lOOm
5 months, 2.6 tonnes/625 m 5 1/2 months, and 6.1 tonnes/0.l6ha/7 months respectively; the
corresponding per hectare production being 39 tonnes, and 38.1 tonnes (Narasimham,1980). A
return of 34.2% on investment was reported by Narasimham (1986). Narasimham (1988) also
R. Paul Raj 389
reported the in Kakinada Bay densities of 75—100 clams/0.25m2 did no affect the growth ate
and suggested that a stocking density of 400m2 is optimum for maximising the production. A
retrieval rate of 41.5% was obtained without whereas a retrieval rate of over 83% was obtained
with fencing. In Malaysia this species reaches marketable size in 6—10 months (Bardach et al.,
1972) and a production rate of 40 t/ha/yr (Oon et a!., 1982). In Thailand, average production of
8.9 tonnes/ha has been reported.
MUSSEL CULTURE
Species which could tolerate muddy estuarine conditions, such as the green mussel Mytilus
smaragdinus,have been cultivated in Thailand and the Philippines.Groups of wooden stakes are
used as sat collectors. Bamboo poles of about urn length are also used. Stakes cut from mangrove
date palms (Phoenix paludosa) are preferred in Thailand because they are inexpensive, readily
availableand Durable. Up to 12.5kg of mussels can develop in a single meter bamboo(McIntosh,
1982). The annual production of mussels is 40 tonnes/ha in Thailand and 250 tonnes/ha in the
Philippines (Chen, 1977).
SEAWEED CULTURE
Edible seaweeds (Caulerpa and Gracilaria - agar-producing weed) occur in mangrove areas of
South-east Asia and are considered to have excellent farming potential in disused mangrove
fish ponds. In addition to food and feed value, substances of possible pharmaceutical value
also been identified in Caulerpa (Doty, 1977). In seaweed farms in the Calawisan region of
the Philippines, Caulerpa yields of 35 tonnes fresh weight/ha or more can be produced when
conditionsare favourable. The alga Gracilaria can be grown in estuarine salinities (8—25 ppt) but
cannot tolerate hypersaline conditions (Chen, 1976). In Taiwan, Gracilaria is cultured in ponds
previously stocked with milkfish. Ponds of 1 ha in area are seeded in April with 3000—5000 kg
of Gracilaria cutting spread evenly over the pond bed. The ware depth is kept at 20-30 cm
during the first two months and then increasedto 6—80 cm as temperatures rise. The ponds are
fertilised with urea (3 kg/ha/applied weekly) or fermented pit manure (120—180 kg/ha every
two to three days. During the June to December growing season, the sea weed is harvested a
ten-day intervals, cleared of debris and sub-dried. Average yields are 7—12 tonnes of dried sea
weed/ha/yr. Although Gracilaria culture is possiblein the muddyopen mangroveareas,grazing
the cop by fish and damage by Crabs (CMFRI, 1979) may impede the growth of the alga.
REFERENCES
Bardach, J.C., J.H. Ryther and W.O. McLarney (1972). Aquaculture Farming and Husbandary of
Freshwaterand Marine Organisms.Wiley-Interscience, New York. 868 P.
Bebsam, P. (1986). A culture experiment on the crab Scylla serrata (Forskal) at Tuticorine during
1957—77 to assess growth and production. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture, 1986.
Blanco, G.J. (1973). Status and problemsof coastalaquaculturein the Philippines. In : Pillay, T.V.R.
(Ed.). Coastal Aquaculture in the Indo-Pacific Region. Fishing News (Books) Ltd., Farnhman,
England.
Cavalcanti, L.B., P.A. Coeliho, E.E. Leca, J.A.C. Luna, S.J. Macedo, and M.N. Parangau (1978).
Utilization de zonas de manglares en el Estado de Pernambuco (Brasil) para fines de acui-
cultura. In : Memorias del Seminario Sorbe el EstudioCientifico Impacto Humano en al Ecosistema
de Manglares.UNESCO, Montevideo. pp. 317—323.
Chen, T.P. (1976) Aquaculture practices in Taiwan. Fishing News (Books) Ltd., Surrey, England.
162 p.
Chin, P.K. and A.L. Lim (1975). Some aspects of oyster culture in Sabah. Fisheries Bulletin No. 5.,
Ministry of Agricultureand Rural Developmenet, Malaysia. 13 p.
Chin, P.K. and A.L. Lim (1977). Oyster culture development in Sabah. In : Current Research and
Developments in Marine Sciences in Malaysia. Malaysian Society of Marine Sciences, Second
Annual Seminar, Penang, October 1977. pp. 48—54.
CMFRI. (1979). Coastal Aquaculture : Lab to Land. Proceedings of the First Workshop on Technology
Transfer. July 1979. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin, Special Pubi., No.6:
96p.
Doty, M.S.(1977). Sea weed resource and their culture in the South Sea Region. South China Sea
Fisheries Development and Co-ordinatingProgramme,Manila, Philippines. Working Paper
SCS/77/15. pp. 233—259.
Hora, S.L. and T.V.R. Pillay. (1962). Handbook of Fish Culture in the Indo-Pacific Region. FAO Fish-
eries Biology Technical Paper No.14. FAO Rome. 204 p.
ICAR. (1978). All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Brackish water Prawn and Fish Farming.
Reports of Third Workshop, ICAR (Mimeo.)
Jayabalan, N., G.S. Thangaraj and K. Ramamurthy.(1980). Finish seed resources for Vellarestuary.
In : Proc. Symp. on Coastal Aquculture, Cochin, January 1980. (Abstract)
Kumagi, S.T. Bagarinao and A. Uriggui, 1980. A study of the milkfish fry fishing gears in Panay
Island. The Philippines,South-east Asian Fisheries DevelopmentCentre. Aquaculture Dept.
Tech. Rep. No.6. 33 p.
Ling, S.W. (1977). Aquaculture in South-east Asia A Historical Overview. A Washington Seagrant
PublicationUniv. WashingtonPress, Seattle 108 p.
McIntosh, D. (1982). Fisheries and Aquaculture : Significance of mangrove swamps with special
reference to the Indo-West Pacific Region. In : J.F.Muir and R.J.Roberts (Ed.s). RecentAdvances
in Aquaciture. Croom Helm Ltd., London. pp. 3—86.
Narasimham,K.A. (1980). Culture of blood clam at Kakinada. Mar. Fish. Infor. Ser., T & E Ser.,
No. 22: 7—9
392 Utilising mangrove swamps for aquaculture
Narasimaham, K.A. (1986). Aspects of the blood clam, Anadara granosa (Linaneus) culture in
Kakinada Bay. CMFRI Bulletin42: 313—317.
Nikolic, M.A. Bosch., and S. Alfonoso. (1976). A system for farming the mangrove oyster (Cras-
sostera rhizophorae Guilding, 1928). Aquaculture 9 : 1—18.
Suhusster, W.H. (1952). Fish culture in brackish water ponds ofJava. Indo-Pacific FisheriesCouncil,
Special PublicationNo. 1. 140 p.
Sivalingam, P.M. (1975). On the grey mullets on the Nigerian coast : Prospects of their culture
and results of trials. Aquculture:345—357.
PENAEID PRAWNS AND THEIR CULTURE IN MANGROVE
AREAS
C.T. ACHUTHANKUTTY
INTRODUCTION
The estuaries in the tropics and sub-tropics are fringed with lush greenmangrovevegetationand
hence are known as mangrove estuaries. The fishery resources of these estuaries arc tremendous
and provide a major source of income to the majority of the coastal population. However, it
is only recently that the importance of mangroves in the development of inland and coastal
fisheries is beginning to be understood.
Mangrove estuaries are the nursery for many commercially important marine organisms, and
penaeid prawns (marine prawns) are the most important among them. Most species of penaeid
prawns spend the early part of their life in the mangrove estuaries and the adult life in the
sea. The females mature and spawn in the sea and the larvae - as they develop - are passively
brought into the nearby estuaries. They grow in the shallow mangrove zone initially and later
move to the deeper areas of the open estuary before migrating back to the sea, thus completing
their life-cycle. However,their residing time in the estuary and subsequentsize attainmentvary
with species. In the estuaries of Goa, Metapenaeusdobsoni has a maximumresidenceperiod of
6 months; it is 8 months for M. monoceros and 7 months for penaeus merguiensis. The actively
migrating sizes for prawns to pass from the mangroveareasto the open estuary are 20-30 mM for
M. dobsoni, 30-40 mM for M. monoceros and 40-50 mM for P. merguiensis, respectively. However,
after a further period of growth in the open estuary and attaining a size of 40-50, 60-70 and
70-80 mM respectively, their active migration to the sea commences.
PENAEID PRAWNS
The mangrove phase of the life-cycle of juvenile of several species of penaeid prawns is well
studied. It has also been establishedthat the capture fisher potential of marine prawns is directly
related to the existence and expanse of a healthy mangrove ecosystem. Mangrove ecosystem
provides the essential nutritional inputs to the estuaries. This ecosystem is rich in particulate
organic matter, otherwise known as detritus. Detritus is nutritionally very rich and is the major
source of food for the juvenile prawns. They mangrove substratum is also rich in microflora
and meiofauna which further enriches the nutritional quality. Other favourable conditions like
shallow and calm water, soft bottom for burrowing, protection and shelter prOvided by the
mangrove roots and leaves, less number of predatory animals, etc., make this ecosystem the
ideal nursery for the penaeid prawns.
Not only penaeid prawns but several other commercially important marine fishes and crus-
taceans are also closely associatedwith the mangrove environment. It is thus apparent that the
coastal fishery resources particularly prawn fishery, are dependent on the existence of a healthy
mangrove ecosystem and any damage or destruction to this ecosystem will have devastating
consequences. Increasing industrialisation, urbanisation and population explosion have put se-
vere pressure on land in coastal areas of the Asia and Pacific regions and mangrove areas have
been the hardest hit. Added to this is a the misconception that mangroves are only wastelands.
Althoughit has now been widely accepted and understood that mangrovesform the backboneof
the estuarine and coastal ecosystems, considerable damage has already been caused on a global
scale due to human interference.
CONSTRAINTS
Another question to be addressed in this context is whether mangroveareas are suitable sites for
aquaculture.It is a known fact that mangrove solid is not always conductiveto construction of
aquacultureponds. The solid mostly acidic, sometimestoxic and show nutritional imbalances.
Developmentof mangrove land into aqua farms may lead to severe physical constraints during
the period of reclamation. Poor accessibility and the danger involved in fellingof trees, low load
bearing capacity make it impossible for mechanisationof clearingand land preparation. Presence
of interwoven pneumatophoresmake manual tilling extremely difficult and expensive. These are
some of the negative aspects of converting mangrove areas for aquaculture.
The micro topography of the mangrove land may also pose problems for aquaculture ventures
as the initial investmentswill be exorbitant for levellingof the land especially on unripened soil
for largescale development. Another deterrent is the presence of a large number of burrowing
animals, particularly crabs, which would necessitate extra strengthening of bunds. Also, birds
can be a nuisance as they prey on the cultured animals, leading to heavy revenue loss.
The general consensusbased on cost-benefit ratio and production levels is that disadvantages
are more in starting largescale aquacultureventures in mangrove areas. Scientifically managed
aquaculturefarms in mangroveareas may be justifiedin underdevelopedcountries only because
of the availabilityof cheap unskilled labour.
SOLUTION
In this context, we should look at alternative plans which would be in the interest of both the
mangrove ecosystem and aquaculture.It is evident that aquaculture,whether prawn culture or
fish culture, in the mangroveregion would not only disturb and destroy this ecosystembut also
work out to be very expensiveor uneconomical. Hence, it is advisable to select flat land suitable
C.T. Achuthankutty 395
in all other aspects and which is close to the mangrove environment for aqua farms rather
than the mangrove area itself. Such lands are plentiful at the middle and upper reaches of our
estuaries, with no mangrove vegetation. These are the ideal sites for conversion to aquaculture
ponds as this would necessitateminor alterationsto the ecosystem and at the same time make use
of all conducive conditions prevailing in the adjacent mangrove environment. This would also
considerablyminimise initial investments in the preparation of sites, resulting in better profits.
Another novel methods is the pen/cage culture method practicedin countrieslike Malaysia. This
method also prevents cutting of mangrove vegetationor major landscaping, although it may be
slightly more expensive than the one mentioned above.
AQUACULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE UTILISATIONOF
MANGROVE FORESTS
K. ALAGARSWAMI
INTRODUCTION
Brackish water aquaculturein the mangrove-richareas of the coastal zones has been practiced
traditionally.These sites were considered suitable for farming due to the tidal flow, freshwater
influx and plentiful availabilityof seed resources of fishes, crustaceans and molluscs. The 'tam-
bak' culture in Indonesia, the 'bheri' culture in India, etc., were developed based on the above
factors. Initial success in producing aquaculturecrops has helped in the socio-economic develop-
ment and contributed greatly to nutritional and livelihood security of the coastal poor. The last
two decades have seen a great expansionof this activity, with commercial shrimp culture as the
most dominant component. Planned conversion of mangrove forest areas to aquaculture farms,
is outcome of these efforts. However, intensification of shrimp farming in some countries for
achieving higher production has resulted in several changes, leading to environmentaldegra-
dation. It had deleterious effects on aquaculture production and economy. A balance is now
sought to be struck between the environment and production activity, to promote sustainable
development.
Table 1 Brackish water pond areas in some Asian countries with mangroves*
(For the period 1976—1991)
Countries Area (ha)
Taiwan 11,000
Malaysia 5,240
Singapore 395
The Philippines 206,525
Indonesia 242,000
Vietnam 30,000
Thailand 32,144
Bangladesh 8,345
Sir Lanka 13
India 70,000
Total 605,662
/
In fact, mangroveshave not been found to be ideal site for semi-intensive intensiveaquaculture
for several reasons. There is heavy sediment load in the canalswhich interferes with production.
the soils are generally acidic which requires constant lime treatment for correction of pH values.
Pond construction costs are more in mangroveareas. Hence, there hasbeen a tendencyof shifting
ponds to high grounds away from mangroves in recent years.
7. Establish guidelines governing the use of mangrove wetland for coastal aquaculture.
8. Establish guidelines for the use of bioactive compounds in aquaculture.
9. Assess and evaluatethe trueconsequences of transfersand introductions of exotic organisms.
10. Regular discharges from land-based aquaculture through the enforcementof effluent stan-
dards.
11. Establish quality control measures for aquaculture products.
12. Increase public awareness of the safety aspects of consuming seafood.
13. Apply incentives and deterrents to reduce environmentaldegradation from aquaculture ac-
tivities.
14. Monitor ecological changes.
The above action plan is a very comprehensive one aimed not only at environmentalsecuritybut
also aquaculturesecurity itself for the present as well as for the future. An aquaculturepolicy at
the national level, strong R&D support and co-operationof the aquaculture industry are some
of the factors needed for effective implementationof this action plant.
CONCLUSION
Since the introduction of tambak in the mangrove forests of Indonesia as early as 16th century,
aquaculture in the coastal wetlands has made tremendous progress, particularly during he last
2—3 decadeswith advances in technologyfor shrimp culture. This has led to largescale destruction
of mangroves in some countries for aquaculture purposes. Taking technology to its extremeuse
in intensive and super-intensiveaquaculture has proved that it is not environment-friendly and
that it is not sustainable. In many countries, therefore, we see a reversal of the trend towards
moderation aiming at semi-intensive culture, a terminology which denotes a scale of operation
between the extensive and intensive cultures. In its essence it denotes respect for the aquatic
environmentof the pond and its carrying capacitywith reference to the species cultured. Inputs
such as seed and feed, fertilisers and water quality improvement measures should be adjusted
in such a way that they are in a state of equilibriumwithin the pond and also do not adversely
affect the environmentoutside to pond.
Fortunately, the modern trend of coastal aquaculture moves the activity away from mangrove
zones to their hinterland and other highland areas might spare the remaining mangroveforests.
There are several culture systems which are compatible with the mangrove ecosystems and they
can be taken up with advantage, although the yields/value may be low. e.g., cockle, oyster,
mussel, seaweed and fish culture in floating cages all in situ without altering the mangrove
landscape.
Aquaculture with the concept of environment and development will have abetter future for
sustainablegrowth.
REFERENCES
Alagarswami, K. (1991). Aquaculture Ensuring sustainable growth. The Hindu Survey of Indian
Agriculture 1991. pp. 222—225.
402 Aquaculture and sustainableutilisation of mangrove forests
Sheeks, R.B. (1989) Brackish water aquaculture at the cross roads. Infofish International 6/89.
pp. 38—43.
Saclauso, C.A., (1989). Brackish water aquaculture: Threatto the environment? Naga, the ICLARM
Quarterly, July, 1989. pp. 6—8.
Gesamp (OMO/FAO/UNESCO/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEPJoint Group of Expertson the
Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution). (1991) Reducing environmental impacts of coastal
aquaculture. Rep. Stud. GESAMP (47) : 35.
ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT OF MANGROVE GENETIC
RESOURCES
MANGROVE FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES: STRATEGY
FOR CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
SANJAY DESHMUKH
INTRODUCTION
Internationalawarenessto safeguardglobal biodiversityhas necessitatedurgent steps for its con-
servationand rational or sustainableutilisation at the local, regional and global level. This fring-
ing awarenesshas come a little but not too late. Disappearanceof renewablebiological resources
from their centres of diversity has occurred at an alarming rate, thanks to over-exploitation of
tropical forests and marine ecosystems. There is vast amount of informationavailable on indige-
nous species which need to be utilised and harnessed for human welfare, both in the developed
and developing countries. Moreover, there is no action plan for conservation and utilisation of
biological diversity and genetic resources. The preservationas well as ownership of biodiversity
and genetic resources has thus become very important. Therefore, it has become apparent to
build safe regional centres in homelands of species; for preservation of vanishing biomaterials.
At the same time, the importance of physical and cultural environmentcannot be ignored for
keeping the genetic diversity intact. The establishment of genetic resourcescentres for these ef-
forts has been one of the major thrust of this project which would eventually serve as building
of "field gene banks" (using in situ technology) and seed gene banks (using ex situ technology).
METHODOLOGY
The work initiated during 1990—91 under a project titled "Genetic Engineeringand adaptation
to climate change: establishment of a genetic resources centre for identifying and conserving
candidate genes for use in the developmentof transgeneticplants" sponsoredby the Department
of Biotechnology of the Governmentof India hashelped us to developguidelinesfor conservation
and management of mangrove forest genetic resources (Table 1).
Table 1 Guidelines for conservation and management of mangrove forests
Project Main Activities
.
Component
Phase I (1 year) Phase II (1 year) Future Plan (5
years)
Conservation • Taxonomic and • Mapping of mangrove forest • Establishment of
ecological survey including forest inventory three more link
of mangrove forest, (study of associated flora, centres at the
zonation studies fauna, phytosociological national level
studies of vegetation, phe-
nology, population dynamics
of the faunal elements, etc.)
• Identificationof two
sites for establishment
of link centres of
mangrove genetic
resources (at National
Level)
Table 1 (contd)
Project Main Activities
Components
Phase I (1 year) Phase II (1 year) Future Plan (5 years)
Evaluation • Identificationof ge- • Evaluation of different • Isolation of candidate
netic material of mangrovespeciesbased genes responsible
"Plus trees" on for sea water intru-
a. their abilityto survive sion and salt water
in different environmen- tolerance
tal conditions
b. physiologicalbasis
• Selection of species
for the study at vari-
ation
Classification • Study of morpholog- • Study of different as- • Standardising and
ical aspects of classi- pects of classification evolving techniques
ficationof mangrove such as cytogenetical, for multivariateanal-
species genetical, biochem- ysis for mangrove
ical and molecular species based on
classification population genetics
studies
• Identifying supe- • Standardizationof • Development of
rior genotypes in techniques for RFLP other databases,
mangrove species and RAPD work to mangrove genetic
Standardisation of study intra- and inter- variability database,
softwaremechanisms socio-economic
for development of specific variation in database, resources
databases, such as mangroves inventory database
(a) mangrove bibli- and audio-visuals
ographic database, • To undertake popu- database
and (b) mangrove lation genetic studies
experts database
Utilisation • Initial of socio- • Developmentof eco- • Standardisation for
economic surveys in matrix based on the recombinant DNA
area near mangrove principle of socio- experiments
forests of Pichavaram economic issues, e.g.,
ecological security,
economic efficiency
and social equity.
Preparation of socio- DevelopingSustain- • Developmentof con
demographic profile able Livelihood Se- cept of transgenic
to study human im- curity Index (SLSI) plants
pact on mangroves
for better
408 Mangroveforest genetic resources: strategy for conservationand management
Table 1 ('contd)
CONSERVATION
Ministry of Environmentand Forests, Government of India identified in 1990, fifteen specific
mangrove areas for protection. They are — North Andaman and Nicobar (Andaman and Nico-
bar group of Islands), Sunderbans (West Bengal), Bhitar Kanika and Mahanadi delta (Orissa),
Coringa, Krishna estuary and Godavari delta (Andhra Pradesh),Pichavaramand Point Calimere
(Tamil Nadu), Vembanad (Kerala), Coondapur (Karnataka), Chorao island (Goa), Achra (Ma-
harashtra) and Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat). The Government, with the help of different research
institutions, initiated environmental and socio-economic research in addition to scientific and
applied research on flora, fauna and productivity of these mangrove areas.
With a view to prevent further destructionof mangrove forests, for sustained improvement and
utilisationof mangrove forest geneticresources, and to conserveand enhancebiologicaldiversity
in mangrove ecosystems, it was felt that an integrated approach for the preparation of a 'Global
strategy' is required. The consolidationand preservation of mangrove genetic resources is the
first step towards this end.
Sanjay Deshmukh 409
Work was initiated to establish a mangrove genetic resourcescentre for adaptation to sea level
rise. An area of about 50 ha of land under mangroves was kindly made availableby the De-
partment of Forests, Government of Tamil Nadu, in the mangrove forest of Pichavaram, which
is located 240 km South of Madras. Out of 1400 ha of land under mangroves in Pichavaram,
this area was selectedfor in situ conservationbased on the criteria developed by the CRSARD.
In addition to this, a small area within this region was demarcatedfor consolidationof genetic
material collected from differentparts of the country.
A nursery was establishedfor this purpose, and the following species were been collected from
differentparts of the country, for planting and research studies.
In addition to the species mentioned in the table, local mangroves species were also being
collected. The success of these species in this type of environmental condition was critically
monitored and the data on their performancewas thus gathered.
These species were planted in the mangrove forest of Pichavaram during the rainy season and
their ability to survive in different environmentalconditions was tested.
Despite the availability of a large number of descriptions, mangrove areas of Pichavarain still
remain to be assessed properly. The total forest area at Pichavaramis getting reduced year after
year because of human interference. There is an urgent need for conservation and protection.
The work undertaken under this head is highlighted in Table 1.
RESTORATION
The mangroveecosystem though open, is quite complex, being composedof variousinter-related
elements in the land-sea interphase zone. The mangrovesare known to keep the shoreline intact
against tidal currents by preventing soil erosion. In view of the ecological and socio-economic
410 Mangrove forest genetic resources strategy for conservation and management
importance of these plants, their restoration has become increasingly important, especially in
recent years when land cover of the earth is rapidlyon the wane.
Development of suitable forestry methods for propagation and artificial regeneration of man-
groves have been prompted by the demand for the economically valuable mangroves;however,
not much has been achieved in this respect. The workon experimentalplantation of mangroves
undertaken at Pichavaram was based on (a) Nursery experiments,and (b) pilot plantations of
mangroves.
Emphasis was placed on the germination and growth of some mangrove species in nursery
condition and also in field on experimentalbasis.
EVALUATION
Mangrovesare distributed accordingto three important scales, namely their coastal range, their
location with an estuary and their position along the Intertidal profile. Distribution pattern of
mangroves in an estuarine region depends on several factors. Influence of freshwater run off
and also estuary size is always seen when compositionof mangroveflora is observed. In larger
estuaries, there is greater range of specilised habitats, and hence the presence of more species
as compared to those in smaller estuaries is evident. There is a general trend between genera
and distribution, in such a way that genera with greatest number of species, consistently occur
in greater number of biogeographicregions. In addition to this, there is also isolation at other
scales of distribution,notably in the specilisation of particular mangroves for certain habitats.
When mangroves species are classified, the morphologicalcharacters of the species are taken
into consideration,and have to be re-assembled for their systematic classification. When such
a classification is based on phenotypic character, which may vary their response in different
locations, it is also useful to explore intra-specific variation so that inter-relationship of those in
larger polymorphicgenera might be better understood.
Rhizophora and Avicennia,the two major species of mangrovesecosystems, were studied for their
botanical systematics/scientific classification. The surveys made also provided interestinginfor-
mation on the distribution of these two as well as other mangrove section of estuaries. This
knowledge will be used for evaluating particular distribution pattern of other species of man-
groves, which depend on several factors. These studies would also lead to a better understand-
ing of genetic exchangebetween populations, which is controlledby climatic and geographical
conditions.
Surveysundertaken for identification of 'plus trees' of various species of mangrovesin different
parts of India revealedvaluableinformation on locationof such "genetically important" material
(Table 2).
The above-mentioned species were collected and are maintained in suitable locations in
Pichavaram mangrove forest in Tamil Nadu. Evaluation of these species is being done on
physiological basis and also on their ability to survive under differentenvironmentalconditions.
CLASSIFICATION
It is common these days to come across ill-defined morphological characters of tropical plants.
Mangroves are no exception to this. Considering the limited number of these unique plants
Sanjay Deshmukh 411
GJ : Gujarat; MH; Maharastra; GO; Goa; KN; Karnataka; KR; Kerala; LK : Lakshadweep; TN
Tamil Nadu; AP: Andhra Pradesh; OR: Orissa; WB : West Bengal; AN: Andaman and Nicobar.
and the extent of the variation of species level, it is important to sort out these constraint, and
therefore, it would be useful to identify genetic differences so as to remove the doubts and
subjectivity surrounding the diagnostic character in the systematics of these plants. There are
two techniques.
Conventionalgenetic studies are difficult for mangroves and many forest tree species. In view
of the difficulties and delay in conventional genetic analysis, to standardisation of molecular
methods of genetic analysis using the molecularvariation in DNA was done.
412 Mangroveforest genetic resources : strategy for conservationand management
The method is describedbelow:
Base pair changes in DNA can alter sequences that are recognisedby restrictionenzymes, abol-
ishing sites or creating new sites for particular enzymes. Deletions or transportation of large
elements bring about simultaneouschanges in the restriction pattern of a number of enzymes.
As a result, a given restrictionenzymes will not always leave a given DNA molecule at the same
position in two individuals. Consequently, fragments of two different lengths will be formed
when the DNA of the two individual are digested. The unequal sized fragments will travel at
different rates through the gel, and the bands formed, following hybridization and autoradiog-
raphy, will be located at differentlocationson the Southern blot. The polymorphismscould be
scored on such autoradiographies.
RANDOM AMPLIFIED POLYMORPHIC DNA (RAPD)
The polymorphismassays based on the PolymeraseChain Reaction (PCR) are useful in detecting
the variationsmuch more rapidly. But there is a distinct PCR process, based on the amplification
of genomic DNA with single primers of arbitrary nucleotides sequences. These primers reveal
better polymorphismsand are thereforeused as markers. They are called the Random Amplified
PolymorphismsDNA (RAPD). Use of RAPD's have several advantages over other markers as
a) A universal set of primers can be used for genomic analysis in a wide variety of species,
b) No preliminarywork, in the form of isolation of cloned DNA probes, preparation of filters
for hybridisation,or nucleotidessequencing are necessary,
c) each RAPD marker is the equivalent of a Sequence Tagged Site, and
d) the entire process of finding the polymorphismcan be automated.
Work based on these lines was undertaken and has helped in understanding the inter- and
intra-specific variability in mangrove species.
UTILISATION
In Asia and the Pacific region, nations have managed their mangrove forests on a sustained
yield basis. They have considered the production and sustenance of a maximum volume of
wood for domesticand export purposes, ecological protectionand conservation, preservation of
initial coastal mangrove-dependentcommunities. In case of India, the populationpressure in the
coastal- areas has been more as compared to other countries. Therefore, a multiple use concept
was introduced for utilisation of various renewableresources. Thesewould best contributeto the
long-term socio-economic development of the country, and would also. This lead to long-term
benefits to the greatest number of people.
SOCIO-ECONOMICSURVEY
Socio-economic activities in the vicinity of mangrove habitats like Pichavaram are very much
varied. Poverty seems to have settled together with unwise resource utilisation. The people
living within and nearby the mangrove forest depends on this resource for their living. The
immediate material benefits they are deriving from these resources and lack of knowledge and
understanding on the other mangrove influences, have hindered them from realisingthe more
significant and long-term benefits of this ecosystem. It was therefore decided to understand the
behaviour of local people residing within and around the Pichavaram mangrove forest, before
attempting to understand their occupational impacts on the coastal ecosystems.
The Mangroveecosystems of Pichavarm provides enormous goods and services which are vital
to the well being of the local population. These goods and services ranged from tangibles as
those directly consumed (food, medicine, firewood), trades in market (fishes, prawns, etc.) and
non-consumptiveservice (protectionagainst windbreaks) to more intangiblevalues of knowing
that species exist and should continue to exist and also that they were to be conserved and
protected for the future. However due to economic requirements,people in many coastal areas
over-exploited the mangroveforests. On the other hand, disturbed areas experienced temporary
or permanent disruption of water supplies, increased flooding, reduction of water quality and
productive decline in faunal species.
Sustainable Livelihood Security Index (SLSI)
The concept of SLSI is described in detail by Dr. R. Maria Saleth in this manual. Efforts were
initiated to apply this concept in the Pichavaram area with the following aims:
1. To outline the pathway to sustainable development of our coastal ecosystem with special
reference to mangrove ecosystem
414 Mangrove forest genetic resources: strategy for conservationand management
2. To discuss the economic issues involved in the utilisation of mangrove resources
3. To developa mathematicalframeworkusefulto capture and analyticallyshow the ecologically-
economic interactionsin the context of mangrove ecosystems and
4. To indicate certain policy option and action plan essentialfor the sustainablemanagement of
mangroveecosystem.
Human and mangrove interaction has been evident from the studies undertaken and it is ob-
served that the local people, most frequentlyact with seeming disregard for the future ecological
effects of their action, of exploitation of mangrove resources. It is apparent that occupationex-
ists for their well-being. Therefore a community based approach needs to be brought about for
restricting over-exploitation of mangrove forest. At the same time, a detail analysis of social
behaviour of such hope of success. Developmentof sustainablelivelihood security index would
prove to be one of the pioneering efforts in this field.
EDUCATION
Not every communityin the country is endowed with mangrovesand swamp lands. However,
the areas with mangrove ecosystem are always under stress as the resources are always usedby
the local population for their livelihoodsecurity. For example, the bulkof mangrove resourcehas
been used for firewood, a marginal livelihood activity. In this context, the population residing
in the vicinity of such mangroveareas needs to be made aware of how mangrove are important
and why they should be conserved. Moreover, it becomes imperative to encourage the local
government to focus attention on these mangrove resources in their respectiveterritories.
The major objective of this programme was to create awareness for the conservation of this
neglectedecosystem, fragments of which are found scattered in various degraded forms in and
around the Pichavarm mangrove forest. The work included preparation of visuals based on
interesting features of the ecological importance of the mangrove swamp area from India in
general and the Pichavaram mangrove forest in particular. Communicationmethods included
display postersand charts,slides, and transparenciesand also arranginglectures and discussions.
Target groups benefitedby this activitywere primarily the people living along the coastalvillages
and also administratorsand decisions makers.
The information collected was also be conveyed to the students, teacher and researchers in
colleges and universitiesin coastal states.
CONCLUSION
The importance of tropical rain-forestas rich reservoirs of biologicaldiversity is widely recog-
nised. Mangrove forest in coastal belts of tropical and sub-tropical regions are equally important
natural reservoirsof biological diversity.The mangrove ecosystem constitutesa bridge between
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and provides numerous benefits to coastal populations.These
delicate ecosystems are seriouslythreatenedby human interference. Immediate steps are required
to prevent further destruction of mangrove forests, and to restore the partially degraded ones.
For sustained improvement and utilisation of mangrove forest resources, it is essential to con-
serve the existing mangrove species and genetic diversity within them. Like many agricultural
and forest species, an integral global strategy is required to conserve and enhance biological
Sanjay Deshmukh 415
diversity in mangrove ecosystems. It is hope that the guidelines mentioned in this paper would
be useful for planning a Strategy for the Conservation and Managementof Mangrove Genetic
Resources anywhere in the World.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Prof. M.S. Swaminathan,FRS, for his guidance and encouragement. My thanks
are due to may colleagues, Ms. G. Uma, Mr. R. Babu, Dr. N. Subramonian, Dr. R. Maria Saleth
and Dr. V. Balaji, for their active support during the tenure of this work. The financial support
from the Department of Biotechnology, Governmentof India and the technical support from the
Department of Forests, Governmentof Tamil Nadu is gratefully acknowledged.
CLONALFORESTRY:A NEW STRATEGY FOR OBTAINING
INCREASEDYIELD
S. KEDHARNATH
INTRODUCTION
Customarily seeds are used in artificial regenerationof forest tree species. This is because they
are easy to collect and handle and the cost of seeds is not high. The seeds after collection from
different areas are bulked, cleaned and graded wherever it is possible to do that, pretreated
whenever found necessary and sown in nursery beds. At the appropriate time, they are trans-
planted to polythene bags or stumped and later transported to the area of planting. For most
of the important forest tree species that are used in raising largescale plantations, these opera-
tions are well standardised. However, the yield obtained and the quality of wood obtained per
hectare at the appropriate rotation age have been highly variable. If one goes through some of
these plantations,considerablevariation in stocking is also noticed, presumablydue to mortality.
A few tree species such as the Willows and the Poplars are exceptions to the above method of
handling and are propagated normally by cutting only.
Most of the forest tree species are out breeders (naturally cross-pollinated) with various degrees
of self-compatibility and so the large plant-to-plant variability noticed is nothing new. Also,
some amount of mortalitynoticed could be due to inbreeding effects. There may be additionally
other causes too. In order to reduce this plant variability to a reasonable level and at the same
time also to ensure an increasein productivity,it was thought desirable to use the principlesof
genetics to produce improved planting stock. This involved provenancetestingto select the best
adapted and most productive provenance,creation of seed production areas, establishing clonal
seed orchards using plus trees. This kind of work is in progress in many of our states. When
the seed orchards go into large-scale seed production, they will be used for raising the future
plantations. This is the internationallyfollowed priority approachin the genetic improvement of
forest trees. Later, by controlled crossing using suitable matting designs, new breed populations
can be created for practicing advanced generation selections for use in new seed orchards. So
goes on the genetic improvement work concernedwith population improvement.
Another approach that has in recent times attracted considerable attention is that of using clones
in operational forestry as against their use only in research. This approach also exploits the
considerable amount of natural variation present in the natural population of the tree species.
Most of the forest tree species are represented by wild (undomesticated) population because
no conscious efforts had been made in the past for selection. This interest is built upon the
expectationthat faster gains and greater gains can be obtained by the use of this method. The
spectacular results obtained in Aracruz, Brazil with eucalyptus should indeed act as a catalyst
for a new, bold and revolutionary approachin forest regeneration. But one must rememberthat
to achieve the goal a lot of inputs as research was necessary so that appropriate methods and
techniques, or what we may call protocol, could be developed that are absolutelyreliable to give
results when taken up in a largescale field-oriented action programmes.The work done already
or is being done on Eucalyptus in Aracruz, in Congo and in Israel, and the work on Gmelina
arboreain Sabah and the results achieved inorder to highlight the magnitude of planned efforts
that have gone into this type of work are explained.
EUCALYPTUSPLANTATIONS:CASE STUDIES
1. ARACRUZ, BRAZIL
Forest Productivity and Pulpwood Quality (Results from intensive forest management and ge-
netic improvement establishedby means of rooted cuttings).
Coppicing
This is normallydone by cutting the tree at the base, above the soil level at approximately12 cm
height. If kept taller, sprouts arising at points distant from soil root poorly or do not root at all.
Best time to harvest juvenile copice shoots at Aracruz was found to be 45 to 55 days after the
tree had been cut. Rooting capacity of sprouts obtained from stump exceeded 70%. Selection of
tree was made at 7 years, i.e., at harvest age. The following forest and utility characteristics were
taken into consideration:
1. The tree had a volume of more than 1m3 including bark and was free of disease and insect
attack.
2. Tree was straight and had small limbs; this enhanced self-pruning and avoided tension of
wood normally associatedwith thick branches and cooked trees.
3. Tree should have smooth bark, not rough.
4. The crown was well-shaped, having a large leaf volume which provided better and earlier
shade over the ground and suppressed weeds and other competitive vegetation.
After felling, the trees selected evaluated for wood properties, such as (a) basic density (500—600
kg/m3), (b) pulp yield (those exceeding 50% based on the dry weigh of wood), and (c) bark
content should be less than 10%.
17000 hectares were brought under plantation each year, with the aim of survival rate which
called for skill and inputs. It was planned to undertake replanting after 35 years, i.e., after five
harvests.
Recently they have undertaken work to hybridise E. grandis with E. urophylla, and selected a
large number of individual trees from this cross and cloned them. About 5000 clones are in the
process of testing.
2. CONGO
In congo, commercial-stage planting programme with clones started in 1978 with 650 ha. Since
then 3000 ha are planted annually. By the end of 1984 the total area of clonal planting was
20000ha. in Eucalyptus.Their interest centred around plus trees of E. alba, E. saligna, E. tereticornis
and superior genotypes of the species hybrid combination E. alba x E. urophylla (14 selections)
S. Kedharnath 419
and E. tereticornis x E. saligna (256 selections). Crosses of the combination E. urophylla x E. grandis
and E. alba x E. grandis have also been recently taken up.
Two units produce 6 lakh cuttings each per year. Each unit had 20 ha of managed stock plants
established at a density of 400/ha. Cuttings were collected from 95 stock plants per day, with
a second harvest after six weeks. The annual production was 150—200 cuttings per plant in the
season. About 12000 cuttings were set under misting in eachnursery every day during the season.
Rooting success was around 80% and more. It is claimed that in 1980 the cost per acre worked
out to 650 US dollars,which was less than that of plantation establishment from seeds.
3. ISRAEL
In Israel, workis in progress on rooting of stem cuttings for use in clonal forestry in Eucalyptus
camaldulensis. Grafting of nature scion in young seedlings was tried in order to rejuvenate the
mature tissue for producing cuttings to start a clonal line without felling a 'plus tree'. Though
the initial grafting was highly successful, the grafts progressivelydied, with an ultimatesurvival
of only 15% after one year.
Open growing of selected stock plants and repeated pruning (sometimes also referred to in
literature as hedging) provided the largest number of cuttings at the least expense. It has been
estimated that 1000 stock plants per hectare could produce more than one million cuttings per
year yielding 0.5 million rooted cuttings.
4. SABAH (MALAYSIA)
In Sabah in 1981, a clonal approach to improve stem form and branching habits in Gmelina
arborea was initiated. From a total stand of 1200 ha, a 30 ha block of Philippine seed origin was
selected as the best stand, the best 100 trees per hectare (1 10% selection intensity). These trees
were coppiced and after propagation 20 ha of stock plants were first established at im x 2m
spacing. Cutting were harvested at the rate of 20000 per day and when set under mist, rooting
was initiated.
A one hundred per cent increase in the number of 2-year-old trees classified as straight was
observed and a major reduction in those badly forked were recorded.
Air-Layering
Air-layering is often resorted to obtain clones for experimentalwork. Some tree species easily
respond and produce roots while others do not produce only profuse callus tissue. During the
course of an investigationwithpines for developingclones at the Forest Research Institute,Dehra
Dun, it was found that since stem cuttings did not produce roots, it was thought desirable to
take recourse to first grafting and on the grafted plants air layers were tied. A good rooting
response was seeP in these air-layered branches. P. roxburghii and P. caribaea, air layers were
tried directlyon suitable young branches which also gave good rooting and they were very fine.
The chances of their survival if directly planted after severance from the mother plants in the
field appeared doubtful. o they were (in both the species) planted first in pots with a good
mixture of soil-sand-manure medium and kept like that in pots for a year and later they were
transplanted with one hundred per cent survival. They grew well and straight.
420 Clonal forestry : a new strategy for obtaining increased yield
Similar work was done on Teak, at the Forest Research Institute,Dehra Dun, by my colleagues
and I using various rooting harmones did not yield rooted layers but instead they produced
profuse callusing. We severedthe air layers from the tree, scraped away partially the callus and
planted them in the sand-soil-manure rooting medium and they all rooted. Thus some species
respond easily and root, while others don't. We had taken care to include a number of trees
(genotypes) connected to differentperiods (seasons) for these experiments. There is thus definite
variation in response of species to air layering,and also there are difference amongst the different
genotypes within the species.
Grafting (including budding)
This method has been successfully used in many forest tree species to establish clonal seed
orchards. In horticulture, particularly in apple, jack, cashew and rubber, such an approach is
being employed for establishing large areas of plantations of high-yielding clones. In forestry,
however,grafting is not being' used for raising large plantations.It may be mentionedmore as of
historical importance that in 1820, the FrenchmenBaronde Larminatand Marrierde Boisdhyver
undertook the largest forest tree grafting work report. They wanted to better the forests around
Paris, particularly the forest of Fontainebleau. For doing this, they grafted scions from Pinus
nigra var. poiretiana on P. sylvestris var. hagunensis root stocks at the rate of 8000—10,000 grafts
per year. In this work, they used terminal cleft graft and field-grown root stocks 308 years of
age. The graft unions were about 2—4 feet above the ground and were suitablyprotected. In 1843,
their work had resulted in 104,000 grafts.
Tissue Culture
Tissue culture is a versatile technique and can be employed for a very wide variety of pur-
poses between those who exaggerate its benefits and those who dismiss it as a mere tech-
nique. There are moderates who are knowledgeable about the real benefits that can accrue
from use of tissue culture. Apart from its use in research for obtaining genetically uniform
material (clones) we can integrate it into a plant production system for producing clonal ma-
terial for field planting in plantation forestry. Micropropagation is highly beneficial for certain
species where conventional clonal propagationis not possibleor commercially not feasible. Micro-
propagation through tissue culture has several advantages over conventionalmethods—i) higher
multiplication rates, ii) lower requirement for space, iii) greater degree control over chemical
and physical environmental factors, and iv) propagation throughout the year. Tissue culture
work has been carried out by many and some of the more important publications are Ahuja
(1986), Balaji (1986), Bonga and Durzan (1982), Mohan Ram and Kakkar (1989) and Wilkins and
Dodds (1983). Studies on tissue culture carried out in India on forest tree species have been
obtained in several cases; viable commercial technologieshave been developed only in a few
cases.
Shoot organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis are the two main pathways through which
plantlets are obtained in vitro. The phytoharmonespresent in the medium are known to control
organogenesis. Shoot-inducingmedium is relatively low in auxin and high in cytokinin while
the root-inducingmedium is high in auxin and low in cytokinin.
Regeneration of plants from callus through somatic embryogenesis is reported to be more ad-
vantageous than by organogenesis. Somatic embryos are believed to arise from single cells and,
S. Kedharnath 421
therefore, plants derived from them are expected to be genetically alike and stable while plants
raised from callusculture through organogenesismay show wide geneticvariation. Additionally,
somatic embryos are bipolar with well-developedroot and shoot apices that can develop into a
whole plant. A good tap root system is essentialfor a tree which has to withstand the ravages
of the weather over many years and grow. According to Rangaswamy(1986), who has critically
reviewed the literature on somatic embryogenesis in angiospermcell, tissue and organ cultures,
work published up to 1985, only in 102 species somatic embryogenesis has been obtained and
subsequentplantlet formationin 51 species. The potential for somatic embryogenesis appears to
be genotype specific.
Incorporatinggenes for resistanceto specific diseases, insect pests, etc., can contributeto greater
productivity by decreasing losses. These contributionscan take the form of reduced mortality,
reduced loss and reduced monetary and environmentalcosts of chemical counter-measures.
Recent moleculartechniques, collectively known as genetic engineering, have been employed for
incorporationof foreignmaterial,DNA, intoanimal and plantcells. The gene transfersare carried
out with the help of a plasmid vector system or by direct micro injection of DNA into cells. The
successfulextension of genetic transformation; proceduresfrom simple micro-organisms to plants
has been a landmark of developments in biological sciences. Before attempting gene transfers,
specific genes need to be characterised, sequenced,isolated and clones. In the case of forest trees,
we know only the chromosome number for many of the species. So what is needed now is using
the RFLP technique for mapping of the genes in selectedtree species to start with. Also, work
should be initiated to work out the protocols of protoplast culture and regeneration of plants
from them.
A toxin-producinggene whichimparts resistanceagainst a wide spectrumof lepidopteraninsects
has been transferred form Bacillus thuringiensis to a tobacco plant and there this gene has been
asked to express itself. While such insertionmay prove to be relativelysimple and straightforward
in a solanaceousplant that normally exhibits a high degree of plasticity in culture, it may be
comparativelymore difficult. While dealing with woody species for instance, in the case of teak
(Tectonagrandis L.F.),two important insectpests are known to do a lot of damage.Theyare Hyblea
puera and Eutectona machaeralis. It would be interestingto see whether the toxinproducinggene of
B. thuringiensiscouldbe incorporatedinto the teak genome. Another approach for incorporatinga
resistant gene intothese two pests of teak is to realisethe inter-specific hybrid between teak and its
allied species T. hainiltoniana.Unfortunatelythe cross does not yield viable seeds. An approachto
realisethis hybrid would be through somatic hybridisation.There is another example in Al/anthus
triphysa;here an important insect pest, Fligmanarcissus,causes considerable damage and frequent
chemical sprayingbecomes necessary to protect the plants. A bacterium Bacillus firmus, isolated
from the dead larvae of the above insect was very effective in giving a hundred per cent kill
when used in water suspension. It is worth speculatingthat one day we shall identify the gene
in this bacterium that enables it to kill the larvae and transfer the gene in the bacterium that
enables it to kill the larvae and transfer the same to the genome of A. triphysa through genetic
engineeringtechniques.
422 Clonal forestry: a new strategy for obtaining increased yield
REFERENCES
Ahuja, M.R. (1986). Perspectivesin plant biotechnology. Curr. Sci. 55(5) : 217—235.
Bhatia, C.R., Patricia Viegas, Anjali Bhagwat, Helena Mathews and N.K. Notani (1986). Geneic
transformationof plant. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sd.) 96(2) : 76—112.
Balaji, Y.P.S. (1986) Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry.Springer- Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg,
New York, London.
Brando, J.M. and D.J. Durzan (1982) Tissue culture in forestry. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W. Junk Pub-
lishers. The Hague/Boston/London.
Brando.LG. (1984). The new eucalyptus forest. Proc. The Marcus Wallenberg FoundationSymposia
3—15.
Gupta, P.K., Nadgir, A.L., Mascarenhas, A.F. and V. Jagannathan (1980). Tissue culture of forest
trees : Clonal multiplication of Tectona grandis L.F. (teak) by tissue culture. Plant Sci. Lett.
1: 259—268.
Gupta, P.K. Mascarenhas, A.F. and V. Jagannathan (1981). Tissue culture of forest trees : Clonal
propagation of mature trees of Eucalyptus citriodora Hooka, by tissue culture. Plant Sci. Lett.
20: 195—201.
Kedharnath, S. (1982). 'Plus tree' selection - a tool in forest tree improvement. In: P.K. Khosla
(Ed.). Symp. Proc. on Improvement of Forest Biomass. Soc. Tree Scientists.
Kedharnath, 5. (1983). Genetics and forest tree breeding. In: Genetical Research in India. I.C.A.R.,
New Delhi.
Kedharnath,S. (1984). Forest Tree Improvementin India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 93: 3:
401—412.
Kedharnath,5. (1989). Clonal forestry—a new strategyfor obtainingincreasedyield. Inaugural
addressdeliveredat the Seminar on "Vegetative Propagation"held at the Institute of Forest
Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore, July 1989.
Lakshmi Sita, G., Shola Rani and ShankarRao. (1984). Propagationof Eucalyptusgrandis by tissue
culture. Proc. Natl. Seminar on Eucalypts in India—Past, Present and Future. K.F.R.I., Peechi.
pp. 308—312.
Mascarenhas, A.F. and Meenakshi Kakkar, (1989). Tissue culture of forest trees in India. Curr.
Sci. 58(11) : 606—613.
Mohan Ram, H.Y. and Meenakshi Kakkar. (1989). The Achievements and Potential of Tissue
culture Technology for Corp Improvement.In Proc. Natl. Seminar on MolecularBiology and
Biotechnology (January 1989) Kottayam. pp. 1—13.
RangaswamyN.S. (1986). Somatic embiyogenesisin angiospermcell, tissue and organ cultures.
Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 96 : 247—271.
Rao, I.V.R., Narang, V. and V.1. Rao. (1986). Origin and developmentof embryogeniccallus and
somatic embryosin the bamboo, Dendrocalamus strictus. Proc. VI Internatl. Cong. on Plant Tissue
Culture.
Shelborne C.J.A. (1970). "Breeding Strategy" Research Group No.1. Research Comm.AustraliaFor.
Council. Proc. of Second meeting in Australia.
Wilkins, C.P. and Dodds, J.H. (1983). In : J.H. Dodds (Ed.). Tissue culture of trees. Croom Helm,
London.pp. 56-79.
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF MANGROVES IN
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
B.P.SINHA
INTRODUCTION
The mangrovevegetationin the BayIslands plays an important role in minimisingthe onslaught
of devastating cyclonic impact, preventing soil erosion and sedimentationof shores and protect-
ing the terrestrial ecosystem above the high tide level. Besides these providing a safe nursery
and breeding groundfor a variety of fishes, aquatic forms and avifauna.A coastline of 1962 km
of the islands supports a highly productive ecosystem. The bulk of the mangrovesare confined
fringing innumerable creeks, sheltered muddy shores, and coal substrata, but the presence of
patchy mangroveson scattered rocky formation subjected to Intertidal inundation is not uncom-
mon. The mangrove ecosystem existing in the islands is rich in nutrients augmenting the food
needs of the sizeable population living in and around these habitats on a sustained basis. The
mangroves in Andaman and NicobarIslands are still rich, luxuriant and in an undisturbed state
with a great amount of species diversity.
The paper deals with the mangrove forests of Andamans, various strategies contemplated for
effective conservation of the precious ecosystem including linkage of the genetic resources pro-
gramme to build up a rich gene-poolat the global level.
HYDROLOGY
The temperature in the mangrove habitat varies from 23.4°C to 31°C and that of surface (soil)
from 27.8°C to 35.3°C. It is pertinent to note that the surface temperature is always higher than
the atmospheric temperature. The burrow temperature recorded in case of some crab-holes at
10 cm depth ranges between 28.1°C and 31.5°C. Salinity ranges between 1.8°C and 31.8°C in the
estuaries, and inside the mangrovesit varies from 28.6% and 33%. The dissolved oxygen in the
mangrove area is between 1.0 mg/l and 5.40 mg/l. The mean sea tide level is 1.21 m while the
mean high tide level reach upto 1.85 m and mean low tide level goes upto 0.59 m.
FORESTS
The main forest types occurringin the islands area of the tropicalevergreen,semi-evergreen and
moist-deciduoustypes. The forests are largely in virgin state, luxuriant in growth and occupy
86.9% of the land area. The flora of the islands is rich in diversity with about 2200 species, of
which 1300 species are not found in other parts of the country; these species are of Malaysian
origin and are found in Burma,Indonesiaand the Polynesianisland. There are about 200 endemic
plant species of these islands.
An area of 2929 sq km of forests is reserved and 4242 sq km are protected. For the protection of
aboriginaltribes 35.5% of the forest area has been set apart of Tribal Reserves. In all, 94 Wildlife
Sanctuaries covering an area of 455.98 sq km and 16 National Parks spread over 361.57 sq km
have been establishedto provide protectionto flora and fauna. In addition, 885 sq km of tropical
virgin vegetation of Great Nicobar has been declared as Biosphere Reserve and National Park.
Thus the protected forest area alone in the Bay Islands is to extent of 59% of the forest cover.
The plywood industries as well as Chatham Power House have since switched over to diesel,
and the departmental steam vessel is utilising the sawn fuel in place of mangroves.
As per the prescribedWorking Plan for the tidal forests of Andamans, clear felling and selection
feelings were to be practiced. Bruguiera and Rhizophora being the dominant species, a rotation
of 99 years with a felling cycle of 33 years was prescribed at a ratio of 120 nos. of poles per ha
above 60 cm girth. As Rhizophora was giving more of biomass due to branchiness an yield of
/
86 cm ha was prescribed, and in spite of Bruguiera,being straight growing species, an yield of
31 cm/ha was prescribed. As a precautionary measure a buffer at 20 m width along the main
creek and 10 m widthalong small creeks was left out to prevent the soil wash as also nutrients.In
addition, 40 well-formed Rhizophora and Bruguiera poles per ha were left as standards and seed
bearers, uniformly spaced. All the poles above 52 cm in girth were felled, leaving he standards
for seed disposal. For holding the mangrove seeds, particularlythat of Rhizophora and Bruguiera
from drifting away along with the tidal current, brushwood barriers at various outlets were laid
to trap the floating seeds.
Most of the areas in Andamans where the mangrove vegetation is seen is dense stand, were
harvested in the past under clear felling and selection system, but mangroves are well stocked
by self-sown seeds. Attempts were also made to supplementthe natural regenerationby artificial
plantation in the past. The feelingcoupe area is left intact, alternativelyso as to get the mangrove
seeds from the adjoining standing strip. As the felled ares have been adequately regenerated
under clear felling and selection systems, there has not been any significant damage to the
mangrove forests in the islands. But wherever population pressure was heavy near townships,
there has been some damage to mangrovesdue to removal of fuel and poles for domestic need.
The Administrationis contemplating to impose a ban on felling of mangroves over non-forest
land so that a further threat to some rare species of mangrovesis minimised.
REFERENCES
Dagar J.C., A.D. Mongia and A.K. Bandyopadhyay. (1991). Mangroves of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Das A .K. and M.K. Deb Roy. (1989). General Account of mangrovefauna of Andaman and Nico-
bar Islands. In Proc. symp. management of coastal ecosystems and oceanic resources ofAndamans
(17—18 July, 1987). Andaman Science Association (CARd), Port Blair. pp. 8—23.
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF COASTAL
ECOSYSTEMS : THE CASE OF MANGROVE RESOURCES
R. MARIA SALETH
INTRODUCTION
Coastal ecosystems are an important part of the natural resource base of our country. Since
these ecosystems are a vital ecological bridge between the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems,
their preservation is essential to maintain the ecological balance and biodiversity. Despite their
ecological and economic significance, the effects of current resourceuse practices evidentboth in
the inland and coastal areas have engenderedvarious forms of stresses on the coastalecosystem.
Increasing soil erosion and soil and water pollution caused by the intensive farm practices in
the inland areas which get transported through the river and canal systems are also adversely
affecting the coastal systems. Moreover,the seawater intrusion and the attendant soil and water
quality problems caused by groundwater depletion have already started threatening the very
sustainabilityof the agriculturalsystems in the Saurashtraregion of Gujarat and Tanjavur region
of Tamil Nadu. Eventhoughthe coastal regions are relatively sparsely populated as comparedto
the inland regions as of now, increasing demographicpressure on the inland resource systems is
boundto have a spill-overeffect in the form of heightened resourcedemand in the already fragile
coastal resource system. The development of coastal resorts and other coast-based recreational
activities promptedby the increasingrecreationaldemand of the affluentsection of the population
as well as the tourism policy of the Governmenthave also made serious inroads into our coastal
resource base. Above all, the prospect of sea level rise, expected to be of the order of 5 to 15
inches due to global warming by 2025 AD, makes the need to take concretesteps to ensure the
sustainablemanagement of the coastal ecosystems all the more urgent.
Given the economic and ecological significance of the coastal ecosystem, the need for a careful
study to identify the critical issues involved in the sustainable management of our coastal system
and their practical and policy implications cannot be over-emphasised. This paper attempts to
(a) outline the pathway to sustainable development of our coastal ecosystems by considering
the case of the mangrove ecosystem, (b) discuss the economic issues involved in the utilisation
of mangroveresources (c) develop a mathematicalframework useful to capture and analytically
show the ecological-economic-equity interactionsin the context of the mangroveecosystems, and
(d) indicate certain policy options and action plans essential for the sustainable management of
the mangrove ecosystem.
such as capture fisheries would undergo both, qualitative and quantitative changes. However,
the damaging activities done within the assimilative capacity of the ecosystem or the regenerative
growth of the mangrove forest may not cause much concern. These damaging activities where
scale of operation is critical are distinguished by a question mark in the Table. Similarly, even
those uses requiringthe clearanceof the mangrove forest need not always lead to the destruction
of the ecosystem provided that the uses are well within the limit set by the ecological ground
rules.
If the land diverted to other uses forms only a small proportion of the total mangrovearea under
consideration, then the activity will not cause much disturbance to the mangrove ecosystem.
When these destructive activities are well within the limit laid down by the ecological ground
rules, they can achieveboth economic efficiency and ecological sustainability. These destructive
uses whose ecological impact is a function of the scale of operation are distinguishedwith a star
in the Table.
Economic efficiency is concernedwith one major issue : can the economic benefitbe improvedby
the maintenanceof the mangrove ecosystemor diverting it to other uses? The answer depends
on whether we view the problem from the private or social point of view, and also whether
the problem is considered on a short-term or long-term basis. It is necessary to recognise that
a purely economic approach to any natural ecosystem has some major limitations. Notably,
economic analysis relies purely on market mechanisms to signal the economic value of a given
resource society. Moreover, the market mechanism can reasonably reflect the value only when
property rights in the resource at issue are well defined. Otherwise, there will be a market
failure. In view of the inherent difficulties in defining property rights as well as monitoringtheir
strict adherence especially in the case of natural resources like ecosystems, these resources are
generally considered as 'open access' resourcesnotwithstandingthe fact that they are under the
direct control of the State. The absence of any formal property rights system and the attendant
lack of any individtial economic incentivefor resource conservation make these resourcesystems
particularlyvulnerableto depletion or species extinction. This is essentially due to the divergence
between the private and social values. The price system in a free market condition reflects only
the private value. For instance, in the case of a mangrove ecosystem, a timber businessman
would resort to timber harvest based only on the price and harvesting cost of immediatetimber
output, and not the timber output in the future periods. Because, under open access conditions,
he does not have the incentive to conserve the resource as the mangrove trees left unharvested
by his conservativepolicy will just be cut by another person due to 'no restriction' on access to
the mangrove forest. Moreover, third-party effects would also be ignored. For example, timber
harvest reduces detritus production both by a reduction in the number of mangrove trees as
well as reduced zooplankton population,affecting the fish catch of fishermen. Thus, the resource
use decisions of most of the mangrove users are based not only on a very limited planning
horizon but also on a narrow criterionof individual economic benefits. Consequently, the present
institutional conditions governing the resource use in the mangrove ecosystem foster a wrong
kind of economic behaviour, leading to resource depletion rather than its conservation. Since
the price signal from a tree market fails to reflect the non-use values, the divergence between
individual and social values become inevitable.
Another important aspect to be noted in the context of Table 1 is the varying degreesof conflict
among the four major activitiesas well as between different users with the same activity. These
Table 1 Man-mangrove interactions : economic benefits and ecological impacts
DISCOUNTRATE POLICY
The rate can be manipulated to change the economic perception of the decision makers. For
instance, the planning horizon can be increasedby reducing the discount rate and vice versa.
The idea is to make the decision maker take a long-term point of view by increasing the value
432 Sustainable management of coastal ecosystems : the case of mangrove resources
of the conservedresource. It is essentialto recognise that such a discount rate manipulation will
work only when a single person or entity owns and manages the resource system. Under open
access conditions, this mechanismis not of much use as differentindividuals will have different
time preferences and, hence, discount rates.
TAX-SUBSIDYSYSTEM
With taxes and subsidies,the existing free market price can be modified to reflect the social cost.
For instance, a tax can be imposed on the businessman that covers the reduced fish catch and
the tax thus collectedcan be distributed as a subsidy to the affected parties. In the same way, a
tax can also be imposed on all depletive users of mangrovesto cover the social cost of reduced
biodiversity or ecological damage. Such a tax can be used to create an ecological fund usable
for the restoration or other perservatoryefforts. Apart from the issues such as the calculation of
the economic value of the damages and their distribution across the users as well as the costs
associated with the administration of such a system, the crucial problem associated with this
tax-subsidy system is the assumption of equalitybetween environmentalcapital, bioproductivity
and other man-madecapital. The environmentalcapital and bioproductivity,unlike other capital
stocks, cannot be rebuilt to its original status, once exploited beyond a 'safe minimum' point.
that is, there are irreversibleaspects warranting serious considerations.
AN ECONOMICMODEL OF MANGROVEECOSYSTEM
It is attempted here to mathematicallydescribean economic model of a simplemangrove ecosys-
tem depicted in a flow diagram in Rao(1986). The model is aimed to providea concentrate setting
to provide some analytical expositionof the economic approachesand economic issues discussed
respectively in sections 3 and 4. To describe the model, the following notations are defined:
R. Maria Saleth 433
t = A time period
T = The planing horizon
M(.) = Mangrovebiomass stock in tonnes
M = Time rate or instantaneouschange in mangrovebiomass stock (dM/dt)
M* = Initial mangrove biomass stock, i.e., M (0)
G(.) = Annual growth in mangrove biomass stock in tonnes
Z(.) = Zooplanktonpopulation
D(.) = Detritus production in tonnes
F(.) = Fish catch in tonnes
E = Mangrovebiomass extractionin tonnes
B(.) = Social benefit in rupees
C(.) = Social cost in rupees
S(.) = Net social benefit in rupees
H(.) = Hamiltonian function
= Social discount rate, and
= Co-state variable or shadow value of an unit of biomass extracted,and
= Instantaneous change in the co-state variable
Withthese notations,we can now describe the nature and functionalform as well as the economic
and ecological significance of a set of functionswhich togetherdescribe the mangroveecosystem
under consideration.
Before proceeding further, it is necessary to state the assumptions under which the model is
built. It is assumed that the geographic area covered by the mangrove ecosystem is given. The
mangroveecosystem is also affectedverycrucially by natural and site-specific factors like temper-
ature, tidal conditions, edaphic factors,species diversity,etc. Eventhoughhere we are concerned
only with few mangrove uses so as to keep the model manageable for the analytical exposition
of certain theoreticalideas discussedin sections3 and 4, the essentialelements of a multiple-use
mangrove system can be captured in the model by incorporating various uses of not only the
mangrove ecosystem but related terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems also.
Since the mangrove forest, the main componentof the mangrove ecosystem, is an amalgamation
of many mangrovespecies and mangrove associates each with differentwood, leaf, and growth
patterns, it is essentialto usea common denominator.For modellingpurposes, here the mangrove
forest is quantifiedin terms of a common magnitude and measurement unit, i.e., biomass(both
wood and leaves) in tonnes. Notably, the control variable, i.e., biomass extraction, is a broader
term that includes not only the wood collectedeither as fuelwood or as building materialsbut
also the extraction of mangroveleaves for feed and manuring purposes. Finally, the model to be
describedhasbeen developed under simplifiedconditionsjust to demonstrate how the economic
value of certain ecological process eluding the normal pricing procedure can be depicted at least
in an analytical sense.
Within the frameworkdescribed above, it is postulated that mangrove biomass stock at a given
time point, say t, is a function of the level of biomass stock, its annual growth, and biomass
extraction all occurringin the previous period, i.e., at t-1. Specifically,
It can be noted that in equation (1), the annual growth rate of the mangrovebiomassstock G(.) at
t
the start of the period is itself a function of biomass stock and biomassextraction occurringat
t-1. The biomass extractionis included to capture its adverse effect on biomass growth. Further,
equation (1) also implicitly specifies that the mangrove biomass,at any given point in time, is
a function of biomass growth and biomass extraction, i.e.,
M=M{G(.),E] (2)
Since mangrovebiomass growth is a biological process, it is assumed here that the function G(.)
takes the logistic growth path. The logistic form of G(.) implies that mangrovebiomass increases
at a declining rate up to a maximum and then onwards it declines at an increasing rate. This
behaviour of mangrove biomass stock can be explained as follows. Recalling the assumption
of a fixed geographicalarea under the mangrove forest, mangrovebiomass grows faster in the
initial growth phase because mangrove trees are smaller/fewer in number, and hence energy
and nutrients per mangrove tree are higher. Also, there is more space for the canopy growth
of each tree. Once the maximum possible growth is attained, the mangrove biomass becomes
less in view of the increasing competition among the mangrove trees for the available energy
and nutrition and reduced space for canopy growth. In other words, given the natural and site-
specific conditions,there exists a carrying capacityfor the mangrove forest. The system can grow
both qualitatively and quantitatively up to the biologicallimit set by the carrying capacity. But
once this limit is crossed, the constraintsin the form of lower availabilityof nutrients and energy
limit the growth of the system. Thus, G(.) is concave in M with GM > 0 and GMM <0. On the
other hand, C (.) is convexin E with GE <0 and GEE > 0, implying that with every increase in
biomassextraction, biomass stock declines at an increasingrate, the reasonbeing that extraction
not only reduces the initial biomass stock but also its further growth.
While equation (1) describes the biomass growth in a discrete time frame, equation (3) below
describes the instantaneouschange in the mangrovebiomass on a continuoustime frame. That is,
(3)
Equation (3) implies that the time rate of change in the mangrovebiomass stock is just a function
of the annual biomass growth and biomass extraction. It is also known as 'the equation of
motion' as it describes the instantaneouschanges in the resourcesystem caused by its biological
parameters as well as the anthropogenicpressure.
Zooplankton is another important component of the mangrove ecosystem comprising very
minute life forms representingan important link in the energy cycle of the mangrove ecosystem.
While they obtain their nutritional requirements from mangrove biomass, they also convert
mangrovelitter into detritus capableof providing nutrients for various forms of fish population.
Given other natural factors determining their growth and diversity, zooplankton population is
viewed as a function of the level of mangrove biomass.That is,
Z=Z[M(.)] (4)
Z(.) is assumedto be concave in M with ZM > 0 and ZMM <0. Concavityimpliesthat zooplankton
increases withmangrovebiomassbut only at a decliningrate as their population is also constantly
checked by energy supply as well as predation by fish and other species.
R. Maria Saleth 435
Next, in order to incorporateinto the model the interdependencebetween the mangrove and the
aquatic ecosystems, we consider the effect of biomass extraction on fish population in the fish
capture area near the mangrove ecosystem. Mangrove ecosystem contributes to the growth of
fishery resourcesin two ways. First, the litter from the mangrove forest convertedinto detritus
by the zooplankton population supplies the essential nutrients for the fish population. And,
secondly, mangrove forests provide a nursery ground for various aquatic species. To model
the linkages between the mangrove ecosystem and the aquatic ecosystem characterised here
by the fishery resources, the following intermediary function relating to the supply of fishery
resourcesto the level of detritus generated by the combined efforts of the mangroveforest and
the zooplankton population is defined:
D =D[M(.),Z(.)] (5)
D(.) is assumed to be concave both in M and Z with DM > 0 and DMM <0, and D > 0 and
Dzz <0. The of
concavity D(.) follows directly from the concave nature of both M(.) and Z(.) in
mangrovebiomass.
In addition to the nutrition from detritus, the zooplankton population thriving in the waters of
the mangroveecosystem in itself serves as a direct food materialfor many carnivorousfish types.
Moreover,the reduction in biomass stock caused by increasingbiomassextractionactivities also
affects the level of fishery resources due to the reduction in food supply. In view of these facts,
the fish catch is considered as a function of the volume of detritus and the level of zooplankton
population.that is:
F = F{D[M(.).,Z(.)],Z(.)} (6)
F(.) is concave both in D and Z with FD > 0 and F00 <0, and Fz > 0 and Fzz < 0.
Having described the ecological aspects of the mangrove and its interrelated ecosystem, let us
describe the economic aspects of the resourcesystem. It is postulated that the social value of the
mangroveecosystemis a function of biomass extraction, fish catch, and biomass stock. That is:
B = B{E,F(.)M[G(.),EJ} (7)
It is assumed that B(.) is concave in all the three major variables, i.e., biomass extraction, fish
catch, and mangrovebiomass resource. Notice that the socialbenefit not only includes the direct
materialbenefitsfrom biomass extraction and fish catch but also the indirectecological as well as
material benefits in the form of mangrove biomassleft unextracted. That is, since the mangrove
biomass stock has been included in the benefit function, the society derived can include not just
the existence value or non-use values reflecting the aesthetic enjoyment,coastal protection, etc.,
but also cost-saving in biomass extraction and fish catch resulting from higher inputproductivity
due to higher level of biomass stock and fish population.
Regarding the social cost of resources extraction, cost is postulated as a function of biomass
extraction, fish catch, and mangrove biomass stock:
C = C{E,F(.),M(.)J} (8)
It is assumed that the cost function is convexin E and F(.) but concavein M(.), that is, CE > 0 and
GEE <0; CF > 0 and CFF <0 and CMM <0, while the convexityof C(.) in E and F(.) follows the
436 Sustainable management of coastal ecosystems : the case of mangrove resources
fact that with increasingresource depletion caused by extraction, input costs increase via lower
input productivity.For instance, in a depleted mangrove forest, biomassextractionper day will
be lower, and hence the cost of extractinga given amount of biomasswill be higher as compared
to a well-maintainedmangrove forest. Similarly, the concavity of C(.) in M(.) follows from the
fact that with improved resource stock, cost-savingwill increasebut only at a declining rate.
The functions defined in (1) through (8) form the major componentsof the model of mangrove
and its associatedecosystems. It is worth noting again that while equations(1) through (6) depict
the ecological aspects,particularlythe mangroveand its interdependentecosystems, equations(7)
and (8) depict the economic aspects of the ecosystem. Since the equations (1) and (3) also incor-
porate the anthropogenicpressure on the ecosystems, the model depicts both the ecological and
economic aspects of the mangrove ecosystem.
Given the initial level of biomassstock, the objective of the society is to maximise the discounted
net socialbenefitoveran infiniteplanning horizonwithin the constraintlaid down by the ecolog-
ical ground rules formalisednot only in the equation of motion but also with the inclusionof the
non-use values both in the social benefit and cost functions. In this sense, our approachhere is to
identify an optimum much broader in scope than an anthropocentricoptimum, notwithstanding
the fact that the ecosystem is still evaluated only in terms of its instrumental value to humans.
It is important to note that the approach of viewing the utilisation of the mangrove ecosystem
from a socialpoint of view enables us to operationalisethe integral or holistic approach to man-
grove resource management. It also helps us to internalise the external effects of the action of
each mangroveuser group on those of their counterparts.The society's problem can be formally
stated as follows:
MaxS =
fe_t[B{E,F[D[M(G,E/),
Z(M(G,E))],Z(M(G,E))],M(G,E)} —C{E,F[D[M(G,E))],Z(M(G,E))],M(G,E)]}d(9)
Subjectto....
H =[B{E,F{D[M(G,E),Z(M(G,E))],Z,(M(G,E))].M(G,E)I}—
C{E,F[D[M(G,E),Z(M(G,E))],M(G,E)}J+
1i{G(M,E)—E} (13)
in 13 is known as the co-state variable indicatingthe shadow price or social value of a unit of
mangrovebiomass extracted. It is also known as the 'rent' or in situ value of a unit of biomass
stock left unextracted.
R. Maria Saleth 437
Differentiating (13) with respect to E, M, and, we obtain the following necessary conditions to
characterise the optimum path for biomass extraction:
dH
+ BF[FD(DMME+ DZZMME) + FZZMME+ BMME)-
== (BE
L=M_G(M,E)+E=O (16)
Equation (14) states the familiar economic condition necessary for an equilibrium,i.e., marginal
benefit and marginal cost should be equal. Recall the earlier discussion that biomass extraction
at any given point has both direct materialcosts like extractioncosts but also indirect costs, both
real and material in nature, such as (i) reduction in fish catch due to lower detritus output caused
by lower mangrove litter and zooplankton population (ii) increased future cost of extracting a
given amount of mangrove biomass caused by a reduction in biomass stock, (iii) reduction in
non-use values, and (iv) reduction in the rate of biomassgrowth induced by biomass extraction.
Therefore, the combined monetarybenefit from biomass extractionand fish catch should, at the
margin, the equal to the sum of both these direct and indirect costs.
Intuitively speaking, equation (14) also defines the economic relationship between the value of
a unit of mangrove biomass extracted and that which is left unextracted.Solving equation (14)
for and rearranging terms, we obtain:
- {BE
M—
— CE} + (BF — CF){FD(DMME+ DZZMME) + FZZMME}+ ME(BM — C)
(14a)
(1-GE)
Equation(14a) definesthe shadow price of a unitof extractedmangrovebiomassas the marginal
benefit from biomass extraction net of both direct and indirect costs. While the first part of
the numerator in equation (14a) represents the marginal net monetary benefit from biomass
extraction, the second part represents the indirect cost (i) valued at the marginal net monetary
benefit from fish catch. The third part in the numerator of (14a) captures the indirect costs (ii)
and (iii) The denominatorin (14a) representsthe indirect cost (iv).
Equation (15) states how the shadow value should behave over time. Solving equation (15) for,
we obtain the familiar Hotelling condition applicable to a renewable but depletableresource. It
specifies that the shadow value or the in situ value of a unit of biomass stock should grow at
the rate of discount plus the value of the ioss in the rates of biomass growth and changesin fish
catch value as well as the existence and other non-use values:
If the condition specifiedin equation [15a] is not satisfied, then social benefit can be improved
by shifting biomass extraction across time periods. That is, if the in situ value of the biomass
438 Sustainable management of coastal ecosystems : the case of mangrove resources
stock grows at a rate lower than the sum of discount rate plus the growth and value losses, then
biomass extraction should be increased and vice versa. Thus, in simple terms, condition (15a)
ensures the absence of inter-temporalarbitrage.
Equation (16) simply reproduces the equation of motion stating that the time rate of change
in biomass stock should always be equal to the annual biomass growth net of annual biomass
extraction. If the biomass extraction is just equal to the annual biomass growth, then the rate of
change in the biomass stock will be zero. If this condition holds good for all the time periods,
then the resultant biomass extraction is fully consistent with the 'sustainable yield cut' policy
as it allows the existence of the initial stock indefinitely into the future. When annual biomass
extraction is more than the net annual biomass growth, then the rate of change in the biomass
stock will be negative. Note that the sustainable yield cut policy is only a biological equilibrium
and henceunrelated to the economic equilibrium.Since the mangrovebiomassextractionproblem
is viewed from the viewpoint of the society, the indirect costs are included in the calculation
of an optimal extractionpath. Consequently, the amount of biomass extractionwill be lower in
a social optimum as compared to a private optimum. The divergence between the social and
private values in the context of mangrove ecosystem can now be stated in quantitative terms
using equation (14a). When the mangrove system is considered as an 'open access' resource, a
private wood collector will consider only the first part in the numerator of equation (14a). He
considersneither the adverse effects of wood cutting on fish catch and other significant non-use
values nor even the increased future extraction costs caused by his current biomass extraction.
This means that the private value of a unit of mangrovebiomass is far lower than its social value
by an amount equal to the sum of second and third term in the numerator plus the terms in the
denominatorin equation (14a). It goes without saying that such a lower private value leads to a
depletive extraction policy. What is interesting is the fact that this socially sub-optimalpolicy is
optimal from the private point ofview under an open access conditionas the resourceconserved
by his conservatory policy will be cut by his fellow wood collectors. When the mangrove forest
is under the private ownership of the wood collector, then he will consider the effects of his
current extraction not only on future extraction cost but also on biomass growth. He will not
consider, however, the adverse effects of activities on fish catch and other non-use values. While
the wood collector can be made to internalise the adverse effects of fish catch by giving him
also the ownership of the adjoining fishery site, the adve.rse effects of his actions on the non-
use values cannot still be internalised. Obviously, there is a limit to the efficacy of property
rights approach in view of certain insurmountabledifficulties in assigningproperty rights in the
mangrove ecosystems.
Another approach noted in section 4 is to levy some kind of tax on the wood collector. In the
context of equation (14a), the tax will be equal to the sum of the indirect costs, i.e., the sum of
the second and third part of the numerator as well as the denominatorin (14a). Thanks to the
tax, the wood collector will be made to realise all the indirect costs engendered by his wood
extractionactivity. The proceeds from the tax can be used to compensatethe loss in fish catch as
well as create a mangrovefundto be used for reforestationand other related activities. As noted
already, apart from the administrative problem associated with the imposition, collection and
distributionof the tax, the major hurdle with the tax-subsidyapproachis the difficulty in calculat-
ing the indirect cost, given the state of current quantitative informationon various relationships
governing the ecological and economic process in the realm of mangrove ecosystem. However,
R. Maria Saleth 439
given all the necessary quantitative information essential for building the model describedby
equation (1) through (11), it is not difficult to specify the tax-subsidyscheme, if not exactly, at
least appropriately.
What effect the discount rate manipulation can have on the extraction path of both biomass
extraction and fish can very well be demonstrated utilising equation (15). It can be verified that
the lower the discount rate, the lower will be the biomass extraction and fish catch in a bond or
security, after the expiry of a certain period, we will get an amount equal to the discount rate
as return. If we are not extractingthe biomass, the biomass will grow just like any other capital
and appreciatein value. Moreover, since the net socialvalue should grow at the rate of discount,
which is now lowered by our policy, the social value should also be lower. This will be the case
only when the biomass stock is allowed to grow with reduced extraction. Thus, the reduced
discount rate will foster conservation and higher discount rate will lead to depletion. Another
effect of lower discount rate will be that the planning horizon will be increased,inducing the
decision-maker to take a long-term view on the utilisationand managementof the ecosystem.
An ideal approach,given the dearth of quantitative informationand uncertainty and irreversibil-
ity associatedwiththe mangroveecosystems, is the adoption of a 'command and control' system
wherein the extentof allowable biomassextractioncould be specified based on the learnedjudge-
ment of the biological scientists. By limitingthe available mangrovebiomasssupply available for
exploitation, the private value of biomass is increasedwith the artificial scarcity created by the
supply restriction. In the context of the above mathematicalmodel, such a supply restrictionpol-
icy will lead to a change in the resource constraint represented in equation (11). Consequently,
the shadow value of the mangrove biomass stock is increased, leading to more efficient and
conservativeuse of the permitted mangrove biomass stock.
integral or holistic viewpoint of the mangrove ecosystem instead of viewing its componentsin
isolation. And secondly, such a use pattern plays a strategic role in bringing harmony among
the conflicting uses. For the identification of a 'sustainable' use pattern, i.e., an use pattern
that is ecologically sustainable, economically efficient, and socially equitable, Saleth (1992) has
elaborated a mathematical procedure based on the methodology suggested by Swaminathan
(1991) and the relativist developed by the UNDP (1990, Appendix-3, p. 109).
It can be noted that some of the user conflicts can be eliminated or minimise by a suitable allo-
cation of mangrovezones in terms of their ecological productivity and locationalconsiderations.
For instance, the allocation of a denuded mangrove forest for the creation of fishpond or rice
cultivation or the development of a beach resort will minimise not only the interest conflict
but also the ecological cost. Such a spatial solution can be sustainable only if the land diverted
thus forms only a small proportion of the total mangrove forest area. Otherwise, it is essential
to reforest the denuded forest in order to develop the ecosystems to their original status. This
also brings us to issue of the present scale of utilisation the scale of utiisation is a function of
population growth and economic development.
To advance the sustainable livelihood security of the population, it is not enough to be con-
tent with the ecological sustainabilityof the mangrove ecosystem. It is essential to provide the
population, especially the lower starata, with alternative sources for the fuelwood and building
material needs.
CONCLUSION
Although grass-rootlevel plans and programmesfor the sustainablemanagement of mangrove
ecosystem are more effective and immediate in their impact, a national mangrove policy should
be evolved urgently to allocate the mangrove regions for various competinguses in accordance
with land suitability, mangrove genetic diversity, and economic growth, urban, industrial and
recreational needs. Swaminathan (1991) has made a passionate plea for converting important
mangrove forests as biosphere reserves in view of their long-term ecological and economic sig-
nificance. In addition to such preservation needs, there should also be an effective legal and
institutional apparatus for both in situ and ex situ conservation of our mangrove ecosystems.
As noted already, even when the mangrove forests are just preserved, they provide valuable
economic benefits in addition to the ecological benefits. While in situ conservationpromotesbio-
diversity and permits the development of naturally occurring mangrove hybrids due to gene
flows, ex situ conservation facilitates the development of mangrove gene banks essential to
provide ready access of coded and evaluated genetic materials to breeders and scientists for
developingmultiple resistant transgenic plant species. Given the diversity of mangrove species
across the continents, it is also highly desirable to have an internationalnetwork of genetic re-
source centres. Such as institutional system can also be instrumental in providing training and
informationas well as in promoting the exchangeof genetic material across nations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is grateful to Prof. M. S. Swaminathanfor his inspiration and encouragement.Useful
discussions with Dr. RajeshwariMahalingamand Dr. Sanjay V. Deshmukh are also gratefully
acknowledged.
R. Maria Saleth 441
REFERENCES
IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991). Caring for the Earth: a strategy for sustainableliving. Gland, Switzer-
land.
Rao, A.N. (1986). Mangrove ecosystems of Asia and the Pacific. In : Mangroves ofAsia and Pacific
Status and Management. National Resources Management Centre and National Mangrove
Committee, Ministry of Natural Resources, Philippines.
Swaminathan,M.S. (1991). From Stockholm to Rio de Janeiro : The road to sustainable agriculture.
M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation, Madras.
Swaminathan,M.S. (1989). Sustainablefood and nutritional security : challenges ahead. Paper pre-
sented at the 'BrainstormingWorkshop on sustainability'held at the Indira Gandhi Institute
of DevelopmentResearch, Bombay.
Toman, Michael, A., and Pierre Crossan. (1991). Economics and sustainability: Balancing Trade-offs
and Imperatives. ENR 91-95. Energy and Natural Resources Division, Resources for the Future,
WashingtonD.C.
United Nations DevelopmentProgramme.(1990). Human development Report - 1990. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, New York.
SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD SECURITY INDEX : AN
OPERATIONALAPPROACH
R. MARIA SALETH
INTRODUCTION
Swaminathan(1991) has given a conceptualand methodological basis for identifyinga procedure
to develop a quantitative measure of sustainabledevelopment that can effectively capture three
equally important aspects of sustainable development, viz., the ecological security, economic
efficiency, and social equity. Ecological security is critical to sustain the economic benefits over
a long period. Economic efficiency is important to meet the current developmental needs of the
society. Equity is important to ensure a more broad-based distribution of the economic benefits
particularlyin the form of secured livelihoodfor the weaker section of the society. Our focus on
the weaker section is to create a pro-poor bias so as to effect a more equitabledistribution of the
economic benefits emerging form the use of natural and environmentalresources. To take stock
of the full import of the inter-twined nature of ecology, economics, and ethics, the proposed
measure of sustainabilityis called as the Sustainable Livelihood Security Index (SLSI). Thus, the
concept of SLSI ensuresthe integration of bothecological security,economic efficiency, and social
equity in a mutually reinforcing and symbiotic manner (M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation,
1991).
MATHEMATICAL PROCEDURE
There are three steps involved in the constructionof the proposed SLSI, viz., (a) identification of
three scales — one each for the evaluation of ecological sustainability, economic efficiency and
social equity associatedwith each use, (b) calculation of three indices — one each to capture the
ecological sustainability, economic efficiency, and social equity of each use, and (c) derivation
of the SLSI related to each use by combiningthe three indices mentioned above. Further details
can be attain from the another.
IDENTIFICATION OF SCALES
The identification of the scales is essential to evaluate the implication of each use in terms
of its psychological sustainability, economic efficiency, and social equity relative to a common
standard. These scales can enable us to rank the uses in terms of their ecological, economic, and
social significance.
ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY
To establish such a scale for measuring ecological sustainability, we need to establish the max-
imum ecological sustainabilitypossible among the uses. The use involving mangrove land di-
version such as beach resort development or urban development will clear away the mangrove
forest once and for all and hence, ecological sustainabilityassociated with such uses will be the
lowest. Even uses involving land diversion for urban development may endanger the whole
mangrove forest in view of its scale and speed of forest clearance. Thus, this use produces the
minimum ecological sustainability or maximum investment of the ecological capital stock em-
bodied in the mangrove ecosystem. Consideruses like capture fisheries, collection of honey, and
recreational activitieslike bird watching. These uses produce the minimum stress on the ecosys-
tem and hence, assure maximum ecological sustainabilitywhich in these cases amounts almost
to completeeco-preservation.
R. Maria Saleth 445
Similarly, to find the use involving the maximum ecological sustainability, i.e., the minimum
ecological loss, we need to minimize El across all uses.
That is, ESS** = mm (Ei) where i = 1,2,... n. (2)
Thus, the scale for measuring ecological sustainability of different is specified by the range
defined by ES* and ES** representing respectivelythe minimum and maximum ecological sus-
tainability.It can be noted that the 'sustainable yield cut' policy, i.e., biomass extraction always
equalling to the regenerative capacity of the mangrove forest, will be within the range ES* and
ES**.
ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY
Regarding the economic efficiency of various mangrove uses, first, it is essential to recognise the
following facts having significant implication: (a) The economic efficiency of a given use differs
depending upon the time horizon or planning period. Some uses appearing to be efficient in the
short-run may not be efficient at all in the long-run. Therefore, we need to be sure about the
planning horizon for the economic analysis. (b) The economic efficiency is affected by changes
in relative prices, general economic conditions, etc., (c) There are a number of uncertainties and
irreversibilityrequiring our careful consideration; (d) The efficiency of uses differs depending
on whether we consider it from the individual or social point of view; and (c) Since economic
efficiency is evaluated based on the current market conditionswhich are inherentlyincapable of
adequately reflecting the preferences and options of the generation,it can endanger the interest
of the future generation.
Despite these limitations/ Problems associated with the economic efficiency analysis, we can
proceed withthe relief provided by the fact that since all the use are evaluated in the same price
index, even though the absolute values may change the relativevalues or the rankingof different
use can be unaffectedby changing market conditions. The interest of the future generation as
well as the time preference of the current generationcan be accommodatedperiod problem can
be solvedby consideringan uniform planning period, say 20 years, for the calculation of benefit
flows associatedwith each use.
When we evaluate the uses in terms of their economic efficiency, normally uses involving the
clearance of mangrove forest like urban development or beach resort development may yield
the highest economic return. On the other hand, uses like tannin collection may yield the lowest
446 Sustainable livelihoodsecurity index: an operational approach
economic return. This shows that there is a fundamental conflict between long-term ecological
sustainability and short-termeconomic efficiency.It is essentialto use a common denominatorto
measure economic benefits so that uses can be compared in terms of their per hectare of mangrove
forest or any other appropriate unit. Let BI be the per hectare economic benefit associated with
the use. This benefit will be sum of discounted net benefit flows occurringover an appropriate
time period. Then, to find the uses giving the minimum economic benefit per unit of mangrove
forest area, we have to minimize BI across all uses. That is, benefit per unit of mangrove forest
area, we have to minimizeBI across all uses. That is,
E* = min(BI) where i = 1,2... (3)
Similarly, to find the use giving the maximum economic benefit, we need to maximise BI across
all uses. That is,
EE** = max (Bi) where Ii = 1,2,.. . n. (4)
Now the range defined by EE* and EE** serves as a scale to measure the economic efficiency
associatedwith various mangroves uses.
SOCIAL EQUITY
In order to evaluatethe social equity implicationsof various mangrove uses, we need to identify
the number of persons and their economic and social status, involved in each use. The equity
propertiesof various uses differ as some uses allow wider access to the mangroveecosystemthan
other uses. For instance, capture fisheries allow many artisanal fishermen to get direct benefits
from the mangrove ecosystem. On the other hand, culture fishery permits only a handful to few
and oftenrelativelywell to do fishermenor businessmen.Also, there are bothdirect and indirect
beneficiaries. For example while fuelwood collection for home consumption benefits directly
the wood collectors, beach development benefits both the developers as well as the tourists.
Moreover, beach development also generates some kind of skilled employment opportunities
for the youth in neighbouring villages which is very significant from the livelihood security
point of view. Similarly, tourism contributes not only the much-needed foreign exchange but
also promotes some commercial and business activities that can generate some indirect benefits
to the villagers.
Equity is two dimensional concept having both intra- and inter-generation dimensions. The
intra-generational equity is as important as the inter-generationalequity (Swaminathan,1989).
The issue of inter-generational aspect of equity can be diffused, to a greater extent, in view
of the ecological sustainability and intra-generational equity. However, the intra-generational
equity should explicitly be included in the SLSI. The major issue here is how to threat the direct
equity effects vis-a-vis indirect equity effects such as those emergingform employmentcreation.
One approach will be to take the proportion of direct beneficiaries to indirect beneficiaries. For
instance, beach developmentbenefitsthe investors and tourists more than the village community
as indicatedby the share of economic benefits, both direct and indirect. Another approach is to
considerall the beneficiaries — developers and rural youth, and then usea shiftingmechanismby
consideringa particularincome level as a cut-offpoint? Under this approach,issue is considered
more equitable if it benefits large number of person belonging to the poor section of the society.
R. Maria Saleth 447
In this case, the proportion of beneficiaries belongingto the poor section of the society, i.e., those
with incomebelow the cut-off-level to the total number of beneficiaries can be a good indicator of
intra-generational equity. Let Ni be the proportion of poorbeneficiaries to the total beneficiaries
associated with the ith use. Then, the least equitable use can be identified by minimising Ni
across all uses. That is
EQ* = min(Ni) wherei 1,2,... n (5)
Similarly, the most equitableuse can be identified by maximisingNi across all uses. That is
EQ** = max(Ni) where i = 1,2,. ..n. (6)
Now the range defined by EQ* and EQ** serves as a scale for evaluating the equity aspect of
each man grove use.
Given these indices, the SLSI which is the composite of these three indices scan be easily calcu-
lated.
Note that in equation (10), the SLSI is calculated as an arithmetic average of ESI,, EEl, and
EQI,. The averaging technique has profound theoretical and ethical implications as it implies
equal weights to all the three inter-related componentsof sustainable livelihood security. Thus
SLSI developed here not only integrate but also balance the three conflicting components, i.e.,
448 Sustainable livelihood security index: an operational approach
ecological sustainability, economic efficiency, and social equity. In this sense SLSI finds a middle
ground and fosters the quality of life within the capacity of the ecological and life supporting
systems.
So far, we have defined only the SLSI of each particular use. Now, what about the SLSI of the
whole mangroveecosystem? The overallSLSI can be found as the average of the SLSI associated
with all in n uses
SLSI
SLSI=1 wherei=1,2...n. (11)
The overall SLSI obtained in equation [11] willbe of use when a planning agency is interested in
the evaluation of the relative sustainabilityof differentmangrove ecosystems located in different
parts of the party.
Step 2 : Identify the uses that establish respectively the lower and upper bounds for ecological
impact, economic benefits, and social equity,
Step 3 : Given these scales, evaluate for each use its ESI, EEl, and EQI.
Step 4 : Find the arithmetic of appropriately weighted mean of these indices and find the SLSI
for each use,
Step 5 : Given the preference and requirements of the society, decide on the cut-off point for
SLSI, identify the set of uses that are ecologically sustainable, economically efficient and
socially equitable, and design policy interventionsto promote sustainable uses.
What aboutthe calculation of SLSI in a regional context, say, a village? In these case, all the major
natural and ecological resources pertaining to that region like soil, water, air, genetic and plant
resources, human resources, etc. are to be identified. Then, each for resource, repeat steps 1 to
5 outlined above and identify the resource specific. Given these resource specific SLSIs find the
aggregate SLSI for all uses of a given resource as noted in equation (11). Then, to calculate the
SLSI of the region find either simple or weighted arithmetic or weighted mean of all resource-
specific composite SLSIs. The weight here can be assigned in proportion to the supply position
or scarcity of different resources. If we have regional SLSI for two or more villages or regions,
we can rank them in terms of their sustainability and identify the region(s) requiring special
programmes for improving the livelihoods, of communities.
CONCLUSION
The simple index developed here can be powerful instrument to measure as well as monitor
any policy-inducedchangesin the sustainable livelihoodsecurity both in the context of a single
resource system or the resource systems pertainingto a given region. Although the cut-off point
used to delineate the set of uses/practices so as to ensure sustainability appears to be arbitrary,
its socialand economic basis can be strengthenedby deciding it on the basis of broad consensus
of differentpartisan groups like economists, environments,and equalitarians.
The most practical and policy significance of the SLSI is that it identifies the set of
programmes/activities that are desirable and those which have to be regulated or even
eliminated. The major limitation of the index is that since it has been developed on the relative
basis, its use can be greatly circumscribed in cases where there are few uses or activities. There
is therefore, an urgent need to develop an SLSI based on an absolute approach.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Author gratefully acknowledgesthe encouragementfrom Dr. M.S. Swaminathanin writing
this paper.
REFERENCES
M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation (1991). Annual Report (1990—91), Madras, India.
Swaminathan,M.S. (1989). SustainableFood and Nutritional Security: Challenges Ahead. Paper pre-
sented at the BrainstormingWorkshopon Sustainability (Dec. 1989), Indira Gandhi Institute
of DevelopmentResearch, Bombay.
450 Sustainable livelihoodsecurity index : an operational approach
C.S. VENKATESH
INTRODUCTION
Deriving from the Latin word "foris", forest refers to a large piece of land covered with trees.
Botanically speaking, it is a kind ofvegetationin which tree species are the dominantcomponents.
In eco-geographical terms, several kinds of forests are recognisable. Examples are:
1. Temperature evergreenconiferousforests (Pines, Spruce, Fir, etc.);
2. Temperate broad-leaved forests (Oaks, Maples, Poplars, Hickory, etc.);
3. Tropical evergreen rain-forests (innumerable tropical species; richest in floristic wealth and
biodiversity);
4. Tropical scrub forests (consisting of short or stunted trees and a variety of shrubs);
5. Tidal forests; and
6. Mangrove forests.
From the viewpoint of their origin, two kinds of forests are recognisable, viz., natural forestsand
man-made forests. Natural forests untouched by man, viz., virgin forests, are almostnon-existent
today. Natural forests, wherever they occur in remain, are a very valuable biological resource.
If not seriously disturbed they are capable of regenerating themselves indefinitely. Man-made
forests (forest plantations) are essentially monoculturesof single tree species such as Teak, Pine
or Eucalyptusestablished for lumber, pulpwood and other end uses.
By forestrywe mean the entire gamut of forest-related activities such as raising, tending, logging,
and replanting; and managing forest refers to tending of forests. It bears the same relation to
forestry as agronomy does to agriculture. Agroforestry or agri-silviculture refers to raising of
agricultural crops and trees together. Deforestation means cutting, clearing or burning down of
forests. Reforestation refers to replanting of felled forests. Afforestation is the raising of forests
on land not earlier covered with forests, such as for wasteland reclamation.
starts yielding later, 7 years after budding, and continues yielding daily till 30 years. A timber
tree can be harvested, but once after a wait of 20—50 or even 100 years.
It usually takes about 7 years to develop, test and release a new crop variety. How much longer
will it take to do so with a timber tree? May be 25 years at least.
An eucalypt breeder can realise full fruits of his breeding research within 10 years of starting it.
Not so the Teak breeder. He will never be able to do so in his lifetime. This is because eucalypts
come to life early in life and grow in short rotations of 7—10 years for pulpwood production
because of their fast growth rate.
There is also the problem of great height to which forest trees grow. Because of this, there is
difficulty in : (a) harvesting seeds; (b) collection of scion wood for grafting and budding; and
(c) carrying out controlledpollination.
Trained monkeyshave been deployed for collection of herbarium specimens from the canopiesof
the tallest trees of tropicalrain-forests, and also for plucking coconuts from the palms. To except
them to carry out controlled pollinations also will be too much. Tree-climbing ladders and tree
bicycles are aids used for seed harvesting and collection of scion wood and also for carrying out
controlled pollinationssometimes. Grafting and obtaining flowering and fruiting at low heights
is the alternative, most often used for these purposes.
INTER-SPECIFIC HYBRIDISATION
Hybridisationwithin and between specifics offers one or more of the following possibilities:
a. it is a way of combining the desirablecharacterof differentparents, varieties, provenances or
species,
b. it may result in hybrid vigour,
c. it offers a means of donating genes for resistance to specific diseases, pests and adverse
environmentalfactors such as drought, swampiness, frost, salinity, etc.,
d. it is a way of increasingvariation in populationsfor subsequentselection in advanced gener-
ation (F2 and later).
Crossability barriers are obstacles to wide hybridisation.But as well shall see later, biotechnology
can be helpful in bypassing such barriers.
Pitchpine (Pinus rigida) x Loblolly pine (P. taeda) artificial hybrid (P. rigitaeda), combining in itself
the frost hardiness of the former with the greater vigour and better stem form of the latter, has
been mass-producedand planted in South Korea. The Euramericanhybrid poplar involvingthe
tetraploid Populus tremula and the diploid P. tremuloides, happily combines in itself the benefits
of both hybridity and polyploidy. It shows hybrid vigour producing 36% more wood than the
diploid, its wood fibres are 30% longer, and its heartwood is free from tyloses which improves
penetrabilityfor chemical pulping. The triploid hybrid poplar is relativelymore resistantto the at-
tack of Valsa, a fungus. The Europeanparent and in addition shows hybrid vigour. Of the several
inter-specific hybrids produced by me at Dehra Dun, Fis of the two crosses FRI—4 (E. tereticornis)
x E. camaldulensis) and FRI—5 (E. camaldulensis x E. tereticornis) displayed pronounced degree of
hybrid vigour even at an early age of 4 years when they were 30% superior in height growth and
80% in diameter growthcompared to the parentalcontrols. Such growth superioritywasnot nly
maintained but even increased with age, up to 10 years. Further, hybrid vigour (heterosis) was
also expressedin earlinessto flower, number of flowers, and fruits and seeds produced.The seeds
showed higher germinative energy than the mid parent. Slash pine (Pinus elliottii) x Caribbean
pine (P. caribaea) hybrids produced in Queensland,Australia,are promisingbecause they are su-
perior to either parents in economy yield and besides are more tolerant of waterloggingthan the
Caribbean parent. West Indian Mahogany (Swietenia mahogoni) x Honduras Mahogany (Swietenia
macrophylla) combines the drought resistance and wood quality of the former with the faster
growth rate of the latter. By inter-specific hybridisationit has been possible to incorporate blister
rust resistance into the White pines (P. strobus, P. lambertiana, P. monticola, etc.) of N. America
from out Himalayanblue or kail pine (P. wallichiana) and the Japanse (P. parviflora) and Balkan
(P. peuce) white pines. Armand's pine (P. armandii) of China is another possible source of blister
rust resistance. In N. America, Jeffrey x Coulter (P. jeffreyi x P. coulteri) x P. jeffreyi backcross
hybrids are known to display a degree of resistanceto weevil attack.
456 Forest tree improvement in the tropics : challenges and prospects
GAINS FROM TREE BREEDING
Expected benefits from using orchard seed include:
a. rotation age reduction;
b. timber volume gain;
c. timber quality gain; and
d. crop security in the form of disease and pest resistance.
In the Southern Pine improvement programme in the U.S.A., it is estimated that only 2—5%
yield improvement at harvest age is sufficient for economic justification. Actually in most tree
improvementprogrammes,gain in yield of merchantabletimber is even more, viz., 5—10% even
from the first cycle of selection. The sed orchard method has brought down the rotation age
of Slash pine (P. elliotti) from 40 to 25 years in the U.S.A. In the same pine in Australia, 25%
increase in volume production at age 14 years has been obtainable. The gain in loblolly pine
(P. taeda) in U.S.A has been 18%. In Radiata pine (P. radiata) in New Zealand a 12% increase
in volume has been reported. In Finland a 40% gain in height and more than that in volume
has been attained in Birch (Betula verrucosa). In the Caribbean pine (P. caribaea) by selection
the percentage of reasonable straight stems has been lifted from 20% to 70%, a gain of 50%. In
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga douglasii) after 50 years (1912—1960) the best families had outproduced
the poorest by two or even three times in timber volume. Progeny tested or elite seed orchards
can give 35—45% additionalgain. In Finland,birchcultivars developedfrom advanced generation
seed orchardsare expected to yield 100% more timber, the oleoresin yield of Slash pine hasbeen
more than doubled in Florida, U.S.A, by only one generation of selective breeding.
INTRODUCTION
Forest Managementin India which is more than 150 years old, looked in colonial regime as a
custodian-approachwith policingand patrolling as main duties of regulatorynature to keep out
the people,whose lives depended and sustained on the forests. Forests even though are not truly
considered as common property resources, required determinationof nature and extent of free
access of people on them by regulating use of the availableresources. An interface of local com-
munities and state Forest Departments is limited by way of technicalinputs and participatory
role without any involvementof people and facilitatingrole of local voluntary organisation, com-
munities, women, NGOs and local democratic institutions. The Forest Management in the past
has forgotten the rural poor, especially the tribal and the nature of their dependence on forests
for their economy, survival, sustenance,health and prosperity. Over exploitation and deforesta-
tion, estimatedat an annual rate of 1.3 million ha during 1970—80 period and 4.2 millionha since
1950, caused a stress both on people and nation, adversely affecting their health, economy and
prosperity, biological diversity and genetic complexity of plant and animal species characteristic
of tropical forests.
The recent Governmentof India Policy guide lines of 1st June, 1990 on communityparticipation,
involvement of local people in protection, regenerationand management of forests, and discon-
tinuing the Tree-Patta schemes aimed at privatisationof forests instead of communalisation is a
landmark decision. The need to analyse, review and redraft the priorities in forest management
policies is not only emphasised but also the importance of restoring the productivity and sus-
tainabilityof forests is well recognised. The need to protect reserve/protected forests and lands
meant for posterity is in ruins and the solution for restoration and sustainability of resources is
recognisedto lie in efforts involving communityparticipationto manage,protect and regenerate
these resources. Hence is the evolution of Joint Forest Managementinitiatives.
Due to innovative and willing cooperation of several State Forest Departments and local com-
munities particularlyin States like West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, U.P.,
etc., there is a growing body of experience which can adequately demonstrate that forests can
be effectively protected through cooperativeaction taken by forest-staff and rural communities.
India is evolving forest managementpolicieswhich have been at the centre of an ongoingdebate
on the environment.Differences in perceptionsregarding the goals in forest management often
have frustrated attempts to achievea consensus regarding policies and strategies.
Any forest policy should give priority to improving the livelihood and security of the peo-
ple, and tribal communities, preserving biological diversity,protectingrivers and watersheds or
enhancing economic and industrial growth and ensuring ecological security.
During the colonialregime, all the forest areas were in fact, communal lands with unrestricted
access to villagersfor fuelwood,fodder and non-wood products (NWP). Even after severallarge
chucks of forest areas were left out of Reservation as buffersbetween village and interior forests
to serve the communalpurposes of fuelwood, minor forest produce fodder and othernon-wood
products, collection, grazing of village cattle and as free-access and lung space for community
purposes. Thesebuffer forests are generally classified as forest-poramboaks, unreserves and Ban-
charai areas. With the increase in population pressures both human and cattle, and to a variety
of other reasons like land use and assignment policies, these buffers have disappeared and even
reserved and protected forests are depleted, degraded and their productivity greatly reduced.
A recent trend that survey and satellite imageries clearly show, nearly 40 million ha of India's
Forests are highly degraded and depleted of productivity and this trend is on the increase,
resulting in loss in extent and density of forest cover. Most of these degraded forests are nearer
to villages and habitations,where the pressure for both wood and non-wood products, fodder,
fuelwood and grazing is maximum.
Combiningthis historical fact of community ownership of forests at one point of time with the
open access to villagersand currentlyprevailingrights to obtain fuelwood,fodderand non-wood
products from forests, a case was developed recentlyfor greater right to forest produce to local
people, through the JFM initiatives. From this initiative it was a short step to project the need
for people to participate in the management of forests, jointly with the Government agency. In
operational terms, the JFM involves people as beneficiaries to get together and organise them-
selves into a user group. The group and the forestry departments jointly conduct a participatory
resourceappraisal and prepare a resource harvesting scheme. It has to have sustainability, pro-
ductivity and equitableshares to the users mt he group in return for dischargingindividual and
collective responsibility, i.e., to observe and enforce restraint to meet these two goals. By JFM
initiatives, the people obtain technically professionalguidance on maintainingsustainabilityand
also know about Government'sinterventionwhen there is a misunderstandingbetween the user
availing his privilege i.e., harvesting the resource and the user discharging his responsibility,
i.e., observe and enforce restraint. The JFM concept visualises motivation of the local commu-
nity to identify itself with the development and protection of forests from which they derive
benefits.
The Joint Forest Management efforts are mainly confined to degraded forests in the vicinity
of villages, mainly depending on natural regenerationmethods like coppice-growth cutting and
helpingestablishmentof advance-growthand naturally regeneratedpole crop, supported by sup-
plemental planting, gap planting and enrichment planting. Only degraded natural forests with
species diversity and miscellaneous species can be considered for such initiatives. Monocultures
and intensiveplantations of species like Eucalyptus are excluded from Joint Forest Management
efforts. Multishoot cutting and singling out coppice for more vigorous growth even in valuable
species like Teak, Sal, Rosewood etc. can be successfully brought under JFM. Thus JFM initiatives
not only emphasizethe need to concentrate on natural regenerationmethod compatiblewith en-
vironmentand affordingsoilcover and protectionbut also emphasizes the need to maintain exist-
ing biological diversity and species complexity of existing natural forests, coupled with intensive
soil and moisture conservation measures, catchment treatment and watershed-protection.
p
Table 1 Community forest management systems+
Type of forest Name of Protection Total Number Status of Organisation Membership
State Managed Group of Groups
West Bengal Reserve and Protected Forest Protection 1,684 Certified by West Head of every
(200,000 ha) Commiittees (FPCs) Bengal Forest Dept. household
I
Haryana* Reserve and Protected Village Forest 45 Registered Societies Man and woman
(15,000 ha) Protection and from every household
Management
Committees (VFPMC)
Orissa* Reserve and Keshra Village Forest 1,179 Informal Groups All village
Forest (74,000 ha) Committee!(Jungle households
Samiti)
Himachal Panchayat Community, Village Development 2,000 Unregistered One man from every
Pradesh and demarcated committees!Mahila household
Forests Mandals
Gujarat** Reserve and Protected Forest Protection 200 Recognized by Gujarat All households willing
(10,000 ha) Committees Forest Department to participate
Uttar Panchayat Forests Van 0 Panchayat 4,058 Recognised by State All household with
Pradesh (220,000 ha) Government ten years of residence
Jammu & Demarcated Forest Village Forest 101 Organised by the All village
Kashmir (5,435 ha) Committees Forest Department households
Tamil Nadu Reserve (5550 ha) ad Interface Forestry 100 Poor households Scheduled Caste,
Revenue Project tribal, and land
+ Other states in India Forest Management Programs, however no data on these
may have also established Community
*
was available at the time this paper was prepared. Enabling Government Resolution Passed ** Enabling Government
Resolution Pending
462 Joint Forest Managementfor maintainingbiodiversity
Table 2 Protection systems: responsibilities and rights
unauthorised use —
Community —25% Timber and fruit
and encroachment, monitoring —
Employment
—Dhak leaf
plates
Rs.100—300/ha —Bamboo
regulate access,
define rules and for cleaning —Fruits
rights —Gums
Protect against —Paid watcher —Grass,
dry leaves, twigs, —Pine resin
limited timber —Fodder
grazing and cutting Community
—Medicinal
monitoring —
Grazing where
—Fines permitted by Govt.
—Local —Fodder —Fodder
Participationin (paid) watcher grass cutting grass
— —Fuelwood collection —Fuelwood
micro-planning, Project, supervised by
forest protection UCF
—Elimination of Goat —Fuel, fodder roof thatch, — Green leaf manure
The benefits and returns from JFM policies, if implemented, will be immense and would
include (a) rapid increase in biomass enhancing supplies of fuelwood and fodder, (b) improved
vegetation ground cover with improved soil and water conservation, (c) additional employment
opportunitiesfor rural people, especially landless and women in forest management, harvesting,
processingand marketing,(d) increasedincomethrough higher forest-productivityand enhanced
marketingand processingsystemsfor minor forest products (MFP5) or other non-woodproducts,
(e) reduced conflicts between foresters and rural communities, and (f) improved capacity and
management skills for community resourcemanagement.
The new participatory management systemsbeing developed by some of the State forest depart-
ments and forest communities point towards a new and promising direction in forest manage-
ment, not just for India, but rest of the World as well, particularly in South-east Asia, Pacific,
Africanand Latin-American countries.The approachoffershope that natural forests will survive
and produce long-termbenefits for our children and future generations.In India, Uttar Pradesh
(3 lakh ha), West Bengal (2 lakh ha), Orissa (70,000 ha), Haryana (25,000 ha) and Gujarat (15,000
ha) have started practicingJoint Forest Managementand participatory communityinvolvement
skills.
DISCUSSION
People's participatory approach for forest conservation, management,regenerationand produc-
tivity increase is not to India. In the past, local people, particularly agriculturallabourers were
involved through Agri-silvicultural approachesto raise plantationsof Teak, Sal and Cashew. The
socio-economic conditions of tribals dwelling in the forests gradually improveddue to participa-
tory efforts, involving them in soil and moisture conservation efforts, watershed protection of
major river valleys, hydroelectric projects and in coffee cultivation projects over the past three
decades. Use of multi-purpose species and multiple land use practices where silviculture, hor-
ticulture and sustained agriculture (after terracing and binding hill-streams to divert water for
464 Joint Forest Managementfor maintaining biodiversity
irrigation), have not only been found acceptable to tribals in India but has also contributed to
attitudinal changesboth in Forestersand Tribals.
It is hoped that while planning conservation measures for mangrove forest areas, the important
aspect of "man and mangroveinteraction" will be taken into considerationand it willbe supple-
mented with introduction of Joint Forest Managementschemes involving coastal communities.
CRITICAL ISSUES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE
CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICALDIVERSITY*
JEFFREY A. McNEELY
INTRODUCTION
The Earth's genes, speciesand ecosystems are the product ofover3000million years of evolution,
and are the basis for the survival of our own species. Biological diversity (or "biodiversity") —the
measure of the variation in genes, species and ecosystems —is valuablebecausefuturepractical
values are unpredictable,because variety is inherently interesting and more attractive, and be-
cause our understanding of ecosystems is insufficient to be certain of the impact of removing
any component. Genetic diversity, which provides the variability to enable species to adapt to
changingconditions,is important to all species, but genetic variability in cultivated and domes-
ticated species has become a significant socio-economic resource. Withoutthe genetic variability
which enables plant breeders to develop new varieties, global food production would be far less
than it is at present, and far less able to adapt to the future environmentalchangeswhich are
certain to cOme.
Further, biological resources— including genetic resources,organisms or parts of organisms,
populations, or any other biotic component of any ecosystem with actual or potential use to
humanity —are renewable, and withproper managementcan support human needs indefinitely.
These resources,and the diversity of the systems which support them, are thereforethe essential
foundation of sustainabledevelopment.
The available evidence indicatesthat human activitiesare erodingbiological resources and greatly
reducing the planet's biodiversity. Estimatingprecise rates of loss, or even the current status of
species is challenging,because no systematic monitoring system is in place, and much of the
baseline information is lacking, especially in the species-rich tropics. Little data is available to
assess which genes or species are particularly important in the functioning of ecosystems, so it
is difficultto specify the extent to which people are sufferingfrom the loss of biodiversity.
While the loss of wild species and habitats receives most public attention,the genetic variety of
many cultivated species is also being lost, thereby reducing the ability of agriculture to adapt to
environmentalchange. The remaining gene pools in crops such as rice, wheat, maize and many
fruits amount to a small fraction of the genetic diversity they harboured only a few decades ago,
even though the species themselvesmay occupy more habitat than ever before. If these trends
continue, agriculture will have a far narrower genetic base, and many fewer varieties of fruits
and vegetables will reach the market. The available varieties will be less well-adapted to local
conditions, requiring larger investments in pesticides and fertilisersto maintain productivity.
The loss of biodiversity is due above all to economic factors, especially the low values given
to biodiversity and to the ecological functions —such as watershed protection, nutrient cycling,
pollution control, soil formation, photosynthesis, and evolution— upon which human welfare
depends. Therefore, virtually all sectors of human society have an interest in the conservation of
biodiversity and the sustainable use of biological resources. However, no single sector can, by
*
Reproduced from: "WideningPerspectives on Biodiversity". IUCN, Switzerland.
Conservation of MangroveForest Genetic Resources: A TrainingManual
Edited by Sanjay V. Deshmukh and V. Balaji. © CRSARD 1994 465
466 Critical issues in the implementationof the conventionon biological diversity*
itself, ensure that biological resourcesare managed to provide sustainablesupplies of products,
rather, co-operation is required between the various sectors, ranging from research to tourism.
The environmentis already heavily utilised by people, but given the projected growth in pop-
ulation and economic activity, the rate of loss of biodiversity is far more likely to increase than
stabilise. Peter Vitousek and his colleagues at Stanford University have estimated that almost
40% of the Earth's net primary terrestrialphotosyntheticproductivity is now directlyconsumed,
converted or wasted as a result of human activities. A very considerable body of work in the
field of conservation biology over the past several decades has shown that reducing the area
of habitat reduces not only the population of each species (and hence its genetic diversity),but
also the number of species the habitat can hold. As a broad general rule, reducing the size of
the habitat by 90% will reduce the number of species that can be supported in the long run by
about 50%. It might be concluded that major habitat changes and associated losses of biodiver-
sity are the inevitable price that people are willing to pay for progress as humans become an
ever more dominant species, but society has cause for concern when habitats are degraded to
lower productivity,especially when accompaniedby species losses, which can have World-wide
ramifications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The editors of the Training Manual are grateful to the IUCN —the World conservation Union
for granting permission to reproduce this article for the benefit of the Readers.
REFERENCE
Krattiger, A.F., J.A. McNeely, W.H. Lesser, K.R. Miller, Y.St.Hilland R. Senanayake(Ed.s). (1994).
WideningPerspectives on Biodiversity. IUCN, Gland, Switzerlandand International Academyof the
Environment, Geneva,Switzerland. 473 p.
CHARTER FOR MANGROVES*
CONVINCED THAT
a. Destructionand degradation of mangrove forests are World-widephenomena, as a result of
activities related to the non-sustainableuse and over-exploitation;
b. The value of mangrove lands is consistently under estimated when the areas are converted
for non-sustainablepurposes;
c. The sustainable use of mangrove ecosystems would provide a better use of the resource;
d. There is an urgent need to restore degraded mangrove ecosystems for economic, social and
conservation reasons;
PERSUADED THAT
a. Mangroves are a valuable natural resource with distinctive genetic diversity, high intrinsic
natural productivity and unique habitat value;
b. Mangrovessustainimportant economic and ecological values in adjacentterrestrialand marine
systems;
*
Reproduced from ISME NewsletterNo. 6, September 1992.
Conservation of MangroveForest Genetic Resources : A TrainingManual
Edited by Sanjay V. Deshmukh and V. Balaji. © CRSARD 1994 469
470 Charter for mangroves
c. Mangrovesplay an important role in the economic and socialresourcesavailableto subsistence
coastal dwellers in the tropics;
d. Mangrovesplay an important role in coastalprotectionand in the reductionof coastalerosion;
e. Mangroves buffer coastal waters from undesirable land-based influences, such as sediment,
contaminant or nutrient runoff;
Reaffirming that people must acquire the knowledge to use natural resourcesin a manner which
ensures the protectionand enhancementof species and ecosystems for their intrinsicvalues and
for the benefit of present and future generations.
Convincedof the need for appropriate measures at individual, collective and national levels to
manage,conserve and promote understanding of the mangrove ecosystem.
Convinced also of the need to foster the sharing of informationand understanding at an interna-
tional level, and co-operation in all aspects of management and study of mangrove ecosystems.
Adopts, to these ends, a Charter which proclaims the following principles for the utilisation
of mangrove ecosystems by which all human conduct affecting mangrove ecosystems is to be
judged.
I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
1. Mangrove ecosystems shall be respected and their intrinsic characteristics shall be preserved
wherever possible.
2. The genetic diversity inherent in mangrove ecosystems shall be safeguarded to this end the
necessary habitats must be preserved.
3. Mangrove ecosystems that are utilised by people shall be managed to achieve and maintain
sustainable productivity without degrading the integrity of other ecosystems with which they
coexist.
4. Mangrove ecosystems shall be secured against indiscriminate destruction, natural hazards,
pollution and damage resulting from disturbance of surrounding areas.
5. The sustainable utilisation of mangrove ecosystems by traditional users shall be recognised
and provided for to improve the welfare of the indigenous people.
6. The acquisitionand disseminationof knowledgewith respect to structure, function and man-
agement of pristine and disturbed mangrove ecosystems shall be encouraged by all possible
means, including internationalresearch and technicalcooperation.
II. FUNCTIONS
7. The decisions affecting the management of mangrove ecosystems shall be made only in the
light of best existing knowledge and an understanding of the specific location.
8. Decisions on how to manage a mangrove ecosystem shall be informed by definition of the
following parameters
i. the biological componentsand the physicalcharacteristics of the area underconsideration,
by means of inventories, maps and the collection of physical and biological data;
International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems 471
ii. the needs of people in relationto sustainable uses of the resourcewhile ensuring adequate
reserves for preservation purposes;
iii. the national and international significance of the resource as habitat and as a genetic
reservoir;
iv. the national and international significance of the site for coastal stability and fisheries
production;
v. the local requirementsfor education, recreation and aesthetic values;
vi. the requirementsthat must be satisfied for non-sustainableuses of the resource;
vii. the extent to which rehabilitationand compensationmechanisms can be usedto mitigate
the impact of non-sustainableuse.
9. The information collectedin (8) shall be used to define the areas necessary for preservation,
to define strategies for the management,restoration and preservation of the resource, or to
define areas necessary for sustainableuse.
10. Decisionsof the use of mangrove ecosystems shall include considerationof the need:
i. to utilise the mangrove resourcesso that their natural productivity is preserved;
ii. to avoid degradation of the mangrove ecosystems;
iii. to rehabilitate degraded mangrove areas;
iv. to avoid over-exploitation of the natural resources produced by the mangrove ecosys-
tems;
v. to avoid negative impacts on neighbouringecosystems;
vi. to recognise the social and economic welfare of indigenous mangrove dwellers;
vii. to control and restrict non-sustainableuses so that long-term productivity and benefits
of the mangrove ecosystems are not lost;
viii. to introduce regulatory measures for the wise use of mangroveecosystems.
11. Activities which might impact on mangrove ecosystems shall be controlled by appropriate
national, regional and international laws and agreements.
12. Activities which are likely to pose a risk to a mangrove ecosystems shall be subjected to an
exhaustiveexaminationprior to decisions being made. Only after it hasbeen publiclydemon-
strated that the potential advantages outweigh the potential damage should the activity be
allowed to commence.
13. Mangrove ecosystems degraded by human activities shall be rehabilitated for purposes in
accordwiththeirnatural potential and compatible withthe well-beingof the affectedpeople.
III. IMPLEMENTATION
14. The principlesset forth in the present Charter should, where possible,be reflected in the law
and practice of each state, as well as at the internationallevel.
15. Knowledge of the structure, function and importance of mangrove ecosystems should be
communicated by all possible means at local, national and internationallevels.
16. Knowledge of the structure, function and management of pristine and disturbed mangrove
ecosystems should be enhanced.
472 Charter for mangroves
17. Educational programmes and regional centres should be provided to train scientists, plan-
ners, managers and the general public and to encourage an awareness of the importance of
mangrove ecosystems.
18. All planning should include the establishment of biological, physical and socio-economic
inventories of the mangrove ecosystems under considerationand assessmentsof the effects
on the systemsand their surrounds of the proposed activities. All such considerationsshould
be open to public scrutiny and comment prior to any decision.
19. Resources, programmes and administrative structures necessary to achieve the sustainable
use of mangrove ecosystems should be provided.
20. The status of mangrove ecosystems should be monitored nationally and internationallyto
ensure evaluation of current practices and to enable early detection of adverse effects.
21. States should establish specific statutory provisions or regulations for the protection and
management of mangrovesand mangrove ecosystems.
22. States, other public authorities, international organisations, non-government organisations,
individuals, groups and corporations,to the extent that they are able, should;
i. co-operate in the task of managing mangrove ecosystems for sustainablepurposes;
ii. establish procedures and methodologies for assessing the status of mangrove ecosystems
and for managing them;
iii. ensure that activities within their jurisdiction do not cause unnecessary damage to man-
grove ecosystems within or beyond their jurisdiction;
iv. implementnationaland internationallegal provisionsfor the protectionand conservation
of mangrove ecosystems.
23. Each state should where possible give effect to the provisions of the present Charter through
its competent organs and in cooperation with other states.
24. All persons, in accordance with their national legislation should have the opportunity to
participate,individuallyor collectively, in the formation of decisions of direct concern to the
conservationand sustainableuse of mangrove ecosystems.
25. Affected people should have means of redresswhen their mangroveecosystems have suffered
damage.
26. Each member of ISME has the duty to act in accordance with the provisions of the present
Charter, acting individually, in association with others, or through participationin a political
process. Each member shall strive to ensure that the objectives and requirements of the
Charter are met.
INTERNATIONALTRAINERS' TRAINING PROGRAMME:
SCHEDULE
BRAZIL
Marisol Menezes Pessanha
Research Scientist
"Wild Fauna and Flora"
IBAMA-SUPES PE /
17 de Agosto, 1085
CASA-FORTE-PE
Brazil Cep. 50000
COLOMBIA
Jose Antonio Villa Lopera
INDERENA A.A. 13458
Santafe de Bogota, D.C.
Colombia
GUYANA
Althea Denise Pompey
EnvironmentalOfficer
Guyana Agency of Health Sciences
Education,Environmentand Food Policy
Liliendaal/Greater Georgetown
Guyana
INDIA
A. Anil Kumar, SFS
Asst. Conservator of Forests
Office of the PCCF (A&N)
Chatham, Port Blair 744 102
Andaman and Nicobar, India
D. Arun
Wildlife Warden
C/o. Office of the PCCF (T.N.)
GovernmentOffices' Complex
Teynampet, Madras 600 018, India
A.V. Joseph, IFS
Conservatorof Forests
Tirupati Circle
Andhra Pradesh, India
THE PHILIPPINES
Emiliano B. Ramoran
Senior Science Research Specialist
Ecosystems Research and DevelopmentBureau
Deptt. of Environmentand Natural Resources
Laguna 3720, The Philippines
REPUBLIC OF PANAMA
Zuleika Segunda Pinzon Mendoza
Research Assistant
MangroveForest Project
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute
P.O Box 2072, Balboa, Panama
Republic of Panama
SENEGAL
Macani Sarr
Research Scientist
Department of Biologic Vegetable
Universityof Dakar, Dakar, Senegal
THAILAND
Tanuwong Sangtiean
Forest Technician
MangroveForest ManagementSection
Forest ManagementDivision
Royal Forest Department
Jatujak, 10900, Thailand
VIETNAM
Mai Sy Tuan
Lecturer, MangroveForest Research Centre
Hanoi National PedagogicUniversityNo. 1
DAI-HOC-SU-PHAM-HANOI I
Tu hem, Hanoi, Vietnam
Tran Van Ba
Lecturer, Faculty of Agro-Biology
Hanoi National PedagogicUniversityNo. 1
DAI-HOC-SU-PHAM-HANOI I
Tu hem, Hanoi, Vietnam
GUEST FACULTY
UNITED KINGDOM
SINGAPORE Prof. D.L. Hawksworth,Director
International Mycological Institute
Prof. P.N. Avadhani
CAB, Ferry Lane
Department of Botany Kew, Surrey TW 9 3AF
National University of Singapore
Lower Kent Ridge Road
UNITED STATES OF AMERiCA
Singapore 0511
Dr. Rajeshwari Mahalingam
Prof. A.N. Rao
Adjunct Professor
Department of Botany School of Agribusinessand
National Universityof Singapore EnvironmentalResources
Lower Kent Ridge Road Arizona State University
Singapore 0511 Temple, Arizona 85287 - 3306