1

Plant Archives Vol. 21, Supplement 1, 2021 pp. 592-599 e-ISSN:2581-6063 (online), ISSN:0972-5210

Plant Archives
Journal homepage: http://www.plantarchives.org
doi link : https://doi.org/10.51470/PLANTARCHIVES.2021.v21.S1.090

MONITORING OF DIVERSITY, CHARACTERISTICS, THREATENING RATE AND POTENCY OF

MANGROVE VEGETATION IN DENPASAR, BALI, INDONESIA
PutuAnggaWiradana1; I KetutSundra2; Setyo Budi Kurniawan3; Siti Rozaimah Sheikh Abdullah 4;
Mochammad Amin Alamsjah5 and Muhammad FauzulImron6*
1Study
Program of Biotechnology of Fisheries and Marine, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine, UniversitasAirlangga, Surabaya, 60115,
Indonesia. angga.
2 Study Program of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, UniversitasUdayana,

Jimbaran, 80361, Badung, Bali.

3 Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,

43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.

4 Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,

43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.

5 Department of Marine, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine, UniversitasAirlangga, Surabaya, 60115, Indonesia.

*Corresponding author:
6* Study Program of Environmental Engineering, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology,

Universitas Airlangga, Kampus C UNAIR, JalanMulyorejo, Surabaya 60115.

[email protected]

Mangrove forests cover 137,600 km2 of coastline in 118 countries with 38.7% in Asia including Indonesia. The
purpose of this study was to analyze the diversity, characteristics, threatening rate, and potency of mangrove plants
found in the mangrove forest area of Denpasar City, Bali. Monitoring activities on mangrove vegetation has great
importance for the balance of ecosystems and the livelihoods of people living around the mangrove area. Vegetation
data were collected using systematic sampling. This method is based on the assumption that the number of individual
plants per unit area can be calculated as the average distance between the plants. The data obtained is then analyzed
based on the parameters of Characteristics, Frequency, Density, Dominance, Relative Frequency, Relative Density,
Relative Dominance, Important Value, and Index Diversity. The results showed that there were 12 plant species that
ABSTRACT were identified, and 35% of species were categorized as “true mangrove” species. Denpasar's mangrove forests are
dominated by Soneratia alba with an Important Value Index of 157% and secondly, species is Rhizophora mucronota
by 52%. The diversity index (H’) is 0.65, which shows that the diversity of vegetation in the mangrove area of
Denpasar is homogeneous. There are 2 mangrove species that need further monitoring based on IUCN Red list data,
namely Thespesia populnea and Ceriops decandra. Thus, efforts are still needed to protect and restore the mangrove
ecosystem, especially for species that have the potential that can be developed as sustainable products and ecotourism
areas in the city of Denpasar.
Keywords: Diversity; Vegetation; Diversity index; Mangrove; Coastal Area
Running title: Monitoring of mangrove vegetation in Indonesia

Introduction fisheries, ecotourism, mangrove fruit, and leaves that can be

used as raw material for medicines in the pharmaceutical
Indonesia is the largest archipelago country in the world
field (Imron, Kurniawan, Soegianto, et al., 2019; Kathiresan
with a total area of 6.32 million kilometres (km2)
et al., 2001; Singh, 2019). The potential of the mangrove can
(Puspitawati, 2011). Likewise, Indonesia's coastal areas
be utilized if the mangrove forest ecosystem can be preserved
which have a wealth of very rich natural resources such as
mangrove forests, coral reefs, sea grasses, and even fisheries (Imron et al., 2020; Kurniawan et al., 2020; Wang et al.,
(Hutomo et al., 2005; Kurniawan et al., 2019a). This gives its 2019). The mangrove ecosystem is the main chain that acts
as a producer in the coastal ecosystem food web. This
own advantages for coastal communities to prosper their
ecosystem has high productivity by providing abundant food
lives. One of the natural resources that provide many benefits
for various types of marine animals and providing a breeding
is mangrove forests. Ecologically, mangrove forests function
as a component of associations between other ecosystems ground, spawning and raising children for several species of
such as sea grass beds and coral reefs, a strong and sturdy fish, shellfish, crabs, and shrimp (Gnanappazham et al.,
2011). The mangrove habitat is one of the most productive
root system that is able to withstand waves and strong winds,
ecosystems on earth, so their low level of vegetation diversity
withstand mud and protect beaches from erosion and
can cause a decrease in the wealth of natural species that live
flooding (Al-Sareji et al., 2020; Imron, Kurniawan, &
around mangrove forests (Sousa et al., 2011).
Soegianto, 2019; Khaery, 2015; Kurniawan et al., 2019b).
Mangrove forests have a dual function and are a very
Potential that can be obtained from mangrove forests in
important chain in maintaining the balance of the biological
supporting the community's economy is as estuarine
 593

cycle in water (Kadir et al., 2020). Walters et al. (2008) Object of study
stated that mangrove forests along the coast and rivers
The object of this research is the mangrove forest
generally provide habitat for various types of fish. Mangrove
vegetation in the Denpasar City area, Bali. The area under
forests as one of the wetlands in the tropics with easy access
study is a mangrove forest area which is a natural tourism
and the use of biodiversity components and high land have area and is often used by the surrounding community, both
made these resources as tropical resources whose directly and indirectly, and is relatively affected by the
sustainability will be threatened (Sandilyan et al., 2012) and
pollution because it is close to a garbage dump. The method
become one of the centers of global environmental issues
used is a systematic sampling. This method is based on the
(Ismail et al., 2020; Polidoro et al., 2010). The conversion of
assumption that the number of individual plants per unit area
mangrove forests continues to increase to become
can be calculated as the average distance between the plants.
agricultural land or fish/shrimp ponds, thus causing a The method used for vegetation research has different
decrease in the productivity of the ecosystem (Satyanarayana structures from the front and back zones.
et al., 2012).
Vegetation Data Collection
Mangrove ecosystems in the Denpasar City area
included in the Taman Hutan Raya (TAHURA) have been Data collected during the study are primary and
determined based on the Decree of the Minister of Forestry secondary data (Yuliana et al., 2019). Primary data are
(Kepmenhut) Number 544 / Kpts-II / 1993 with an area of species composition, vegetation structure, and substrate
approximately 1,373.50 Ha. The NgurahRaiTahura area has conditions. Secondary data discusses various supporting
six villages in Denpasar City, namely Sanur Kauh, information obtained from the results of discussions with
Sidakarya, Sesetan, Serangan, Pedungan, and Pemogan. As surrounding communities and literature. The data collection
well as covering six villages in Badung Regency namely method is carried out by the quadrant transect method which
Kuta, Kedongan, Tuban, Jimbaran, Benoa and forms a plot measuring 10x10 m2 for the tree category, 5x5
TanjungBenoa. Management of mangrove areas in Tahura m2 for the stake category; and 1x1 m2 for the seedling
Bali is still not optimal because there are still several major category. Each plot measuring 10x10 m2 was observed to
problems including encroachment, pollution, activities of measure the diameter of the tree stem (diameter> 4 cm or
residents around the area that carry out garbage disposal into perimeter of the stem> 16 cm) using a sewing meter (Irwan
river bodies and ultimately empties into mangrove areas et al., 2019).Tree level density based on the Decree of the
which are mostly plastic. The aim of this study was to Minister of Environment of the Republic of Indonesia No.
analyze the diversity and characteristics of mangrove plants 201 of 2001 concerning Standard Criteria and Guidelines for
found in the mangrove forest area of Denpasar City, Bali. Mangrove Damage Determination.
This research serves as an effort to maintain the existence of Data Analysis
mangrove plants, especially in the Denpasar area and
surrounding areas so that the community and the Vegetation analysis was carried out by calculating
environment are expected to benefit from the existence of parameters namely (Khaery, 2015):
this mangrove forest.
Materials and Methods
Sampling Point
This research was conducted at the Mangrove Forest
Region I Denpasar City, Bali with coordinates 8o43'30 "LS
and 115o11'38" BT. Figure 1 shows the Mangrove forest area
of Denpasar, Bali, where the mangrove ecosystem is along
the coast.

Diversity (H’) is determined based on the Shannon-

Wiener index (1949) in (Murrieta-Hernández et al., 2014)
Fig. 1 : Sampling Point (WisataHutan Mangrove)
(Google Satellite)
594

include True mangroves are Lantana camara, Sesbania

grandiflora, Clerodendrum inerme and Pandanus sp.
Table 1: List of vegetation species found in the Denpasar
Pi = ni/N mangrove forest area and their grouping
H’= species diversity Scientific name Local name M A R S
Soneratia alba Prapat X
ni= number of individuals of a type
Rhizophora mucronata Bako X
N= total number of all types Avicennia marina Api-api X
Xylocarpus granatum Banang-banang X
Results and Discussion
Bruguiera gymnoriza Tanjang X
Mangrove floral composition in Denpasar, Bali Thespesia populnea Kuan X
The results of observations of the flora composition Ceriops decandra Kenyongnyong X
found in the mangrove forest area of Denpasar at least 12 Lannea coromandalica Kayusantan X
plant species were recorded inside and outside the sample Lantana camara Tembelekan X
plot. From the 12 species, 35% are known as true mangrove Sesbania grandiflora Turi X
floral and 30% are known as the Associate Mangrove Flora. Clerodendrum inerme Gambirlaut X
The remaining 25% is known as secondary terrestrial Pandanus sp. Pandan X
vegetation flora and only 10% is included in the swamp Note: M: true mangrove flora; A: associate mangrove
vegetation flora (Figure 2). flora; R: swamp vegetation flora; S: secondary terrestrial
vegetation flora (Yuliana et al., 2019)
A further statement from Tomlinson (2016) that all
species of the genus Avicennia, Limnitzera, Bruguiera,
CeriopsKandelia, Rhizophora and Sonneratia and added to
the species Nypa fructicans and Laguncularia racemosa are
considered to be true mangroves and become the main
component of mangrove vegetation throughout the world.
Mangrove associations will often be found in mangrove
environments, but not exclusively because they can also be
found outside mangrove habitats (FAO, 2007).
Mangrove vegetation structure in Denpasar area, Bali
There are 7 mangrove species found at the sampling
location. Species consisting of mangrove forests are
Soneratia alba, Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia marina,
Xylocarpus granatum, Bruguera gymnoriza, Thespesia
populnea, and Ceriops decandra. The results of mangrove
vegetation data collection were dominated by mangrove
vegetation with the category of trees with the highest density
Fig. 2 : The floral composition of mangrove stands in the Mangrove
level obtained by Soneratia alba, which amounted to 7467
Denpasar, Bali
individuals per hectares (ind/ha). The density of trees in that
Furthermore, Table 1 shows the diversity of flora in the number is based on the standard criteria for mangrove
mangrove area of Denpasar. Based on data from Table 1, the damage according to the Decree of the Minister of the
classification of the flora of mangrove areas is grouped into 4 Environment in 2004 it can be concluded that the condition
types namely true mangrove flora, associated mangrove of mangroves in the Denpasar city area is dominated by
flora, secondary terrestrial vegetation flora, and swamp Soneratia alba with the category "Good" with a very dense
vegetation flora (Yuliana et al., 2019). True mangroves are level of density (> 1,500 ind/ha) (Table 2). The second
woody plants, facultative or obligate halophytes that are only highest density obtained by Rhizophora mucronata that is
found in mangrove areas and are not found on land. equal to 1776 (> 1,500 ind/ha). Whereas Ceriops decandra
According to Tomlinson (2016) states that true mangroves has a category with damage because it has a density of less
are species which 1) are only found in mangrove forests and than 1,500 ind/ha.
not found in terrestrial vegetation communities; 2) has an
important role in the structure of mangrove communities and Soneratia alba is a type of mangrove that grows in
rocky habitats and coral sand. S. alba that lives in sandy and
questions the pure standing; 3) specializes in morphology for
nearshore habitats has the potential to be exposed to
mangrove environments and 4) has several allocations to
pollutants such as heavy metals. This is supported by the
neutralize anaerobic sediments by air roots.
statement ofCordova et al. (2017) that S. alba samples
The species given the S mark in Table 1 below show collected from Pari Island, PulauSeribu show high
flora with secondary vegetation and most species of this flora concentrations of mercury (Hg) in the leaves and are well
are pioneering species that invade open forest areas (Yuliana used as bioindicators of environmental pollution. Thus, the
et al., 2019). Lannea coromandalica is a tree species in the tree level density in the observed plot is expected to be able
Anacardiaceae family that is widely distributed in South and to absorb heavy metals optimally in the waters surrounding
Southeast Asia including Indonesia. Other species that do not Denpasar mangrove.
 595

Table 2 : Data tabulation of mangrove vegetation.

No Scientific name Local name Tree Level Density (ind/ha) Level of Damage*
1 Soneratia alba Prapat 7467 Good
2 Rhizophora mucronata Bako 1776 Good
3 Avicennia marina Api-api 603 Heavy damage
4 Xylocarpus granatum Banang-banang 472 Heavy damage
5 Bruguera gymnoriza Tanjang 472 Heavy damage
6 Thespesia populnea Kuan 430 Heavy damage
7 Ceriops decandra Kenyongnyong 272 Heavy damage
*Damage level criteria: number of trees> 1,500 = Good; 1,000-1,500 = moderate damage; <1,000 = heavily damaged (Decree
of the Minister of Environment of the Republic of Indonesia No. 201 of 2004)

Mangrove vegetation that grows in the Denpasar (RF) is the ratio between the frequency of type 1 with the
mangrove forest area is dominated by Prapat (Soneratia alba) total frequency of all types (Dietriech G. Bengen, 2010). The
which is around 35%, followed by Bako (Rhizophora relative density (RD) according to Bengen (2010) is a
mucronata) 25% and Api-api(Avicennia marina) 10% (Table comparison of the types of stands to one with the total of all
3). Meanwhile, the lowest dominance was obtained by types of stands. Important value (IV) states the magnitude of
Kenyongnyong (Ceriops decandra) by 5%. According to the influence of a type in influencing ecosystem stability,
Yuningsih et al. (2014), there are three other important important value is obtained by adding up the relative
parameters that can be used in monitoring mangrove frequency, relative density and relative dominance (Sujarwo
vegetation, namely relative frequency (RF), relative density et al., 2011).
(RD), and important value index (IVI). Relative frequency

Table 3 : Results of Denpasar Mangrove Ecosystem Vegetation Analysis.

RD Dens.R I.Val IDI (H’)
Scientific name Local name Frequency Density Dominance RF(%)
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Soneratia alba Prapat 0,57 0,0027 0,37 29 35 93 157 0,15
Rhizophora mucronata Bako 0,43 0,0019 0,0021 22 25 5 52 0,13
Avicennia marina Api-api 0,27 0,0008 0,0024 14 10 0,6 24,6 0,09
Xylocarpusgranatum Banang-banang 0,2 0,0007 0,00023 10 9 0,6 19,6 0,08
Bruguiera Gymnoriza Tanjang 0,17 0,0008 0,00015 9 10 0,4 19,4 0,07
Thespesiapopulnea Kuan 0,13 0,0003 0,00012 7 4 0,3 11,3 0,06
Ceriopsdecandra Kenyongnyong 0,17 0,004 0,00005 9 5 0,01 14,01 0,07
Total 297,91 0,65
Notes: RF: Relative Frequency; RD: Relative Dominance; Dens.R: Relative Density; I.Val: Important Value; IDI: Index
Diversity

The highest percentage of importance is obtained by S. Denpasar rarely experiences drought at the lowest tide (Jesus
alba, which is 157% (Table 3). The maximum significance et al., 2012).
value with a percentage of 300% indicates the community of
Mangrove tree diversity is a fundamental component in
vegetation in a “good place or good habitat”. So, when maintaining the balance of aquatic ecosystems (Srivastava et
referring to the results of this study, the total percentage of
al., 2005). According to Mandal and Joshi (2014) that
important values (I.Val) obtained in the Denpasar mangrove
climate, topography, soil, and disturbance caused by human
forest area is 297.91% which means that mangrove forests
factors can affect the structure, composition, and function of
have a good role in supporting the life of coastal ecosystems.
mangroves, so that the stability of mangrove ecosystems
Referring back to Table 3, it can be seen that the value must be maintained and know their conservation status.
of the Total Diversity Index in Denpasar mangrove Table 4. Shows that of the 7 species of mangrove trees, there
vegetation is equal to 0.65. The Diversity Index in mangrove are 5 species included in the Least Concern (LC) status.
forests shows that diversity is poor (H<1.0. This is because These species include Soneratia alba, Rhizophora
there are limiting factors such as salinity adjacent to the sea, mucronata, Avicennia marina, Xylocarpus granatum, and
so that vegetation that is able to survive / adaptation in this Bruguiera gymnoriza. The Least Concern category is a
area is homogeneous, namely vegetation that has adaptation species that has not been given full attention by the
in the form of air roots. Similar results were also reported by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
Yuliana et al. (2019)that the diversity index of mangrove because it is judged not to qualify as a threatened or near-
stands on the banks of the Calik and Banyuasin rivers were threatened species (International Union for Conservation of
respectively 0.82 and 0.78 lower than this study. The higher Nature and Natural Resources, 2001). Meanwhile, Ceriops
index of mangrove forest vegetation diversity, the more types decandra species are species that have been categorized as
of vegetation would be. The results of this study indicate that Near Threatened (NT) or endangered by IUCN in the near
S. alba is a type of mangrove suitable for growing in sand- future so it is very important to be preserved again by
soiled soil, high salinity and inundation frequency that can be monitoring and reforestation actions. This result can be
used to compare the dominance and adaptation of this supported by the results of vegetation analysis that this
mangrove type. Another reason is that the mangrove area of species has the lowest Realistic Density value of other
species (Table 3).
596

Furthermore, the Thespesia populnea species is Mangrove forests are very vulnerable to the activities of
included in the category of species that have not been surrounding communities that carry out development
evaluated (NE) by the IUCN so that it is threatened that it has activities, the fisheries sector, port development and others
no further evaluation value for this species. Overall that can be done to directly or indirectly damage mangrove
monitoring is very important to be carried out to determine ecosystems (Haerul, 2016).
the status of vegetation species in the mangrove area.

Table 4 : IUCN status of mangrove vegetation in Denpasar, Bali.

Scientific name Local name English Name IUCN Status
Soneratia alba Prapat Apple Mangrove LC
Rhizophora mucronata Bako Asiatic Mangrove LC
Avicennia marina Api-api Grey Mangrove or White Mangrove LC
Xylocarpus granatum Banang-banang Cannonball Mangrove LC
Bruguiera gymnoriza Tanjang Orange mangrove LC
Thespesia populnea Kuan Pacific rosewood NE
Ceriops decandra Kenyongnyong Spurred mangrove NT
Notes: EN: Endangered; LC: Least Concern; NE: Not Evaluated; NT: Near Threatened; VU: Vulnerable.

Coastal communities that especially live around below will explain the potential that can be developed from
mangrove areas have livelihoods as fishermen by utilizing the mangrove ecosystem in the Denpasar Area in supporting
water resources that grow in the mangrove area. Table 5 the welfare of the surrounding community.

Table 5 : Functions and Potential of mangrove plants in the Denpasar area.

Scientific name Function or Potency References
Soneratia alba Raw materials for medicinal and ships (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2000)
Prevent beach erosion, mangrove ecosystem
Rhizophora mucronata (Adhikari et al., 2016; Eid et al., 2020)
restoration, and traditional medicine
Avicennia marina Carbon Absorption and traditional medicine (Barky et al., 2017)
Xylocarpus granatum Traditional medicine (Gao et al., 2016)
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative activities (Chen et al., 2020; Li et al., 2013)
(Amutha et al., 2020; Kathirselvam et al.,
Cellulose fiber, natural dye, Anti-inflammatory,
Thespesia populnea 2019; Rashid et al., 2011; Shah et al.,
analgesic and antipyretic and biodiesel
2011)
Hepatoprotective activity, Antinociceptive (Gnanadesigan et al., 2017; Kumar et al.,
Ceriops decandra
activity, antifungal and larvicidal phytochemical 2013; Uddin et al., 2005)

The use of Soneratia alba has been widely used to meet marina, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Thespesia populnea, and
the needs of coastal communities, one of which is as Ceriops decandra can also be used as traditional medicines
medicinal and the construction of ships in the Mida Creek (Table 5). For example, the leaves of Ceriops decandra can
(Kenya) (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2000). Soneratia alba can be used in raw materials have potential as an anticancer. This
also be used as a bioindicator of pollution of the aquatic can be caused due to the metabolite activity contained in this
environment because of its nature which can absorb heavy plant (Abdel-Aziz et al., 2016). Potential inhibition of insulin
metals and grow well in coral and sandy substrate. Mangrove secretion by pancreatic β cells in people with type 2 diabetes
ecosystems are also advised as a deterrent to the erosion of is also owned by R. mucronata and A. marina because there
waters and absorbing excess carbon dioxide (Eid et al., are phytochemical contents such as tannin, alkaloids,
2020). Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the greenhouse gases flavonoids, saponins and high triterpenes in these plants
that has a major role in climate change and global (Barky et al., 2017).
warming(Shaltout et al., 2020). Avicenniaceae,
Conclusion
Rhizophoraceae, and Sonneratiaceae groups that contain
tannins are widely exploited for use as a flavoring material The results showed that there were 12 plant species that
and wine color (Cruz et al., 2015). The tannin compound were identified, and 35% of species were categorized as true
found in Rhizophora mucronata can be used as a natural mangrove species. In the sample plot, 7 mangrove species
coloring agent that can be commercially produced were recorded in the Denpasar mangrove forest. Denpasar's
(Aljaghthmi et al., 2018). mangrove forests are dominated by Soneratia alba
(Important Value Index) of 157% and Rhizophora mucronota
In the field of medicine, mangroves can act as potential
by 52%. The diversity index is 0.65, which shows that the
raw materials for traditional medicines. Some tribes in Asia
diversity of vegetation in the mangrove area of Denpasar is
and Africa use more mangrove plants as raw material for
homogeneous. There are 2 mangrove species that need
traditional medicine to treat several diseases such as
further monitoring based on IUCN Redlist data, namely
hepatitis, diabetes, leukemia, dyspepsia, helminthic, and Thespesia populnea and Ceriops decandra. Further research
diarrhea (Saranya et al., 2015). Mangrove plants such as is needed to find out the amount of carbon storage from the
Rhizophora mucronata, Xylocarpus granatum, Avicennia
 597

Denpasar mangrove ecosystem so that it can complement the subsistence and commercial users. Economic Botany,
monitoring data that has been obtained. 54(4): 513–527. doi: 10.1007/BF02866549
Dietriech G. Bengen, D. (2010). Ekosistem dan Sumber Daya
Acknowledgement
Pesisir dan Laut serta Pengelolaan Secara Terpadu dan
This publication is supported by a research Berkelanjutan. Prosiding Pelatihan Pengelolaan
collaboration between UniversitasAirlangga, Wilayah Pesisir Terpadu, 28–55.
UniversitasUdayana, and UniversitiKebangsaan Malaysia Eid, E. M.; Khedher, K. M.; Ayed, H.; Arshad, M.;
under grant No. 443/UN3.14/PT/2020 grant. The authors also Moatamed, A. and Mouldi, A. (2020). Evaluation of
deliver our gratitude to the Mangrove Information Center, carbon stock in the sediment of two mangrove species,
Denpasar, and the local government of SuwungKauh, Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata, growing
Denpasar Village, Bali for granting permission during field in the Farasan Islands, Saudi Arabia. Oceanologia,
sampling. 62(2): 200–213. doi: 10.1016/j.oceano.2019.12.001
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