PHD Thesis PDF

VEGETATION ANALYSIS ALONG AN ALTITUDINAL
GRADIENT IN FORESTS OF WESTERN RAMGANGA

WATERSHED IN KUMAUN HIMALAYA
THESIS
SUBMITTED TO
KUMAUN UNIVERSITY, NANITAL
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
FORESTRY
SUPERVISOR CANDIDATE
DR. A. K. YADAVA HIMANSHU PANDEYA

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR and CAMPUS HEAD
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

KUMAUN UNIVERSITY, SOBAN SINGH JEENA CAMPUS, ALMORA
263601 UTTARAKHAND (INDIA)
2015
1
PREFACE
The Himalaya has been a perennial source of attraction, curiosity and
challenge to human intellect throughout the ages. Amongst several assets the
vegetation provides an everlasting and interesting field of investigation. The
diversity, copiousness as well as uniqueness of the plant components in
various habitats retained sound and aesthetic environment of the study area.
However in the recent past a couple of decades excessive exploitation of
vegetation, unplanned land use, natural disasters and several developmental
processes, accelerated deterioration of biodiversity and harmonious ecosystem
of the Himalaya.
Forest resources of the Himalaya are shrinking in size due to over-exploitation

and there is increased interest to protect, manage and make them more
protective. This requires essentially the knowledge of their population status,
production behavior and rate of utilization on unit are basis. The human
influence on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning have largely taken the
form of rapid, large and frequent changes in land and resource use, increased
frequency of biotic invasion, reduction of species number, creation of stresses
and potential for changes in climate system.
The entire work is compiled into four chapters, Chapter one present general
introduction, aims, objectives description and climatic feature of the study
area. Chapter two describes the soil characteristics of the research site.
Chapter three, the quantitative response of vegetation, its floral composition,
information about the ecological niche, niche-overlap and degree of
competition among species occupying in the same habitat. Chapter four
explains the socio-economic study of studied villages in Chamoli and Almora
district of Uttarakhand.
In the last few decades the impact of human activities in forest lands has
become more accelerated and pronounced. Heavy biotic pressures have started
to exert tremendous stress on natural resources and hence many of the plant
species are under various degree of threat. So human beings need to be
educated for understanding, solution and preventing of these problems.
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work could not be reached completion without positive thoughts,

significant guidance, practical help and advice. I would like to acknowledge
them all who help me in different ways during the course of this study.
It is hard for me to find words to express my sincere gratitude and

obligation to my supervisor Dr. Anil Kumar Yadava, Associate Professor and
Campus Head, Department of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, Kumaun
University, Soban Singh Jeena Campus Almora and Prof. B. P. Nautiyal, Dean
College of Horticulture V. C. S. G., Uttarakhand University of Horticulture
and Forestry (UUHF) Bharsar Pauri Garhwal for their great co-operation,
taxonomic identification of the plants, untiring interest, advice and help.
I am highly grateful to Prof. Jeet Ram, Head Department of Forestry

and Environmental Sciences, Kumaun University, D.S.B. Campus Nainital for
constant inspiration and help during plant identification. It is my pleasure to
express my thanks to all my teachers Dr. L. S. Lodhiyal and Dr. Ashish Tiwari
for providing valuable suggestions and constructive criticisms during entire
research period. I also thank research scholar and all non-teaching member of
Department of Forestry and Environmental Sciences for their kind assistance
in my work.
I also acknowledge the support and continuous guidance which I

received from my beloved sister, Dr (Mrs) Nirmala Pandey, Scientist, Delhi
University.
I am extremely thankful to Shri Hem Gairola, Director, Centre for

Forestry, Gairsain, Chamoli Garhwal for introducing me to my fourth site
Dhuthatoli. I am equally thankful to Shri Dev Singh, Village Ramara, Chamoli
Garhwal for his kind help during the survey of remote areas of dense
Dhudhatoli forest. I also thank Shri R.B.S. Rawat, P.C.C.F., Uttarakhand
forest department and Shri Gambhir Singh, C.C.F., Pauri for valuable
suggestion for field visit in Dhudhatoli. I am greatly indebted to Shri Bharat
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Bisht, Shri Girish Chandra Pant, Smt. Sonali Bisht and all INHERE staff for
their cooperation during my study.
I wish to express my sincere thanks to all my friends; Vikas, Kailash,

Bhagwat, Paras, Anurag for their encouragement during my research and
tiring visits. I also thankful to Dr. G S. Mair and Shri Deepak Joshi, Soil
Testing Laboratry, Bhawali for Physical and Chemical analysis of soil.
I am especially thankful to my wife, Smt. Mamta Pandey as without

his wholehearted support, help and patience. I could not have dared to tread
this work. I am similarly thankful to Dr. Asha Joshi for inspiring me time to
time during my thesis work.
Last but not least, I fell paucity of words to express adequately my

gratitude to my loving parents, bhaiya, bhabhi, jijaji, lovely Gungun, and other
family members whose love, blessing, constant encouragement and
inspiration, made it easy me to reach at this stage.
Date HIMANSHU PANDEYA
4
Abbreviations
PRDF Pinusroxburghii dominant forest.

QLDF Quercusleucotrichophora dominant forest.
QSDF Quercusspecies dominant forest.
AKDF Abieskharsu dominant forest.
TBC Total basal cover.
N North aspect.
S South aspect.
Fre% Frequency percentage.
Den. Density.
A/F Abundance/Frequency.
IVI Importance Value Index.
pH Hydrogen Ion concentration.
ha Hectare.
H Shannon‟ sWiner index.
CD Concentration of dominance.
SR Margalef index of species richness.
J Evenness.
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PUBLICATION
1. Pandeya, H. and Yadava, A.K. (2015). APhytosociological Analysis in

Relation to Altitudinal Gradient in Western Ramganga Watershed in
KumaunCentral Himalaya. International Journal of Basic and Life Sciences.
Volume, Issue No. 3(34-53).
2. Pandeya, H. and Yadava, A.K. (2014). Vegetation analysis along an altitudinal

gradient in forest of western Ramganga watershed in Central
Himalaya.Uttarakhand state council for science and technology.pp-
159.(Abstract)
6
Chapter-1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The Himalaya is world‟s sixth largest bio regions. It is recognized

as one of the hotspots of biodiversity that harbours just about 8,000 species
of flowering plants including 25.3% endemic (Singh and Hajra, 1996). The
Himalaya constitutes one of the richest and most remarkable ecosystems on
Earth (Salicket al., 2009). India is very rich in biodiversity at ecosystems
and species level, it ranks sixth among 12 mega-diversities in the world and
holds two biodiversity “hot spots”. India possesses 49,219 species of flora
about 15% of global known plant species (Sinha and Bawa, 2002).
Biodiversity is being eroded as fast as today at any time since the dinosaurs
ended some 65 million years ago (Wilson, 2006). The biodiversity has been
increasingly threatened by the environmental crisis and phases of mass
extinction of species (Singh, 2002). The worldwide loss of biodiversity is
an indication of indiscriminate human exploitation of natural resources
(Savardet al., 2000). Human disturbances through selective logging, wood
extraction, grazing, fire, and land clearing for permanent agriculture may
influence many plant communities and their succession patterns (Hong et
al., 1995; Fujisakaet al., 1998). Humans have extensively altered the global
environment, changing global biogeochemical cycles, transforming land,
and enhancing the mobility of biota. Many species have been eliminated
from areas dominated by human influences (Chapin et al., 2000). Long-
term changes in patterns and processes in forest systems may lead to losses
in their biological diversity and may render them more susceptible to
invasion (Hobbs and Huenneke, 1992).
Physical structure in terms of diversity in topographical setup, soil

types, geographical location and climate of the region influence the
vegetation diversity of the forest ecosystems. The area harbours many rare
and endemic plant and animal species. Forest products and agriculture are
the main source of livelihood of the people living in this region which is
used variously for various purposes such as edible fruits, vegetables,
medicine, fodder, fuel wood, agricultural instruments, timber, industrial
7
raw materials and several non-timbers forest products (Singh and Singh,
1992; Ram et al., 2004). In addition, environmental problems are
particularly noticeable in this region as a form of degradation and depletion
of the forest resources (Sati, 2005).
Gauthier et al. (2000) reported that the vegetation dynamics of

forest systems are controlled by numerous factors such as the available pool
of species, the physical characteristics of the land, soil fertility, climate and
more importantly, disturbance regimes. As a result, regeneration of natural
vegetation may be drastically affected. Such changes have direct impacts
through habitat destruction and overexploitation of resources such as
overgrazing and indirect impacts through their effects on the composition
of the atmosphere and climate, both of which directly affect biodiversity
(Heywood, 1995).
Unfortunately, all of above concerns raised elsewhere are true to

Himalayan forest and therefore, these forest ecosystems need immediate
attention. Vegetation in a mountain area is affected by several factors of
which altitude, aspect, slope, soil, canopy cover and microclimate are
predominant as they modify regime of moisture and exposure to sun (Giriet
al., 2008).Vegetation ecology is the study of structure of vegetation and
vegetation systematic (Ilorkar and Khatri, 2003). This includes the
investigation of species composition and the sociological interaction of
species in communities (Mueller Dombios and Ellenberge, 1974).Plants
growing together have mutual relationship among themselves and with the
environment. These interactions among different plants and their
environment resulted in the outcome of different vegetation types in
different areas.
Forest soil plays an important role by influencing the vegetative

composition of the forest stand, rate of tree growth and ecosystem diversity
(Parfittet al., 2005). Organic matter is one of the most important components
of soil (Magdoff and Van, 2000) and many physical, chemical and biological
properties of soil are a function of soil organic matter (Widmeret al.,
2002).The soil system is always under dynamic equilibrium because of
8
various bio-geochemical processes active during soil development and
genesis (Bhatet al., 2009). Soil Carbon (both soil organic carbon (SOC) and
soil inorganic carbon (SIC) is important as it determines ecosystem and
agro-ecosystem functions, influencing soil fertility, water holding capacity
and other soil parameters (Bhattaracharyya et al., 2008). Soil is practically a
living and dynamic ecosystem which functions as a foundation for the food
ecosystem and serves as a natural medium for the growth of the land plants
(Bot and Benites, 2005). Soil plays a key role in the global carbon budget and
greenhouse effect (Jha et al., 2003). Soils that have developed by the means of
various processes differ greatly from place to place. Topography, climate,
physical weathering processes, microbial activities with several other biotic
and abiotic components determine the physiochemical properties of the forest
soil (Liebig et al., 2004). Similarly, vegetation pattern of a particular forest
stands also plays an important role in the formation of soil (Chapman and
Reiss, 1992; Paudel and Sah, 2003). Physico-chemical properties of soil varies
with space to space due to the variation in topography, vegetation cover,
weathering processes, microbial and other biotic and abiotic variables
(Chapman and Reiss, 1992). Out of all the soil attributes, soil moisture, soil
temperature, organic matter and mineral matter are the main components of the
soil. Soil moisture is responsible for movement of nutrients in soil, while soil
temperature plays an important role in seed germination and establishment of
seedlings whereas, organic and mineral matter present in soil is a major factor
regulating nutrient cycling and is the reservoir of nitrogen, phosphorus and
other minerals.
Variation in species diversity along environmental gradient is a

major topic of ecological investigation and has been explained by reference
to climate, productivity, biotic interaction, habitat heterogeneity and history
(Givnish, 1999; Willig et al., 2003; Currie and Francis, 2004; Gonzalez-
Espinosa et al., 2004; Qian and Ricklefs, 2004; Bohra et al., 2010).
Mountain ecosystems around the globe usually have distinct biological
communities and high level of endemism due to their topography and
history (Gentry, 1993). Hence, the existence of distinct forest types is
indication of diversity in climatic and edaphic factors. The plant
community of a region is a function of time; however, altitude, slope,
9
latitude, aspect, rainfall and humidity play a vital role in the formation of
plant communities and their composition (Kharkwal et al., 2005).
The study of species diversity is helpful to understanding

community composition, structure, change and development (Li and Zhou,
2002). Moreover, species diversity is affected by multi-environmental
factors (Gaston, 2000; Li and Zhou, 2002; Lan, 2003 and Tang, 2004)
especially by the altitudinal gradient. The altitudinal gradient is an
important factor affecting species composition and structure (Whittaker,
1972). The change of abiotic condition (e.g. climate, soil and temperature)
along with the altitudinal gradient affects species composition and
distribution.
Himalayan biodiversity is severely threatened by natural and

anthropogenic disturbances. Forest diversity is the main source of
livelihood of people living in Uttarakhand, Central Himalaya. The
increasing population trend over the last few decades and over dependence
on plant products has led to the vast exploitation of natural flora and fauna
of this region (Uniyal et al., 2010). Forest diversity and agriculture are the
twin sources of livelihood of the people of Uttarakhand. Looping of trees
for fuel, fodder, timber, removal of forest floor biomass, edible fruits, fibre
and extensively exploited medicinal plants from these forests are not only
influence the soil, nutrient and water conditions but also influence the
climatic conditions (Singh et al., 2009).
Forests and forest wealth are equally important for sustenance of

humankind, being the natural habitat of variety of flora and fauna making it
a natural „Biodiversity Bank‟ besides its infinite role in maintain ecological
balance. Thus, it is the need of the hour to maintain and enrich the forest
resources through rehabilitation and reforestation of deforested, degraded
and unproductive lands in ecologically, economically and socially sound
ways. Fuel wood is one of the important sources of energy. It constitutes a
vital input for all productive economic activities and meeting the basic
energy requirement in both domestic and traditional industrial sector in the
rural areas (Vimal and Tyagi, 1984). Fuel wood alone accounts for about
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60% of the total fuel in the rural areas (Pandey, 2002). In the mountainous
regions of the Uttarakhand hills of Garhwal and Kumaun Himalaya, people
are fully dependent on forest resources especially for food, fodder, fuel,
shelter and other daily needs. With increasing altitude, different
compositions of forests are found, and so different plant species are used in
different altitudes for fuel in the household sector. In the household sectors
of mountain areas fuel wood is required for cooking, lighting, boiling of
water, and space heating (Bhatt and Todaria, 1990). Due to daily use of fuel
wood for energy from the forests and irrational uses of natural resources;
fuel wood has become acutely scarce, while there is substantial increase in
human and bovine population on the one hand, and decreasing forest areas
on the other. This has resulted in all kinds of plant species being used as
fuel wood (Badoni and Bhatt, 1980). Land and water resources are limited
and their wide utilization is imperative, especially for countries like India,
where population pressure is increasingly continuous (Vittala et al., 2008).
In India, habitat destruction, over exploitation, pollution and species
introduction are identified as major causes of biodiversity loss (UNEP,
2001). The anthropogenic disturbances greatly affect the biodiversity and
structural characteristics of a community. The disturbances created by these
factors determine forest dynamics and tree diversity at the local and also at
regional scales (Burslem and Whitmore, 1999; Hubbell et al., 1999). These
disturbances have been considered as an important factor structuring
communities (Sumina, 1994). Although many studies on fuel wood
consumption have been carried out in the hills of Uttarakhand, but the study
in respect of village dependence on different forest types along altitudinal
gradient and the rate of fuel wood consumption pattern has not been studied
so far in Uttarakhand. Therefore, this study assessed the actual fuel wood
consumption pattern by the villagers with increasing altitude and
availability of different forest composition.
In view of above facts, present study was mainly aimed at

vegetation analysis including dominance diversity and distribution pattern
as well as vegetation niches and competition along an altitudinal gradient.
Furthermore socio-economic study of local habitant in these areas was also
11
studied. To achieve these following objectives were set forth for present
investigation:
OBJECTIVES
1. To make an inventory of vegetation composition of different forest

sites along an altitudinal gradient.
2. To study the soil characteristic of these forest sites.
3. To examine dominance–diversity distribution pattern and niche of
dominant flora along an altitudinal gradient.
4. To study level of disturbances in the study site.
5. To carry out the socio-economic study of village in relation to forest
ecosystems.
1.1. Description of study area
1.1.1. Study area
The state of Uttarakhand is situated in the northern part of India and

share an international boundary with China in the north and Nepal in the
east. It has an area of 53483 km2 and lies between 28043‟- 31028‟ Latitudes
and 077034‟ and 81003‟Longitudes.River Western Ramganga is spring fed
river and important tributary of holy river Ganga, originated in the southern
slopes at Dudhatoli of middle Himalaya of Uttarakhand state. Dudhatoli,
north block four and southern block four lies to Garhwal forest division and
origin of various Himalaya rivers i.e., EasternNayar, Western Ramganga
and Atagard (tributary of pinder) due to this it is called as the water tower
of Uttarakhand. The river enters the plains at Kalagarh where a famous
hydroelectric dam has been constructed in 1975 responsible for the
obstruction of continuous natural flow of water in downstream.The river
flows entirely in the state of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. The length of
the Ramganga river from the source to the confluence with Ganga is
596Km. Total catchment area of the Ramganga basin is about 32493 sq
Km2. The basin is an area with amalgamation of agriculture, forest and
urban based landuse.
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A watershed of Western Ramganga of Kumaon Himalaya is
proposed for the present study. The total area of the watershed is 49 sq km
and located between 290 49‟ to 300 03‟ N latituds and 0790 16‟ to 0790 12‟ E
Longitudes.This watershed is marked with wide altitudinal range from 1000
m asl (subtropical) to ending with a summit at 3100m asl (high altitude
forests dominated by Quercus semecarpifolia and conifers) of districts
Almora, Chamoli (small part lies in the Kedarnath forest division) and
Pauri border areas of Central Himalaya in Uttarakhand state of India. The
topography of area is extremely rugged with deep gorges and gullies; those
have been carved by several small perennial streams that drain the area.
Anthropogenic disturbuance was identified as moderate in terms of herbage
removal, lopping and logging of trees and grazing. The forests of the area
are temperate and subtropical in nature with dominant vegetation type.
Owing to varied micro-climatic conditions, the vegetation of the region
differs at different forests. For quantitative analysis of vegetation of the
area, sites were selected on the basis of dominant species of the forest. Four
types of forest constituting watershed of the area were identified as (i)
Pinus roxburghii dominant forest (PRDF) (ii) Quercus leucotrichophora
dominant forest (QLDF) (iii) Quercus species dominant forest (QSDF) and
(iv) Abies kharshu dominant forest (AKDF).
1.2.Geography of the area
Tectonics plays an important role in the development of the

drainage network and landscape configuration. The present configuration of
the Western Ramganga catchment is the product of folding, thrusting,
uplifting, warping and faulting of the area in Eocene-Pleistocene times (Jha,
1996).The basin has experienced recent movement particularly in the
southwestern part, where contact fault and colluvial fan deposites have
been observed.
The high-grade Ramganga rock group of Cambrain age, comprising

mostly granites and gneiss dominated the lithology in these watersheds.
Occuring in NW-SE strip, this formation is bound by two major fracture
lines. A small portion has low-grade rock group, comprising chlorite-schist,
13
quartizite, slates and phyllorities. In this case also, strips are aligned in
NW-SE direction, separated by fracture lines.
According to the GSI seismic zone map of India, the basin area falls
within zone (II) of seismic activity and thus is likely to be affected by large
earthquakes, by a number of approximately north-south cross faults, which
have many a times even dislocated the late sediments and even some of the
terraces. It is likely that the rapid erosion and landslides in the region and
large amount of sediments and silts in the river area particularly due to
these recent tectonic activities.
1.3. Climate
The high elevation and varied topography of the study area leads
into unpredictability in weather conditions. The climate of the study area is
mainly monsoonic with moderate warm summer (mid May to mid July).
Region experienced heavy rainfall during July-September followed by cool
dry winter (November- March). The monsoon usually breaks in the first
week of June and lasts to middle September. The rainy season is marked by
heavy rains, high humidity and temperature. The winter extends from
October to March, December and January being the coldest months when
the temperature drops down to below zero especially at nights. The mean
maximum temperature varied from 27.1 (April) to 11.3°C (October and
November) and mean minimum temperature varied from 8.3 (July) to -
1.05°C (November). The average relative humidity ranged from 82.23
(August) to 63.27% (October and November).High and exposed mountain
ridges are generally windy. The winter months experiences a heavy
snowfall although intensity and during of snow cover varies year to year.
The period between April to mid-May and mid-September to
October/November represents spring and autumn season, respectively.
Heavy hailstorms, scanty rainfall, fluctuating temperature, heavy snow fall
are governing factors for life forms and distribution pattern of plants in this
area.
The mean annual rainfall was 450 mm to 765 mm during2011-13.

Temperature remains cool all around the year in higher elevation.
14
Temperature varies from below 00C during winter (November to
December) to 350C during the summer season (April - June). Frost is
common during winter season, while the higher elevation experience heavy
spells of snowfall, which may persist up to March-April in shady location.
15
Chapter-2
SOIL DYNAMICS
2.1 Introduction
Soil is a natural product of the environment. Native soil forms the

parent material by action of climate, native vegetation and microbes. The
shape of the land surface affects soil formation. It is also affected by climate,
vegetation and microbes. Soil are used to produce crops,range, timber and for
recreation. Soil is nature‟s waste disposal medium and it serves as habitat for
varied kinds of plants, birds, animals and micro-organism. Soil is basic to our
survival. Soil varies greatly in time and space. Over time-scale relevant to geo
-indicators, they have both stable characteristics and those that respond rapidly
to changing environmental conditions.
Soil is one of the most important natural resources and the biodiversity
of the region strongly depend upon soil and climatic elements. Soil also
greatly influences the productivity of agro-ecosystems. Soil resources in
Uttarakhand varies from the deep, alluvial and fertile soils of the Tarai tract to
the recently laid down alluvium of the dun valley; the thin fragile soil of the
Shivalik hills; the black soils of the temperate zone; and the arid bare soil of
the inner dry valleys. Soils in the valley bottom are more fertile than those
found on the ridge top due to the presence of a large quantity of humus;
mineral nutrients, moisture and suitable soil depth. This natural resource is
depleting gradually, day by day, as soil erosion in the area is increasing with
the increase in deforestation and degradation.
The growth of vegetation depends upon the nutrient supplying

capability of the soil (Jha et al., 1984). Soil is a valuable natural resources
base and wonderful gift of nature to the human beings supporting the survival
and sustenance of the life on the earth. For the production of food, fiber and
fuel crop, the quality soil is a prerequisite. Natural calamities, anthropogenic
activities, agricultural management practices etc. affect soil quality through
various processes. According to the National Commission on Agriculture,
every year about 6000 million tons of fertile top soil are lost due to erosion
16
from the agricultural and nonagricultural lands. Along with soil, the organic
matter, a storehouse of plant nutrients, also get lost from the agricultural
fields. It also determines the various other physical, chemical and biological
properties of soil. It is imperative to maintain the soil quality for the
sustainable crop production. Soil moisture is responsible for movement of
nutrients in soil, while soil temperature plays an important role in seed
germination and establishment of seedlings whereas, organic and mineral
matter present in soil is a major factor regulating nutrient cycling and is the
reservoir of nitrogen, phosphorus and other minerals.
Soil organic matter (SOM) is a major terrestrial pool for carbon,

nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus and sulphur and the cycling and availability
of these elements are constantly being changed by microbial immobilization
and mineralization (Hillel, 1991).SOM content also changed with organic
matter inputs (litter) and its decomposition (Bot and Benites, 2005). Plant
growth in any ecosystem significantly affected by the nutrient pool of the soil
(Parfitt et al., 2005) and its maintenance or improvement is an important
objective for any sustainable system (Gregorichet al., 1997).
Organic matter includes plant or animal material that returns to the soil
and goes through decomposition process (Alexandra and Benites, 2005). Soil
organic matter influences physiochemical characteristics of the soil such as
soil pH, water holding capacity, texture and nutrient availability (Johnston,
1986). The nutrients thus, returned in the soil, exerts a strong feedback on the
ecosystem processes (Pastor et al., 1984). Depending on the changes
happening to soil organic matter, soil can act as sink or as a source for carbon
in the atmosphere (Dey, 2005). Nutrient supply varies widely among
ecosystems (Binkley and Vitousek, 1989), resulting in differences in plant
community structure and production (Odiwe and Muoghalu, 2003). Organic
matter supplies energy and cell building constituents for most microorganisms
(Allison, 1973) and is a critical factor in soil fertility (Prescott et al., 2004).
17
2.2 Review of Literature
Soil properties directly influence the vegetation and its regeneration
potential. In Garhwal Himalaya various workers assessed the soil features in
context of forest diversity and composition. Bisht and Lodhiyal (2005) have
explored the Central Himalayan range in relation to the various soil aspects
and vegetation analysis. Singh et al. (2007) carried out a study in the Central
Himalaya with soil characters and resulted that the higher moisture % and
higher soil carbon was in the Northern aspect. Singh et al. (2009) reported
acidic soil with higher soil organic carbon in a mixed forest of Garhwal
Himalaya. Changes in nutrient cycling processes that arise due to change in
flora may reflect alteration in the soil microbial community related to the
differences in the quantities and qualities of inputs to the soil by different
species of plants (Westover and Kelley, 1997; Grierson and Adams, 2000).
Vegetation plays an important role in soil formation (Chapman and

Reiss, 1992). Plant tissues (from above ground litter and below ground root
detritus) are the main source of soil organic matter (SOM), which influences
physio chemical characteristics of soil such as pH, water holding capacity
(WHC), texture and nutrient availability (Johnston, 1986). Nutrient supply
varies widely among ecosystems (Binkley and Vitousek, 1989), resulting in
differences in plant community structure and production (Ruess and Innis
1977). Soil properties in relation to forest cover worldwide have been
investigated by Six et al.(2000), Saggar et al. (2001), Tessier et al. (2003),
Westman et al. (2003), Haubensak and Parker (2004), Nziguheba et al.(2005)
etc. Several studies have been conducted to relate different soil physical
properties and production of various plant species and extensive literature has
been compiled by Hillel (1972), Lal and Greenland (1979), Larson et al.
(1989), Ghildiyal and Gupta (1991) and Ouwerkerk (1991).
According to Sexana and Singh(1982), Himalaya offers and array of

forest types below the timber line, and is cradle of major river of India
harbouring a network of catchments areas. As the catchments efficiency
depends upon the type, quality and stratification of forest vegetation, a
quantitative evaluation of its vegetation is pre requisite. Besides, socio-
18
economic surveys of people residing in watershed needs to be observe with
main emphasis on relationship between forest and livelihood options.
Effect of aspects and soil on the structure of oak natural stands was
studied by Dhanaiet al. (2000) and found the soil of Quercus leucotrichophora
forests on various aspects had moderate soil pH. The maximum potassium
(800 kg ha-1) and phosphorus (36.84 kg ha-1) was observed on north-east and
south-west aspects, respectively, which had supported the growth of Quercus
leucotrichophora forests on these aspects. Austin et al. (1996) have analyzed
association between species richness, climate, slope position and soil nutrient
status. Many types of environmental changes influence the process that can
both augment or erode diversity (Sagaret al., 2003).
In a Central Himalayan forest study, Singh et al., (2007) recorded that

moisture ranged from 32.29 to 45.14% in northern aspect and 30.12% in
southern aspect. Soil carbon ranged 1.3 to 2.9% in northern aspect and 0.8 to
2.3% in southern aspect. They also concluded that the forests close to the
human habitations have suffered much damage than the sites far from the
human settlements. The soil pH of oak forest was found acidic, soil organic
carbon (SOC) was higher in oak forest than other forest and Nitrogen
decreased with increasing altitudes was the major findings of the study carried
out by Singh et al., (2009).
Effect of micro site variation on four important multipurpose shrub

species of Himalaya was examined by Singh et al. (2006). The results showed
that the flowering phase was enhanced in Woodfordia and Debregeasia
species at certain sites due to minute temperature variations.
Khumbongamyum et al. (2005) used different microenviornmental variables
such as light intensity, soil moisture, water-holding capacity (%), soil texture
and soil pH and their effect on the seedling regeneration, development and
growth. They concluded that, variation in the nutrient supply, light intensity
and microenviornmental conditions in the gaps and understory plays an
important role in differential growth behaviour of different tree species
seedlings.
19
Micro environment conditions may differ according to aspect, slope,
soil character and convex and concave ground surface of the forests. Diversity
of life forms usually decreased with increasing altitude and one or two life
forms remain at extreme altitudes (Pavon et al., 2000). Altitude itself
represents a complex combination of related climate variables closely
correlated with numerous other environmental properties (Soil texture,
nutrients, substrate stability, etc.) (Ramsay and Oxley, 1997). Within one
altitude the co factors like topography, aspect, inclination of slope and soil
type further effect the forest composition (Holland and Steyn, 1975).
2.3 Materials and Methods
The composite soil samples were taken seasonally from each site. Each
sample will consists of specific depth from the surface 0–10 cm (upper depth),
10-20 cm (middle depth) and 20–30 cm (lower depth). As such, on each
sampling date, samples were collected and mixed depth-wise so as to obtain
three composite samples. The sample were tightly packed in plastic bags with
field details and brought to laboratory for analyzing physical and chemical
properties.
2.3.1 Physical parameters of the soil

2.3.1.1 Soil colour
The colour of soil was worked out directly with Munsell‟s Soil Colour
Chart (Munsell Color Division, Kollmorgen Corporation, Baltimore,
Maryland– 24218, USA, 1971).
2.3.1.2 Soil Temperature
Soil temperature was be measured at 10 cm depth on each sampling

date at 8 am, 12 noon and 4 pm by using soil thermometer (Soil Analysis Field
Kit, Forestry Suppliers, Inc.).
2.3.1.3 Water holding capacity (WHC)
20
Oven dried soil were weighed and put in to the box made up of
Whatman filter paper and weighed again. Theses boxes then placed in half
dipped in water tray for 12 hours and finally weighed with water saturated
soil. Absorbed water content at saturated condition was calculated as per Goel
and Trivedi (1992) as follows:
( )
Where V1 = volume of water poured, and V2 = volume of water

retained by the soil.
2.3.1.4 Soil moisture content

Soil samples collected on seasonally interval basis and fresh weight were
taken for each sample, and then the samples were oven dried at 105 0C for
constant weight. Oven dried samples were re-weighed. The loss of weight (water
loss) was converted in to percentage following Goel and Trivedi (1992) method
as:
2.3.1.5 Soil texture
Soil texture was observed by using sieves of different pore sizes.

Textural classes viz., Pebble, Gravel, Coarse sand, Very fine sand and mixed
ratio of Silt and Clay were expressed in percentage of total dry weight of the
samples on account of the standard sizes as described in the Sand Shaker
Mechanical Sieve Field Analysis Kit, Geotech Installation Manual, Geotech
Environmental Equipment, Inc. Colorado.
2.3.2 Chemical parameters of soil
2.3.2.1 Soil pH
21
Soil pH was estimated as per Goel and Trivedi (1992). Digital pH
meter (Control Dynamics, Model – AP X 175 E/C) will be used for the
purpose.
Dried soil samples were passed through 2 mm sieve. Soil suspension

was prepared with 1:5 ratio (1 gm of soil and 5 ml of double distilled water)
and well stirred for 15 minutes on magnetic stirrer. The content then was
allowed to settle down for 45 minutes and the clear solution was used to
measure pH with help of electrometric method (Environmental and Scientific
Instrument Corporation, Model – 1012 E).
2.3.2.2 Soil organic carbon

Soil organic carbon was estimated following Okalebo et al. (1993). 0.5
gm of ground (60 meshes) soil were first digested into a block digester tube
(sample weight) and partially oxidised with an acidified potassium dichromate
solution (K2Cr2O7). To standardize the soil quantity, 5 ml of 5% K2Cr2O7 was
added followed by the addition of 7.5 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid
(H2SO4). The reaction mixture was allowed to cool at room temperature. After
cooling, 50 ml of 0.4% of barium chloride (BaCl 2) was added and mixed
thoroughly. This mixture was kept overnight so that a clear solution can be
taken from the top to take absorbance at 600 nm against blank. Percent OC
was calculated as follows:
Where K is standard value and W is the weight of the sample in grams
2.3.2.3 Soil organic matter

Soil organic matter (SOM) was calculated as per the method of
Walkley and Black (1934).
% organic matter = % carbon x 1.724
Where, 1.724 is the Van Bemmelen factor i.e. based on the assumption
that carbon is only 58% of the organic matter present in the soil.
22
2.3.2.4 Total nitrogen
0.4 gmof 2 mm mesh sieved soil sample was taken and 4.4 ml of the
mixed digestion reagent (0.42 gm selenium powder +14 gm lithium sulphate
+350 ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide) was added. 420 ml of concentrated
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) was added slowly to this mixture while keeping the
mixture on ice bath. Thereafter, the mixture was heated for 15 minutes on a
hot plate and then allowed to cool at room temperature. After cooling, 50 ml
of double distilled water was added and then filtered with filter paper
(Whatman No. 1). The digested soil sample (10 ml) was then processed
through steam distillation in the presence of alkali (10 ml of 40% NaOH) by
Micro-Kjedahl method. The ammonia liberated during the process was passed
through 5 ml of 1% boric acid mixture (1 gm boric acid with 100 ml of double
distilled water) followed by the addition of 4 drop of indicator solution (weigh
0.099 gm Bromocresol Green, 0.066 gm Methyl Red, 0.011 gm Thymol Blue
and dissolve with shaking in 100 ml Ethanol). The liberated ammonia was
finally titrated with standard N/70 HCl and total nitrogen content (%) in the
soil was calculated using following the method of Allens (1974).
x 0.2
Corrected ml of N/70 HCl = plant tissue titrate of N/70 HCl – reagent

blank titrate of N/70 HCl.
2.3.2.5 Available phosphorus (P)
The available phosphorus content was estimated by following the

method of Olsen et al. (1954). 1 gm of soil sample was mixed with a pinch of
Darco G 60 and 20 ml of Olsen‟s reagent to prepare the soil digest. The
mixture then stirred for 30 minutes on magnetic stirrer and then filtered
(Whatman No. 1). Thereafter, 5 ml of this solution was acidified to pH 5.0
with 2.5 M H2SO4. 20 ml of distilled water with 4 ml of reagent B was added
to this extract. After 15 minutes absorbance of the sample was measured at
882 nm using the Spectrophotometer (Beckman DU-640) against reagent
23
blank. Two ppm Potassium Dihydrogen Orthophosphate (KH2PO4) solution
was used as standard. The reagents used were:
Sodium bicarbonate (Olsen‟s reagent) 0.5 M, pH 8.5 – 84 gm NaHCO3
was dissolved in double distilled water (50 ml) and 2 litre volume was made.
Reagent A was made up by adding Ammonium Molybdate {(NH4)
Mo7.4H2O} was dissolved in 50 ml of double distilled water. 29 mg of
Antimony Potassium tartrate {K(SbO) C4H4.1/2H2O} was dissolved in 10 ml
water. Both the solutions were then mixed with 100 ml of 2.5 M H2SO4 and
final volume was made up to 200 ml. Reagent B was made by adding 105.6
mg ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) and fresh solution of reagent A.
Available Phosphorus content was calculated as follows:
( )
( )
Where c = μ g P in the digest (obtained from standard curve)
2.3.2.6 Exchangeable potassium (K)
Available potassium was determined in an ammonium acetate extract

from 1 gm. 2 mm mesh sieved soil following Jackson, (1967). 1 gm of soil
sample was added with 5 ml of ammonium acetate solution of 1.0 N (adding 5.7
ml of glacial acetate acid (CH3COOH) and 6.9 ml conc. ammonium hydroxide
(NH4OH) in 40 ml of double distilled water) and centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 12
minutes. Thereafter, the pH was maintained at 7.0 by adding 3 N acetic acid
(CH3COOH) and 3 N ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). The supernatant obtained
was used for the determination of potassium. For accuracy, 3 extractions of one
sample were prepared, mixed and final volume was maintained up to 20 ml by
adding ammonium acetate solution. The concentration ranges were prepared by
diluting the extract with 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 ml of extract up to 20 ml with
ammonium acetate solution. Potassium chloride was used as standard.
Exchangeable potassium in extract was calculated as follows:
( )
24
Where c is the corrected concentration for sample solution (in ppm K).
2.4 Results
2.4.1 Soil physical characters
2.4.1.1 Soil Colour
Soil physical characters varied with the altitudinal gradient. In the present
investigation soil have a tendency to distinct variations in colour both horizontally
and vertically (Table 2.1). The colouring occurs because of variety of factors. The
colour of the soil of study area with relation to three depths showed variation in
colour. It ranged from Brown (0-10 cm, 20-30 cm at PRDF north aspect and 0-10
cm at QLDF ),Reddish brown (10-20 cm at PRDF, 10-20 cm and 20-30 cm at
QLDF ), Dull reddish brown(0-10 cm,10-20 cm,20-30 cm at PRDF south aspect ,
0-10 cm,10-20 cm,20-30 cm atQLDF south aspect and 10-20 cm at AKDF), Dark
reddish brown(0-10 cm , 10-20 cm, 20-30 cm , 0-10 cm,10-20 cm,20-30 cm at
QSDF north and south aspect and 0-10 cm, 10-20 cm, 20-30 cm at AKDF south
aspect ),and Greyish Brown (0-10 cm, 20-30 cm atAKDF north aspect).
Table 2.1 Variation in colour of the soil at all forests in three different depth.
Forests Soil depth Soil Colour

Upper 7.5YR 4/4 Brown
PRDF (North aspect) Middle 5 YR 5/4 Reddish Brown
Lower 7.5 YR 4/4 Brown
PRDF (South aspect) Upper 2.5 YR 4/4 Dull Redish Brown
Middle 2..5 YR 4/4 Dull Redish Brown
Lower 5 YR 4/4 Dull Redish Brown
Upper 7.5 YR 4/4 Brown
QRDF (North aspect) Middle 5 YR 5/4 Reddish Brown
Lower 5 YR 5/4 Reddish Brown
QRDF (South aspect) Upper 2.5 YR 4/4 Dull Reddish Brown
Middle 2.4YR 4/4 Dull Reddish Brown
Lower 2.5 4/4 Dull Reddish Brown
Upper 5 YR 4/4 Dark Redish Brown
QSDF (North aspect) Middle 5 YR 4/4 Dark Redish Brown
Lower 5 YR 4/4 Dark Redish Brown
QSDF (South aspect) Upper 2.5 YR 3/2 Dark Redish Brown
Middle 5 YR 3/4 Dark Redish Brown
Lower 2.5 YR 3/2 Dark Redish Brown
Upper 5YR 5/2 Grayish Brown
AKDF (North aspect) Middle 5YR 3/4 Dull Reddish Brown
Lower 5YR5/2 Grayish Brown
25
AKDF (South aspect) Upper 2.5 YR 3/2 Dark Redish Brown
Middle 5 YR 3/2 Dark Redish Brown
Lower 5 YR 4/4 Dark Redish Brown
2.4.1.2 Soil Texture
Soil texture is the relative volume of sand, silt and clay particle in a
soil. Soils of the study area had high proportion of sand followed by clay and
low silt percent. A soil of the study area therefore was categorized under very
fine sand (Table 2.2).
Table 2.2 Soil texture at different depth and forest sites.
Soil Composition (%)

Very Textu
Soil Coarse Medium fine re
Forests Depth Pebble Gravel Sand Sand Sand Silt Clay Type
PRDF Upper 2.07 15.42 4.46 15.14 48.63 5.93 8.35
North aspect Middle 1.37 15.12 6.12 16.24 48.13 5.7 7.32 Very
fine
Lower 3.17 24.08 5.13 10.16 45.29 6.74 5.43
sand
Mean ± Sd 2.2±0.90 18.2±5.08 5.236±0.83 13.84±3.23 47.35±1.8 6.123±0.54 7.03±1.4
PRDF Upper 5.46 15.3 3.12 9.68 50.43 7.55 8.46
South aspect Middle 5.57 11.44 3.81 8.4 56.19 8.5 6.18 Very
fine
Lower 0.00 14.91 2.26 10.06 56.93 9.17 6.67
sand
Mean ± Sd 5.5±0.07 13.8±2.12 3.06±0.77 9.38±0.86 54.5±3.55 8.40±0.81 7.1±1.20
QLDF Upper 2.88 8.27 6.81 9.53 46.95 14.27 11.74
fine
Lower 1.23 8.11 8.96 7.63 50.88 12.28 10.91
sand
Mean ± Sd 1.7±0.97 8.33±0.25 8.13±1.15 7.94±1.45 48.9±1.96 13.3±0.99 11.7±0.86
QLDF Upper 0.00 5.66 6.12 21.74 51.07 6.94 8.47
fine
Lower 3.12 9.25 9.09 19.97 35.46 9.44 13.67
sand
Mean ± Sd 3.1±1.80 8.84±2.99 7.06±1.75 20.53±1.04 43.5±7.82 8.06±1.26 10.9±2.65
QSDF Upper 3.09 3.14 2.2 13.62 51.43 14.78 11.74
fine
Lower 3.17 6.87 3.16 9.53 54.24 14.72 8.31
sand
Mean ± Sd 3.6±0.92 5.30±1.93 2.61±0.49 11.09±2.20 52.5±1.48 14.28±0.80 10.4±1.88
QSDF Upper 1.56 4.42 3.19 10.8 54.16 11.13 14.74
fine
Lower 1.17 5.47 3.89 11.36 59.04 8.42 10.65
sand
Mean ± Sd 1.3±0.27 5.07±0.57 3.50±0.35 10.74±0.64 57.2±2.67 9.24±1.63 13.2±2.28
AKDF Upper 0.00 10.18 6.94 10.25 49.28 12.14 11.21
fine
Lower 0.00 12.9 4.38 7.16 45.12 14.13 16.35
sand
Mean ± Sd 4.7±2.71 13.1±3.17 5.27±1.44 7.46±2.64 44.4±5.13 14.96±3.31 13.0±2.82
AKDF Upper 0.00 4.42 3.06 9.91 62.85 6.46 13.27
fine
Lower 0.00 5.8 2.06 6.3 64.15 5.56 16.13
sand
Mean ± Sd 0±0 4.74±0.94 3±0.91 8.45±1.90 62.6±1.65 6.31±0.69 14.8±1.45
26
2.4.1.3 Soil Temperature
Soil temperature depends on the amount of heat reaching the soil
surface and dissipation of heat in soil. At PRDF, the maximum soil
temperature recorded in the rainy season (280 C) while it was lowest in winter
season (120 C).At QLDF, soil temperature varied between 90 C lowest in
winter season to 240 C highest in summer season. At QSDF ranged from 8 0 C
to 210C in winter and summer season, respectively. Maximum soil
temperature at AKDF was 180 C in summer season while it was minimum 70 C
in winter season, respectively (Figure 3).
30
25
TEMPERATURE
20
15
Minimum
10 Maximum
0
PRDF QLDF QSDF AKDF
FOREST SITES
Figure 3. Soil temperature at all forest sites
2.4.1.4 Soil Moisture
Moisture has a big influence on soil‟s ability to compact. Some soils

won‟t compact well until moisture is 7-8 per cent. Concerning the soil
moisture % in study area at PRDF, the higher moisture % was achieved by the
upper soil depth (0-10 cm.). At north aspect maximum (25.68 %) moisture
was found in upper soil depth in rainy season of first year and in the south
aspect also the upper soil depth showed maximum (24.72%) soil moisture
percentage was found in rainy season of first year. In QLDF, the moisture %
was highest (29.17 %) in the upper soil depth (0-10 cm) at north aspect in
27
rainy season of first year and lowest (11.82 %) in the lower soil depth (20-30
cm.) at south aspect in summer season of first year. Soil moisture % was
recorded maximum (33.12 %) in the middle soil depth (10-20 cm.) of north
aspect in rainy season of first year and minimum (14.03) in the middle soil
depth (10-20 cm.) of south aspect in summer season of first year at QSDF.
AKDF the north aspect moisture percentage was highest (42.41) at lower soil
depth (20-30 cm) in rainy season of first year while lowest moisture
percentage (15.53) at lower soil depth (20-30 cm) in summer season of second
year.
Concerning both aspect of the all forests, among the physical attributes
the north aspect showed the higher value for moisture percentage in mostly (0-
10 cm) upper soil depth (Table 2.3).
Table 2.3 Soil moisture during different seasons at different sites.
Soil Moisture (%)

Soil
Depth Summer Rainy Winter Summer Rainy Winter
Forests 2011 2011 2012 2012 2012 2013
PRDF Upper 8.456 25.68 12.51 7.08 21.2 10.87
North aspect Middle 8.372 24.91 12.61 8.12 22.5 9.21
Lower 7.412 23.02 11.28 7.09 22.9 9.32
Mean ±Sd 8.11 ±0.60 24.54±1.37 12.13±0.74 7.43±0.597 22.2±0.89 9.8±0.93
PRDF Upper 8.124 24.72 12.41 8.17 15.5 11.05
South aspect Middle 8.141 23.93 11.23 8.02 16.3 10.27
Lower 7.211 22.04 10.91 6.08 17 9.83
Mean ±Sd 7.83±0.53 23.56±1.38 11.52±0.79 7.43±1.17 16.26±0.75 10.38±0.161
QLDF Upper 12.83 29.17 19.12 10.2 24.7 18.17
Lower 12.41 26.13 18.69 10.8 24.2 17.11
Mean±Sd 12.78±0.347 27.82±1.15 18.65±0.48 17.83±0.65 24.57±0.32 17.49±0.58
QLDF Upper 11.98 27.12 18.13 10.8 26.6 17.16
Lower 11.82 27.17 17.09 11.2 25.6 16.19
Mean ±Sd 11.91±0.080 22.47±0.56 17.42±0.62 16.44±0.93 24.57±0.32 16.83±0.55
QSDF Upper 16.15 32.16 19.15 14.5 28.16 17.13
Lower 16.05 32.05 19.05 13.6 27.08 16.93
Mean±Sd 16.086±0.055 32.44±0.59 19.08±0.55 19.53±0.058 27.75±0.59 16.99±0.12
QSDF Upper 15.05 31.2 18.02 17.4 26.12 16.97
Lower 14.08 29.13 16.87 18 25.98 16.61
Mean ±Sd 14.39±0.57 30.16±1.035 17.34±0.61 17.77±0.32 26.04±0.07 16.81±0.18
AKDF Upper 17.6 40.21 24.18 17.1 36.17 26.14
North aspect Middle 18 40.69 22.23 17.5 35.82 25.21
Lower 18.5 42.41 21.22 18 35.35 25.12
Mean ±Sd 18.03±0.45 41.10±1.16 22.54±1.51 17.6±0.36 35.78±0.41 25.49±0.57
28
AKDF Upper 18.2 42.23 23.14 16.92 35.16 24.26
Lower 17.4 45.1 20.12 15.53 35.72 24.06
Mean±Sd 17.97±0.49 42.49±2.48 21.51±1.53 16.10±0.73 35.71±0.54 24.5±0.59
2.4.1.5 Water Holding Capacity
Water holding capacity ranged between 23.02 to 57.36% in north

aspect and 24.14 to 55.21% in the south aspect at PRDF. QLDF water holding
capacity percentage was also found more in the north aspect compared to
south aspect. It ranged between 29.12 to 70.6% in the north aspect and 25.19
to 65.2%in the south aspect, respectively. Water holding capacity of the soil
ranged between 62.5 to 90.9% in the north aspect and 48.2 to 87.8% in the
south aspect at QSDF. Further AKDF water holding capacity ranged between
61.33 to 95.3% in the north aspect and 63.18 to 93.8 % in south aspect (Table
2.4).
Table 2.4 Soil water holding capacity (WHC %) at all forests.
Water Holding Capacity (WHC %)

Soil Summer Rainy Winter Summer Rainy Winter
Forests Depth 2011 2011 2012 2012 2012 2013
PRDF Upper 33.94 41.8 35.23 39.87 57.36 29.17
Lower 28.01 39.7 30.19 34.29 45.48 25.67
Mean ±Sd 28.32±5.47 40.23±1.38 32.53±2.54 36.73±2.86 52.19±6.09 27.12±1.83
PRDF Upper 24.45 37.7 32.12 36.28 54.37 28.19
Lower 25.74 36.7 29.21 30.25 53.52 28.21
Mean±Sd 26.033±1.74 36.67±1.05 30.50±1.48 33.25±3.016 54.37±0.85 26.84±2.34
QLDF Upper 39.64 70.6 40 32.68 55.51 37.87
Lower 32.08 65 36.5 29.12 43.78 33.48
Mean ±Sd 35.47±3.84 67.57±2.83 38.53±1.82 30.76±1.79 49.2±5.92 35.19±2.35
QLDF Upper 35.93 65.2 38.2 30.58 52.43 34.43
Lower 36.21 61.1 32.1 25.19 44.21 31.58
Mean ±Sd 36.18±1.37 62.71±2.19 35.7±3.19 27.33±2.86 48.26±4.11 33.39±1.57
QSDF Upper 78.96 90.9 65.6 74.12 84.37 57.35
Lower 71.08 75.3 62.5 68.41 71.45 43.78
Mean±Sd 74.067±4.27 80.97±8.63 64.1±1.55 71.4±2.87 75.55±7.64 51.67±7.049
QSDF Upper 74.81 87.8 51.2 71.21 80.51 55.51
Lower 68.67 74.6 48.2 70.19 71.2 48.31
Mean ±Sd 71.58±3.08 80.23±6.80 49.6±1.509 71.33±1.21 75.99±4.66 52.57±3.76
29
AKDF Upper 86.76 95.3 88.8 81.24 91.4 77.22
Lower 87.2 76.3 73.9 76.28 88.5 61.33
Mean ±Sd 80.04±5.09 82.63±10.6 78.46±8.96 78.97±2.50 90.033±1.45 68.64±8.020
AKDF Upper 85.28 93.8 71.6 81.72 89 76.65
Lower 78.16 79.2 69.1 74.31 83.41 63.18
Mean ±Sd 81.58±3.57 84.73±7.91 69.1±1.93 77.81±3.72 86.37±2.80 69.34±6.86
2.4.2 Chemical parameters of soil
2.4.2.1 Soil pH
The pH also varied from site to site during the course of the present
investigation. The soil of the study area was acidic. The chemical character of
soil, in the north aspect soil pH ranged between 6.1 to 7.1 and 6.4 to 6.9in the
south aspect at PRDF. In QLDF of north aspect pH value was 5.1 to 5.6 and
5.2 to 5.6 in south aspect, respectively. The pH values ranged between 5.00 to
5.9 in the north aspect and same value in south aspect at QSDF. At AKDF the
pH value was 5.0 to 5.4 in north aspect while in the south aspect, it ranged
between 5.5 to 6.00 (Table 2.5 ).
Table 2.5 Soil pH during different seasons at different sites.
Soil pH
Forests Depth 2011 2011 2012 2012 2012 2013
PRDF Upper 6.8 6.7 5.8 6.6 6.4 6.2
Lower 6.9 6.9 5.5 6.6 6.5 6.1
Mean ±Sd 6.93±0.153 6.83±0.114 5.63±0.153 6.63±0.058 6.5±0.1 6.13±0.57
PRDF Upper 6.9 6.8 6.7 6.5 6.7 6.4
Lower 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.6 6.6 6.5
Mean ±Sd 6.83±0.0578 6.77±0.058 6.7±0.1 6.5±0.058 6.6±0.058 6.5±0.1
QLDF Upper 5.5 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.5
Lower 5.4 6 5.6 5.4 5.8 5.6
Mean ±Sd 5.47±0.058 5.5±0.46 5.5±0.1 5.47±0.12 5.64±0.152 5.5±0.1
QLDF Upper 5.2 5.5 5.6 5.2 5.4 5.5
Lower 5.2 5.6 5.5 5.3 5.5 5.6
Mean ±Sd 5.27±0.115 5.53±0.058 5.5±0.1 5.23±0.058 5.47±0.058 5.57±0.058
QSDF Upper 5.9 5 5 5.8 5.2 5.3
Lower 6 5.6 5.6 5.9 5.3 5.4
Mean ±Sd 5.9±0.1 5.23±0.321 5.3±0.34 5.83±0.058 5.23±0.058 5.43±0.0153
30
QSDF Upper 5.4 5.6 5.2 5.3 5.5 5.2
South aspect Middle 5 5.7 5.3 5.2 5.6 5.4
Lower 5.1 5.9 5.4 5.2 5.8 5.4
Mean ±Sd 5.167±0.208 5.7±0.155 5.3±0.1 5.23±0.058 5.633±0.153 5.33±0.116
AKDF Upper 5.4 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.2 5.2
Lower 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.1 5.2
Mean ±Sd 5.1±0.264 5.133±0.058 5.13±0.058 5.23±0.115 5.167±0.058 5.23±0.056
AKDF Upper 6 5.8 5.9 5.7 5.8 5.7
Lower 5.7 5.8 6 5.7 5.6 5.5
Mean ±Sd 5.8±0.173 5.77±0.058 5.9±0.1 5.7±0.058 5.73±0.115 5.6±0.1
2.4.2.2 Organic Carbon
Soil organic carbon (SOC) varied with depth as well season wise. In
rainy season, high percentage of organic carbon was present in upper depth
1.885% at PRDF and 0.545% in lowest in lower depth in summer season of
first year at north aspect. While, 0.73% (lower depth) to 1.31% (upper depth)
was found in the south aspect at PRDF. In QLDF, organic carbon %, it ranged
from 0.9% (lower depth) to 1.87% (upper depth) in the north aspect and from
0.87 % (lower depth) to 2.5% (upper depth) in the south aspect and at QSDF
organic carbon % was found maximum (4.381%) in the upper soil depth (0-10
cm.) of south aspect in winter season of second year and minimum (1.10%)
was found in the lower soil depth (20-30 cm.) at south aspect. At AKDF
highest organic carbon % was observed in the north aspect and it was 4.564.
While, lowest organic carbon (1.32%) was found in the south aspect (Table
2.6).
Table 2.6 Organic Carbon content during different season at forest

sites.
Organic Carbon ( %)
Forests Depth 2011 2011 2012 2012 2012 2013
PRDF Upper 0.974 1.885 1.05 1.142 1.389 1.27

Lower 0.545 1.136 0.9 0.834 1.213 0.84
Mean ±Sd 0.74±0.217 1.48±0.37 0.95±0.086 0.98±0.154 1.41±0.208 1.07±0.21
PRDF Upper 1.206 1.09 0.9 0.92 1.136 1.31
Lower 0.823 0.783 0.9 0.734 0.983 0.94
31
Mean ±Sd 1.05±0.202 0.94±0.155 0.85±0.086 0.82±0.093 1.09±0.102 1.06±0.21
QLDF Upper 1.875 1.635 1.275 1.119 1.546 1.321
Lower 1.676 1.404 0.9 0.774 1.504 1.321
Mean ±Sd 1.71±0.142 1.48±0.133 1.07±0.18 0.95±0.172 1.45±0.119 1.35±0.052
QLDF Upper 1.624 1.504 1.15 2.5 1.631 1.091
Lower 1.582 1.621 1.15 1.604 1.524 0.87
Mean ±Sd 1.54±0.107 1.56±0.058 1.42±0.47 2.15±0.48 1.49±0.15 0.96±0.11
QSDF Upper 3.312 3.433 2.15 2.238 3.628 4.247
Lower 2.575 1.948 2.11 1.89 2.109 2.321
Mean ±Sd 2.88±0.38 2.56±0.77 2.14±0.026 2.03±0.18 2.61±0.87 2.657±1.451
QSDF Upper 3.321 3.325 2.32 1.126 3.132 4.381
Lower 2.134 1.614 1.94 1.102 1.418 2.841
Mean ±Sd 2.64±0.61 2.38±0.86 2.14±0.19 1.19±0.132 2.22±0.86 3.51±0.78
AKDF Upper 3.549 4.292 2.42 3.783 4.564 2.933
Lower 3.236 3.196 2.16 2.083 3.225 1.928
Mean ±Sd 3.39±0.15 3.77±0.54 2.38±0.20 3.07±0.88 3.80±0.68 2.13±0.71
AKDF Upper 3.433 4.128 2.13 3.328 3.892 2.341
Lower 2.964 3.101 2.13 2.103 3.421 1.537
Mean ±Sd 3.12±0.27 3.61±0.51 2.12±0.01 2.85±0.65 3.58±0.26 1.73±0.53
2.4.2.3 Nitrogen (%)
Nitrogen is an essential for all growth processes in plants, especially in cold

region. Nitrogen concentration in soil slightly fluctuated form site to site and
ranged from 0.18 to 0.26 % in north aspect and, 0.16 to 0.26 % in south aspect
at PRDF, 0.15 to 0.25% in north aspect and, 0.18 to 0.24 % in south aspect at
QLDF, 0.17 to 0.364% in north aspect and, 0.12 to 0.312 % in south aspect at
QSDF and 0.20 to 0.341% in north aspect and, 0.21 to 0.397 % in south aspect
at AKDF. Nitrogen concentration among the sites was a maximum for AKDF
(0.397%) in upper layer of summer season (first year) and minimum (0.12%)
south aspect lower layer at QLDF in summer season (second year) table 2.7.
32
Table 2.7 Nitrogen content during different seasons.
Nitrogen (%)
Forests Depth 2011 2011 2012 2012 2012 2013
PRDF Upper 0.23 0.19 0.25 0.22 0.18 0.27
Lower 0.20 0.18 0.23 0.2 0.18 0.22
Mean ± Sd 0.21± 0.01 0.18± 0.005 0.23± 0.02 0.20± 0.01 0.18± 0.05 0.25± 0.02
PRDF Upper 0.24 0.18 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.23
Lower 0.16 0.16 0.22 0.21 0.22 0.21
Mean ± Sd 0.21± 0.03 0.17± 0.01 0.23± 0.01 0.22± 0.01 0.20±0.01 0.23±0.02
QLDF Upper 0.20 0.21 0.24 0.2 0.21 0.23
North
aspect Middle 0.19 0.2 0.21 0.19 0.21 0.22
Lower 0.15 0.19 0.21 0.15 0.2 0.25
Mean ± Sd 0.18±0.02 0.20±0.01 0.22±0.01 0.18±0.02 0.20±0.005 0.213±0.01
QLDF Upper 0.19 0.2 0.22 0.2 0.23 0.24
Lower 0.18 0.19 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.19
Mean ± Sd 0.18±0.005 0.19±0.01 0.20±0.01 0.20±0.01 0.22±0.01 0.21±0.02
QSDF Upper 0.36 0.19 0.21 0.2 0.21 0.2
Lower 0.25 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.17
Mean ± Sd 030±0.05 0.17±0.01 0.18±0.02 0.18±0.01 0.19±0.01 0.18±0.01
QSDF Upper 0.31 0.24 0.26 0.18 0.25 0.24
Lower 0.24 0.22 0.23 0.12 0.24 0.22
Mean ± Sd 0.28±0.03 0.22±0.01 0.25±0.02 0.15±0.03 0.24±0.01 0.22±0.01
AKDF Upper 0.34 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23
Lower 0.26 0.2 0.21 0.2 0.25 0.22
Mean ± Sd 0.30±0.03 0.21±0.01 0.22±0.01 0.21±0.01 0.24±0.01 0.22±0.05
AKDF Upper 0.39 0.27 0.24 0.29 0.26 0.24
Lower 0.26 0.22 0.21 0.28 0.24 0.21
Mean ± Sd 0.32±0.06 0.24±0.02 0.22±0.01 0.28±0.01 0.25±0.01 0.22±0.01
2.4.2.4 Phosphorus(kg ha-1)

The values of soil available phosphorus (kg ha-1) are shown in table
2.8. The phosphorus contain ranged from 7.82 to 37.98 kg ha-1 at north aspect
and 4.89 to 36.23kg ha-1 at south aspect in PRDF, 8.78 to 26.44 kg ha-1at
north aspect and 9.74 to 19.93kg ha-1 in south aspect in QLDF, 10.40 to
22.77kg ha-1 at north aspect, 7.95 to 21.11kg ha-1 at south aspect in QSDF and
8.78 to 23.51 kg ha-1at north aspect, 11.01 to 27.27kg ha-1 at south aspect in
AKDF. Soil phosphorus was highest recorded (37.98 kg ha-1) in the upper soil
33
depth (0-10 cm) in PRDF and lowest (4.89 kg ha-1) in the middle soil depth
(10-20 cm) at north aspect in PRDF.
Table 2.8 Phosphorus (kg ha-1) content during different season at forest sites.
Available Phosphorus (Kg ha-1)

Forests Depth 2011 2011 2012 2012 2012 2013
PRDF Upper 37.98 20.19 16.78 30.38 16.65 15.20
North
aspect Middle 31.86 16.25 13.02 32.63 8.78 11.45
Lower 31.33 11.40 37.23 31.51 7.82 9.30
Mean ± Sd 33.72±3.69 15.94±4.40 22.34±13.02 31.50±1.12 11.08±4.84 11.98±2.98
PRDF Upper 36.23 17.22 14.68 35.00 16.34 12.84
South
aspect Middle 21.54 14.09 4.89 24.03 11.45 14.02
Lower 12.71 10.70 8.78 13.68 11.88 11.45
Mean ± Sd 23.49±11.88 14.00±3.26 9.45±4.92 24.23±10.66 13.22±2.70 12.77±1.28
QLDF Upper 21.54 14.29 26.44 22.9 13.02 20.19
North
aspect Middle 15.64 12.84 15.64 18.05 10.57 14.11
Lower 9.79 9.44 8.78 12.80 8.78 11.45
Mean ± Sd 15.65±5.87 12.19±2.48 16.95±8.90 17.91±5.05 10.79±2.12 15.25±4.48
QLDF Upper 19.93 18.61 14.68 18.05 14.33 15.82
South
aspect Middle 14.99 15.82 11.49 15.82 17.22 11.45
Lower 12.3 11.88 9.79 9.74 12.76 13.68
Mean ± Sd 15.74±3.86 15.43±3.38 11.98±2.48 14.53±4.30 14.77±2.26 13.65±2.18
QSDF Upper 21.54 18.96 16.65 22.77 21.54 19.79
North
aspect Middle 21.54 15.73 16.65 20.19 13.6 21.54
Lower 19.58 10.40 12.93 18.26 12.71 5.28
Mean ± Sd 20.88±1.13 15.03±4.32 15.41±2.14 20.40±2.26 15.95±4.86 15.53±8.92
QSDF Upper 21.11 15.90 14.24 18.40 17.61 16.78
South
aspect Middle 19.93 17.22 11.14 17.30 13.68 13.63
Lower 18.53 12.28 7.95 16.43 11.75 9.87
Mean ± Sd 19.85±1.29 15.13±2.55 11.11±3.14 17.37±0.98 11.75±2.98 13.42±3.45
AKDF Upper 22.52 20.19 21.33 21.45 23.51 16.65
North
aspect Middle 17.61 17.17 22.50 19.71 21.54 21.54
Lower 14.72 12.28 20.76 11.49 8.78 15.90
Mean ± Sd 18.28±3.94 16.54±3.99 21.53±0.88 17.55±5.31 17.94±7.99 18.03±3.06
AKDF Upper 20.54 22.81 27.27 22.77 18.48 19.71
South
aspect Middle 12.71 21.24 19.93 18.83 14.51 17.22
Lower 13.68 11.18 11.01 16.65 12.76 11.88
Mean ± Sd 15.64±4.26 18.41±6.31 19.40±8.14 19.41±3.10 15.25±2.93 16.27±4.00
.
34
2.4.2.5 Potassium (kg ha-1)
The potassium portion in the soil was recorded highest (466.96 kg ha-1)
in the upper soil depth (0-10 cm) and lowest (92.04 kg ha-1) in the lower soil
depth (20-30 cm) at north aspect. While maximum (426.21 kg ha-1) potassium
was recorded in upper soil depth (0-10 cm) and minimum (125.61 kg ha-1) at
lower soil depth (20-30 cm) in the south aspect at PRDF. At QLDF potassium
was recorded highest (639.8 kg ha-1) in the upper soil depth (0-10 cm) and
lowest (103.27 kg ha-1) in the lower soil depth (20-30 cm) of the north aspect
while in the south aspect, the maximum value for potassium was 389.6 kg ha-1
and minimum value was 167.87 kg ha-1.Potassium content at QSDF was found
highest (630kg ha-1) in the upper layer and (123.47kg ha-1) lowest in lower
layer of north aspect while in south aspect it ranged 152.45 kg ha-1 to 569.21
kg ha-1. Similarly at AKDF, it was containing maximum in 565.43kg ha-1upper
soil depth and 286.45kg ha-1minimummiddle soil depth in north aspect and
south aspect it was recorded 727.38kg ha-1 upper layer to 242.46kg ha-1 lower
layer in south aspect, respectively (table 2.9).
Table 2.9 Potassium content (Kg ha-1) during different season.
Potassium (Kg ha-1)

Forests depth 2011 2011 2012 2012 2012 2013
PRDF Upper 125.72 215.67 271.6 145.51 466.96 252.52
Lower 92.04 180.36 368.18 103.43 211.03 287.5
Mean ± Sd 106.26±17.44 221.15±43.78 273.87±93.18 123.43±21.11 341.98±128.06 248.42±41.28
PRDF Upper 278.38 235.02 253.42 164.82 426.21 240.51
Lower 181.84 298.32 321.37 125.61 325.21 235.43
Mean ± Sd 239.46±50.91 272.65±33.30 260.07±58.25 145.19±19.60 383.52±86.74 230.39±13.36
QLDF Upper 246.95 188.47 516.35 276.38 168.37 639.8
Lower 298.58 123.67 581.46 256.43 103.27 181.84
Mean ± Sd 257.42±37.04 158.67±32.71 564.99±42.85 263.75±10.97 141.43±33.97 340.48±259.37
QLDF Upper 240.17 265.42 449 256.71 188.45 389.6
Lower 282.63 310.11 313.55 312.65 209.52 295.67
Mean ± Sd 246.35±33.60 281.27±25.01 366.43±72.43 285.5±28.00 188.61±20.82 345.9±47.30
QSDF Upper 567.99 215.74 630.84 535.45 175.11 338.99
Lower 408.59 243.32 419.81 423.37 123.47 199.8
Mean ± Sd 483.42±80.14 218.49±23.57 500.63±113.85 484.67±56.77 145.92±26.47 237.96±88.35
QSDF Upper 569.21 243.32 565.27 484.52 212.42 295.64
35
Lower 512.49 256.87 406.23 452.41 152.45 204.54
Mean ± Sd 533.45±31.12 238.25±21.60 469.13±84.56 460.09±21.63 187.46±31.22 254.9±46.30
AKDF Upper 529.82 296.52 422.063 565.43 323.28 467.54
Lower 336.75 302.3 334.507 415.43 294.09 388.45
Mean ± Sd 436.28±96.67 295.09±8.02 358.45±55.64 479.13±77.51 314.29±17.53 422.77±40.56
AKDF Upper 727.38 312.43 413.021 685.56 348.13 480.54
Lower 242.46 266.23 318.26 267.92 308.12 356.75
Mean ± Sd 411.58±273.71 288.02±23.21 362.52±47.68 411.28±237.61 340.48±29.29 437.21±69.74
2.5 Soil Discussion

During the course of this investigation, the colour of soil at all stands
and depths varies from brown/reddish brown/dull reddish brown/dark reddish
brown to grayish brown. Purohit and Ranjan (2005) observed that black soil
colour soil absorb more heat than light coloured soil. The dark colours soil as
in present sites having high humus contents absorb more heat than light
coloured soils, therefore, dark soil hold more water. At all stands dark colour
of soil was found due to high organic contents by litter fall. The heavy
leaching of iron causes coniferous forest soils to be gray. The combination of
iron oxides and organic content gives many soil types a brown colour. Soils of
the humid tropics are generally red or yellow because of the oxidation of iron
or aluminium, respectively. In the temperate grasslands, large addition of
humus cause soils to be black. High water tables in soil cause the reduction of
iron, and thus soils tend to have greenish and gray-blue hues. Organic matter
colours the soil black. Other colouring materials sometimes present in
different region, which include white calcium carbonate, black manganese
oxides, and black carbon compounds (Pidwirny, 2004).
Texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt and clay in the soil.
Sandy soil is called light or coarse-textured, whereas clay soils are called
heavy or fine–textured. Clay tends to increase the water holding capacity of
the soil. Loamy soils have a balanced sand, silt and clay composition and are
thus superior for plant growth (Pidwirny,2004).Soil of the study area had high
proportion of sand and clay under very fine sand category. Maximum silt and
clay were recorded at the Abies kharsu dominant forest. Semwal et al. (2009)
36
also found the highest portion of silt and clay particles in the disturbed sites as
compared to undisturbed sites. Similar proportion was reported by Kumar et
al. (2009) in a temperate Oak dominated forest along different disturbance
gradients. While, Khera et. al. (2001) reported highest portion of sand
particles along different altitudinal gradients of Central Himalayan forests in
relation to the disturbance. Bisht and Lodhiyal, (2005) observed large
percentage of coarse gravel than of clay and silt due to low moisture content in
the soil. Raina, (2008) reported the higher sand and silt fractions present in
soil of Mussoorie forest due to the richness of parent material in these
fractions.
Soil texture affects the water holding capacity of soil, movement of

water through the soil and ease of cultivation. Soil texture is important
because it indicated that how easily can be worked, how well it holds water,
and how quickly it warms. Coarsely texture or sandy soils allow water to enter
and pass through more quickly. Sandy soils warm up more quickly than finer
soils and can be tilled more easily; however, they dry out more quickly and are
not as rich in nutrients. This rapid dryness due to sandy texture, availability of
water is not retained for long in the soil and thus enhances the growth of short,
annuals, underground bearing perrenating organ plants and graminoides. This
is characteristics feature of all temperature grazingland in Himalaya region.
Soil organic matter plays a central role in forming soil aggregates. Soil with
aggregate stability is more resistant to degradation by erosion and compaction.
As the clay content of a soil increases, it requires a higher content of organic
matter to maintain a given level of aggregate formation and stability. The rate
of decay varies according to the texture of the soil, being faster in a sandy than
in a clay soil, the nature of the organic matter, the pH and water content above
field capacity. Soil reaction between 5.0 to 7.5 has less effect on biological
degradation. Slope aspect influence soil temperature and humidity, but slope
angle has little influence on biological degradation. Altitude is taken into
account by climatic index, through its effect upon temperature (Satya Priya
and Shibaski, 1997). Soil buffer and filter pollutants, stores moisture and
nutrients and they are important sources and sinks for CO 2, methane and
37
nitrous oxides. Soils are a key system for the hydrological cycle. Soils also
provide an archive of past climatic condition and human influences.
Type of parent material influences the soil pH, structure and colour etc.
High rainfall climates tend to have less-fertile soil, due to rainwater‟s effects
in leaching nutrients down to lower of the levels of the profile and have more
acidic soil. Low rainfall climate tend to accumulate salts near the surface and
have generally higher soil pH. Soils that form under coniferous forest tend to
be more acidic than those under deciduous forest. Soils generally have a
harder time on steep slopes, due to runoff of surface soil particles during rain
events. Soil varies with topography primary because of the influence of
moisture and erosion. Soils in sloping areas can be drier and well drained. This
soil tends to be moderately and well developed. Erosion can remove all or part
of the topsoil and subsoil, leaving weakly developed soil, beneath.
Soil properties may change in response to heat and exposure (Ralston

and Hatchell, 1971). The short term effects on nutrient availability depend on
thermal effects of the fire on organic compound, the rise in soil pH and
microbial processing of organic matter (Binkley et al., 1993).
High precipitation increased soil moisture in rainy season. In this

study, soil moisture varied from 6.08 to 42.69% due to considerable rainfall.
Higher values of soil moisture recorded in rainy season from 15.5 to 42.69 %
at all site. In the north aspect the soil moisture was in the range of 7.21 to
42.41%and in the range of 6.08 to 36.24% in the south aspect. The higher
moisture of soil in the north aspect might be due to the less light duration
compared to southern aspect. These findings are similar to those reported by
the Sharma et al. (2010) and Singh et al. (2009) in different temperate forests
of Garhwal Himalaya. Shrestha et al. (2007) also observed increasing soil
moisture with elevation due to the combined effect of increasing tree canopy
cover, decreasing temperature and decreasing distance from snowmelt water
resources.
Water holding of soil is directly affected by the soil texture. Water is a

solvent for vital plant nutrient. The presence and movement of water through
the soil affect the availability of these nutrients to the plant. Texture, structure
38
and physical condition of surface and subsoil layers affect vertical drainage
and capacity of soil to store water. The ideal moisture level is reached when
water occupies one half of the pore space in soil structure. Soil is saturated
when all the pore space is filled with water. Saturated soil has no oxygen in its
pore spaces. Better utilization of rainfall, irrigation facilities and effective
control of soil erosion and runoff depends largely on the water retention and
transmission properties (Kumar et al 2002). The higher values were estimated
in most of forest in rainy season. The WHC was recorded to be low in the
winter season at all forest. Increasing the altitude WHC was increase in most
of forest. Shieikh and Kumar (2010) also observed the increase in moisture
content and WHC with increase in altitude in Quercus forest of western
Himalaya. The natural forest of any places are the resultant of the interaction
of various factors for the soil and the environment. The forests also have a
manifest influence on the growth and development of soils. The lower
moisture content and water holding capacity of the soil on southern aspect as
compared to the northern aspects signify moderately drier conditions on the
southern aspects. This is because north-east aspects are usually moisture and
cooler as compared to south west aspect, which also affects the variety of
other soil properties.
Physico-chemical characteristics of forest soil vary in space and time

because of several factors such as topography, climate, weathering processes,
vegetation type and the presence of microbial activities (Paudel and Sah,
2003). Soils support a number of inorganic and organic chemical reactions.
Many of these reactions are dependent on variety of soil chemical properties.
One of the most important chemical properties of soil is pH. Soil pH is
generally related to the concentration of free hydrogen ions in the soil matrix.
Hydrogen ions are made available to the soil matrix by the dissociation of
water, by the chemical activity of roots and by many chemical weathering
reactions. The concentration of hydrogen ions determines the pH of the soil.
Soils with a relatively large concentration of hydrogen ions tend to be acidic.
Alkaline soils have a relatively low concentration of hydrogen ions. Soil fertile
is directly influenced by pH through the solubility of many nutrients. At a pH
lower than 5.5, many nutrients becomes very soluble and are readily leached
39
from the soil profile. At high pH, nutrients become insoluble and are plant
cannot readily extract them. Maximum soil fertility occurs in the pH range 6.0
to 7.2 (Pidwirny, 2004). The rapid decrease of base cations affected the
hydrogen concentration and balance reaction in the soil solution. The change
in acidity caused by the presence of ash and by the resultant release of soluble
mineral salt, especially those containing calcium. In strongly acidic soil,
phosphorus cannot be absorbed by vegetation because it is fixed by aluminium
ions (Hardjowigeno, 1987). Higher temperature evaporates the soil available
water altering the pH. Soil of the study area found to be acidic. Soil pH did not
change immediately after burning. It decreases after one or two year
significantly. At various altitudes, aspects and soil depths of the pine forest pH
ranged from 5.8-6.5. At the high altitude the pH was ranged was 6.5 to 6.4. In
the present investigation soil pH was observed to vary and it ranged from 5.0-
7.1 all in the forests. The soil pH ranges between 5.00 to 7.1 at north aspect
while, in the south aspect the values was recorded between 5.10 to 6.7. The
presence of high humus might be the cause of high acidic nature of the soil in
the site. Similar pH values (5.0 – 6.0) were also recorded by Sharma and
Kumar (1991) in an Oak forest in Garhwal Himalaya. In a part of Central
Himalaya Semwal et al. (2009) observed the pH values between 4.5-5.9. In
three stands of temperate region of Kumaun Himalaya, Bisht and Lodhiyal
(2005) observed the pH values between 5.5 to 6.5 similar to present
observations.
Availability of soil carbon and nitrogen as nutrients can be important

factor regulating forest nutrient cycling. Organic matter input to the soil, in the
form of plant or animal detritus is the primary source of both carbon and
nitrogen (Gosz et al., 1973; Aber and Melillo, 1991). Nitrogen is the most
important nutrient stored in soil, primarily in soil organic matter from which it
is mineralized by ammonium-N by the action of enzymes, produced by soil
organism. Nitrogen is the nutrient that limits grass growth. Loss of nitrogen
and release of other nutrients are associated with decrease in the organic
matter content of the forest floor (Chandler et al., 1983). If land use change
leads to increase N losses or reduced plant available N, plant uptake and forest
productivity may decline overtime (Parfitt et al., 2003). The forms of N and
40
their rate of influence the competitive outcomes between plants and soil
microorganism (Kaye and Hart, 1997) and can influence potential C storage
(Nadelhoffer et al. 1999). The relationship among soil C concentration or
contents and biotic and abiotic predictor variable varied across the landscape,
but elevation explained much of the variability in soil C (Powers et al. 2002).
Soil organic matter under pine had a higher C/N ratio, because of greater
proportion of lignin and recalcitrant materials. Sagger et al. (1994, 1996) have
shown that the turn over time of freshly added C substrates is greater with
soils that have greater specific surface and greater capacity to absorb organic
matter. Thus soil specific surface area may also influence the soil organic
matter levels in soils. In response to change in aspect slope soil organic carbon
varied. Soil organic carbon is higher on north than on south aspects because of
the drying and heating effects of increased exposure to solar radiation on south
aspects (Frank and Lee, 1966). As solar radiation decreased in north aspect
soil organic carbon increased regularly on slope. Daniels et al. (1987) reported
that on north facing slopes organic content were higher on horizon A. Horizon
A was darker i colour on north aspect because of the presence of greater
organic carbon. The climate on north aspect would be more favorable to
higher vegetative inputs, greater litter incorporation, and lower erosion rates
than the south aspects. Soil organic carbon was resident in litter layers longer
on south aspects because of the drier climate, lower geophase activity, and
higher amount of high-lignin leaves (Miller et al. 2004). The soil carbon (C)
pool composed of soil organic C and soil inorganic C is not only critical for
the soil to perform its productivity and environmental functions, but also play
an important role in the role in the global C cycle (Sahrawat, 2003).
41
The nitrogen % values of soil in north aspect were between 0.16 to
0.397 % and 0.15 to 0.29 % in south aspect. It was recorded highest in the
upper altitudinal ranges at Abies kharsu dominant forest. Among disturbance
stands, the nitrogen % was observed reducing with the increasing intensity of
disturbance and it was found more in the undisturbed stands. It might be the
results of higher litter accumulation in the upper altitudinal ranges. Singh et
al., (2009) reported the nitrogen values in the range of 0.031 – 0.037 % in an
oak forest, which is more or less similar to present study. Bhandari et al.,
(2000) also found similar values for nitrogen content in an Oak forest of
Garhwal Himalaya. Khera et al., (2001) reported the nitrogen values between
the ranges of 0.04 to 0.11 % in different disturbance stands. Semwal et al.
(2009) was reported more nitrogen % in the undisturbed sites in different
forest types of Garhwal Himalaya. Sharma et al. (2010) reported the nitrogen
percentage between 7.2 to 31.9 Kgha-1 in a temperate forest of Garhwal
Himalaya. Present studies values are more or less similar to the previous
ranges reported for different temperate forests of Garhwal Himalaya (Sharma
and Kumar, 1991; Baduni and Sharma, 1996; Singh et al., 2009).
The potassium content of soil decreased with the increasing soil depths
among all forests. In the north aspect the potassium ranged between 92.04 to
639Kg ha-1and highest potassium content was recorded in the upper soil depth
of middle altitudinal range. In the south aspect, maximum (727.38Kg ha-1)
potassium was observed in the upper soil depth of the upper altitudinal range
and minimum (125Kg ha-1) in lower soil layer of the middle altitudinal range.
Sharma et al. (2010) recorded the values for potassium in the range of 72.2 to
712.0 Kg ha-1 in a temperate forest of the Garhwal Himalaya which are related
to the present study.
Available phosphorus is inevitable for the vital growth processes in
plants. It is observed that P is found in all terrestrial systems in the form of
organic and inorganic matter, while organic P forms are the major available
source of phosphorus. Soil organic matter has the inorganic from of P
transformed into insoluble form in many soil. The rate of weathering also
control phosphorus availability to plants. Increased soil organic matter inputs
have been suggested as a management alternative for increasing phosphorus
availability in higher adsorbing soils (Teissen, 1989). The available
42
phosphorus in present study ranged from 4.89 Kg ha -1 to 37.98 Kg ha-1 which
was in comparable with the value 11.50 Kg ha -1 to 31.90 Kg ha-1 reported by
Sharma et al. (2010 c) in Quercus leucotrichophoraforest at Pauri Garhwal.
The optimum organic matter content of soil depends on local climate,
the amount and type of clay material present in the soil, and the soil‟s intended
use (Satya Priya et al., 1997). Singh and Jones (1976) reported the C:P ratio
determined whether or not organic material increased or decreased P
availability. Availability of phosphorus in soil nutrition is very important
because the supply of phosphorus in most soils is low and is not readily
available for plant use. This low amount of phosphorus in soil reflects the
characters of soil to permit the plant to grow in a particular area and determine
the vegetational type of the area. Phosphorus controls the distribution of
vegetational type and organic matter production of soil. The increase in soil
organic carbon increased the nitrogen and expansion in phosphorus added the
soil potassium. When soil organic carbon and nitrogen increases it decreased
the soil phosphorus and potassium.
Maximum concentration of potassium was found at AKDF and QSDF
sites. Basumatary and Bardoloi (1992) observed that higher values of
potassium in lateritic soils are due to weathering of potash bearing minerals
and release of soluble potassium from insoluble compounds. Leaching and
running off as a result of destruction of vegetation may cause the decrease of
potassium. Losses of organic matter and nutrients were due to fire, erosion,
leaching and volatilization (Menaut, 1993).
Soil needs optimum amounts of organic matter to maintain its structure
and keep it in a tillable condition. The soil organic matter and humus decay
rate content in an important component in assessing and maintaining the
productivity of the soils. In coming days it is expected that concern of
biologically degraded soil among the farmers and in soil science as a whole
might be better way to make the soil healthier.
43
Chapter-3
VEGETATION COMPOSITION
3.1 Introduction
Mountains have their peculiar symbolic, cultural and biological
heritage in every part of the world. Indian Himalayan region is among the
sacred mountains of world and most of them are respected as holy mountains.
Despite the sanctity, this region is well recognised hotspot of biological
diversity. In fact, the interesting altitudinal gradients offer a variety of micro-
habitats, diversity in flora and fauna is observed in this region. Majority of
mountains of Uttarakhand are named high respects of Gods and Goddess and
vegetation in and around these mountains have both spiritual aesthetic and
medicinal value. Economic aspects of floral wealth coupled with conservation
and changing environmental conditions offers specific habitats phenomenon in
the dynamics in relation to structural and functional attributes.
Forest and vegetation of particular ecosystem generally influenced by

the external factors especially by manmade developmental activities. For a
long time, it was believed by some ecologists like Clements (1920), Braun-
Banquet (1932) and Odum (1971), that the vegetation is composed of certain
distinct and fairly discrete plant communities. This view regards communities
as having a degree of internal organization, which jointly modifies the
environment with sharp delimitation from other communities (Odum, 1971).
The composition of plant structures is closely associated with the biotic and
abiotic environmental factors which make sudden changes due to external
factors of disturbances.
Composition of the forest is diverse and varies from place to place

because of varying topography such as plains, foothills and upper mountains
(Singh, 2006). Besides, steep inclination of mountains favour changes in
species composition at narrow altitudinal ingredients. The temperate forests of
Western and Central Himalaya are usually distributed between 1200 and 3000
masl which are represented either by pure Oak or Oak-Rhododendron mixed
forests. Puri (1960) considered that these forests represent climatic climax of
44
one or more species of Quercus in upper altitudinal zones. The lower
elevations of the temperate forests are occupied by Oak-Pine mixed forests
while Quercus semecarpifolia is foundwith other coniferous at higher
altitudes, which forms the climax vegetation. These forests are diverse in
vegetation composition as has been explored by Singh and Singh (1987).
Other species of Oak are found above the Oak-Pine forests of Garhwal
Himalaya (Osmoston, 1922).
The altitudinal gradient is an important factor affecting species

composition and structure (Whittaker, 1972). The change of abiotic condition
(e.g. climate, soil and temperature) along with the altitudinal gradient affects
species composition and distribution. The relationship between vegetation and
altitude has been studied since the early 19 th century (Kala and Mathur, 2002).
Altitudinally defined climatic and soil factors are deemed to be primary
determinants of change in species composition and community structure in
undisturbed mountain (Whittakar, 1975). Economic change and population
increase is threatening the ecology of Himalaya. In recent year, the
deforestation in the foothills and the middle Himalaya and, overgrazing in the
high pastures have led to soil erosion and other environmental problems.
Deforestation is a particular concern in the western Himalaya, where increased
demand for fuel wood, extensive tree trimming to feed livestock, and
construction of road in the border region have increase the destruction rate of
forest and number of landslides. Rapid population growth has accelerated
pollution, and Himalayan stream that were on clear now polluted with refuse
and sewage.
All plant species occur in a limited range of habitat and within this
range; most of them are most abundant in their particular environmental
optimum in the absence of competition (Ter Brraak and Prentice, 1988).
Species components of communities thus change along environmental
gradients (climatic, edaphic, and topographic); the replacement and separation
of species in environment depends on variation of resources along the
gradients (Pickett, 1990).
Competition, both within and among species, is one of the major forces
determining the distribution and abundance of plant species and the
45
biodiversity of plant communities (Tilman, 2000). Although most plants
compete for the same resources (light, water and nutrition), large number of
co-existing species are also recorded in many plant communities (Silvertown
and Charlesworth, 2001). Intuitively, spatial heterogeneity of resources used
by plants is probably one of the most powerful promoters of niche separation
and co-existing between plants. (Grubb, 1977) emphasized the importance of
the entire life cycle of an individual and its ability to become established as
part of the environment, which has recently become vacant. In that co-
existence occurs because with sufficiently high dispersal rate persist in site not
occupied by superior competition.
3.2 Review of Literature

The biological diversity in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) has
been a source of medicine for millions in the country and elsewhere (Tripathi,
2007). Species diversity and its distribution along the altitudinal gradient had
been a subject of interest in the recent past. Earlier Rahbek (1997) in a critical
literature review on species richness patterns in relation to altitude viewed that
approximately half of the studies detected a mid altitude peak in species
richness, Grytnes and Vetaas (2002) have also reviewed these aspects in Nepal
Himalaya. Though the plant community of a region is a function of time,
nevertheless, altitude, slope, latitude, aspect, rainfall and humidity had play a
role in the formation of community composition.
Ecosystem diversity can be visualize with three angles, viz

composition (species richness), structure (spatial distribution), and function
(ecological processes) (Tripathi et al., 2004). It is believed that environmental
factors considerably affect species richness, size variations, and spatial
structures of forest (Lugo, 1988).Several studies have described the vegetation
of Kumaon, Central Himalaya (Dhar et al., 1997; Singh and Singh 1984;
Singh and Singh 1987; Tiwari and Singh 1985; Upreti et al., 1985;Rikhari et
al., 1989a) and Garhwal Himalaya (Nautiyal et al., 2004; Anthwal et al., 2006;
Kumar and Bhatt, 2006; Semwal et al., 2007; Semwal et al., 2008; Anthwal et
al., 2008; Kukshal, et al., 2009 and Semwal et al., 2010 ).
46
Several studies described altitudinal variation in vegetation (Saxena et
al., 1985; Adhikari et al., 1992) and reported that vegetation types differ with
change in altitude. However, Puri et al. (1983) observed that geology and soils
may exercise a far greater influence on the distribution of vegetation types
than the altitude or climate. Earlier studies in the Kumaun region has been
explored on various aspects that is, about the forest vegetation by following
(Singh and Singh, 1987; Dhar et al., 1997), altitudinal variation (Saxena et al.,
1985; Adhikari et al., 1995; Kharkwal et al., 2005), phytosociology (Ralhan et
al., 1982, Saxena and Singh, 1982) and population structure (Saxena et al.,
1984; Singh et al., 1987). Singh and Singh (1992) have summarized the
information on the structure and functioning of the Himalayan forest
ecosystems. Singh et al. (1994) made detailed studies on biomass productivity,
leaf longevity and forest structure from low elevation to high altitude forests
of Central Himalaya.
The Indian sub-continent is a region of moderate to very high

biodiversity including two of the global hot spot of vascular plant endemism in
the Western Ghats and the Eastern Himalaya (Myers et al., 2000). The plant
diversity is found extremely rich from the valley regions to the highly elevated
alpine meadows (Sati, 2005). Garhwal Himalaya has been a source of
knowledge for their unique vegetation wealth since time immemorial. In
Uttarakhand, composition of forest is diverse varies from place to place
because of varying topography such as plains, foothills and upper mountains
(Singh, 2006).
The Garhwal Himalaya is one of the hot spot of biodiversity situated in

the western part of Central Himalaya. The unusually wide altitudinal ranges
make it interesting for studies (Singh and Singh, 1992; Zobel and Singh,
1997). Forest diversity is the main source of livelihood of the people living in
Uttarakhand, Central Himalaya (Ram et al., 2001). In Uttrakhand, composition
of forest is diverse varies from place to place because of varying topography
such as plains, foothills and upper mountains (Singh, 2006). India is among
the important mega biodiversity centers of the world, with a lot of contribution
from the Himalayan ecosystem. Biodiversity is used variously for fodder, fuel
47
wood, timber, leaf litter, construction, industrial raw material and several non-
timber forest produce (Saxena et al., 1984).
Substantial amount of work has been carried out at regional and local
levels in various parts of Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), which focuses on
plant species diversity in different ecosystems. However, quantitative
information on the micro-habitat preferences and population structure of
various commercially important taxa is virtually lacking from many parts the
Himalaya (Kala, 2000; Uniyal et al., 2002). There has been a satisfactory
progress towards inventorying plant diversity in many parts of the Indian
Himalayan Region (IHR), with geographic distribution of the plants. Rawal
and Dhar (1997) reported more than 64% of species as native Himalayan taxa
out of total 465 species recorded in the timberline flora in a part of Kumaun.
Samant and Dhar (1997) also presented an inventory of over 675 wild edible
plant species, representing 384 genera and 149 families.
The forest vegetation of Himalaya has been of major interest to

ecologist since long. Structural characteristics of the Himalayan forests have
been studied by Champion and Seth (1968), Upreti et al. (1985), Pant and
Tewari (1992), Bisht and Kusumlata (1993), Singh and Singh (1986, 1987,
1992), Singh et al. (1994), Sundriyal et al.(1994b), Badoni and Sharma
(1996), Ghildiyal et al. (1998), Khera et al. (2001), Mishra et al. (2004), Ram
et al. (2004), Kumar and Ram (2005) and Sagar and Singh (2005), Gururani et
al. (2010), Tiwari and Tiwari (2012), Khali and Bhatt (2014), Joshi and
Yadava (2015), Pandeya and Yadava (2015). These workers have studied the
composition, succession and impact of biotic and abiotic stresses on different
forest ecosystems.
A lot of work has been done by various workers on sub montane and
montane forests of Western and Central Himalaya. The analytical and
synthetic behavior of high altitude forests of Kumaun Himalaya studied by
Ralhan et al. (1982), Saxena and Singh (1982), Singh and Singh (1986) and
Adhikari et al. (1991). Though several studies have been done on the plant
communities of the Garhwal was done by Tiwari et al. (1989), Bisht and
Kusumlata (1993), Bhandari et al. (1997) and Kumar et al. (2004).
48
An inventory was carried out by Negi et al. (2008) in Garhwal
Himalaya with the compression of Panchayat forests and adjoining Reserve
forests and found a total of 101 species of which 35 were tree, 24 shrubs and
42 were herbs. They also observed the species richness was comparatively
higher in Panchayat forests than the Reserve forests due to good management
and conservation practices in Panchayat forests. Kharkwal et al. (2005)
conducted a comparative study on species richness, diversity and composition
of oak forests in Nainital district. They assessed plant species richness in
relation to altitudinal gradient between 200 to 5800m elevations in the Indian
Central Himalaya and reported a total of 2487 species, of which 276 were
trees, 355 shrubs, 112 climbers and 1744 herbs. The total number of species
including all growth forms was found to be maximum near low altitude to mid
altitude due to overlapping of climatic conditions but with further increase in
altitude it decreased consistently, which is attributed to the decrease in
atmospheric temperature with increase in altitude and thus concluded that
distribution and species richness pattern in central Himalaya largely depend on
the altitude and climatic variables.
Adhikari et al. (1995) studied high altitude forests of Garhwal

Himalaya, with the structure and functioning of three different forest
communities, viz., Kharsu oak forest, horse chestnut forest, and silver fir
forest. They found that tree density and total basal cover of Kharsu Oak forest
was 480 and 73, horse chestnut forest 280 and 76 and silver fir forest 355 trees
ha-1 and 106 m2 ha-1, respectively. Structure and function of Oak forests in
Himalayan region also studied by Rawat and Singh (1988). Their observations
were taken out in low and mid-altitude oaks, namely Quercus
leucotrichophora and Quercus floribunda. The total tree basal cover ranged
between 33.89 m2ha-1 to 36.83 m2ha-1 and tree density ranged between 570 to
760 individuals ha-1.
An account of the tree cover, dominance-diameter and species richness

Semwal et al. (2010) assessed three forest types of Kedarnath Wildlife
Sanctuary in Garhwal Himalaya and reported the maximum tree density (170
trees/ha) and IVI (89.68) for Quercus semicarpifolia forest followed by
Quercus leucotrichophora forest and Rhododendron arboreum forest, while
49
tree species richness was higher in the Rhododendron arboreum dominated
forest. Pande et al., (2001) studied plant species diversity and vegetation
analysis in moist temperate forest of Kedarnath Forest Division of Garhwal
Himalaya. He divided forest into 8 sub-sites as per the aspect and altitude and
found that plant species diversity in the whole area was invariably higher for
herbs than of the shrubs and trees, where it increases with decreasing altitude.
While studying the woody vegetation along an altitudinal gradient from 1700-
2100m above msl in Garhwal Himalaya, Rawat (2005) reported maximum
total tree density (density of trees, sapling and seedling) for the upper slopes
followed by middle and then lower slopes.
Sundriyal and Bisht (1988) in their study in Central Himalaya along an

altitudinal gradient up to alpine zone found highest species richness of eight
species at altitude of 3000 m followed by 3200 m (6 species), 3250 m (5
species) and 3400 m altitude (5 species). They concluded that with increase of
altitude species richness decreased. Singhal and Soni (1989) conducted
ecological study in eight different sites of Mussoorie, dominated mainly by
Cedrus deodara, Pinus roxburghii and Quercus leucotrichophora and reported
the density of these species between 1.9 and 6.4 trees per 100 m 2. In moist
temperate forests of Himachal Pradesh, Singh and Kaushal (2006) gave an
account of density of Pinus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, Cedrus deodara,
Abies pindrow, Quercus leucotrichophora and Quercus semecarpifolia in
Chamba district.
In Garhwal Himalaya, ecologists have measured plant diversity of high

altitude areas in relation to various ecological variables in different ecosystems
(Negi and Gadgil 2002; Kala and Rawat 2004; Kala 2005; Kharkwal et al.,
2005). In a phytosociological analysis of forest communities distributed along
an altitudinal gradient (1190-2610 m) in Kumaun Himalaya, dominated by
Pinus roxburghii (Chir pine), Quercus leucotrichophora (Banj oak) and
Quercus semecarpifolia (Kharsu oak) at altitudes of 1190-1600 m, 1800-2200
m and 2400-2610 m, Rikhari et al., (1991) reported total basal area and
species diversity across different forest types between 23.1 to 60.7 m 2ha-1 and
0.22 to 2.76, respectively. A mountain flank of Jakni in Tehri Garhwal studied
by Bhandari et al., (1998) revealed that total basal area among the forest
50
stands between 23.05 to 63.00 m2 ha-1 and the total density between 660 and
880 plants ha-1. Community diversity was the highest (2.52) in the middle of
the gradient. Phytosociological studies of moist temperate forest of Quercus
leucotrichophora in Garhwal Himalaya with varying altitudes, highlighted the
highest total basal cover (1727.19 cm 2/ 100m2) on North-East facing slope
(Dhannai et al., 2000).
Ecological studies on the distribution of plants and their status in wild

is very vital along with their population dynamics and governing factors for
the formulation of conservation plans for the specific area (Uniyal et al.,
2002). Singh et al. (2007) has worked on species richness, distribution pattern
and conservation study of higher plants in the Spiti cold desert of Trans
Himalaya and reported a total of 166 species in 101 genera and 37 families of
vascular plants. The studies of Srivastava et al., (2005) in the oak mixed
coniferous forests along an altitudinal gradient indicated that the total density
and basal cover values in the tree layer varied from 630 to 1590 stemsha -1 and
20.04 to 82.51m2ha-1, respectively. The maximum number of saplings and
seedlings (520 and 720 stemsha-1) were recorded on the highest altitude
(2100m asl), whereas, the minimum number of saplings and seedlings (200
and 100 stems ha-1), on the lowest altitude (1600m asl), in Garhwal Himalaya.
Mountain ecosystems around the globe usually have distinct biological

communities and high level of endemism, due to their topography and history
(Gentry, 1993). Veenendaal et al. (1996) revealed that the distribution of
plants is determined by climatic variables like, temperature, soil conditions,
moisture, nutrients, historic events, interactions with fauna, competition
between tree species for crown and root space as well as human influence.
Hence, the existence of distinct forest types is indicative of diversity in
climatic and edaphic factors. The plant community of a region is a function of
time; however, altitude, slope, latitude, aspect, rainfall and humidity play a
role in the formation of plant communities and their composition (Kharkwal et
al., 2005).
Substantial amount of work has been carried out at regional and local
levels in various parts of Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), which focuses on
51
plant species diversity in different ecosystems. However, quantitative
information on the micro- habitat preferences and population structure of
various commercially important taxa is virtually lacking from many parts the
Himalaya (Kala, 2000; Uniyal et al., 2002). Most of the human populations
are concentrated between 1000 and 2000m elevation in the mountainous zone
of Uttaranchal, Central Himalaya (hereafter Uttaranchal Himalaya) where the
forests are severely impacted by human activities (Kumar and Ram, 2005). A
highly divers compositional patters of forests characteristics of Central
Himalaya, has been explored by Singh and Singh (1992). In Garhwal
Himalaya, substantial increase in human and bovine population has taken
place during last couple of decades (Negi et al., 1997). Therefore, natural
resources are depleting at an alarming rate (Chauhan et al., 1999).
Uniyal et al. (2002) believed that excessive anthropogenic activities

are the main cause of the decline in the population and availability of various
species of medicinal plants in nature. Keeping in view the knowledge gaps and
incomplete data, Kala (2005) reported that most of the available information
on various aspects of the plants in Himalayan region is collected from the
easily accessible areas in the mountains which are also accessed by the local
people for the collection of medicinal plants for indigenous use.
Kharkwal et al. (2005) conducted a comparative study on species

richness, diversity and composition of oak forests in Nainital district. They
assessed plant species richness in relation to altitudinal gradient between 200
to 5800m elevations in the Indian Central Himalaya and reported a total of
2487 species, of which 276 were trees, 355 shrubs, 112 climbers and 1744
herbs. Singh and Singh (1987) reviewed with the forest vegetation of the
Himalaya with emphasis on: paleo-ecological, phytogeographical, and
phytosociological aspects of vegetation; structural and functional features of
forest ecosystem; and relationship between man and forests. They further
concluded that the Himalayan catchments are sub surface-flow systems and,
therefore, are particularly susceptible to landslips and landslides. Loss of water
and soil in terms of overflow is insignificant. Studies on recovery processes of
forest ecosystems damaged due to shifting cultivation or landslides indicate
that the ecosystems can recover quite rapidly, at least in elevations below 2500
52
m. For example, on a damaged forest site, seedlings of climax species
(Quercus leucotrichophora) appeared only 21 years after the landslide.
Dominance–diversity and species richness of tree species in a

temperate forest of Garhwal Himalaya have been assessed by Devlal and
Sharma (2008) along altitudinal gradients. In the study Quercus
leucotrichophora recorded as dominant species with highest IVI (138.7) and
the total tree density was ranged from 1166 to 1828 trees ha-1. The results
distinct that tree density was increased with the increasing altitudes may be
due to the biotic disturbance and invasion of new species in those stands.
Kharkwal et al. (2005) assessed species richness, diversity and composition of
herb species in three Oak species viz; Quercus leucotrichophora, Quercus
floribunda, Quercus semecarpifolia in Kumaun Himalaya. They found highest
species, genera and families in the Q. semecarpifolia forest. Regarding
ecological structure and composition, the study revealed that the Q.
leucotrichophora and Q. floribunda forests were less complex in comparison
to Q. semecarpifolia forest.
The establishment of a young forest stand by means of natural

regeneration involves a chain of biological processes occurring over several
years, all of which are affected by environmental conditions to varying
degrees (Tripathi and Khan, 2007). The long history of human interaction with
plant, animals and environment in the mountain region has a significant
impact upon the biological diversity at different level (Bisht and Lodhiyal,
2005). Regeneration and recruitment of a species basically depends on the
overstory canopy and structure. The forest canopy structure influences the
availability of understory light and the understory environment; thereby
influence the understory population (Yirdaw and Luukkanen, 2004; Lemenih
et al. 2004). Both foresters and ecologists have contributed to the knowledge
of regeneration dynamics of natural forests. Regeneration dynamics have been
studied in both unmodified and modified forests of different latitudinal,
longitudinal, altitudinal and typological specifications (Ganesan et al, 2001;
Shukla and Pandey, 2001; Bhuyan et al,, 2003; Hegde et al., 2005; Slocum et
al., 2006).
53
The inadequate regeneration of Banj Oak (Quercus leucotrichophora)
in the Himalaya has been reported by foresters in India for over 50 years
(Saxena and Singh, 1982; Singh and Singh, 1987, 1992). Thadani and Asthon
(1995) carried out a study for the regeneration of banj oak (Quercus
leucotrichophora) forest and found 1400 seedling ha-1 which were indicating
the low regeneration compared to earlier reported seedling density of the
species. Vetass (2000) analyzed the regeneration of two Quercus
semecarpifolia forests with relation to effect of environmental factors. The
size-class distribution indicated that most reliable regeneration at nearly
undisturbed forest and most recruits were found under high canopy cover with
high potential radiation.
Rejuvenation status of trees can be predicted by the age structure of

their populations (Saxena and Singh, 1982; Saxena and Singh, 1984; Khan and
Tripathi, 1987a). Khan and Tripathi (1987a) reported that the proportion of
large diameter individuals was greater than small diameter individuals in the
tree population in the undisturbed stand, while in the disturbed stand the
proportion of young individuals was more. Many workers have suggested the
predictive regeneration models for predict the future size distribution of trees,
growth and yield of forest stands. Dey et al. (1996) described a method for
modeling the regeneration of even-aged Oak stands.
Phokriyal et al. (2010) assessed the regeneration status of Phakot and

Pathri Rao watershed situated in Garhwal Himalaya and observed that, in
general both forests were regenerating, although regeneration was better in
Phakot watershed because of high seedlings and saplings density. Pathri Rao
watershed comes under a protected area and lopping is not allowed within the
National Park, and thus the forest having good canopy cover might have
affected the survival of seedlings under good tree canopy due to the absence of
light. Further, herbivore wild animals are more in number than in Phakot
watershed so grazing pressure was high in Pathri Rao watershed.
Natural regeneration is the cheapest approach to rehabilitate a given

forest ecosystem, if the previous disturbance has left some residuals (e.g. soil
seed banks, mother trees, sprout) that can serve as “succession primers”
54
(Teketay 1997). During past few years, the emphasis has been on regeneration
and biomass productivity of different forest types (Dev et al 2008; Barik et al.,
1992; Khan et al., 1987). In eighteen forest stands dominated by the oak
species, Upreti et al., (1985) recorded the severe biotic disturbance and the
resultant harsh physical environment has inhibited the regeneration of Quercus
leucotrichophora and Quercus floribunda produces seedlings and saplings in
abundance even where density was low. While Giri et al. (2008) conducted a
study in six forest sites dominated by Quercus leucotrichophora and Quercus
floribunda forests and found that no sapling present of Q. leucotrichophora
attributed to low regeneration compare to the Q. floribunda.
Seedlings and sprouts regeneration rank have been accessed by

Sundriyal and Bisht (1988) in a part of Garhwal Himalaya. This study
completed that higher survival rate of sprouts compare to the seedlings, but
both suffered from winter conditions. The girth class measurements showed
the trees between 1.6 and 2.5m were best represented. Saxena and Singh
(1984) studied the regeneration of Pinus roxburghii, Quercus floribunda and
Quercus leucotrichophora forests in Kumaun Himalaya. On the basis of girth
class distribution they found the poor regeneration of Quercus
leucotrichophora among three forests.
Reduced regeneration of Oak forests after human-induced or natural

disturbances, however, has been reported in all regions in North America
(Loorimer et al. 1994), in Europe (Watt, 1919; Andersson, 1991), and in Asia
(Saxena et al, 1984; Singh and Singh, 1987). Ram et al. (2006) investigated
two oak species for the infestation of flowering parasite (Taxillus vestitus) and
concluded that the trees of middle girth classes were more susceptible to the
Taxillus vestitus attack. They further resulted that the high anthropogenic
pressure in the form of lopping of branches may be one of the reasons for high
infestation. Studying for population dynamics, mortality factors and growth in
Quercus floribunda, Negi et al. (1996) also found the insect herbivores as one
of the major mortality factor for seedling. They observed that the number of
seedlings was significantly greater at the sun microsites, but survival was not,
as ground herbage clearance at sun microsite accounted for 53.5% mortality.
55
Disturbance can either cause instability to the plant communities
(Clements, 1936) or can act as a positive force in increasing species diversity
in the community (Paine, 1966; Lubcheno, 1978). Survival and growth of
seedling of few tree species in Manipur sacred groves was assessed by
Khumbongmayum et al. (2005). They found the variation in height growth and
leaf area of the seedlings of different species may be partly responsible for the
differences in growth behaviour and species-specific attributes for efficient
utilization of resources under a given set of environmental conditions. Dev and
Sundriyal (2008) explored the tree regeneration and seedling survival patterns in
north-east India. They recorded that low-dominant and rare species also
contributed significantly in the regeneration of the forest stands. The
expanding population structure of forest stands indicated higher survival of the
mid- canopy and the low-canopy species than the top-canopy species.
Cierjacks and Hensen (2004) analyzed the variation of stand structure

and regeneration of six Quercus ilex dominated forests. The study was
conducted in mountain chains of south eastern Spain along a grazing gradient;
showed that stands of higher grazing intensity were constituted by lower trunk
number, particularly trees >1.3 m height and diameter class < 20 cm were
clearly less represented. Effect of stand structure on stone pine (Pinus pinea)
regeneration was studied by Barbeito et al., (2008) in northern plateau of south
Spain. Their finding showed clumped regeneration was present in both of the
even aged and uneven multi-aged stands. While, greater influence on
regeneration was observed by older girth classes.
Zobel et al. (1995) carried out a study for structural and physiological
changes in Quercus leucotrichophora and Pinus roxburghii with stand
disturbance in a part of Kumaon Himalaya and found Q. leucotrichophora
have the highest level of disturbance in the form of greater cover of livestock
traits, lower leaf litter mass and smaller crown volume per unit basal area.
Natural regeneration pattern and population structure of some tree species was
explored by Tripathi and Khan (1992) in subtropical forest of north-east India.
They observed good regeneration through seedlings and sprouts in the
disturbed forest compare to undisturbed forests attributed to open canopy
present in the disturbed forests. They further concluded that thick litter layer in
56
dense forest stand (Undisturbed forests) adversely affect the survival of tree
seedlings through production of allelochemicals.
Khumbongmayum et al. (2006) investigated the population structure

and regeneration status of woody species in the four sacred groves of Manipur,
northeast India. They recorded a total of 96 woody species from the four
sacred groves. The studies on density-diameter distribution of woody species
in the groves showed maximum stand density in the lowest girth class (30-60
cm) and densities decreased in the succeeding girth classes. Bhuyan et al.
(2003) analyzed the population structure in tropical wet evergreen forest and
observed a consistent decrease in tree stand density with increasing girth of
tree species from 20 to > 200 cm girth. The highest tree density was recorded
in the medium girth class in all stands. Large trees exhibited a long tailed L
shaped distribution in natural forest, which signifies the almost even
distribution of individuals in all the CBH classes.
Globally, concerns are raised over the rapid loss of biodiversity in all
its forms and at all the levels. Habitat destruction is the chief cause of the
biodiversity loss. Habitats can either disappear completely or they may
become degraded and/or fragmented, both causing serious impact on species
as well as ecosystem processes (Raghubanshi and Tripathi, 2009). Forest
disturbance can alter environmental conditions by changing light availability
and soil conditions (Fredericksen and Mostacedo, 2000). Disturbance also
influences processes that can either augment or erode the ecological functions
of a forest community (Sagar et al.,2003). Both natural and human
disturbances influence forest dynamics and tree diversity at local and regional
scales (Hong et al., 1995; Hubbell et al., 1999; Sheil, 1999; Ramirez-Marcial
et al., 2001). However, the biology of specific species (such as their life
history traits, physiology and behaviour) also influences post-disturbance
forest regeneration (Lawes et al., 2007).
Along an altitutinal gradient in Garhwal Himalaya Uniyal et al. (2010)

carried out a study for Quercus leucotrichophora forest and Anogeissus
latifolius mixed forest at Dewalgarh watershed, and found the higher density
and species richness for herbs and shrubs in moderately disturbed stands,
57
indicated that opening of canopies favours herb and shrub growth which gives
overall stability to the forest ecosystem. While, minimum density and species
richness for shrubs and herbs in highly disturbed stand was possibly due to
collection of fuel wood and fodder and grazing pressure. Biotic disturbance
and plant biodiversity in Central Himalayan forests was conducted by Kumar
and Ram (2005) observed the low elevational forests had high disturbance
which were close to habitation while, high elevational forests were situated far
from the habitation and had low disturbance. They also found the higher
species richness in the low elevational highly disturbed forests.
Structure, composition and dominance-diversity relation in three forest

types of Central Himalaya was studied by Semwal et al. (2010). They
concluded that the forest area near the point of anthropogenic activity was
found to have low crown cover while forest located away from such habitation
posses high crown cover. Jina et al. (2008) carried out a study for carbon
sequestration in degraded and non-degraded Quercus leucotrichophora and
Pinus roxburghii forests of Kumaun Himalaya. They categorized the degraded
and non-degraded forests on the basis of presence/absence of regeneration,
crown cover, number of lopped branch/tree, fodder extraction and grazing
intensity. The higher carbon stock found in the non-degraded forests compare
to degraded forests. In central Himalaya, Rikhari et al. (2000) conducted a
study to examine the regeneration of Taxus baccata affected by disturbance
levels, forest types and their associations. They revealed that along the
disturbance gradients Taxus showed different population patterns. The study
concluded that the Himalayan Taxus is under threat not only because of
excessive harvesting but also by the chilling temperature, direct sun light,
warm and dry summers which contribute to poor regeneration and subsequent
recruitment process.
Four forests with high disturbance were studied by Chandra et al.

(2010) in the Garhwal Himalaya and recorded maximum species richness in
the moist site and stream bank site while, minimum richness was found in
ridge site and dry site indicated that the stream bank and moist habitat
favoured the regeneration of many species because of the availability of
sufficient moisture for seed germination. Effect of grazing and changing
58
climate on vegetation composition of alpine pasture at Tungnath in Garhwal
Himalaya was observed by Nautiyal et al. (2004). In this study they analyzed
growth pattern and phytosociological attributes under grazed and ungrazed
conditions; in which they found the main reasons for habitation destruction
and changed vegetation composition was not only due to climate change but
human induced disturbance were also responsible for this.
The growing pressure of population on Central Himalayan region and

their existing forests has depleted the good forest cover; consequences are
seen as frequent landslides and floods, respectively in the hills and plains.
Besides these many species have become threatened and are on the verge of
extinction (Ram et al., 2004). Most of the human population is concentrated
between 1000 and 2000m elevation in the mountainous zone of Uttarakhand,
where forests are severely impacted by human activities. The forest diversity
is mainly exploited for fodder, fuel wood, timber, litter removal for animal
bedding and composting, grazing, raw materials for local cottage industries,
non timber forest products and several other uses including medicines (Kumar
and Ram, 2005).
Mishra et al. (2004) conducted a study in Meghalaya, north east India

to find out the effect of anthropogenic disturbance on the plant diversity and
community structure. The study revealed that the mild disturbance favoured
species richness, but increased degree of disturbance the species richness
markedly decreased. There was also a sharp decline observed in tree density
and basal area from the undisturbed (2103 tree ha -1 and 26.9 m2 ha -1) to the
moderately disturbed (1268 tree ha-1 and 18.6 m2 ha-1) and finally to the highly
disturbed (852 tree ha-1 and 7.1 m2 ha-1) stands. Observing the effect of
disturbance on the regeneration of four dominant species in a broad leaved
forest of Meghalaya, Mishra et al. (2003) found the highest tree density (2103
individuals ha-1), canopy cover (>40 %) and light intensity (> 50%) in the
undisturbed stand while in the highly disturbance stand the least values for tree
density, canopy cover and light intensity was observed.
Sagar and Singh (2005) examined the impact of disturbance on the

pattern of diversity, forest structure and regeneration of tree species in dry
59
tropical forests of northern India and found a decreased trend of diversity with
the increasing disturbance intensity. In another study Sagar et al. (2003)
examined tree species composition, dispersion and diversity along a
disturbance gradient in which they indicated that the dry tropical forest is
characterized by a patchy distribution of species. The mean stem density was
highest (419 stems ha-1) at the least disturbed site and lowest (35 stems ha-1) at
the highly disturbed site and for basal area the highest value (13.78 m 2 ha-1)
was for the second lest disturbed site and lowest value (1.30 m 2 ha-1) was
found for most disturbed site. Chettri et al. (2002) studied in closed canopy
forest and open canopy forest (disturbed) in Sikkim Himalaya to find out the
impact of fire wood extraction on tree structure, regeneration and biomass
productivity. They concluded that firewood extraction along the tracking
corridor has had distinct impact on tree structure and regeneration of canopy
tree species, and productivity of woody biomass. They also found that the
closed canopy forests have been reduced and opened in most parts, especially
at lower elevations where human interference was intensive.
Vetaas (1997) carried out a study to find out the effect of canopy
disturbance on species richness in a Central Himalayan Oak forest. On the
basis of tree canopy the studied area was divided in to three disturbance
categories namely; least disturbed, intermediate disturbed and very disturbed
and recommended that conservation policy accepted the small scale human
impact as part of disturbance regime in forest landscape. Large scale canopy
disturbance, however, will reduce diversity and change the species
composition so that it becomes dominant by weeds. In context of disturbance
on the regeneration of Quercus semecarpifolia, Vetaas (2000) found very few
seedlings in the undisturbed stand with high canopy cover (65.6%) while in
disturbed forest with low canopy cover (43.5%) have the highest number of
seedlings.
The structure of plant and animal communities in many natural

ecosystems is largely determined by the disturbances, which occur quite
frequently (Armeston and Pickett, 1985). Clements (1936) viewed disturbance
as a negative force that destroys climax assemblages and brings instability in
the system, while Paine (1966); Lubehenco (1978) considered it as a positive
60
force that might increase species diversity in the community by preventing
competitive exclusion by dominant species. Disruption of forest structure by
natural and anthropogenic disturbance alters species richness and other
ecosystem properties. Human induced disturbance and livestock grazing cause
changes in species number, tree density and basal area (Rao et al., 1990).
Unrestricted and open accessibility may cause enhanced utilization of the
forest resource and this may eventually lead to a species poor state (Murali et
al., 1996; Veetas, 1997).
Banj Oak (Quercus leucotrichophora) is a common species of the

Himalayas. The economical and ecological values of oak are generally higher
than those of other species associated with oak. It is closely linked with hill
agriculture as an important source of fodder for animals, litter for making
compost, fire wood and timber (Shrestha, 2003). This tree species is highly
valued for its fodder and fuel, besides its role in maintaining ecological
equilibrium. Its natural as well as artificial regeneration, however, markedly
impaired by seed- insect infestation, poor germination and slow initial growth
rates (Mishra et al., 2003).
Even though human settlements have existed in the Himalaya for

thousands of years, it is only in the last hundred years or so that human
intervention in the middle hills has taken place on a large scale (Moench and
Bandopadhyay, 1986; Singh 1998; Khera et al., 2001; Saberwal and
Rangarajan, 2003; Carpanter, 2005). Unfortunately, the regenerative capacity
of oak forest element is poor not only in the Himalayan region but also in
North America (Lorimer et al., 1994) and Europe (Andersson, 1991). The
successful regeneration of a tree species depends on its ability to produce large
number of seedlings and saplings to survive and growth (Good and Good,
1972). However, the presence of sufficient number of seedlings, saplings and
young trees is greatly influenced by interaction of biotic and abiotic factors of
the environment (Kahn et al., 1987). Due to increasing human population, the
biotic pressure on the native forest is inevitable. The uncontrolled lopping and
felling of trees for fuel wood, leaf fodder, burning of ground vegetation,
livestock grazing and harvesting are some of the factors responsible for
exploitation of forests (Bargali et al., 1998).
61
For understanding the vegetational organization in the study was
conducted during the years June 2011 to January 2013 seasonally (three
seasons in a year viz., summer, rainy, winter). To assess availability of
species, vegetation parameter were quantified in 1 ha plots marked at interval
of 100 m elevation using 10m x 10m quadrats (Mishra, 1968). The plants were
identified with the help of Flora of the District Garhwal North West Himalaya
(Gaur, 1999) and other. Data were collected on species, number of individual
of woody plant, their GBH (1.37m above the ground). The vegetation data
were quantitatively analyzed for abundance, density, and frequency (Curtis
and Mc Intosh, 1950).
3.3.1 Frequency: Frequency expresses the distribution or dispersion of

species in a community. It is defined as the number of individuals per unit
area or volume.
Total number of quadrats in which species occurred

Frequency = ---------------------------------------------------------------  100
Total number of quadrats examined
3.3.2 Density: It provides the numerical strength of species in an area and an

idea of competition between individuals of the species. It was calculated as:
Total individuals in all quadrats

Density = ----------------------------------------------------
Total number of quadrats examined
3.3.3 Abundance: Abundance refers to the 'density of individuals' of a species

in that quadrat in which a given species occurs. The abundance was computed
as:
Total individuals in all quadrats
Abundance = ----------------------------------------------------
No. of quadrats in which species occur
3.3.4 Basal cover: The area of the ground surface actually penetrated by the
stem is known as basal area or basal cover. To estimate the basal area of tree
species it is measured with the help of Calipers; then diameter for the
individual‟s species was calculated as:
62
Basal area = r2 Where  = 3.14,
r (radius) = Circumference/ 2
Thus BA= Circumference 2/ 4
BA= Circumference x Circumference x 0.25 x 0.32
3.3.5 Mean basal area (MBA): Mean basal area was calculated as follows.
Basal area of all individuals of a species

Mean basal area = ----------------------------------------------------------
Total number of individuals of the species
3.3.6 Total basal cover: The basal cover multiplied with respective density to
obtain total basal cover (TBC, cm2 m-2).
3.3.7 Relative Values: Further, the relative values of frequency, density and
dominance were calculated to understand the ecological importance of the
species within the community (Phillips, 1959; Mishra 1968).
Frequency of a species
Relative frequency = ---------------------------------------------- x 100
Frequency of all the species
Density of a species
Relative density = ------------------------------------------------ x 100
Density of all the species
Basal area of a species

Relative dominance = ------------------------------------------- x 100
Total basal area of all the species
3.3.8 Importance Value Index (IVI): The concept of IVI has been developed
to express the dominance and ecological success of any species (Curtis and
McIntosh 1950). The index is calculated by summing the three relative values,
viz; relative frequency, relative density and relative dominance (Curtis, 1959;
Phillips, 1959).
IVI = relative frequency + relative density + relative dominance
63
3.3.9 Diversity: Diversity is usually considered as a function of relative
distribution of individuals among the species. Diversity is expressed by
Shannon's (1963) index (H = -∑ pi In pi). Here pi represents the proportional
abundance of ith species in any given stand. The proportional abundance of the
most abundant species was calculated by the Berger-Parker (1970) index:
Nmax
d= ----------
N
Where, Nmax = Maximum number of individual, N= Total number of individuals
3.3.10 Alpha diversity: It is a number of species within a chosen area or

community (Whittaker. 1975). The species diversity within a community or
within a habitat is termed alpha-diversity. It comprises two components,
species richness and evenness.
3.3.11 Beta diversity: β(inter community diversity) diversity value thus

reflect habitat heterogeneity within a site Whittaker (1972).
Sc
w = ……..
S
Where, Sc= the total number of species,
S = the average number of species per sample.
w, is the whittaker‟s index of beta diversity.
3.3.12 Dominance: Concentration of dominance (CD or) was computed

using Simpson's index (Simpson, 1949) as:
Cd =  (Ni / N) 2 or  = Pi2
Where Ni = Importance value for each species

N = Total importance value of all species
 or Cd = Index of dominance
3.3.13 Distribution of population: The ratio of abundance to frequency is a

relative measure to present the distribution of species in a community.
Whitford (1949) suggested the following estimates for regular, random and
contagious distribution of population
64
Regular: less then 0.025
Contagious distribution: between 0.025 and 0.05
Random: above than 0.05
3.3.14 Species richness: Species Richness was calculated by Margalef index
(1968).
SR=S-1/In (N),
Where SR= Margalef Index of species richness, S= Total number of species
and N= Total number of individuals.
3.3.15 Evenness: Species with equal or virtually equal abundance. Its highest
value can be unity (1) if all the species in the community or vegetation plot
have equal abundance. It is calculated through index J (Magurran, 1988).
J= H / log S
Where, J= evenness index, S = total number or species in a community or

vegetation plot and H = Shannon Wiener diversity index.
3.3.16 Similarity Percentage: Index of similarity has been calculated in order

to compare two communities, which resemble each other in physiognomy. The
two communities that resemble each other in appearance are never exactly
alike. They differ in species composition due to differences in inter-specific
association. Index of similarity (S) between two samples was computed
following Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg (1974).
c
ISj = …………. x 100
a+b+c
Where, Isj = Jaccard‟s Similarity Index, a=number of species unique to

community a,
b = number of species unique to community b and c = number of species

common to both a and b communities.
3.3.17 Niche width: Niche width of the ith species was estimated by the
following formula (Levins, 1968).
65
1 ( Nij) 2 Yi2
j
Bi = -------------- = --------------- = ------------ …. (1)
 Pij2  Nij2  Nij 2
J j j
Bi =  Pij log Pij …. (2)

j
Where Nij = Total number of individuals of the ith species in the jth resource
state.
Yi = Total number of individuals of the ith species in all resource states.
and Pij = Nij / Yi = Proportion of the individuals of the ith species which is
associated with resource state j.
3.3.18 Niche Overlap: The niche overlaps between species i and h was
calculated by the following formula (Colwell and Futuyma, 1971).
Cih = 1-1/2  Pij- Phj
j
Where Pij = Nij/Yi = Proportion of the individuals of ith species which is
associated with resource state j and
Phj = Nhj/Yh corresponding to a second species h.
The measure has a minimum value of 0, when species i and h share no

resource and a maximum value of 1, when the species have the same
proportional abundance among the resource states. The niche measures (1), (2)
and (3) are absolute and are good estimators provided the resource states are
all equally distinct.
3.3.19 Competition: For measuring competition exclusion among different

species at all stands, dominant and co-dominant species were selected. The
criteria for selection of species were based on (i) presence of species in all
sites and, (ii) on the basis of importance value index. The niche overlap value
of species at every stand was used as a competition coefficient () for
equating competition between species at different communities. Niche overlap
values are frequently equated with the competition coefficient () of the
classical interspecific competition equation of Lotka and Volterra
(Vandermeer, 1972; Abrams, 1980). The present work is aimed at studying
66
only the degree of competition between two species (interspecific
competition) living together in same resource state (stand). Competition was
measured by the traditional equation of Lotka-Volterra (Lotka, 1925 and Volterra,
1926).
dN1 (K1-N1 - 12 N1)

------ = r1 N1 --------------------- ....... (1)
dt K1
dN2 (K2-N2 - 21 N2)

------ = r2 N2 ----------------------- ...... (2)
dt K2
Where, N = population size of species (N1 = species A and N2 = species B)

r = the intrinsic rate of increase (r1 = species A and r2 = species B)
t = time (total study period, in months)
K = Carrying capacity (K1 = species A and K2 = species B)
 = Competition coefficient
12 = the effect of species 2 on 1
21 = the effect of species 1 on 2
3.4 Results
3.4.1 Forest composition along an altitudinal gradient
In all studied sites a total of 265 species belonging to 84 families and 202
genus were encountered. Out the total species, 45 were found under tree layer,
56 under shrub layer and 164 species were found under herb layer. Asteraceae
with 41 species was found dominant family among all the species (Table
3.4.1).
Table 3.4.1 Tree species and their family present along an altitudinal gradients.
FORESTS
S.No. Trees Family PRDF QLDF QSDF AKDF
N S N S N S N S
1 Abies pindrow Royle Pinaceae - - - - - - + +
2 Acer acuminatum Wall. Ex D.Don Acanthaceae - - - - - + + +
3 Aesculus indicaHook. F. Hippocastanaceae - - + - - - - -
4 Alnus nepalensis D.Don Betulaceae - - + + + + - -
5 Bauhinia variegata Linn. Caesalpiniaceae + + - - - - - -
67
Benthamidia capitata (Wallich ex
6 Roxb.) Hara Cornaceae - - - - + + - -
Betula alnoides Buch.-Ham ex
7 D.Don Betulaceae - - - - - - + -
8 Boehmeria rugulosa Weld Urticaceae - - + + - - - -
9 Cedrus deodara (Roxb.)G.Don. Pinaceae - - + + - - - -
10 Cupress torulosa D.Don. Cupressaceae - - - + - - - -
Daphniphyllum
11 himalayense(Benth.)Muell.-Arg. Daphniphyllaceae - - - - + + - -
12 Delbergia sissoo Roxb. Fabaceae + - - - - - - -
13 Emblica officinalis Geartn. Euphorbiaceae - + - - - - - -
14 Erythrina suberosa Roxb. Fabaceae - + - - - - - -
15 Eucalyptus globulus Labill Myrtaceae + - - - - - - -
16 Ficus clavata Wall. Urticaceae + - - - - - - -
17 Ficus palmata Forsk. Moraceae - - + - - - - -
18 Ficus roxburghii Wall. Moraceae + + - - - - - -
Ficus semicordata Buch.Ham. Ex
19 Smith Urticaceae + + - - - - - -
20 Grevillia robusta A.Cunn. Proteaceae + - - - - - - -
21 Irex dipyrena Wallch. Aquifoliaceae - - - - + - - -
22 Juglans regia Linn. Juglandiaceae - - - + - - -
23 Listsea lanuginosa Nees. Lauraceae - - - + + - -
24 Lynoia ovalifolia (Wall.)Drude Ericaceae - - + + + + - -
25 Machilus odorattissima Nees. Lauraceae - - - - + + - -
Mallatous philippinensisMuell-
26 Arg. Euphorbiaceae + + - - - - - -
27 Mangifera indica Linn. Anacardiaceae + + - - - - - -
Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham.ex
28 D.Don Myricaceae + + + + + + - -
29 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. Bignoniaceae - + - - - - - -
Persea duthiei (King ex Hook. F.)
30 Kostermans Lauraceae - - - - + + - -
31 Pinus roxburghii Sarggant. Pinaceae + + + + - - - -
32 Prunus cerasoides D.Don. Rosaceae - - + + + + - -
Pyrus pashia Buch.Ham.ex
33 D.Don Rosaceae + - + + - - - -
Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex
34 Rehder Fagaceae - - - - + + - -
35 Quercus glauca (Thunb.) Fagaceae - - - - + + - -
Quercus leucotrichophora
36 A.Camus Fagaceae + + + + + + - -
37 Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. Fagaceae - - - - - - + +
38 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Ericaceae - - + + + + + +
39 Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn Sapindaceae - + - - - - - -
40 Sapium insigne(Royle) Kurz Euphorbiaceae + + - - - - - -
41 Sorbus cuspidate (Spach) Hedlund Rosaceae - - - - - - - +
Symplocos paniculata
42 (Thunb)Miq. Symplocaceae - - + + + + - -
43 Syzygium cumini (Linn.)Skeels Myrtaceae + - - - - - - -
44 Taxus baccata Linn. Taxaceae - - - - - - +
45 Toona ciliata Roem. Meliaceae + + - - - - - -
+ = Present, - = Absent
68
Table 3.4.2 Shrub species and their family present along an altitudinal gradients.
FORESTS
S.No. SHRUBS Family PRDF QLDF QSDF AKDF
N S N S N S N S
1 Abrus precatorus Linn. Fabaceae + + - - - - - -
2 Adhatoda vasica Nees. Acanthaceae + + - - - - - -
3 Agave americana Linn. Agavaceae + + + + - - - -
4 Arundinaria falcata Nees. Poaceae - - + - - + - -
Asparagus adscendens Buch.-
5 Ham. Ex Roxb. Liliaceae + - + + - - - -
6 Berberis asiatica Roxb. Berberidaceae + + + + - - - -
7 Berberis chirata Lindl. Berberidaceae - - - - + + + +
8 Boehmeria macrophylla Horenm. Urticaceae - - + + - - - -
9 Budleja paniculata Wallich Budlegaceae + + - - - - - -
10 Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl Verbenaceae + + - - - - - -
11 Calotropis procera E.Br Asclepidaceae + - - - - - - -
12 Camellia sinensis (L.)Kuntze Theaceae - - - - - + - -
13 Cannabis sativa Linn. Cannabinaceae - - - + - - - -
14 Carissa opaca Stept Apocynaceae + + - - - - -
15 Cassia floribunda Cav. Fabaceae - - + + - - - -
16 Colebrookia oppositifolia Smith Lamiaceae + + - - - - - -
17 Cornus capiyata Wall. Cornaceae - - - + - - + +
Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall.
18 Ex Lindl Rosaceae - - - - + + + +
Daphne papyracea Wallich ex
19 Steudel Thymelaeaceae - - - - + + + +
20 Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae - - + + - - - -
Debregeasia longifolia
21 (Burm.f.)Wedd. Urticaceae - - + + - - - -
22 Desmodium elegans Candolle. Fabaceae - - - - + + + +
23 Desmodium laxiflorum DC. Fabaceae - - + + - - - -
24 Elsholtzia flava (Benth.) Benth Lamiaceae - - - - + + - -
Eupatorium adenophorum
25 Sprengel Asteraceae + + - + - - - -
26 Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. Euphorbiaceae - - + - - - - -
Gaultheria nummularioides
27 D.Don. Ericaceae - - - - - - + +
Girardinia diversifolia (Link)
28 Friis Urticaceae - - - - + + - -
29 Indigofera gerardiana Wall. Fabaceae + - + + - - - -
30 Indigofera heterantha Wall. Fabaceae - - + + - + - -
31 Jatropha curcus Linn. Euphorbiaceae + + - - - - - -
32 Lantana camara Linn Verbenaceae + + + + - - - -
33 Mahonia borealis Takeda Berberidaceae - - - - - - + +
34 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Rutaceae + + + - - - - -
35 Myrisine africana L. Myrsinaceae - - - - + + + +
Osbeckia stellata Buch-Ham ex
36 D. Don. Melastomataceae - - + + - -
Principia utilis
37 Royle.Illus.Bot.Himal Rosaceae - - - - + + + +
Pyracantha crenulata (D.Don)M.
38 Roemer Rosaceae - - + + + - - -
39 Rhus parviflora Roxb. Anacardiaceae + + + + - - - -
40 Ribes glaciale Wall. Grossulariaceae - - - - - - + -
69
41 Ricinus communis Linn Euphorbiaceae - - + + - - - -
42 Rosa burnonii Lindl. Rosaceae - - - - + + - -
43 Rosa sericea Lindl. Rosaceae - - - - - - + +
44 Rubus ellipticus Sm. Rosaceae + + + + + + - -
45 Rubus nivenus Thunb. Rosaceae - - + + + + - -
46 Rumex hastatus D.Don Polygonaceae - - + + - - - -
Sarcococca saligna
47 (D.Don)Muell.-Arg. Buxaceae - - - - + + - -
48 Senecio kunthianus Wall.ex.Dc. Asteraceae - - - - - - + +
49 Solanum verbascifolium Linn Solanaceae - - + + - - - -
50 Sorbus microphyla Rosaceae - - - - + + + +
51 Spiraea canescens D.Don Rosaceae - - - - - - + -
52 Thamnocalamus spathiflora Poaceae - - - - - - + +
53 Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae + - + + + + - -
54 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.)Kurz Lythraceae + + + + - - - -
55 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. prodr. Rutaceae - - + + - - - -
56 Zizyphus mauritiana Lamb. Rhamnaceae + + - - - - - -
Table 3.4.3 Herb species and their family present along an altitudinal gradients.
FORESTS
S.No. HERBS Family PRDF QLDF QSDF AKDF
N S N S N S N S
Acemella oleracea (L.) R.K.
1 Jansen Asteraceae - - - + - - - -
2 Achyranthes aspera Linn. Amaranthaceae + + + + + + - -
3 Aechmanthera gossypina Nees Acanthaceae + + + + - - -
4 Aeschynomene indica Linn. Fabaceae + + + + + + - -
5 Ajuga bracteosa Wall ex Benth. Lamiaceae + + + + + + - -
6 Ajuga parviflora Benth. Lamiaceae + + - - - - - -
Anaphalis contorta (D. Don)
7 Hook.f. Asteraceae - - - - + + - -
Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims.)
8 C.B. Clarke Asteraceae + + + + + + - -
Anemone rivularis Buch.-
9 Ham.ex DC. Ranunculaceae - - - - - - + +
10 Argemone mexicana Linn. Papaveraceae - - + + - - - -
11 Arisaema flavum (Forrsk.) Araceae - - + + - - - -
12 Ariseama jacqmontei Blume. Araceae - - - - - - + +
13 Artemisia capillaris Thunb. Asteraceae + + - - - - - -
14 Artemisia japonica Thunb. Asteraceae + + + + - - - -
Artemisia nilagirica (C.B.
15 Clarke) Asteraceae + + - + - - - -
Artemisia roxburghiana Wallich
16 ex Besser Asteraceae - - - - + + - -
17 Atylosia scraboides (L.)Benth Fabaceae + + + + - - - -
18 Barleria cristata L. Acanthaceae + + + + - - - -
19 Barleria prionitis L. Acanthaceae + - - - - - - -
20 Begonia picta Smith Begoniaceae - - - - + + - -
21 Bidens pilosa Linn. Asteraceae - - - - - + - -
22 Bidens bipinnata (Linn) Asteraceae + + + + - - - -
23 Bidens tripartita L. Asteraceae + + + + - - - -
24 Blumea mollis D.Don. Asteraceae + + + + - - - -
25 Boernavia diffusa L. Rutaceae + - + + - - - -
26 Breea arvensis Linn. Asteraceae - - - - + + - -
27 Calanthe plantaginea Lindl. Orchidaceae - - - - + + - -
28 Caltha palustris L. Ranunculaceae - - - - - - + +
70
29 Campanula sylvatica Wall. Campanulaceae + + + + - - - -
30 Carex alata Torr. Cyperaceae - - - - - - + +
31 Cassia tora L. Caesalpiniodea + + + - - - -
32 Centalla asiatica (L.) Urban Apiaceae + + + + - - - -
33 Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Poaceae - - - + - - - -
34 Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae - + - - - - - -
Clinopodium umbrosum
35 (M.Bieb) Lamiaceae - + - - - - - -
36 Clintonia borealis (Ait) Raf Liliaceae - - - + + + +
37 Codonopsis ovata Benth Campanulaceae - - - - + + - -
38 Colorado noxious L. Asteraceae + + + - - - -
Conyza japonica Thumb Lessing
39 ex Dc. Asteraceae - - - - + + - -
Conyza leucantha
40 (D.Don.)Ludlow and Raven Asteraceae - - - - + + - -
41 Coriaria nepalensis Wallich Coriariaceae - - + + - - - -
42 Crotolaria alata Buch-Ham Fabaceae + - - - - - - -
43 Cucrcuma angustifolia Roxb. Zingiberaceae + + - - - - - -
44 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Persoon Poaceae + + - - + + - -
45 Cyperus niveus Retz. Cyperaceae - - + + - - - -
46 Cyperus rotundus Linn. Cyperaceae + + + + - - - -
47 Dactyloctenium aegypticum L. Poaceae - - - - + + - -
48 Desmodium bipinnata L. Fabaceae - + + + - - - -
49 Desmodium diffusum DC. Fabaceae + - - - - - - -
50 Desmodium gangeticum L.(DC.) Fabaceae - + - - - - - -
Desmodium miccrophyllum
51 D.C.Polr Fabaceae - - - - + + - -
52 Desmodium tilifolium Wall. Papilionaceae + + + + - - - -
Desmodium velutinum
53 (Willd)DC. Fabaceae + + - - - - - -
54 Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. Poaceae - - + + - - - -
55 Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. Dioscoreaceae + + + + - - - -
56 Deutiza scabra Thunb. Hydrangeaceae - - + + - - - -
57 Echinops cornigerus DC. Asteraceae - - + + - - - -
58 Erigeron canadensis Linn. Asteraceae - - - - + + - +
59 Erigeron karvinskianus DC. Asteraceae - - + + - + - -
60 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae + + + + - - - -
61 Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Polygonaceae - - + + + + - -
62 Flemingia braceteata Wight. Papilionaceae - - - - + + - -
63 Fragaria indica Andr. Rosaceae - - + - + + - -
Fragaria nubicola Lindley ex
64 Lacaita Rosaceae - - - - - - + +
65 Gagea bohemica Zauschn. Liliaceae - - + + - - - -
66 Galium aparine L. Rubiaceae - - - - + + - -
Geranium wallichianum
67 D.Don.ex.sweet Geraniaceae - - - - + + + +
68 Gerbera maxima D.Don Asteraceae - - - - - - + +
Gerbera gossypina (Royle)
69 Beauv Asteraceae - - - - + + - -
70 Gloriosa superbia L. Liliaceae + + - - - - - -
71 Gnaphalium affine D.Don Asteraceae + + + + - - - -
72 Gnaphalium hypoleucum DC. Asteraceae - - - - + + - -
73 Gnaphalium obtusifolium L. Asteraceae - - + + - - - -
74 Gnaphalium purpureum L. Asteraceae - - - - + + - -
Hedychium spicatum Buch.-
75 Ham. Zingiberaceae - - - - + + - -
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.
76 Beauv. Poaceae - - + - - - - -
Impatiens sulcata Wallich in
77 Roxb. Balsaminaceae - - + + - - - -
78 Indigofera dosua Buch-Ham Papilionaceae + - - - - - - -
Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. Ex
79 D.Don) DC. Asteraceae + + + + - - - -
80 Ixeris polycephala Cassini Asteraceae + + + + - - - -
71
81 Lathyrus asphaca Linn Papilionaceae + + - - - - - -
82 Leucas lanata Benth. Lamiaceae - + - - + + - -
Ligularia arnicoides Dc .ex
83 Royal Asteraceae - - - - + + + +
Micromeria biflora (Buch.-
84 Ham.ex D.Don)Benth. Lamiaceae - + + + + + - -
85 Micromeria microphylla (d' urv.) Lamiaceae + - - - - - - -
86 Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae - - + + - - - -
87 Oenothera rosea Soland. Onagraceae - - - - + + - -
88 Oplismenus compositus(L.) Poaceae - - - - + + - -
89 Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae - - - - + + - -
90 Oxalis acetosella L. Oxalidaceae + + - - + + - -
91 Oxalis corniculata L. Sp. Oxalidaceae - - + + + + - -
Paranassia nubecola Wallich ex
92 Royle Saxifragaceae - - - - + + - -
93 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae + + + + + - - -
94 Pedicularis hoffmesteri Klitzsch Orobanchaceae - - - - - + + +
95 Pentanema indicum L. Asteraceae + + - - - - - -
96 Phlomis bracteata Wall. Lamiaceae - - - - - - + +
97 Physalis longfolia Nutt. Solanaceae - - + + - - - -
98 Pimpinella diversifolia DC. Apiaceae + + - - - - - -
Pleatranthus japonicus (Burm.
99 f.) Lamiaceae + + - - - - - -
100 Plumbago zeylanica Linn. Plumbaginaceae - + - - - - - -
101 Poa annua Linn. Poaceae - - - - + + + +
102 Poeonia emodi Wall. Paeoniaceae - - + + - - - -
Pogostemon benghalense
103 Kuntze Lamiaceae + + + + - - - -
104 Polygonum amplexicaule D.Don Polygonaceae - - - - + + + +
105 Polygonum barbatum L. Polygonaceae - - + + + + - -
Polygonum capitatum
106 Buch.Ham.ex D.Don Polygonaceae - - + + - - - -
107 Polygonum emodei Linn Polygonaceae - - - - - - + +
Polygonum macrophyllum
108 D.Don Polygonaceae - - - - - - + +
109 Polygonum plebeium R.Br.APNI Polygonaceae - - - - + + - -
110 Polygonum lapathifolium L. Polygonaceae + - - - + + - -
Potentilla fulgens Wallich ex
111 Lehm. Rosaceae - - - - + + + +
112 Primula denticulata Smith. Primulaceae - - - - - - + +
Parochetus communis Buch
113 Ham Ex .D.Don. Papilionaceae - - - - - - + +
114 Prunella vulgaris L. Lamiaceae - - - - - - + +
Ranunculus hirtellus Royl. Ex
115 Don Ranunculaceae - - - - - - + +
116 Reinwardtia indica Dumortier Liliaceae + + + + + + - -
117 Roscoea purpurea Smith Zingiberaceae - - - - - + - -
Rosularia rosulata
118 (Edgew)H.Ohba Crassulaceae - - - + + - -
119 Rubia cordifolia Linn Rubiaceae - - - - - - + +
Rubia manjiith Roxb. Ex
120 Fleming Rubiaceae - - - - + + - -
121 Rumex hastatus D.Don Polygonaceae - - - - + + - -
122 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae - - - - - - + +
123 Salvia lanata Roxb. Lamiaceae + + - - + + - -
124 Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don) Asteraceae + + - - - - - -
125 Saxifraga diversifolia Wallich Saxifragaceae - - - - + + - -
Sedum imbricatum (Edgew.)
126 walp Crassulaceae - - - - - - + +
127 Selinum candoleii wall. Boraginaceae - - - - + + + +
Selinum
128 wallichianum(C.D.C.)Raizada Apiaceae - - + - - - - -
129 Senecio chrysanthemoides DC. Asteraceae - - - + + + +
130 Senecio graciliforus DC. Asteraceae + + - - - - - -
72
Senecio nudicaulis Buch.-Ham.
131 ex D.Don Asteraceae - - - - + + - -
Shuteria vestita Wallich. Ex
132 Bentham Fabaceae + + - - - - - -
133 Sibaldia procumbens Kunze. Rosaceae - - - - - - + +
134 Sida acuta Burm.F. Malvaceae + + + + - - - -
135 Sida cordifolia Linn Malvaceae - + - - - - - -
136 Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae - + - - - - - -
137 Smilex aspera L. Smilacaceae - - + + - - - -
138 Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae + + + + - - - -
139 Sonchus arvensis Linn Asteraceae + + + - - - -
140 Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Menispermaceae - - - + - - - -
141 Strobilanthes wallichii Nees. Acanthaceae + + + + - - - -
Swertia angustifolia Buch-Ham
142 ex. D . Don Gentianaceae - - - - - - + +
Swertia cordata (G.Don) C.B.
143 Clarke Gentianaceae - - - - + + - -
144 Tagetes minuta Linn. Asteraceae + + + + + - -
145 Taraxacum officinale Weber Asteraceae - - - - - - + +
146 Tephrosia pumila (Lam.) Fabaceae + + + + - - -
147 Tephrosia purpurea Linn. Fabaceae + + - - - - - -
148 Thalictrum alpinum L. Ranunculaceae - - - - - - - -
149 Thalictrum foliolosum Dc. Ranunculaceae + + + + + + - -
150 Trifolium repens L. Fabaceae - - - + + + +
151 Triumfetta pilosa Roth Tiliaceae - - + + - - - -
152 Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Malvaceae + + - - - - - -
153 Valariana hardwitchi Wall. Caprifoliaceae - - - - - - + +
154 Vergenia ligulata Wall Saxifragaceae - - - - - - + +
155 Vernonia cinerea L. Asteraceae - + - - - - - -
156 Veronica cana Wallich ex Benth Asteraceae - - - - + + - -
157 Vervascum thapsus Linn. Scrophulariaceae - - + + - - - -
158 Vigna vexillata L. Fabaceae + + - - - - -
Viola betonicifolia J.Smith in
159 Rees. Violaceae - - + + - - - -
160 Viola canescens Wall. Violaceae - - + + - + - -
161 Viola pilosa Blume Violaceae + + - - - - -
162 Viola tricolr Linn Violaceae - - - - - - + +
163 Vitiveria zizaniodes Linn Poaceae - - + + - - - -
164 Zornia gibbosa Span Fabaceae + - + + - - - -
3.4.2 Phytosociological Analysis of woody and ground Vegetation
Each community is characterized by its species diversity, growth forms,

structure, dominance and successional trend etc. In order to study the details of
these aspects of community, qualitative and quantitative changes of study area
were viewed for understating the ecological behaviour of different community.
The whole study area was represented by eight forests (Pinus roxburghii
dominant forest,Quercus leucotrichophora dominant forest,Quercus species
dominant forest and Abies kharsu dominant forest (each forest two sites, north
and south aspect) for understanding the vegetation pattern of forests.
Frequency (Percentage): It represents the distribution of species in a

community. It varies due to soil condition, seed dispersion mechanism,
73
grazing and other biotic factor.In all sites the species shows different degree of
dispersion.
Density (Individuals /trees ha-1): Density values of any species provides the
numerical strength of species in an area. It provides an idea of competition
between individuals of the species. The higher is the density, the more is the
competition stress between the individuals of the species that is reflected in
poor growth and lower reproductive capacity of the individuals of the species.
The density of species in community varies in time and space and is
influenced by various environmental characteristics.
Total Basal Cover: The basal cover multiplied with respective density to
obtain total basal cover.
Importance Value Index (IVI): Importance Value Index (IVI) of the species
represents the ecological success of any species in a community in a single
value. This single value provides complete picture of sociological structure of
a species, because frequency provides information about the dispersal of a
species in an area, the density gives numerical strength of the species and
dominance gives information about the basal area. When the value of IVI of
important species was compared it gives an excellent idea about varying
environmental factors. The IVI of the same species may vary between two
sites or in the same locality but in different seasons and environmental
conditions.
3.4.2.1 Vegetation analysis of Pinus roxburghii dominant forest
3.4.2.1.1 Vegetation analysis of tree species in PRDF
In first pine dominant forest (PRDF), the highest stand density was recorded
as 1325 tree ha-1 and 1135 treeha-1 at north and south aspect, respectively. On
the north aspect Pinus roxburghii was found dominant species with maximum
frequency (90%), density (380 treeha-1), TBC (24.764 m2ha-1) and IVI
(85.194). Toona ciliata, Mangifera indica, and Quercus leucotrichophora
were found as co-dominant species on both aspects under this forest.
Minimum density (30 tree ha-1) and frequency (20%) was recorded for
Delbergia sissoo in north aspect while, in south aspect density (15 treeha -1),
74
frequency (10%) was found for Oroxylum indicum. Total Basal Cover (TBC)
was found 60.807 m2ha-1 in the north aspect and 52.2 m2ha-1 in the south
aspect repectively. In the south aspect Pinus roxburghii was again found
dominant species with maximum frequency (100%), density (400 treeha-1),
TBC (25.55 m2ha-1) and IVI (52.813). Abundance and frequency ratio showed
contagious and random distribution pattern for 10 (62.2%) species were
contagiously distributed and 6 (37.5%) species random pattern of north aspect
while, in south aspect 5 (35.71%) species were contagiously distributed and 9
(64.28%) species found in random distribution pattern. Regarding the
dominance, Pinus roxburghii, Toona ciliata, Bauhinia variegata, Mangifera
indica and Quercus leucotrichophora were found the dominant tree species in
both aspects.
Table 3.4.2.1.1 Vegetation analysis of tree species at PRDF.
North aspect South aspect

Species Fre. Fre.
S.No.
% Den. TBC % Den. TBC
ha-1 A/F m2 ha-1 I.V.I ha-1 A/F m2 ha-1 I.V.I
1 Bauhinia variegata 30 65 0.072 1.92 13.32 40 55 0.041 1.74 15.96
2 Delbergia sissoo 20 30 0.075 1.04 7.494 - - - - -
3 Emblica officinalis - - - - - 30 35 0.05 1.364 9.90
4 Erythrina suberosa - - - - - 40 70 0.056 2.47 18.60
5 Eucalyptus globules 20 45 0.113 2.24 10.59 - - - - -
6 Ficus clavata 20 60 0.15 1.59 10.66 - - - - -
7 Ficus roxburghii 30 40 0.044 0.86 9.709 30 25 0.039 1.13 11.15
8 Ficus semicordata 30 50 0.056 0.97 10.64 30 35 0.039 1.121 8.92
9 Grevillia robusta 20 35 0.088 2.53 10.31 - - - - -

Mallatous
10 philippinensis 50 90 0.036 1.76 18.46 50 75 0.034 2.015 16.58
11 Mangifera indica 50 115 0.046 4.96 25.61 40 85 0.059 4.762 16.00
12 Myrica esculenta 30 60 0.067 1.50 12.26 30 50 0.056 1.241 12.68
13 Oroxylum indicum - - - - - 10 15 0.15 0.245 22.92
14 Pinus roxburghii 90 380 0.047 24.76 85.19 100 400 0.04 25.55 52.81
15 Pyrus pasia 20 35 0.088 0.62 7.182 - - - - -

Quercus
16 leucotrichophora 60 105 0.029 2.70 22.90 40 80 0.056 3.047 61.74
17 Sapindus mukorossi - - - - - 30 35 0.039 1.213 9.3
18 Sapium insigne 20 40 0.1 1.35 8.75 40 55 0.041 1.856 17.47
19 Syzygium cumini 30 30 0.033 1.52 10.04 - - - - -
20 Toona ciliata 50 145 0.058 10.41 36.84 60 120 0.036 9.379 25.90
1325 60.807 300 1135 57.14 300
75
In PRDF site, frequency, density, TBC and IVI values varied with the
aspect and species. In the tree layer, frequency, density, TBC and IVI values
were found highest at the north aspect as compared to south aspect. Total
stand density was also high in the north aspect which was 1325 treeha -1 as
compared to south aspect where the stand density was recorded as 1135 tree
ha-1.
3.4.2.1.2 Vegetation analysis of shrub strata in PRDF
In the shrub layer of the PRDF in summer season, Eupatorium

adenophorum showed highest frequency (90%) followed by Woodfordia
fruticosa (75%), Berberis aristata (72.2%), Murraya koenigii (70%), Rubus
ellipticus (62.5%) and Lantana camara (60.5%) in the north aspect. While in
the south aspect maximum frequency (85%) was found for Eupatorium
adenophorum followed by Woodfordia fruticosa (80%). In context to density
of shrub, maximum density (9860 plants ha-1) was recorded for Eupatorium
adenophorum and minimum density (500 plants ha-1) for Abrus precatorusin
the north aspect and both similar species was 12200 plants ha-1 to 750 plants
ha-1 in south aspect. The IVI values ranged between 5.77 to 69.16 in the north
aspect and 6.83 to 39.16 in the south aspect. The distribution pattern showed
contagiously in both of the aspects. In the north aspect 15 species (100%) was
distributed contagiously and same position in the south aspect. In the north
aspect Eupatorium adenophorum, Woodfordia fruticosa, Murraya koenigii,
Urtica dioica, Carissa opaca, Berberis aristata, and Rubus ellipticus were
found dominant species. While in the south aspect, Eupatorium adenophorum,
Lantana camara, Woodfordia fruticosa, Adhatoda vasica, Berberis aristata
and Rubus ellipticus were the dominant species (Table 3.4.2.1.2).
Table 3.4.2.1.2 Vegetation analysis of shrub in summer season at PRDF.

S.No. Species Den. Den.
Fre. - Fre. -
% ha 1 A/F I.V.I % ha 1 A/F I.V.I
1 Abrus precatorus 37.5 500 0.088 5.77 42.5 750 0.103 6.83
2 Adhatoda vasica 47.5 2760 0.305 13.09 47.5 3020 0.334 12.83
3 Agave americana - - - - 40 830 0.129 6.72
4 Berberis asiatica 72.5 2640 0.125 15.70 67.5 2670 0.146 14.37
5 Callicarpa macrophylla 32.5 770 0.182 5.91 45 850 0.104 7.36
76
6 Carissa opaca 42.5 1270 0.175 8.45 50 1440 0.144 9.36
7 Colebrookia oppositifolia 52.5 880 0.079 8.56 45 950 0.117 7.60
8 Eupatorium adenophorum 90 9860 0.304 37.39 85 12200 0.422 39.16
9 Jatropha curcus 55 1410 0.116 10.30 52.5 1630 0.147 10.11
10 Lantana camara 62.5 6070 0.388 23.85 62.5 6690 0.428 23.36
11 Murraya koenigii 70 1180 0.060 11.44 65 1450 0.085 11.17
12 Rhus parviflora 57.5 1010 0.076 9.510 52.5 1270 0.115 9.25
13 Rubus ellipticus 62.5 1140 0.072 10.45 65 1590 0.094 11.50
14 Urtica dioica 45 3060 0.377 13.61 - - - -
15 Woodfordia fruticosa 75 3410 0.151 18.09 80 5490 0.214 22.57
16 Zizyphus mauritiana 47.5 820 0.090 7.81 42.5 1130 0.156 7.73
36780 200 41960 200
For shrub layer of PRDF in rainy season, highest frequency (82.5%)

was recorded for Eupatorium adenophorum in the north aspect and
Eupatorium adenophorum and Woodfordia fruticosa (80%) in the south
aspect. The total stand density was found 51910 plant ha-1 in the north aspect
and 54830 plant ha-1 in the south aspect. In the north aspect, the highest
density (9860 plant ha-1) was calculated for Eupatorium adenophorum and
lowest density (630 plant ha-1) for Abrus precatorus. While in south aspect,
maximum density (10600 plant ha-1) was found for Eupatorium adenophorum
followed by Utrica dioica (6720 plant ha-1) and Adhatoda vasica (5420 plant
ha-1). IVI value ranged between 4.6 to 26.44 in the north aspect and 4.89 to
27.79 in south aspect. The A/F ratio showed contagious pattern of distribution
in both aspect were 18(100%), 16(100%) respectively. The dominant shrub
species recorded in the north aspect of PRDF in rainy season were Eupatorium
adenophorum, Lantana camara, Utrica dioica, Adhatoda vasica, and Jatropha
curcus. In the south aspect Eupatorium adenophorum, Lantana camara,
Utrica dioica, Adhatoda vasica and Woodfordia fruticosa were the dominant
shrub species (Table 3.4.2.2.3).
3.4.2.1.3 Vegetation analysis of shrub species in rainy season at PRDF.

Fre. -1 Fre. -1
% ha A/F I.V.I % ha A/F I.V.I
1 Abrus precatorus 37.5 630 0.112 4.59 - - - -
2 Adhatoda vasica 62.5 4810 0.307 14.90 40 5420 0.846 14.05
3 Agave americana 47.5 830 0.091 5.88 30 970 0.269 4.89
77
4 Asparagus adscendens 42.5 780 0.107 5.34 55 850 0.070 7.279
5 Berberis asiatica 72.5 2840 0.135 12.01 75 3490 0.155 14.17
Callicarpa
6 macrophylla 42.5 1010 0.139 5.78 50 950 0.09 6.940
7 Calotropis procera 37.5 670 0.119 4.67 - - - -
8 Carissa opaca 55 1810 0.149 8.45 52.5 1410 0.127 8.04
Colebrootia
9 oppositifolia 65 1330 0.078 8.43 60 1510 0.104 9.00
Eupatorium
10 adenophorum 82.5 9860 0.362 26.44 80 10670 0.416 27.79
11 Jatropha curcus 65 4460 0.263 14.46 60 4340 0.301 14.16
12 Lantana camara 70 7640 0.389 21.03 65 7780 0.460 20.96
13 Murraya koenigii 65 1420 0.084 8.60 60 1580 0.109 9.13
14 Rhus parviflora 70 1730 0.088 9.65 62.5 1770 0.113 9.73
15 Rubus ellipticus 75 1400 0.062 9.46 77.5 1750 0.072 11.26
16 Utrica dioica 75 6080 0.270 18.48 65 6720 0.397 19.02
51910 200 54830 200
As far as shrub layer of PRDF in winter season is concerned the total

forest density was 24580 plants ha-1 and 33170 plants ha-1 in north and south
aspect of this forest respectively. Maximum frequency (87.5%), density
(4190.00 plantsha-1) and IVI (27.49) were achieved by Eupatorium
adenophorum followed by Lantana camara; frequency (67.5%), density (2430
plants ha-1), IVI (17.95) and Jatropha curcus; frequency (65%), density (2040
plants ha-1) and IVI (16.6) in the north aspect. While, in the south aspect
Eupatorium adenophorum was found dominant shrub species with maximum
frequency (77.5%), density (3750 plants ha-1) and IVI (25.89) followed by
Rubus ellipticus and Lantana camara. With regard to distribution pattern, in
the north aspect and south aspect species 15(100%), 13(100%) showed
contagious pattern respectively. The dominant species in the north aspect were
Eupatorium adenophorum, Lantana camara, Jatropha curcus, Adhatoda
vasica and Berberis aristata. In the south aspect Eupatorium adenophorum,
Rubus ellipticus Lantana camara, Adhatoda vasica, Colebrootia oppositifolia
and Woodfordia fruticosa were found dominant shrubs (Table 3.4.2.1.4).
78
3.4.2.1.4 Vegetation analysis of shrub species in winter season at PRDF.

S.No Species Den. Den.
Fre. -1 Fre. -1
% ha A/F I.V.I % ha A/F I.V.I
1 Adhatoda vasica 62.5 3350 0.214 21.09 65 3530 0.208 23.33
2 Berberis asiatica 55 1750 0.144 13.68 57.5 1780 0.134 14.97
3 Buddleja paniculata 45 760 0.0938 8.46 47.5 810 0.089 9.58
4 Callicarpa macrophylla 40 790 0.123 7.99 40 730 0.114 8.27
5 Carissa opaca 47.5 650 0.072 8.31 55 820 0.067 10.60
6 Colebrookia oppositifolia 57.5 850 0.064 10.32 60 1410 0.097 13.74
Eupatorium
7 adenophorum 87.5 4190 0.136 27.49 77.5 3750 0.156 25.88
8 Indigofera heterantha 37.5 560 0.099 6.75 - - - -
9 Jatropha curcus 65 2040 0.120 16.06 - - - -
10 Lantana camara 67.5 2430 0.133 17.94 67.5 2380 0.130 18.80
11 Rhus parviflora 57.5 1150 0.086 11.54 57.5 1230 0.093 12.65
12 Rubus ellipticus 62.5 1350 0.086 12.95 75 1570 0.069 16.36
13 Utrica dioica 42.5 1790 0.247 12.35 55 2440 0.201 17.43
14 Woodfordia fruticosa 62.5 1740 0.111 14.54 60 2030 0.141 16.35
24580 200 23700 200
3.4.2.1.3 Vegetation analysis of herb strata in PRDF
In the context of herb layer of the PRDF in summer season, maximum

frequency (70%) was found for Cynodon dactylon and Oxalis acetosella in the
north aspect and (87.5%) for Oxalis acetosella in the south aspect. Total stand
density for herbs was 83.35 plants m-2 and 92.9 plants m-2 in north and south
aspect respectively. The density was found maximum 18.63 plants m -2 for
Cynodon dactylon and minimum (1.02 plants m-2) for Blumea mollis in north
aspect while in the south aspect highest density (23.7plants m -2 ) and lowest
density (1.13 plants m-2 ) was for same Blumea mollis. Maximum IVI (27.23)
was recorded for Oxalis acetosella in the north aspect and minimum (4.82) for
Blumea mollis. In the south aspect, the IVI ranged from 4.61 to 33.57 in this
aspect. The ratio of abundance and frequency showed contagious and random
pattern in both aspects, no regular pattern was found among the herb species
(Table 3.4.2.5).In the north aspect Oxalix acetosella, Cucrcuma angustifolia,
Inula cappa and Thalictrum folidosum were the dominant herb species.
79
Cynodon dactylon, Inula cappa, Gnaphalium affine, Tephrosia pumila and
Senecio graciliforus were the dominant species in the south aspect.
3.4.2.1.5 Vegetation analysis of herb species in summer season at PRDF.

S.No. Species Fre. Den. Fre. Den.
% m-2 A/F I.V.I % m-2 A/F I.V.I
1 Artemisia japonica 37.5 2.52 0.179 6.62 37.5 2.42 0.172 6.05
2 Artemisia nilagirica 42.5 2.6 0.143 7.19 45 2.87 0.142 7.22
3 Atylosia scraboides 47.5 1.17 0.052 5.96 35 1.95 0.159 5.31
4 Bidens tripartite 50 2.8 0.11 8.15 45 2.27 0.112 6.57
5 Blumea mollis 37.5 1.02 0.072 4.82 40 1.12 0.070 4.88
6 Campanula sylvatica 40 1.8 0.112 5.99 55 2.87 0.095 8.14
7 Cucrcuma angustifolia 65 3.05 0.072 9.89 65 2.97 0.070 9.16
8 Cynodon dactylon 70 18.62 0.380 29.06 65 17.92 0.424 25.26
9 Desmodium bipinnata 55 3.7 0.122 9.71 35 2.07 0.169 5.44
10 Desmodium triflorum 50 2.07 0.083 7.28 60 2.87 0.079 8.60
11 Euphorbia hirta 35 1.3 0.106 4.91 55 2.25 0.074 7.46
12 Gnaphalium affine 55 4.1 0.135 10.19 60 4.32 0.120 10.16
13 Inula cappa 62.5 5.25 0.134 12.29 62.5 5.95 0.152 12.14
14 Lathyrus asphaca 45 1.82 0.090 6.50 35 1.3 0.106 4.61
15 Oxalis acetosella 70 17.1 0.349 27.20 87.5 23.725 0.309 33.57
16 Senecio graciliforus 45 1.97 0.097 6.68 50 4.45 0.178 9.37
17 Sida acuta 50 1.9 0.076 7.07 55 2 0.0661 7.19
18 Tephrosia pumila 42.5 1.95 0.108 6.41 65 3.5 0.082 9.73
19 Tephrosia purpurea 45 2.57 0.127 7.405 45 1.825 0.090 6.09
20 Thalictrum folidosum 62.5 4.42 0.113 11.30 55 2.2 0.072 7.41
21 Vigna vexillata 35 1.57 0.128 5.24 37.5 1.975 0.140 5.56
83.35 200 92.875 200
A total of 33 herb species were recorded in study area during rainy

season. In ground strata, both Artimisia capillaries and Oxalis acetosella had
highest frequency of 70% in the north aspect and 87.5% for Oxalis acetosella
in south aspect. Total forest density of rainy season for herbs was 102.1 plant
m-2 and 123 plant m-2, respectively. The density was found maximum 11.83
plants m-2 for Centalla asiatica and minimum 1 plants m-2 for in Zornia
gibbosa in the north aspect while, in the south aspect highest density of 22.9
plant m-2 was again achieved by Oxalis acetosella and lowest density of 1.34
plants m-2 was for Ajuja parviflora. Maximum IVI (24.02) was recorded for
Oxalis acetosella in the north aspect and minimum (3.14) for Zornia gibbosa.
80
In south aspect, the IVI ranged from 3.54 to 24.55.The ratio of abundance and
frequency showed contagious distribution pattern (Table 3.4.2.1.6). In the
north aspect Centalla asiatica, Cypercus rotundus, Oxalis acetosella,
Parthenium hysterophorus, Anaphalis triplinervis, Artemisia japonica and
Artemisia capillaries were dominant herb species. Centalla asiatica, Cyperus
rotundus, Oxalis acetosella and Parthenium hysterophorus were dominant
species in the south aspect.
3.4.2.1.6 Vegetation analysis of herb species in rainy season at PRDF.

Fre. -2 Fre. -2
% m A/F I.V.I % m A/F I.V.I
1 Achyranthes aspera - - - - 57.5 3.52 0.106 6.80
2 Aeschynomene indica 47.5 4.35 0.192 7.99 47.5 4.07 0.180 6.56
3 Ajuga bracteosa 42.5 1.575 0.087 4.88 47.5 2.52 0.111 5.31
4 Ajuga parviflora 45 1.35 0.066 4.86 37.5 1.37 0.097 3.69
5 Anaphalis triplinervis 60 6.875 0.191 11.45 70 7.12 0.145 10.58
6 Artemisia capillaris 70 4.675 0.095 10.08 - - - -
7 Artemisia japonica 55 4.525 0.149 8.761 62.5 4.37 0.11 7.84
8 Barleria cristata 52.5 2.15 0.078 6.23 57.5 3.55 0.107 6.82
9 Barleria prionitis 27.5 1.725 0.228 3.85 70 2.52 0.051 6.85
10 Bidens tripartita 62.5 2.8 0.071 7.66 - - - -
11 Centalla asiatica 65 11.825 0.279 16.69 62.5 14.8 0.378 16.29
12 Cyperus rotundus 42.5 10.125 0.560 13.26 60 13.57 0.377 15.12
13 Desmodium velutinum 42.5 1.425 0.078 4.74 40 3.5 0.218 5.58
14 Gloriosa superbia 55 1.625 0.053 5.92 42.5 1.52 0.084 4.157
15 Indigofera dosua 40 1.025 0.064 4.15 - - - -
16 Inula cappa 50 1.925 0.077 5.82 55 4.05 0.133 7.062
17 Ixeris polycephala 42.5 1.65 0.091 4.96 40 1.82 0.114 4.22
18 Oxalis acetosella 70 18.9 0.385 24.01 87.5 22.87 0.298 24.55
Parthenium
19 hysterophorus 60 8.725 0.242 13.26 67.5 9.17 0.201 12.075
20 Pentanema indicum 32.5 1.625 0.153 4.150 45 2.05 0.101 4.75
21 Pleatranthus japonicus - - - - 42.5 2.02 0.112 4.56
22 Plumbago zeylanica - - - - 37.5 1.55 0.110 3.83
Pogostemon
23 benghalense 35 1.575 0.128 4.29 55 2.42 0.080 5.74
Polygonum
24 lapathifolium 42.5 2.875 0.159 6.161 - - - -
25 Saussurea heteromalla 45 1.65 0.081 5.158 40 1.47 0.092 3.94
26 Sida cordifolia - - - - 60 2.52 0.070 6.17
27 Sida rhombifolia - - - - 60 1.97 0.054 5.72
28 Sonchus asper 47.5 1.55 0.068 5.25 37.5 1.32 0.094 3.65
29 Thalictrum folidosum - - - - 55 1.9 0.062 5.32
30 Triumfetta rhomboidea 55 2.075 0.068 6.36 35 1.67 0.136 3.76
81
31 Vernonia cinerea - - - - 47.5 2.65 0.117 5.41
32 Viola pilosa 55 2.525 0.083 6.80 35 1.4 0.114 3.54
33 Zornia gibbosa 27.5 1 0.132 3.14 - - - -
102.125 200 123.38 200
The south aspect showed higher values for frequency and density of
most of the herb species as compared to the north aspect. However, the IVI
value was recorded higher at north aspect. The total stand density was found
102.1 plants m-2 and 123 plants m-2 at north and south aspect, respectively.
Among the herb strata a total 34 herbs were found during winter
season of study period in both aspects at PRDF. Oxalis acetosella showed
highest frequency (77.5%) followed by Reinwardtia indica (72.5%), Bidens
bipinnata(65%), Boernia diffusea and Cassia tora (62.5%) in north aspect.
While in the south aspect maximum frequency (77.7%) was found for Bidens
bipinnata followed by Strobilanthes wallichii (70%). In context to density of
herbs, maximum density being 17 plantsm-2 was recorded for Oxalis
acetosella and minimum density (1.35 plants m-2 ) for Colorado noxious in
north aspect while, in south aspect highest density (16.2 plants m-2) was again
achieved by Oxalis acetosella and lowest density( 1.15 plants m-2 ) was for
Shuteria vestita. Maximum IVI (21.67) was recorded for Oxalis acetosella in
north aspect and minimum (3.9) for Colothorado noxious. In the south aspect,
the IVI ranged between 1.15 to 16.2.The ratio of A/F showed contagious
distribution pattern 100% (28 species), 100%(29 species) respectively in both
aspects. In north and south aspects of first site the Rainwardtia indica,
Artemisia capillaries, Bidens bipinnata, Strobilanthes wallichii, Anaphalis
triplinervis and Cassia tora were the dominant herb species (Table 3.4.2.1.7).
3.4.2.1..7 Vegetation analysis of herb species in winter season at PRDF.

S.No. Species Fre. Den.m- Fre Den.
2
% A/F I.V.I % m-2 A/F I.V.I
1 Achyranthes aspera 67.5 3.6 0.079 8.16 45 2.9 0.143 6.28
Aechmanthera
2 gossypina 42.5 2.475 0.137 5.34 57.5 4.35 0.131 8.73
3 Ajuga bracteosa 40 1.375 0.085 4.11 55 1.6 0.052 5.54
5 Artemisia capillaris 37.5 4.775 0.339 7.18 45 2.2 0.108 5.51
82
6 Atylosia scraboides - - - - 35 1.35 0.110 3.89
7 Barleria cristata 47.5 2.7 0.119 5.90 60 6.3 0.175 11.05
8 Bidens bipinnata 65 4.025 0.095 8.39 77.5 4.4 0.073 10.17
9 Boernavia diffusa 62.5 3.55 0.090 7.76 - - - -
10 Cassia tora 62.5 3.9 0.099 8.10 55 3.85 0.127 8.01
11 Cissampelos pareira - - - - 40 1.4 0.087 4.29
12 Clinopodium umbrosum - - - - 35 1.5 0.122 4.05
13 Colorado noxious 37.5 1.35 0.096 3.91 - - - -
14 Crotolaria alata 37.5 3.2 0.081 7.43 - - - -
15 Desmodium diffusum 40 2.675 0.167 5.35 - - - -
16 Desmodium gangeticum - - - - 35 1.35 0.110 3.89
17 Desmodium trifolium 37.5 2.975 0.211 5.46 45 2.9 0.143 6.28
18 Dioscorea bulbifera 60 2.45 0.068 6.54 45 1.8 0.088 5.07
19 Ixeris polycephala 40 2.125 0.132 4.83 45 1.45 0.071 4.69
20 Leucas lanata 45 2.6 0.128 5.63 55 1.8 0.059 5.76
21 Micromeria biflora - - - - 35 1.75 0.142 4.33
22 Micromeria microphylla 40 2.85 0.178 5.52 - - - -
23 Oxalis acetosella 77.5 17 0.283 21.66 75 16.2 0.288 22.96
24 Pentanema indicum 32.5 2.125 0.201 4.30 45 1.95 0.096 5.24
25 Pimpinella diversifolia 42.5 3.35 0.185 6.17 45 3.6 0.177 7.05
26 Pleatranthus japonicus 37.5 2.175 0.154 4.70 40 1.8 0.112 4.73
Pogostemon
27 benghalense 50 2.675 0.107 6.05 55 2.3 0.076 6.31
28 Reinwardtia indica 72.5 8.9 0.169 13.58 65 6.55 0.155 11.67
29 Salvia lanata 52.5 3.075 0.111 6.61 55 1.8 0.059 5.76
30 Shuteria vestita 60 2.775 0.077 6.85 45 1.15 0.056 4.36
31 Sida acuta 52.5 3.425 0.124 6.94 55 1.8 0.059 5.76
32 Solanum nigrum 42.5 1.65 0.091 4.55 45 1.2 0.059 4.41
33 Strobilanthes wallichii 60 5.2 0.144 9.17 70 4.65 0.094 9.92
34 Tagetes minuta - - - - 42.5 1.75 0.096 4.84
104.67 200 91 200
The north aspect showed higher values for % frequency and density of
most of the herb species as compared to the south aspect. However, the IVI
value was recorded higher at the south aspect. The total density found 104.7
plants m-2 and 91 plants m-2 at the north and south aspect, respectively.
3.4.2.2 Quercus leucotrichophora dominant forest (QLDF)
3.4.2.2.1 Vegetational analysis of tree species in QLDF
The site QLDF showed total density of 1345 trees ha-1 in the north
aspect and 1275 trees ha-1 in the south aspect. In the north aspect highest
83
frequency (90%), density (315 trees ha-1), TBC (8.82 m2 ha-1) and IVI (61.35)
were recorded for Quercus leucotrichophora. Similarly, in south aspect
Quercus leucotrichophora was found dominant species with maximum
frequency (90%), density (325 tree ha-1), TBC (10.4 m2 ha-1) and IVI (60.218).
Contagious distribution wasrecord for most of species in both the aspects of
this forest. In the north aspect, out of 13 species, 8 (61.54 %) were found in
contagious distribution and rests 5 (38.46 %) were randomly distributed. But
in the south aspect, out of 13 species 4 (30.76%) species were under
contagious pattern and 9 (69.24%) were in random distribution pattern. In the
north aspect Quercus leucotrichophora, Alnus nepalensis, Myrica esculenta,
Pinus roxburghii, Rhododendron arboretum and Prunus cerasoides were the
dominant tree species. While in the south aspect of this forest Quercus
leucotrichophora, Myrica esculenta, Alnus nepalensis, Pinus roxburghii and
Lyonia ovalifolia, were found as the dominant tree species (Table 3.4.2.2.1).
3.4.2.2.1 Vegetational analysis of tree species in QLDF.

Fre. Den. Den.
S.No. Species
% ha-1 TBC Fre. ha-1 TBC
A/F m2 ha-1 I.V.I % A/F m2 ha-1 I.V.I
1 Aesculus indica 30 55 0.061 1.784 13.83 - - - -
2 Alnus nepalensis 50 155 0.062 2.066 25.48 60 125 0.040 3.056 26.73
3 Boehmeria rugulosa 20 45 0.112 0.940 9.215 20 25 0.062 0.486 6.081
4 Cedrus deodara 30 55 0.061 3.110 17.16 30 35 0.038 2.537 12.70
5 Cupress torulosa - - - - - 40 55 0.034 2.881 16.50
6 Ficus palmata 30 40 0.044 1.044 10.86 - - - - -
7 Juglans regia - - - - - 40 35 0.028 2.471 14.91
8 Lyonia ovalifolia 40 95 0.059 3.063 21.77 50 105 0.042 3.438 22.96
11 Prunus cerasoides 40 105 0.065 1.097 17.57 50 75 0.03 1.565 16.85
12 Pyrus pashia 40 95 0.059 2.238 19.70 40 65 0.053 2.456 17.83

Quercus
13 leucotrichphora 90 315 0.038 8.816 61.34 90 325 0.040 10.44 60.21
Rhododendron
14 arboreum 60 115 0.031 2.521 25.40 40 85 0.059 2.463 18.58
15 Symplocos paniculata 20 30 0.075 0.890 7.975 30 65 0.072 1.878 13.54
1345 39.830 300 1275 48.05 300
Across both aspects of this forest, tree frequency was found high in the south
aspect as compared to north aspect. Similarly tree density was also higher in
the south aspect for most of species, except Alnus nepalensis which was
84
recorded highest density value155 trees ha-1at north aspect. TBC values were
observed highest at south aspect for most of the species. The IVI value was
recorded highest (61.35) for Quercus leucotrichophora at north aspect and
lowest for Symplocos paniculata (7.97). In the south aspect, the IVI ranged
from 6.081 to 60.21.
3.4.2.2 .2 Vegetational analysis of shrub layer in QLDF
At the site QIDF in summer season, a maximum frequency (67.5%)

was found for Pyracantha crenulata in the north aspect and (72.5%) for
Eupatorium adenophorumin the south aspect for shrub stratum. Total stand
density for shrub was 27310 plants ha-1and 30600 plants ha-1in north and south
aspect respectively. The density was found maximum of 4850 plants ha-1for
Rumex hastatus and minimum (320 plants ha-1) for Desmodium laxiflorumin in
north aspect while in the south aspect highest density (5640 plants ha-1) for
Eupatorium adenophorum and lowest density (540 plants ha-1) was again for
Rubus nivenus.Maximum IVI (23.84) was recorded for Rumex hastatus in the
north aspect and minimum (5.62) for Zanthoxylum alatum. In the south aspect,
the IVI ranged from 6.37 to 27.09. The ratio of abundance and frequency
showed contagious and random pattern in north aspect, out of 18 species 17
(94.44%) and 1 (5.55%) respectively while all 16 were contagiously
distributed in south aspect (Table 3.4.2.2.2). In the north aspect Rumex
hastatus, Woodfordia fruticosa, Lantana camara and Berberis asiatica were
the dominant shrub species. Eupatorium adenophorum, Lantana camara,
Urtica dioica, Berberis asiatica, Rumex hastatus and Pyracantha crenulata
were the dominant species in the south aspect (Table 3.4.2.2.2).
3.4.2.2.2 Vegetation analysis of shrub species in summer season at QLDF.

S.No. Species
Fre. Den. Fre. Den.
% ha-1 A/F I.V.I % ha-1 A/F I.V.I
1 Agave Americana 32.5 710 0.168 6.03 37.5 580 0.1031 6.37
2 Arundinaria spp 42.5 530 0.073 6.43 - - - -
4 Boehmeria macrophylla 52.5 680 0.061 8.04 47.5 760 0.0842 8.15
5 Cassia floribunda 57.5 900 0.068 9.38 57.5 1040 0.0786 10.26
6 Debregeasia longifolia 62.5 1170 0.074 10.89 47.5 900 0.0997 8.61
7 Desmodium laxiflorum 42.5 320 0.044 5.66 42.5 640 0.0886 7.16
Eupatorium
8 adenophorum 40 550 0.085 6.24 72.5 5640 0.2683 27.08
85
9 Indigofera heterantha 50 650 0.065 7.67 47.5 640 0.0709 7.76
10 Lantana camara 62.5 3450 0.220 19.24 55 4980 0.4116 22.84
11 Pyracantha crenulata 67.5 1760 0.096 13.58 60 2000 0.1389 13.70
12 Rhus parviflora 52.5 890 0.080 8.81 60 1430 0.0993 11.83
13 Rubus ellipticus 65 1530 0.090 12.48 50 1340 0.134 10.34
14 Rubus nivenus 47.5 900 0.099 8.32 40 540 0.0844 6.54
15 Rumex hastatus 57.5 4850 0.366 23.84 40 2560 0.4 13.14
15 Urtica dioica 55 1890 0.156 12.74 60 3200 0.2222 17.62
17 Woodfordia fruticosa 57.5 3450 0.260 18.71 57.5 1230 0.093 10.88
18 Zanthoxylum armatum 37.5 450 0.08 5.61 - - - -
27310 200 30600 200
The south aspect showed higher values for frequency and density for most of
the herb species compared to the north aspect. However, the IVI value was
recorded higher at south aspect. The total stand density was found 27310
plants ha-1and 30600 plants ha-1 at the north and south aspect respectively.
A total of 21 and 19 shrubs species were recorded in north and south aspect in
study area during the rainy season. In this stratum Eupatorium adenophorum
had highest frequencyin both aspects (87.5% and 97.5% respectively. Total
forest density of rainy season for shrub was 44970 plant ha-1 in north aspect
and 52670 plant ha-1 insouth aspect.The density was found maximum being
7660 plants ha-1 for Eupatorium adenophorum and minimum 430 plants ha-1
for Zanthoxylum alatum in the north aspect while, the south aspect had highest
density of 9590 plants ha-1 for Eupatorium adenophorum and lowest density
920 plants ha-1 was for Solanum nigrum. Maximum IVI (24.42) was
recorded for Eupatorium adenophorum in the north aspect and minimum
(3.07) for Zanthoxylum alatum. In south aspect, the IVI ranged from 5.32 to
26.91. The ratio of abundance and frequency showedthat 90.48% species are
contagiously distributed and 9.52% species were found having random
distribution pattern in north aspect while, in south aspect all species were
contagiously distributed (Table 3.4.2.2.3). In the north aspect Eupatorium
adenophorum, Lantana camara, Urtica dioica, Woodfordia fruticosa, Rumex
hastatus, Berberis asiatica and Indigofera gerardiana were dominant shrub
species. Eupatorium adenophorum, Urtica dioica, Lantana camara and
Berberis asiatica were dominant species in the south aspect.
86
3.4.2.2.3 Vegetation analysis of shrub species in rainy season at QLDF.

Fre. ha-1 Fre. ha-1
% A/F I.V.I % A/F I.V.I
1 Asparagus adscendens 60 1340 0.093 8.04 52.5 1240 0.112 7.041
3 Boehmeria macrophylla 67.5 780 0.042 7.43 - - - -
4 Cassia floribunda 50 1360 0.136 7.24 52.5 1640 0.148 7.80
5 Datura stramonium 42.5 900 0.124 5.58 42.5 950 0.131 5.59
6 Debregeasia longifolia 65 1600 0.094 9.043 62.5 1750 0.112 8.90
8 Eupatorium adenophorum 87.5 7660 0.250 24.41 97.5 9590 0.252 26.91
9 Indigofera gerardiana 52.5 960 0.087 6.56 60 1130 0.078 7.50
10 Indigofera heterantha 52.5 2330 0.211 9.61 65 2960 0.175 11.42
11 Lantana camara 60 4580 0.318 15.24 65 5030 0.297 15.35
12 Murraya koenigii 55 1390 0.114 7.73 57.5 1610 0.121 8.19
13 Osbeckia stellata 52.5 1640 0.148 8.07 62.5 2180 0.139 9.71
14 Rhus parviflora 62.5 1450 0.092 8.49 50 1820 0.185 7.91
15 Ricinus communis 42.5 760 0.105 5.27 47.5 940 0.104 6.02
17 Rumex hastatus 45 3140 0.387 10.77 55 4100 0.338 12.69
18 Solanum nigrum L. 40 790 0.123 5.13 40 920 0.143 5.31
19 Urtica dioica 72.5 4320 0.205 15.72 62.5 5520 0.353 16.06
20 Woodfordia fruticosa 62.5 4040 0.258 14.25 67.5 4600 0.252 14.76
21 Zanthoxylum armatum 25 430 0.172 3.06 - - - -
44970 200 52670 200
The south aspect showed higher values for frequency % and density of most of
the herb species as compared to the north aspect. However, the IVI value was
recorded higher at north aspect.The total stand density was found 44970 plants
ha-1 and 52670 plants ha-1 at north and south aspect respectively.
Among the shrub strata,during winter season at second forest Urtica dioica
showed highest frequency (70.0%) followed by Woodfordia fruticosa (65%),
Rubus ellipticus (65%), Debregeasia longifolia (62%) and Berberis asiatica
(57.5%) in north aspect. While in the south aspect maximum frequency
(72.5%) was displayed by Eupatorium adenophorum followed by Urtica
dioica (70%).In context to density of herbs, maximum density 2590 plants ha-1
was recorded for Lantana camara and minimum density (460 plants ha-1) for
Cornus capiyata in north aspect while, in south aspect highest density (5460
87
plants ha-1) was Eupatorium adenophorum and lowest density (440 plants ha-1)
for Zanthoxylum alatum. Maximum IVI (23.11) was recorded for Lantana
camara in north aspect and minimum (6.3) for Zanthoxylum alatum while in
the south aspect,the IVI ranged from 4.98 to 29.02.The ratio of A/F showed
Contagious distribution pattern of both aspect 15(100%) and 15(100%). In the
north aspect the Lantana camara, Woodfordia fruticosa, Indigofera
heterantha, Berberis asiatica, Urtica dioica and Rubus ellipticus were the
dominant shrub species in while in south aspect dominant species were
Lantana camara, Woodfordia fruticosa, Indigofera heterantha,Urtica
dioica,Berberis asiatica andDebregeasia longifolia (Table 3.2.2.4 ).
3.2.2.4 Vegetation analysis of shrub species in winter season at QLDF.

S.No. Species Fre. Fre.
Den. Den.
2 Boehmeria macrophylla 50 1020 0.102 11.12 50 990 0.099 9.75
3 Cannabis sativa 32.5 1010 0.239 8.80 37.5 940 0.1671 8.04
4 Cassia floribunda 45 850 0.104 9.70 35 1040 0.212 8.11
5 Cornus capiyata 42.5 460 0.063 7.60 - - - -
6 Debregeasia longifolia 60 1340 0.093 13.87 57.5 1230 0.093 11.55
Eupatorium
8 adenophorum - - - - 72.5 5460 0.259 29.01
9 Indigofera heterantha 55 2360 0.195 17.85 60 2610 0.181 16.96
10 Lantana camara 52.5 3590 0.325 23.10 62.5 2710 0.173 17.63
11 Rhus parviflora 57.5 1550 0.117 14.50 60 1660 0.115 13.45
13 Rubus nivenus 40 850 0.132 9.05 47.5 920 0.101 9.19
14 Urtica dioica 70 1700 0.086 16.80 70 2360 0.120 17.25
16 Zanthoxylum armatum 30 540 0.15 6.34 27.5 440 0.145 4.97
22040 200 27060 200
3.4.2.2.3 Vegetational analysis of herb strata in QLDF
Ground vegetation of the QLDF in summer season recorded total stand

density of 136 plants m-2 in the north aspect while, in the south aspect, the
total stand density was recorded 170.5 plants m-2. Oxalis corniculata was
found dominance herb species in both the aspects of this stand with highest
values of frequency, density and IVI. These values were recorded as frequency
88
(85%), density (32.2 plants m-2) and IVI (31.8) in the north aspect and 65%
frequency, 36.2 plants m-2 density and 27.36 IVI, in the south aspect. As far as
distribution pattern was concerned, all species were contagiouslydistributed in
both aspects of the forest. Oxalis corniculata, Desmodium trifolium, Digitaria
sanguinalis, Gnaphalium affine, Cyperus niveus and Parthenium
hysterophorusra were the dominant herb species at the north aspect of the
highly disturbed stand. While in the south aspect the dominant herb species
were Oxalis corniculata, Desmodium trifolium, Parthenium hysterophorus,
Gnaphalium affinen, Digitaria sanguinalis and Artemisia japonica (Table
3.4.2.2.5).
3.4.2.2.5 Vegetation analysis of herb species in summer season at QLDF.

S.No Species Fre. Fre.
Den. Den.
% m-2 A/F I.V.I % m-2 A/F I.V.I
1 Anaphalis triplinervis 50 7.45 0.29 10.30 62.5 9.15 0.23 11.26
2 Artemisia japonica 55 5.62 0.18 9.44 42.5 9.92 0.54 9.83
3 Atylosia scraboides 32.5 1 0.094 3.87 57.5 1.85 0.05 6.50
4 Blumea mollis 42.5 1.02 0.056 4.85 35 1.87 0.15 4.40
5 Campanula sylvatica 42.5 2.12 0.11 5.66 42.5 2.92 0.16 5.72
6 Coriaria nepalensis 50 1.42 0.05 5.87 47.5 2 0.08 5.65
7 Cyperus niveus 62.5 11.6 0.29 14.59 62.5 14.8 0.37 14.57
8 Desmodium trifolium 50 15.5 0.62 16.21 55 17.17 0.56 15.26
9 Digitaria sanguinalis 70 12.72 0.25 16.11 62.5 13.3 0.34 13.69
10 Erigeron Canadensis 52.5 2.52 0.09 6.92 42.5 3.45 0.19 6.03
11 Euphorbia hirta 40 1.42 0.08 4.91 37.5 2.12 0.15 4.78
12 Gnaphalium affine 47.5 12.15 0.53 13.51 50 14.27 0.57 13.08
13 Inula cappa 50 5.77 0.23 9.07 52.5 7.42 0.26 9.30
14 Micromeria biflora 42.5 3 0.16 6.30 52.5 5.82 0.21 8.36
15 Oxalis corniculata 85 32.17 0.44 31.84 65 36.2 0.85 27.36
Parthenium
16 hysterophorus 65 10.72 0.25 14.15 60 15.1 0.41 14.51
17 Pogostemon benghalense 50 2.5 0.1 6.66 60 3.42 0.09 7.66
18 Sida acuta 42.5 2.52 0.13 5.96 40 2.35 0.14 5.15
19 Tagetes minuta 40 2.25 0.14 5.51 57.5 2.67 0.08 6.99
20 Tephrosia pumila 32.5 1.42 0.13 4.18 37.5 2.67 0.19 5.10
21 Triumfetta pilosa 32.5 1.15 0.10 3.98 37.5 1.97 0.14 4.69
136.15 200 170.5 200
During summer season at both aspects of this forest site had similar
herb frequency. While the herb density values were observed higher at south
89
aspect for most of species. As far as the IVI was concerned, the almost similar
values were found on both the aspects. However, the total stand density of
north aspect was 136 plants m-2 and 170.5 plants m-2 at south aspect.
In context of herb layer of Rainyseason at QLDF, highest frequency

(77.5%, 80%) was recorded for Oxalis acetosella in the north and south aspect
respectively.The total stand density was found 223 plants m-2 in the north
aspect and 252.3 plants m-2 in the south aspect. In the north aspect, the highest
density (37.2 plants m-2) was calculated forChrysopogon fulvus and lowest
density (0.85 plants m-2) for Poeonia emodi. While in south aspect, maximum
density (34.55 plants m-2) was found for Oxalis acetosellafollowed by
Chrysopogon fulvus (34.9 plants m-2) and Centalla asiatica (23.5 plants m-2).
IVI value ranged from 2.46 to 21.7 in the north aspect and 2.51 to 19.38 in
south aspect. The abundance and frequency ratio showed contagious
distribution pattern all species in north and south aspect. The dominant herb
species recorded in the north aspect of the rainy season of second stand were
Chrysopogon fulvus, Oxalis acetosella, Polygonum capitatum, Cyperus
niveus, Centalla asiatica, Oxalis acetosella, Heteropogon contortus and
Polygonum barbatum. In the south aspectChrysopogon fulvus, Oxalis
acetosella, Centalla asiatica, Polygonum capitatum and Parthenium
hysterophorus were the dominant herb species (Table 3.4.2.2.6).
3.4.2.2.6 Vegetation analysis of herb species in rainy season at QLDF.

Den. Den.
% m-2 A/F I.V.I % m-2 A/F I.V.I
1 Achyranthes aspera 50 7.57 0.303 7.25 60 7.62 0.21 7.29
3 Ajuga bracteosa 35 1.5 0.122 3.37 37.5 1.75 0.12 3.36
4 Arisaema flavum 37.5 1.05 0.074 3.36 27.5 1.4 0.18 2.51
5 Artemisia nilagirica 57.5 8.92 0.269 8.43 62.5 10.3 0.26 8.53
6 Barleria cristata 42.5 3.07 0.170 4.65 42.5 4.52 0.25 4.81
7 Bidens tripartite 60 3.32 0.092 6.12 60 4.02 0.11 5.86
8 Centalla asiatica 70 17.35 0.354 13.17 77.5 23.5 0.39 14.83
9 Chrysopogon fulvus 65 37.15 0.879 21.66 65 34.9 0.82 18.45
10 Cyperus niveus 55 19.82 0.655 13.12 67.5 20.1 0.44 12.77
11 Desmodium trifolium 45 3.025 0.149 4.82 70 4.075 0.083 6.59
12 Digitaria sanguinalis 52.5 8.55 0.310 7.88 57.5 9.57 0.28 7.88
13 Gagea bohemica 40 2.075 0.129 4.01 45 2.17 0.10 4.06
90
14 Heteropogon contortus 47.5 11.42 0.506 8.78 - - - -
15 Impatiens sulcata 50 3.17 0.127 5.28 52.5 4.12 0.14 5.37
16 Nerium oleander 37.5 1.9 0.135 3.74 42.5 2.47 0.13 4.00
17 Oxalis acetosella 77.5 30.47 0.507 19.63 80 34.55 0.53 19.38
Parthenium
18 hysterophorus - - - - 57.5 15.2 0.45 10.11
19 Poeonia emodi 32.5 0.85 0.080 2.89 35 1.15 0.09 2.94
20 Polygonum barbatum 62.5 10.57 0.270 9.56 52.5 14.6 0.52 9.52
21 Polygonum capitatum 70 25.25 0.515 16.71 70 29.5 0.60 16.67
22 Selinum wallichii 42.5 2.05 0.113 4.20 - - - -
23 Sonchus asper - - - - 40 2.1 0.13 3.67
24 Triumfetta pilosa 55 2.47 0.081 5.35 52.5 2.62 0.09 4.77
25 Vervascum Thapsus 25 1.17 0.188 2.45 32.5 1.32 0.12 2.83
26 Viola betonicifolia 52.5 1.92 0.069 4.91 60 1.95 0.05 5.04
27 Vitiveria zizaniodes 40 7.32 0.457 6.36 50 6.27 0.25 6.04
28 Zornia gibbosa 30 2.15 0.238 3.27 40 2.07 0.12 3.66
223.25 200 252.3 200
During rainy season at the QLDF, herbaceous layer showed higher

frequency and IVI values in north aspect. However, density was recorded high
at south aspect as compared to north aspect.
In context of herb layer during thewinter season at QLDF, maximum

frequency (85.0 %) was found for Oxalis acetosellain the north and south
aspect. Total stand density for herbs was 198 m-2 and 218.3 m-2 in north and
south aspects respectively. The density was found maximum (35.3 plantm-2)
forOxalis acetosella and minimum (0.44 plant m-2) for Smilex speciesin the
north aspect while, in the south aspect highest density (38.18 plantm-2) was
again achieved by Oxalis acetosella and lowest density (1.2 plant m-2) was for
Solanumnigrum.Maximum IVI (23.9) was recorded for Oxalis acetosella in
the north aspect and minimum (2.33) for Thalictrum folodosum. In the south
aspect, the IVI ranged between 2.78 to 23.16. The ratio of abundance and
frequency showed contagious distribution pattern at north and south aspect
respectively. Random and regular pattern was not found among the herb
species (Table 3.4.2.2.7).Oxalis acetosella, Desmodium trifolium, Fagopyrum
esculentum, Parthenium hysterophorus, Barleria cristata, Anaphalis
triplinervis and Strobilanthes wallichii were the dominant species in the north
and south aspect respectively.
91
3.4.2.2.7 Vegetation analysis of herb species in winter season at QLDF.

Den Den.
% m-2 A/F I.V.I % m-2 A/F I.V.I
1 Acemella oleracea - - - - 62.5 2.02 0.051 5.10
Aechmanthera
2 gossypina 55 6.8 0.224 7.39 57.5 8.47 0.256 7.72
3 Anaphalis triplinervis 70 10.8 0.220 10.49 62.5 11.95 0.305 9.64
4 Argemone Mexicana 35 1.875 0.153 3.46 42.5 2.57 0.142 4.01
5 Artemisia nilagirica 47.5 3.075 0.136 4.97 45 3.67 0.181 4.68
6 Barleria cristata 70 11.625 0.237 10.91 62.5 12.92 0.330 10.09
7 Bidens bipinnata 35 3.025 0.246 4.04 40 3.2 0.2 4.13
8 Boernavia diffusa 70 7.625 0.155 8.89 57.5 7.025 0.212 7.05
9 Colorado noxious 35 1.875 0.153 3.46 40 2.32 0.145 3.73
10 Desmodium trifolium 67.5 30.575 0.671 20.29 67.5 26.4 0.579 16.60
11 Dioscorea bulbifera 45 2.65 0.130 4.58 50 3.4 0.136 4.89
12 Dxtuzia species 60 4.15 0.115 6.419 65 4.57 0.108 6.43
13 Erigeron Canadensis 45 2.82 0.139 4.66 45 2.2 0.108 4.01
14 Fagopyrum esculentum 55 19.8 0.654 13.95 60 21.3 0.591 13.76
15 Frageria indica 25 1.7 0.27 2.66 - - - -
16 Gnaphalium affine 52.5 8.27 0.300 7.961 50 7.92 0.317 6.97
17 Impatiens sulcata 60 2.55 0.070 5.61 45 3.15 0.155 4.44
18 Inula cappa 67.5 5.4 0.118 7.59 75 9.32 0.165 9.28
19 Ixeris polycephala 45 1.62 0.080 4.06 50 2.02 0.081 4.26
20 Oxalis corniculata 85 35.3 0.488 23.94 85 38.17 0.528 23.16
Parthenium
21 hysterophorus 52.5 12.5 0.453 10.09 60 15.7 0.436 11.20
22 Physalis longfolia 40 2.07 0.129 3.93 47.5 2.7 0.119 4.40
23 Reinwardita indica 77.5 9.2 0.153 10.23 77.5 9.45 0.157 9.50
24 Smilex species 30 1.025 0.113 2.67 37.5 1.35 0.096 3.12
25 Solanum nigrum 35 1.25 0.102 3.15 40 1.2 0.075 3.22
26 Stephania japonica - - - - 40 1.95 0.121 3.56
27 Strobilanthes wallichii 62.5 7.47 0.191 8.27 65 9.45 0.223 8.67
28 Thalictrum folidosum 25 1.05 0.168 2.33 30 1.7 0.188 2.78
29 Viola canascens 40 1.97 0.123 3.87 37.5 2.1 0.149 3.46
198.1 200 218.25 200
The north and south aspect showed the similar % frequency percentage
and IVI trend. Density value was higherat the south aspect. The total stand
density was found 198 plants m-2 and 218.3 plants m-2 at the north and south
aspect, respectively.
3.4.2.3 QUERCUS SPECIES DOMINANT FOREST (QSDF)
3.4.2.3.1 Vegetation analysis of tree species in QSDF
92
Tree layer of QSDF showed total density of 1760 trees ha-1 in the north
frequency (100%), density (385 trees ha-1), TBC (20.92 m2 ha-1) and IVI
(60.94) were recorded for Quercus leucotrichophora. Similarly, in south
aspect Quercus leucotrichophora was found dominant species with maximum
frequency (100%), density (320 tree ha-1), TBC (17.98 m2 ha-1) and IVI
(51.49). Random distribution wasrecorded for most of species in both the
aspects of this forest. In the north aspect, out of 15 species, 4 were found
contagious distribution and rests 11 species were randomly distributed.
However, in the south aspect, out of 15 species 6(40%) species were under
contagious pattern and rest 9(60%) displayed random distribution pattern. In
the north aspect Quercus leucotrichophora, Alnus nepalensis, Daphniphyllum
himalense, Lyonia ovalifolia, Myrica esculenta, Quercus floribunda and
Rhododendron arboreum were the dominant tree species.While in the south
aspect of this forest Quercus leucotrichophora, Alnus nepalensis,
Rhododendron arboreum, Myrica esculenta, Persea duthiei, Daphniphyllum
himalense, Listsea lanuginose, Prunus cerasoides and Quercus floribunda
were found as the dominant tree species (Table 3.4.2.3.1).
3.4.2.3.1 Vegetation analysis of tree species at QLDF.

S.No. Species Fre. Den. TBC Fre Den. TBC
% ha-1 A/F m 2ha-1 I.V.I % ha-1 A/F m 2ha-1 I.V.I
1 Acer acuminatum - - - - 40 65 0.040 3.34 12.62
3 Benthamidia capitata 35 50 0.040 2.82 10.92 30 70 0.077 2.90 11.10

Daphniphyllum
4 himalayense 60 155 0.043 7.00 25.35 60 115 0.034 5.11 20.56
5 Irex donina 30 55 0.061 2.89 10.64 - - - - -
6 Listsea lanuginosa 55 85 0.028 2.88 15.6 50 110 0.048 4.05 17.77
7 Lynoia ovalifolia 60 125 0.034 4.87 20.99 40 90 0.062 2.88 14.02
8 Machilus odorattissima 30 45 0.05 1.48 8.329 30 55 0.061 1.84 9.036
10 Persea duthiei 30 90 0.1 2.89 12.63 50 115 0.052 5.12 19.58
11 Prunus cerasoides 30 80 0.088 2.59 11.69 50 90 0.048 4.44 18.2
12 Quercus floribunda 50 125 0.05 6.36 21.54 60 105 0.031 6.83 22.01
13 Quercus glauca 50 80 0.032 0.32 11.47 40 85 0.053 5.58 16.34

Quercus
Rhododendron
15 arboreum 60 95 0.026 3.88 18.06 70 125 0.025 6.09 22.99
16 Symplocos paniculata 30 55 0.061 2.85 10.6 30 45 0.061 2.55 9.871
1760 80.463 300 1680 85.85 300
93
Across both aspects of QSDF, tree frequency was found high in the
south aspect as compared to north aspect. Similarly, tree density was also
higher in the south aspect for most of species, except Quercus
leucotrichophora which was recorded high at north aspect. TBC values were
also observed highest at north aspect for most of the dominant species. The
IVI value was recorded highest (112.7) for Quercus leucotrichophora at south
aspect but the remaining co-dominant species showed high IVI values at north
aspect.
3.4.2.3.2 Vegetation analysis of shrub strata in QSDF
Inthe shrub layer of the QSDF in summer season, Elsholtzia flava and
Pyracantha crenulatashowed highest frequency (65%) followed by Principia
utilis (60%), Sarcococca saligna (60%), Cotoneaster microphyllum (55%) and
Indigofera heterantha (55%) in the north aspect during summer season. While
in the south aspect maximum frequency (70%) was found for Rubus
ellipticusfollowed by Sarcococca saligna and Pyracantha crenulata (65%). In
context to density of shrub, maximum density (3570 plants ha-1) was recorded
for Urtica dioica and minimum density (600 plants ha-1) for Rosa burnonii in
the north aspect whereas highest density wasUrtica dioica 4430 plants ha-1
and 760 plants ha-1 was Rubus nivenus in south aspect. The IVI values ranged
between 8.35 to 22.66 in the north aspect and 8.90 to 24.53 in the south aspect.
The distribution pattern showed contagiously and random pattern. In the north
aspect 15 species (100%) were distributed contagiously and at south aspect 14
(93.33%) species were contagious and 1(6.66%) were random in distributed.
In the north aspect Urtica dioica, Indigofera heterantha, Elsholtzia flava,
Pyracantha crenulata, Cotoneaster microphyllum and Principia utilis were
found dominant species. While in the south aspect, Urtica dioica, Sarcococca
saligna, Elsholtzia flava, Pyracantha crenulata, Camellia indica and
Cotoneaster microphyllum were the dominant species (Table3.4.2.3.2).
3.4.2.3.2 Vegetation analysis of shrub species in summer season at QSDF.

1 Berberis asiatica 50 1160 0.116 11.45 45 1360 0.167 11.21
94
2 Berberis chirata 45 960 0.118 9.94 45 800 0.098 8.89
3 Camellia indica - - - - 45 1730 0.213 12.74
4 Cotoneaster microphyllum 55 1560 0.128 13.85 55 1410 0.116 12.66
5 Desmodium elegans 50 1150 0.115 11.41 55 1340 0.110 12.37
6 Elsholtzia flava 65 1780 0.105 16.09 60 1860 0.129 15.14
7 Indigofera heterantha 55 3550 0.293 22.65 - - - -
8 Myrisine Africana 50 670 0.067 9.29 45 970 0.119 9.60
9 Principia utilis 60 1360 0.094 13.60 55 1610 0.133 13.49
10 Pyracantha crenulata 65 1590 0.094 15.25 65 1740 0.103 15.27
11 Rosa burnonii 45 600 0.074 8.34 50 1130 0.113 10.88
13 Rubus nivenus 45 810 0.1 9.27 50 760 0.076 9.35
14 Sarcococca saligna 60 1750 0.121 15.33 65 2910 0.172 20.10
15 Sorbus microphyla 50 910 0.091 10.35 50 1150 0.115 10.96
16 Utrica dioica 45 3570 0.440 21.47 50 4430 0.443 24.53
22620 200 24180 200
In the shrub layer of the QSDF in rainy season, highest frequency

(70.0%) was recorded for Sarcococca saligna in the north aspect and
Principia utilis (70%) in the south aspect during rainy season. The total forest
density was found 37440 plant ha-1 in the north aspect and 38970 plants ha-1 in
the south aspect. In the north aspect, the highest density (5570 plants ha-1) was
calculated for Utrica dioica and lowest density (870 plants ha-1) for
Desmodium elegans. While in south aspect, maximum density (5450 plants
ha-1) was found for Sarcococca saligna followed by Indigofera heterantha
(3840 plants ha-1) and Berberis asiatica (3010 plants ha-1). IVI value ranged
between 7.16 to 20.79 in the north aspect and 7.54 to 20.54 in south aspect.
All species in both aspects of this site showed contagious pattern. The
dominant shrub species recorded in the north aspect in rainy season were
Utrica dioica, Sarcococca saligna, Indigofera heterantha, Girardinia
heterophylla, Principia utilis and Berberis asiatica. In the south
aspectSarcococca saligna, Indigofera heterantha, Berberis asiatica,
Girardinia heterophylla, and Principia utilis were the dominant shrub species
(Table 3.4.2.3.3).
95
3.4.2.3.3 Vegetation analysis of shrub species in rainy season at QSDF.

S.No Species Fre. Den. Fre. Den.
1 Arundinaria falcate - - - - 45 1020 0.125 7.53
4 Camellia sinensis - - - - 40 1620 0.253 8.52
5 Cotoneaster microphyllum 50 1840 0.184 10.29 - - - -
6 Daphne papyracea 40 1400 0.218 8.04 55 1360 0.112 9.50
7 Desmodium elegans 45 870 0.107 7.162 - - - -
9 Girardinia heterophylla 60 2600 0.180 13.39 50 2500 0.25 11.87
14 Rosa burnonii 65 2120 0.125 12.65 65 2410 0.142 13.28
16 Rubus nivenus 50 1330 0.133 8.92 50 1410 0.141 9.08
19 Utrica dioica 55 5570 0.460 20.79 60 2830 0.196 13.81
37440 200 38970 200
As far as shrub layer at QSDF site during winter season concerned, the
total forest density were 31000 plants ha-1 north aspect and 33170 plants ha-1
in south aspect. Maximum frequency (65%) was found Myrisine africana,
Principia utilis and Rosa burnonii in north aspect while in south aspect
Indigofera heterantha (70%) had highest frequency. In the north aspect, the
highest density (3810 plants ha-1) was calculated for Sarcococca saligna and
lowest density (910 plants ha-1) for Berberis chirata. While in south aspect,
maximum density (3210 plantha-1) was found for Utrica dioica followed by
Sarcococca saligna (2950 plant ha-1) and Indigofera heterantha (2940 plant
ha-1). Maximum IVI (19.74) was recorded for Sarcococca saligna in the north
aspect and minimum (8.53) for Berberis chirata. In the south aspect, the IVI
ranged from 7.54 to 16.27. In addition all speciesat both aspects of this site
showed contagious distribution pattern. The dominant species in the north
aspect were Sarcococca saligna, Indigofera heterantha, Rosa burnonii,
Pyracantha crenulata and Utrica dioica. In the south aspect Utrica dioica,
96
Sarcococca saligna, Indigofera heterantha, Principia utilis, Rosa burnonii,
Rubus ellipticus and Girardinia heterophylla were found dominant shrubs
(Table 3.4.2.3.4).
3.4.2.3.4 Vegetation analysis of shrub species in winter season at QSDF.

1 Arundinaria falcate - - - - 45 920 0.113 7.54
4 Camellia sinensis - - - - 40 1720 0.268 9.42
5 Daphne papyracea 50 1420 0.142 10.79 55 1660 0.137 10.82
7 Girardinia heterophylla 50 2370 0.237 13.85 55 2140 0.176 12.27
12 Rosa burnonii 65 2650 0.156 16.62 50 2460 0.246 12.71
14 Rubus nivenus 50 1220 0.122 10.14 65 1550 0.091 11.55
17 Utrica dioica 40 2350 0.367 12.54 60 3210 0.222 16.03
31000 200 33170 200.00
The frequency, density and IVI of shrub species varied between the
aspects. The highest frequency (70%) was recorded for Indigofera heterantha
at south aspect. In the north aspect, the density was however higher for all
species compared to south aspect. As far as IVI was concerned, again the
north aspect displayed higher values as compared to the south aspect. The total
stand density was 31000 plants ha-1 at north aspect while at south aspect it was
recorded as 33170 plants ha-1.
3.4.2.3.3 Vegetation analysis of herb strata in QSDF
In the herbaceous layer of QSDF during summer season, Oxalis

corniculata was recorded as dominant species with highest frequency (77.5.0
%), density (29.85 plant m-2) and IVI (22.44) at north aspect. At the south
97
aspect also, Oxalis corniculata was found dominant species with maximum
frequency (77.5 %), density (31.95 plant m- 2) and IVI (21.86). The total forest
density of north aspect was observed 185.5 plants m- 2 and in the south aspect
it was 212.2 plants m- 2. A/F ratio showed the all 21 species occurred in the
site were contagiously distributed at both aspects. In general, Oxalis
corniculata, Trifolium repenus, Oenothera rosea, Micromeria biflora,
Origanum vulgare, Saxifraga diversifolia and Senecio nudicaulis were the
dominant species at north aspect. In the south aspect dominant herb species
were Oxalis corniculata, Trifolium repenus, Micromeria biflora, Oenothera
rosea, Origanum vulgare, Saxifraga diversifolia and Dactyloctenium
aegypicum (Table 3.4.2.3.5).
3.4.2.3.5 Vegetation analysis of herb species in summer season at QSDF.

Den. Den.
% m-2 A/F I.V.I % m-2 A/F I.V.I
1 Aguga bracteosa 52.5 2.35 0.085 5.57 47.5 2.3 0.101 5.27
2 Anaphalis contorta 47.5 7.12 0.315 7.73 57.5 7.775 0.235 8.73
3 Artemisia roxburghiana 37.5 3.47 0.247 4.94 47.5 5.15 0.228 6.61
4 Calanthe plantaginea 42.5 2 0.110 4.56 40 2.9 0.181 4.89
5 Conyza leucantha 45 2.05 0.101 4.79 30 2.55 0.283 3.84
6 Dactyloctenium aegypicum 62.5 8.72 0.223 9.82 67.5 11.625 0.255 11.42
7 Erigeron Canadensis 52.5 5.6 0.203 7.32 40 4.4 0.275 5.60
8 Flemingia braceteata 57.5 4.02 0.121 6.88 57.5 5.4 0.163 7.61
9 Galium aparine 60 6.75 0.187 8.55 65 7.975 0.188 9.48
10 Geranium wallichianum 52.5 4.35 0.157 6.64 42.5 5.125 0.283 6.16
11 Leucas lanata 72.5 6.17 0.117 9.27 60 6.6 0.183 8.40
12 Micromeria biflora 72.5 16.22 0.308 14.69 75 22.4 0.398 17.15
13 Oenothera rosea 65 17.72 0.419 14.88 60 21.475 0.596 15.39
14 Origanum vulgare 62.5 12.82 0.328 12.03 47.5 14.425 0.639 10.97
15 Oxalis corniculata 77.5 29.85 0.496 22.44 77.5 31.95 0.531 21.86
16 Potentilla fulgens 67.5 6.25 0.137 8.902 65 5.9 0.139 8.51
17 Rosularia rosulata 62.5 4.47 0.114 7.53 55 6.95 0.229 8.12
18 Salvia lanata 32.5 2.22 0.210 3.86 37.5 3.8 0.270 5.09
19 Saxifraga diversifolia 57.5 9.82 0.297 10.01 60 12.35 0.343 11.10
20 Senecio nudicaulis 62.5 9.62 0.246 10.31 35 3.475 0.283 4.72
21 Trifolium repenus 77.5 23.8 0.396 19.18 65 28.125 0.665 18.96
185.45 200 212.65 200
98
For herb layer total stand density as well as % frequency, density and
IVI of most of the species were observed higher at south aspect as compared
to north aspect.
In the herbaceous layer of QSDF, Oxalis acetosellawas recorded as

dominant species during rainy season with highest frequency (85.0 %), density
(43.28 m-2) and IVI (21.57) at north aspect. While, in the south aspect, same
species Oxalis acetosella was also found dominant species with maximum
frequency (95.0 %), density (50.58 plants m-2) and IVI (21.57). The total stand
density of north aspect was observed 268.2 plants m-2 and in the south aspect
it was 328.4 plants m-2. Abundance and frequency ratio showed contagiously
distributed pattern in both aspect respectively (Table 3.4.2.3.6). Oxalis
acetosella, Cynodon dactylon, Veronica cana, Poa annua, Aeschynomene
indica and Dactyloctenium aegypticum were the dominant species at north
aspect. In the south aspect, the recorded dominant herb species were
Chrysopogon gryllus, Anaphalis busua, Fragaria nubicola, Leucas lanata,
Micromeria biflora and Senecio nudicaulis.
3.4.2.3.6 Vegetation analysis of herb species in rainy season at QSDF.

Den. Den.
% m -2 A/F I.V.I % m -2 A/F I.V.I
1 Achyranthes aspera 52.5 7.55 0.273 6.17 62.5 8.22 0.210 6.56
3 Anaphalis cuneifolia 42.5 3.9 0.215 4.174 50 6.92 0.277 5.35
4 Anaphalis triplinervis 52.5 8.9 0.322 6.67 42.5 11.55 0.639 6.27
5 Begonia picta 50 3.15 0.126 4.37 50 4.45 0.178 4.60
6 Bidens pilosa 47.5 4.37 0.193 4.67 45 5.67 0.280 4.65
7 Calanthe plantaginea 70 4.15 0.084 6.027 55 5.02 0.166 5.10
8 Conyza japonica 52.5 3.45 0.125 4.64 50 4.05 0.162 4.48
9 Cynodon dactylon 75 31.57 0.561 16.57 77.5 36.27 0.603 16.08
10 Dactyloctenium aegypticum 62.5 15.2 0.389 9.66 57.5 16.8 0.508 8.850
11 Desmodium miccrophyllum 47.5 5.45 0.241 5.07 45 5.85 0.288 4.70
12 Erigeron Canadensis 57.5 6.57 0.198 6.13 65 8.27 0.195 6.74
13 Gnaphalium hypoleucum 62.5 7.32 0.187 6.73 65 9.42 0.223 7.09
14 Micromeria biflora 52.5 6.97 0.253 5.96 50 8.45 0.338 5.82
15 Oxalis acetosella 85 43.27 0.598 21.57 95 50.57 0.560 21.57
16 Poa annua 67.5 15.3 0.335 10.02 57.5 21.77 0.658 10.36
17 Polygonum amplexicaula 52.5 3.6 0.130 4.70 45 5.12 0.253 4.48
18 Polygonum barbatum 42.5 6.55 0.362 5.162 47.5 10.85 0.480 6.38
99
19 Polygonum plebeium 57.5 10.5 0.317 7.59 60 14.45 0.401 8.29
20 Potentilla fulgens 47.5 6.35 0.281 5.40 40 6.92 0.432 4.70
21 Roscoea purpurea 55 9.47 0.313 7.05 60 11.17 0.310 7.29
22 Rubia manjiith 60 4.87 0.135 5.65 60 6.82 0.189 5.97
23 Rumex hastatus 52.5 9.82 0.356 7.02 45 11.72 0.579 6.49
24 Salvia lanata 50 4.67 0.187 4.94 55 6.9 0.228 5.67
25 Senecio nudicaulis 40 3.35 0.209 3.80 40 4.07 0.254 3.83
26 Tagetes minuta 50 10.25 0.41 7.02 47.5 10.97 0.486 6.42
27 Thalictrum folidosum 50 6.22 0.249 5.52 45 7.42 0.366 5.18
28 Veronica cana 80 13.1 0.204 10.00 80 15.25 0.238 9.83
268.15 200 328.35 200
Herb layer frequency, density and IVI were observed higher at south
aspect as compared to north aspect for most of dominant species. The total
forest density was highest (328.4 plants m- 2) at southas compared to north
aspect.
In the context of herb layer at QSDF during winter season, maximum

frequency (80.0 % and 77.5%) was found for Fagopyrum esculentumin the
north and south aspect, respectively. Total stand density for herbs was 167.1
plants m- 2 and 185.23 plants m- 2 in north and south aspects respectively. The
density was found maximum (28.75 plants m- 2) for Oplismenus compositus
and minimum (1.85 plants m-2) for Paranassia nubecola in the north aspect
while, in the south aspect highest density (30.08 plants m-2) was again
achieved by Fagopyrum esculentum and lowest density (1.85 plant m-2) was
for Viola canescens.Maximum IVI (22.13) was recorded for Fagopyrum
esculentum in the north aspect and minimum (2.33) for Paranassia nubecola.
In the south aspect, the IVI ranged from 3.91 to 21.69. The ratio of abundance
to frequency showed contagious distribution pattern. Fagopyrum esculentum,
Oplismenus composites, Gnaphalium hypoleucum and Reinwardtia indica
were the dominant species in both aspects, respectively (Table 3.4.2.3.7).
3.4.2.3.7 Vegetation analysis of herb species in winter season at QSDF.

S.No. Species
Fre Den. Fre Den.
% m- 2 A/F I.V.I % m- 2 A/F I.V.I
1 Ajuga bracteosa 47.5 2.4 0.106 4.84 45 3.52 0.174 5.07
2 Anaphalis cuneifolia 65 6.5 0.153 8.55 70 8.82 0.180 9.69
100
4 Artemisia roxburghiana 60 4.5 0.125 7.00 57.5 7.32 0.221 8.00
5 Breea arvensis 40 1.47 0.092 3.75 45 2.1 0.103 4.30
6 Clintonia borealis 50 3.3 0.132 5.56 45 2.72 0.134 4.64
7 Codonopsis ovata 50 3.6 0.144 5.74 55 4 0.132 6.03
8 Erigeron canadensis 55 3.875 0.128 6.26 55 4.52 0.149 6.31
9 Fagopyrum esculentum 80 27.37 0.427 22.12 77.5 30.07 0.500 21.69
10 Fragaria indica 60 7.75 0.215 8.94 55 8.25 0.272 8.32
11 Galium aparine 60 2.37 0.065 5.73 60 2.95 0.081 5.81
12 Geranium wallichianum 55 8.22 0.271 8.87 57.5 9.22 0.279 9.03
13 Gerbera gossypina 55 5.15 0.170 7.03 50 4.97 0.199 6.20
14 Gnaphalium hypoleucum 65 12.25 0.289 11.9 65 13.65 0.323 11.94
15 Hedychium spicatum 60 7.05 0.195 8.52 65 6.9 0.163 8.30
16 Ligularia arnicoides 55 3.67 0.121 6.14 50 3.82 0.153 5.58
17 Oplismenus compositus 67.5 28.75 0.631 22.05 60 22.92 0.636 16.60
18 Paranassia nubecola 35 1.85 0.151 3.62 40 2.72 0.170 4.28
19 Pedicularis hoffmesteri 65 3.35 0.079 6.67 55 4.15 0.137 6.11
20 Polygonum plebeium 67.5 7.42 0.162 9.29 57.5 10.4 0.314 9.66
21 Potentilla fulgens 35 2.92 0.238 4.26 40 4 0.25 4.97
22 Reinwardtia indica 70 10.45 0.213 11.28 70 11.62 0.237 11.20
23 Selinum candoleii 40 1.82 0.114 3.96 40 2.02 0.126 3.910
Senecio
24 chrysanthemoides 65 2.9 0.068 6.40 70 2.92 0.059 6.50
25 Swertia cordata 45 2.85 0.140 4.93 50 2.47 0.099 4.85
26 Viola canescens - - - - 35 1.85 0.151 3.46
167.08 200 185.18 200
The herb % frequencyobserved higher at north aspect as compared to

the south aspect in dominant species. Density value was higher to the south
aspect. The total stand density was found 167.1 plants m-2at north aspect and
south aspect recorded 185.2 plants m-2.
3.4.2.4 Abies Kharshu dominant forest (AKDF)
3.4.4.1 Vegetation analysis of tree species in AKDF
Tree layer at AKDF showed total density of 1120 trees ha-1 in the north
frequency (100%), density (410 trees ha-1), TBC (33.9 m2 ha-1) and IVI (100.4)
were recorded for Quercus semecarpifolia. Similarly, in south aspect Quercus
semecarpifolia was found dominant species with maximum frequency (100%),
density (430 trees ha-1), TBC (36.55 m2 ha-1) and IVI (100.6). Random
distribution was record for most species in both the aspects of this stand. In the
101
north aspect, all species were found in randomly distributed. But in the south
aspect, out of 7 species 2 (28.57%) species showed contagious pattern and 5
were in random distribution pattern. In the north aspect, Quercus
semecarpifolia, Abies pindrow and Rhododendron arboreum were the
dominant tree species. While in the south aspect of this forest, Quercus
semecarpifolia, Abies pindrow, Rhododendron arboreum and Sorbus
cuspidate were found as the dominant tree species (Table 3.4.2.4.1).
3.4.2.4.1 Vegetation analysis of tree species at AKDF.

S.No Species Fre Den. TBC Fre. Den. TBC
.% ha -1 A/F m2 ha-1 I.V.I % ha -1 A/F m2 ha-1 I.V.I
1 Abies pindrow 95 390 0.043 46.28 109.99 100 315 0.041 39.2 111.9
2 Acer acuminatum 40 80 0.05 3.56 22.40 40 70 0.043 2.85 19.90
3 Betula alnoides 40 50 0.031 2.24 18.37 - - - - -

Quercus
4 semecarpifolia 100 410 0.041 33.86 100.44 100 430 0.043 36.5 100.6
Rhododendron
5 arboreum 70 190 0.038 11.20 48.78 50 150 0.06 8.75 35.33
6 Sorbus cuspidata - - - - - 50 80 0.032 2.26 22.94
7 Taxus bacata - - - - - 20 30 0.075 1.18 9.286
1120 97.16 300 1075 90.74 300
Across both aspects of AKDF area, tree frequency was found high in
the south aspect. Similarly tree density as well as TBC was also higher in the
south aspect in the south aspect for dominant species. The IVI value was
recorded highest (111.9) for Abies pindrow and (9.28) lowest for Taxus bacata
at south aspect.
3.4.4.2 Vegetation analysis of shrub strata in AKDF
In the context of shrub layer at AKDF during summer season,

maximum frequency (80%) was found for Princepia utilis in the north aspect
and (80%) for Daphane paparacea and Princepia utilis in south aspect. Total
stand density for shrub was 14420 plants ha-1 and 16720 plants ha-1in north
and south aspect respectively. The density was found maximum 2250 plants
ha-1 forPrincepia utilis and minimum (520 plantsha-1) for Desmodium elagans
north aspect while in the south aspect highest density (2260 plants ha-1) for
Mahonia borealis and lowest density (610 plants ha-1) was for same
Desmodium elegans. Maximum IVI (28.72) was recorded for Princepia utilis
102
in the north aspect and minimum (7.70) for Desmodium elagans.In the south
aspect, the IVI ranged from 8.23 to 23.87. The ratio of abundance and
frequency showed contagious pattern (table 3.4.2.4.2). In the north aspect
Princepia utilis, Daphane paparacea, Mahonia borealis and Rosa sericea
were the dominant shrub species. Similarly, Mahonia borealis, Princepia
utilis, Daphane paparacea, Rosa sericea, Cotoneaster microphyllus and
Sorbus microphyla were the dominant species in the south aspect.
3.4.2.4.2 Vegetation analysis of shrub species in summer season at AKDF.

1 Berberis chitria 50 1230 0.123 16.72 60 1150 0.079 15.44
2 Cornus capiyata 45 700 0.086 12.23 35 560 0.114 8.34
3 Cotoneaster microphyllus 60 1200 0.083 18.15 55 1300 0.107 15.63
4 Daphane paparacea 70 2060 0.105 25.76 80 2070 0.080 23.80
5 Desmodium elagans 25 520 0.208 7.704 35 610 0.124 8.64
6 Gaultheria nummularioides 50 1190 0.119 16.44 55 1230 0.101 15.21
7 Mahonia borealis 65 1840 0.108 23.41 70 2260 0.115 23.51
9 Princepia utilis 80 2250 0.087 28.71 80 2080 0.081 23.86
10 Rosa sericea 70 1600 0.081 22.57 75 1840 0.081 21.71
11 Senecio kunthianus - - - - 35 890 0.181 10.32
13 Thamnocalamus falconeri - - - - 30 660 0.183 8.23
14420 200 16720 200
A total of 14 and 12 shrubs species were recorded in north and south

aspect, respectively at AKDF of rainy season. In the above ground strata
Princepia utilis had highest frequency value of 85% in the north aspect and
85% for Daphane paparacea in south aspect.Total forest density of rainy
season for shrub was 20630 plant ha-1 in north aspect and south aspect found
19270 plant ha-1 respectively. The density was found maximum 2850 plants
ha-1 for Rosa sericea and minimum 370 plants ha-1 for Thamnocalamus
spathiflora in the north aspect while, the south aspect highest density 3150
plants ha-1 was Rosa sericea and lowest density 580 plants ha-1 was for
Thamnocalamus spathiflora. Maximum IVI (22.91) was recorded for Rosa
sericea in the north aspect and minimum (4.82) for Thamnocalamus
103
spathiflora. In south aspect, the IVI ranged from 7.36 to 27.22. The ratio of
abundance and frequency showed contagious distribution pattern in both north
and south aspect. In the north aspect Rosa sericea, Daphane paparacea,
Mahonia borealis, Princepia utilis, Berberis chitria and Cotoneaster
microphyllus were dominant shrub species. Rosa sericea, Daphane
paparacea, Mahonia borealisand Princepia utilis were dominant species in
the south aspect (3.4.2.4.3).
3.4.2.4.3 Vegetation analysis of shrub species in rainy season at AKDF.

3 Daphane paparacea 80 2520 0.098 21.91 85 2700 0.093 26.33
5 Gaultheria nummularioides 40 1220 0.190 10.76 - - - -
9 Ribes glaciale 75 1210 0.053 14.95 60 780 0.054 12.74
10 Rosa sericea 75 2850 0.126 22.90 75 3150 0.14 27.21
11 Senecio kunthianus 60 1100 0.076 12.60 - - - -
13 Spiraea canescens 40 1290 0.201 11.10 35 730 0.149 8.86
14 Thamnocalamus spathiflora 25 370 0.148 4.82 30 580 0.161 7.35
20630 200 19270 200
Among the shrub strata, during winter season at AKDF Mahonia

borealis and Princepia utilis showed highest frequency (65.0%) followed by
Cotoneaster microphyllus (60%), Rosa sericea (60%), Ribes glaciale (55%)
and Gaultheria nummularioides (50%) in north aspect. While in the south
aspect, maximum frequency (80%) was found for Rosa sericea followed by
Princepia utilis (70%). In context to density of shrubs, maximum density
(2340 plantsha-1) was recorded for Mahonia borealis and minimum density
(370 plantsha-1) for Thamnocalamus spathiflora in north aspect while, in south
aspect highest density (1850 plants ha-1) was Rosa sericea and lowest density
(410 plants ha-1) for Thamnocalamus spathiflora and Spiraea canescens.
Maximum IVI (30.34) was recorded for Mahonia borealisin north aspect and
104
minimum (7.29) for Thamnocalamus spathiflora while in the south aspect, the
IVI recorded from 6.88 to 26.13. The ratio of A/F showed contagious
distribution pattern at both aspect, respectively. In north aspect Mahonia
borealis, Princepia utilis, Cotoneaster microphyllus, Gaultheria
nummularioides, and Sorbus microphylla were the dominant shrub species,
while in south aspect dominant species were Rosa sericea, Mahonia borealis,
Princepia utilis, Berberis chitria, and Cotoneaster microphyllus recorded as
dominant species (Table 3.4.2.4.4).
3.4.2.4.4 Vegetation analysis of shrub species in winter season at AKDF.

S.No Species Fre. Den. Fre. Den
2 Cornus capiyata - - - - 45 940 0.116 13.93
5 Gaultheria nummularioides 50 1190 0.119 18.30 45 910 0.112 13.70
7 Myrisine africana 45 710 0.087 13.49 55 700 0.057 13.60
9 Ribes glaciale 55 730 0.060 15.35 45 620 0.076 11.49
10 Rosa sericea 60 920 0.063 17.76 80 1850 0.072 26.13
12 Spiraea canescens 30 440 0.122 8.71 30 410 0.113 7.63
13 Thamnocalamus spathiflora 25 370 0.148 7.29 25 410 0.164 6.88
12110 200 13120 200
3.4.4.3 Vegetation analysis of herb strata in AKDF
In AKDF during summer season, Carex alata was recorded as

dominant herb with highest frequency (90.0 %), density (51.8 plants m-2) and
IVI (42.9) at north aspect. While, in the south aspect, Poa annua was found
dominant herb with maximum frequency (155.0 %), density (42.8 plants m-2)
and IVI (30.98). The total stand density of north aspect was observed 147
plants m-2 and in the south aspect it was 175 plants m-2. A/F ratio showed
contagious distribution. At north aspect Carex alata, Poa annua, Anemone
rivularis, Caltha palastris, Geranium wallichianum, Fragaria nubiccola and
Polygonum macrophyllum were the dominant/co-dominant species. In the
105
south aspect the Carex alata, Poa annua, Anemone rivularis, Erigeron
canadensis, Fragaria nubiccola, Geranium wallichianum, Caltha palastris,
Polygonum amplexicaule and Phlomis bracteata were identified as dominant
/co-dominant species based on phytosociological observations (Table
3.4.2.4.5). In addition, % frequency, species density and IVI were higher at
south aspect compared to north aspect.
3.4.2.4.5 Vegetation analysis of herb species in summer season at AKDF.

S.No Species Fre. Den. Fre. Den.
% m-2 A/F I.V.I % m-2 A/F I.V.I
1 Anemone rivularis 52.5 3.95 0.14 7.21 130 5.9 0.06 8.85
2 Caltha palastris 45 3.225 0.15 6.07 70 3.62 0.14 5.022
3 Carex alata 90 51.75 0.63 42.87 125 53.67 0.68 35.91
4 Erigeron Canadensis - - - - 70 4.35 0.17 5.43
5 Fragaria nubiccola 45 3.55 0.17 6.29 80 4.55 0.14 5.97
6 Geranium wallichianum 50 3.625 0.14 6.77 100 5.85 0.11 7.55
7 Pedicularis hoffmesteri 35 2.475 0.20 4.70 70 2.47 0.10 4.36
8 Phlomis bracteata 55 3.075 0.10 6.83 120 3.9 0.05 7.28
9 Poa annua 77.5 38.825 0.64 33.03 155 42.82 0.35 30.98
10 Polygonum amplexicaule 45 2.025 0.1 5.26 90 3.62 0.08 5.86
11 Polygonum macrophyllum 50 3.15 0.12 6.45 100 4.67 0.09 6.88
12 Prunella vulgaris 60 3.6 0.1 7.62 120 3.07 0.04 6.81
13 Primula denticulate 45 2.075 0.10 5.29 90 3 0.07 5.50
14 Parochetus communis 40 1.575 0.09 4.52 70 1.175 0.04 3.62
16 Ranunculus hirtellus 30 2.6 0.28 4.35 60 3.35 0.18 4.44
17 Rubia cordifolia 50 3.05 0.122 6.38 100 3.05 0.06 5.96
18 Sedum imbricatum 55 2.8 0.092 6.65 90 1.67 0.04 4.75
19 Sibaldia procumbens 35 1.725 0.140 4.19 80 3 0.09 5.08
20 Swertia angustifolia 37.5 2.85 0.20 5.17 60 1.92 0.10 3.63
21 Taraxacum species 30 1.575 0.17 3.66 90 3.05 0.07 5.53
22 Taraxicum officinalis 35 2.075 0.16 4.43 70 2.6 0.10 4.43
23 Thalictricum foliolosum 35 1.575 0.12 4.09 120 3.97 0.05 7.33
24 Valariana hardwitchi 60 2.45 0.06 6.84 90 3.57 0.08 5.83
25 Vergenia ligulata 40 1.55 0.096 4.50 110 3.22 0.05 6.48
147.425 200 175.2 200
Herb layer frequency, density and IVI were observed higher at south
aspect as compared to north aspect for most of dominant species. The total
stand density was highest (175 plants m-2) at southas compared to north
aspect.
106
During rainy season, the total forest density (271 plants m-2) was
recorded in the north aspect of AKDF while in the south aspect; the total forest
density was recorded 291 plants m-2. Carex alata was found dominance herb
species in both the aspects of this forest with highest values of frequency,
density and IVI. These values were recorded as frequency (85%), density
(98.4 plants m-2) and IVI (42.8) in the north aspect and 90 % frequency, 99
plants m-2 density and 40.83 IVI, in the south aspect. As far as distribution
pattern was concerned, it was contagious for both aspects (Table 3.4.2.4.6).
Carex alata, Poa annua, Potentilla fulgens, Ranunculas hirtullus, Rumex
nepalensis and Trifolium repens were the dominant herb species at the north
aspect of this stand. While in the south aspect the dominant herb species were
Carex alata, Poa annua, Fragaria nubicola, Anemone rivularis, Trifolium
repens and Polygonum macrophyllum.
3.4.2.4.6 Vegetation analysis of herb species in rainy season at AKDF.

% m-2 A/F I.V.I % m-2 A/F I.V.I
1 Anemone rivularis 72.5 15.55 0.29 11.26 82.5 18.52 0.27 12.56
2 Ariseama Jacqmontei 32.5 1.375 0.13 2.98 37.5 1.57 0.11 3.35
3 Caltha palustris 62.5 12.4 0.31 9.34 57.5 14.00 0.42 9.13
4 Carex alata 85 98.37 1.36 42.79 90 99.00 1.22 40.83
5 Clintonia borealis 37.5 1.00 0.07 3.22 42.5 1.27 0.07 3.62
6 Fragaria nubicola 67.5 13.97 0.30 10.30 80 19.77 0.30 12.81
7 Gerbera maxima 27.5 1.47 0.19 2.63 37.5 1.62 0.11 3.37
8 Ligularia arnicoides 50 2.1 0.08 4.58 42.5 2.07 0.11 3.90
9 Pedicularis hoffmesteri 32.5 1.97 0.18 3.20 30 1.82 0.20 2.87
10 Phlomis bracteata 50 2.02 0.08 4.55 50 2.12 0.08 4.48
11 Poa annua 85 57.55 0.79 27.72 92.5 61.72 0.72 28.18
12 Polygonum amplexicaule 60 2.52 0.07 5.50 55 3.55 0.11 5.34
13 Polygonum emodei 55 2.95 0.09 5.27 65 4.2 0.09 6.32
14 Polygonum macrophyllum 77.5 7.5 0.12 8.67 75 14.15 0.25 10.49
15 Potentilla fulgens 60 5.15 0.14 6.47 50 3.475 0.13 4.94
17 Primula denticulate 55 2.5 0.08 5.11 50 2.675 0.10 4.67
18 Ranunculus hirtellus 70 4.25 0.08 6.90 55 4.075 0.13 5.53
19 Rumex nepalensis 50 3.97 0.15 5.27 55 4.325 0.14 5.61
20 Selinum candoleii 50 2.00 0.08 4.54 45 1.75 0.08 3.97
21 Senecia chrysanthemoides 55 2.72 0.09 5.19 50 3.3 0.13 4.88
22 Taraxacum officinalis 40 1.45 0.09 3.58 40 2 0.12 3.69
23 Trifolium repens 67.5 24.3 0.53 14.11 65 18.525 0.43 11.25
24 Viola tricolor 35 2.1 0.17 3.44 45 2.625 0.12 4.28
270.85 200 290.5 200
Between both the aspects of this forest, the herb frequency was observed
higher at south aspect as compared to the north aspect. While the herb density
values were observed higher at south aspect.As far as the IVI was concerned,
107
the almost similar values were found on both the aspects. However, the total
stand density of north aspect was 271 plants m-2 and 291 plants m-2 at south
aspect.
3.4.3 Diversity, dominance, evenness and margalef index

among all forest
3.4.3.1 Pinus roxburghii dominant forest - A total of 20 tree species were

found at PRDF out of which, 16 were found in the north aspect and 14 in the
south aspect. In the tree layer of the north aspect, the values of Shannon
wiener (H‟) and Simpson diversity were found 2.53 and 0.139, respectively.
The Margalef index of species richness was observed 2.718 and the evenness
was 0.848. In the south aspect, the Shannon diversity was observed as 2.282
and Simpson diversity as 0.148, Margalef index as 2.359 and the evenness was
0.864 (Table 3.4.3.1). β diversity was observed 3.02 in north aspect while 2.46
in south aspect.
During summer season, a total of 15 shrubs species were found in both

aspects of this forest. In the north aspect, the value of Shannon wiener
diversity of shrub layer was found 2.332, Simpson as 0.133, Margalef as
1.705, evenness as 0.861 and β diversity was 1.76. The diversity values for
Shannon, Simpson, Margalef and evenness, β diversity were recorded 2.282,
0.145, 1.678, 0.842 and 1.78 respectively for shrub layer of the south aspect
(Table 3.4.3.1). During in rainy season of the north aspect, the Shannon (H‟)
and Simpson wiener diversity were found 2.53 and 0.102, respectively. The
Margalef index of species richness was observed 1.98 and the evenness was
0.875. β diversity was 1.62. In the south aspect, the Shannon diversity was
observed as 2.461 and Simpson diversity as 0.106, Margalef index as 1.742
evenness as 0.887 and the β diversity was 1.66 (Table 3.4.3.1). During winter
season, 18 shrub species were recorded in both of the aspects, among them, 15
species were in the north aspect and 13 species in the south aspect. In north
aspect the Shannon wiener diversity was observed as 2.54, Simpson diversity
was 0.092, Margalef index was 1.79,evenness was 0.937 and β diversity was
1.79 and in the south aspect Shannon diversity index was observed 2.438,
108
Simpson as 0.097, Margalef index as 1.544, evenness value of 0.929and the β
diversity was 1.68 (Table 3.4.3.1 ).
For the herb layer, during summer season, a total of 21 species were
recorded in both north and south aspect. Among the different diversity indices
for herb species, the Shannon wiener diversity was recorded as 2.608 and
2.573, Simpson as 0.113 and 0.121, Margalef index as 1.973 and 2.433 and
evenness 0.856 and 0.845, β diversity was 2.01 and 1.92 in the north and south
aspects, respectively (Table3.4.3.1). During rainy season 26 species were
found in the north aspect and 28 in the south aspect. In the north aspect
Shannon wiener diversity of herb layer was found 2.875, Simpson as 0.081,
Margalef as 3.006, evenness as 0.876 and the β diversity was 2.04. The
diversity values for Shannon wiener, Simpson, Margalef, evenness and β
diersity were recorded 2.91, 0.08, 3.174, 0.874 and 1.92 respectively for shrub
layer of the south aspect (Table 3.4.3.1). In the winter season, a total 34
species were encountered on both the aspects. In the north and south aspect 28
and 29 herb species were found, respectively. Shannon wiener, Simpson and
Margalef index values were 3.127, 0.058 and 3.237 respectively in the north
aspect.In the south aspect Shannon wiener diversity index was observed 3.085,
Simpson as 0.064 and Margalef index as 3.415. The evenness value of the
north aspect was calculated as 0.938 and the south aspect it was calculated as
0.916 as well as similarly β diversity was 1.96 and 1.99.
109
Table 3.4.3.1 Diversity, Dominance and evenness in PRDF.
Diversity Indices North aspect (1000 m) South aspect (1000m)

Tree Shrub Herb Tree Shrub Herb
Summer Rainy Winter Summer Rainy winter Summer Rainy winter Summer Rainy Winter
Shannon- Weiner
Diversity Index 2.53 2.33 2.5 2.54 2.60 2.88 3.13 2.28 2.28 2.46 2.43 2.57 2.9 3.08
Simpson Dominance
Index 0.13 0.13 0.1 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.15 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.12 0.1 0.06
Margalef Index of
species richness 2.71 1.70 2 1.79 1.97 3.01 3.24 2.35 1.67 1.74 1.54 2.43 3.2 3.41
Evenness 0.84 0.86 0.9 0.94 0.85 0.88 0.94 0.86 0.84 0.89 0.95 0.84 0.9 0.91
Species richness 16 15 18 15 21 26 28 14 15 16 13 21 28 29
Β-diversity 3.02 1.76 1.62 1.79 2.01 2.04 1.96 2.46 1.78 1.66 1.68 1.92 1.92 1.99
Table 3.4.3.2 Diversity, Dominance and eveness of QLDF.
North aspect (1500m) South aspect (1500m)

Diversity Indices Shrub Herb Tree Shrub Herb
Tree
Summer Rainy Winter Summer Rainy winter Summer Rainy winter Summer Rainy winter
Shannon- Weiner
Diversity Index 2.34 2.6 3.4 2.57 2.555 2.75 2.78 2.34 2.49 2.69 2.518 2.642 2.8 2.86
Simpson Dominance
Index 0.11 0.093 0.2 0.09 0.108 0.09 0.09 0.12 0.103 0.08 0.097 0.095 0.1 0.07
Margalef Index of
species richness 2.15 2.148 2.4 1.81 2.325 2.75 2.9 2.14 1.868 2.1 1.771 2.325 2.7 2.97
Evenness 0.91 0.899 1.1 0.95 0.839 0.84 0.84 0.91 0.898 0.91 0.929 0.867 0.9 0.85
Β-diversity 2.36 1.9 1.72 2 2.02 2.0 1.98 2.03 1.91 1.69 1.829 1.98 1.97 1.92
110
3.4.3..2. Quercus leucotrichophora dominant forest – Atotal of 15 tree
species were recorded at QLDF. Out of them 13 species were found in the
north aspect and similarly 10 in the south aspect. In the north aspect fortree
layer, Shannonwiener diversity value was found as 2.346, Simpson diversity
as 0.116, Margalef index of diversity as 2.15, evenness as 0.915 and β
diversity was 2.36. In the south aspect, the Shannon wiener and Simpson
diversity were 2.343 and 0.118 respectively. The Margalef index was recorded
as 2.142, evenness as 0.913, and the β diversity was 2.03 (Table 3.4.3.2).
During summer season 18 shrub species were recorded in both of the

aspects, among them, 18 species were in the north aspect and 16 species in the
south aspect. In north and south aspect the Shannon wiener diversity was
observed as 2.6 and 2.49, Simpson diversity was 0.093 and 0.103, Margalef
index was 2.148 and 1.868, evenness was 0.899 and 0.898 and β diversity was
1.9 and 1.91 (Table 3.4.3.2). While during rainy season 21 species were found
in the north aspect and 19 in the south aspect. In the north aspect Shannon
wiener diversity of shrub layer was found 3.4, Simpson as 0.169, Margalef as
2.377, evenness as1.141and the β diversity was 1.72. The diversity values for
Shannon wiener, Simpson, Margalef, evenness and β diversity were recorded
2.69, 0.084, 2.1, 0.915 and 1.69 respectively for shrub layer of the south
aspect (Table 3.4.3.2). The shurb layer in winter season of the north aspect, the
Shannon wiener (H‟) and Simpson diversity were found 2.565 and 0.087
respectively. The Margalef index of species richness was observed 1.81,
evenness was 0.947 and the β diversity was 2. In the south aspect, the Shannon
diversity was observed as 2.518 and Simpson diversity as 0.097, Margalef
index as 1.771, evenness as 0.929 and the β diversity was 1.829 (Table
3.4.3.2).
For herb‟s layer a total 21 species were encountered on both the

aspects during summer season. The values for various diversity-dominance
indices i.e. Shannon wiener, Simpson, Margalef index values and β diversity
were 2.555, 0.108, 2.325 and 2.02 respectively in the north aspect, and in the
south aspect these values observed as 2.642, 0.095, 2.325, 1.98 for respective
indices. The evenness value of the north aspect was calculated as 0.839 and
for the south aspect it was calculated as 0.867 (Table 3.4.3.2). Likewise, a
111
total of 28herb species were recorded in the QLDF of rainy season. Out of
them 26 species were found in the north and south aspect. In the north aspect
for herb layer, Shannon wiener diversity value was found as 2.748, Simpson
diversity as 0.086, Margalef index of diversity as 2.78, evenness as 0.843 and
β diversity was 2. In the south aspect, the Shannon wiener and Simpson
diversity were 2.776 and 0.082 respectively. The Margalef index was recorded
as 2.71; evenness as 0.852 and the β diversity was 1.97. During winter season
27 species were found in the north aspect and 28 in the south aspect. In the
north aspect Shannon wiener diversity of shrub layer was found 2.7, Simpson
as 0.088, Margalef as 2.898 and the evenness as 0.843 and β diversity was
1.98. The diversity values for Shannon wiener, Simpson, Margalef, evenness
and β diversity were recorded 2.861, 0.079, 2.977, 0.858 and 1.92 respectively
for herb layer of the south aspect (Table 3.4.3.2).
3.4.3.3 Quercus species dominant forest (QSDF) -In the QSDF, a

total of 16 species was recorded. In this forest at the north aspect Shannon
wiener diversity of tree layer was found as 2.457, Simpson diversity as 0.109,
Margalef index as 2.418, evenness value calculated as 0.907 and β diversity
was 2.11 furthermore the Shannon wiener diversity was recorded as 2.457,
Simpson diversity as 0.109, Margalef index of species richness as 2.218,
evenness as 0.907 and β diversity was 2.32 in south aspect (Table 3.4.3.3).
During summer season, a total 16 shrub species were present in both of

aspects which were distributed as 15 in the north aspect and 15 in the south
aspect. In north aspect, the Shannon wiener diversity was found as 2.563,
Simpson as 0.089, Margalef as 1.8125, evenness as 0.946, and the β diversity
was 1.89. In south aspect the Shannon wiener diversity was recorded as 2.578,
Simpson diversity as 0.088, Margalef index of species richness as 1.797,
evenness as 0.951 and β diversity was 1.86.
At QSDF site, 15 shrub species were present in the both aspects during
rainy season. In the north aspect of this forest, the Shannon and the Simpson
wiener diversity were found as 2.71 and 0.076 respectively. The Margalef
index was calculated as 1.944, evenness as 0.956 and β diversity was found
1.82. In the south aspect the diversity value of Shannon wiener was observed
112
as 2.736, Simpson as 0.072, Margalef index as 1.935, evenness as 0.965 and β
diversity was 1.85 (Table 3.4.3.3).
During winter season a total 21shrub species were encountered on both

of aspects. Along with, 15 species were in the north aspect and 17 species in
the south aspect. Shannon wiener, Simpson and Margalef index and β
diversity values were 2.631, 0.077, 1.741 and 1.86 respectively in the north
aspect. Along with the south aspect Shannon wiener diversity index was
observed 2.771, Simpson as 0.066, Margalef index as 1.973 and β diversity
was 1.79. The evenness value of the north aspect was calculated as 0.971 and
for the south aspect it was calculated as 0.978 (Table 3.4.3.3).
During summer season a total of 21 herbs species were recorded,

however 21 were in the north aspect, and similarly in south aspect. Among the
different diversity index for herb species, Shannon wiener diversity was
recorded as 2.754 and 2.744, Simpson as 0.08 and 0.081, Margalef index as
2.244 and 2.21, evenness 0.904 and 0.901, β diversity was 1.72 and 1.85 in the
north and south aspects respectively (Table 3.4.3.3). In the herb layer of third
forest in rainy season 28 species were found in the north and south aspect. In
the north aspect Shannon wiener diversity of herb layer was found 3.539,
Simpson as 0.102, Margalef as 2.909, evenness as 1.062and the β diversity
was 1.79. The diversity values for Shannon, Simpson, Margalef, Evenness and
β diversity were recorded 3.081, 0.061, 2.847, 0.924 and 1.81 respectively for
shrub layer of the south aspect (Table 3.4.3.3).In the winter season herb layer
a total 34 species were encountered on both the aspects. In the north and south
aspect 25 and 26 herb species were found, in that order. Shannon wiener,
Simpson, Margalef index values and β diversity were 2.849, 0.082, 2.725 and
1.79 respectively in the north aspect. And in the south aspect Shannon
diversity index was observed 2.945, Simpson as 0.07 and Margalef index as
2.8 and β diversity was 1.83. The evenness value of the north aspect was
calculated as 0.885 and for the south aspect it was calculated as 0.903 (Table
3.4.3.3).
113
Table 3.4.3.3 Diversity, Dominance and eveness of QSDF.

Diversity Indices Shrub Herb Shrub Herb
Tree Tree
Shannon- Weiner
Diversity Index 2.45 2.56 2.7 2.63 2.75 3.54 2.85 2.57 2.57 2.74 2.77 2.74 3.1 2.94
Simpson Dominance
Index 0.10 0.08 0.1 0.08 0.08 0.1 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.07
Margalef Index of
species richness 2.41 1.81 1.9 1.74 2.24 2.91 2.73 2.41 1.79 1.94 1.97 2.21 2.8 2.8
Evenness 0.90 0.94 1 0.97 0.90 1.06 0.89 0.95 0.951 0.97 0.97 0.90 0.9 0.90
Β-diversity 2.11 1.89 1.82 1.86 1.72 1.79 1.79 2.32 1.86 1.85 1.79 1.85 1.81 1.83
Table 3.4.3.4 Diversity, Dominance and eveness of AKDF.
Diversity Indices North aspect (3000 m) South aspect (3000m)

Tree Shrub Herb Tree Shrub Herb
Shannon- Weiner
Diversity Index 1.36 2.30 2.5 2.3 2.26 2.17 S 1.36 2.686 2.33 2.45 2.45 2.2 S
Simpson Dominance
Index 0.29 0.10 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 N 0.31 0.124 0.11 0.09 0.16 0.2 N
Margalef Index of
species richness 0.73 1.42 1.7 1.54 2.64 2.48 0 0.92 1.61 1.45 1.67 2.71 2.6 O
Evenness 0.84 0.96 1 0.96 0.71 0.68 W 0.76 1.04 0.94 0.95 0.76 0.7 W
Species richness 5 11 14 12 24 24 Fall 6 13 12 13 25 24 Fall
Β-diversity 1.44 1.8 1.6 2.0 2.07 1.82 1.86 1.85 1.7 1.95 2.1 1.8
114
3.4.3.4. Abies Kharshu dominant forest
A total of 7 tree species were recorded in the AKDF. Out of them 5

species were found in the north aspect and 6 in the south aspect. In the north
aspect fortree cover, Shannon wiener diversity value was found as 1.363,
Simpson diversity as 0.291, Margalef index of diversity as 0.739, evenness as
0.847 and β diversity was 1.44. In the south aspect, the Shannon wiener and
Simpson diversity were1.355 and 0.308 respectively. The Margalef index was
recorded as 0.924, evenness was 0.756and the β diversity was 1.86 (Table
3.4.3.4).
During summer season18 shrub species were recorded in both of the

aspects, among them, 11 species were in the north aspect and 13 species in the
south aspect. In north and south aspect the Shannon wiener diversity was
observed as 2.308 and 2.686, Simpson diversity was 0.107 and 0.124,
Margalef index was 1.42 and 1.61, evenness was 0.962 and 1.04 and β
diversity was 1.8 and 1.85 (Table 3.4.3.4). In the shrub layer of this stand in
rainy season14 species were found in the north aspect and 12 in the south
aspect. In the north aspect Shannon wiener diversity of shrub layer was found
2.52, Simpson as 0.088, Margalef as 1.703, evenness was 0.954 and the β
diversity was 1.6. The diversity values for Shannon wiener, Simpson,
Margalef, evenness and β diversity were recorded 2.329, 0.109, 1.454 and
0.937and 1.7 respectively for shrub layer of the south aspect (Table 3.4.3.4).
The shurb layer in winter season of the north aspect, the Shannon wiener (H‟)
and Simpson diversity were found 2.374 and 0.104 respectively. The Margalef
index of species richness was observed 1.54, evenness was 0.956 and the β
diversity was 2.0. In the south aspect, the Shannon wiener diversity was
observed as 2.455 and Simpson diversity as 0.094, Margalef index as 1.671,
evenness was 0.957 and the β diversity was 1.95 (Table 3.4.3.4).
During summer season a total 25 herbs species were encountered on

both the aspects. In the north aspect 24 herb species were found along with 25
in south aspect. Shannon wiener, Simpson, Margalef index values and β
diversity were 2.262, 0.2, 2.64 and 2.07 respectively in the north aspect. Along
with in the south aspect Shannon wiener diversity index was observed 2.45,
115
Simpson as 0.163 and Margalef index as 2.71, β diversity was 2.1. The
evenness value of the north aspect was calculated as 0.711 and for the south
aspect it was calculated as 0.761 (Table 3.4.3.4). During rainy season, 24
species were found in the north and south aspect. In the north aspect, Shannon
wiener diversity value was found as 2.174, Simpson diversity as 0.196,
Margalef index of diversity as 2.475, evenness as 0.684 and β diversity was
1.82. In the south aspect, the Shannon wiener and Simpson diversity were
2.238 and 0.18 respectively. The Margalef index was recorded as 2.564,
evenness was 0.704 and the β diversity was 1.8. During winter season the
entire area covered with snowfall.
3.4.4 Niche width

In present investigation the niche width (Bi) of each herb species was
measured separately at all forest (Table 3.4.4.1).
116
Table 3.4.4.1 Niche width of herb species.
S.No. Species PRDF QLDF QSDF AKDF

N S N S N S N S
1 Anaphalis triplinervis 1.98 1.96 1.93 1.965 - 1.89 - -
2 Anemone rivularis - - - - - - 1.47 1.578
3 Artemisia japonica 1.85 1.85 1 1 - - - -
4 Artemisia nilagirica - - 1.62 1.632 - - - -
5 Barleria cristata 1.86 1.623 - - - -
6 Biodens tripartite 2.9 - - - - - - -
7 Caltha palastris - - - - - - 1.514 1.48
8 Carex alata - - - - - - 1.83 1.838
9 Centalla asiatica 1 1 1 - - - - -
Cucrcuma
10 angustifolia 1 1 - - - - - -
11 Cynodon dactylon 1 1.98 - - 1 1 - -
12 Cyperus niveus - - 1.87 1.95 - - - -
13 Cyperus rotundus 1 1 - - - - -
Dactyloctenium
14 aegypicum - - - - 1.863 1.935 - -
15 Desmodium triflorum 2.97 2.04 2.25 - - - -
16 Digitaria sanguinalis - - 1.93 1.948 - - - -
Erigeron
17 multiradiatus - - - - - - - 1
18 Erigeron species - - - 1.91 - - - -
Fagopyrum
19 esculentum - - - - 1 1 - -
20 Fragaria nubiccola - - - - - - 1.47 1.44
21 Galium aparine - - - - 1.626 1.65 - -
Geranium
22 wallichianum - - - - 1.826 - 1 1
23 Gnaphalium affine 1 1 1.93 1.84 - - - -
Gnaphalium
24 hypoleucum - - - - 1.88 1.935 - -
Heteropogon
25 contortus - - 1 - - - - -
26 Impatiens species - - - 1.96 - - - -
27 Inula cappa 1.65 1.93 2 1.974 - - - -
28 Micromeria biflora - - - 1 1 1.66 - -
29 Oenothera rosea - - - - 1 1 - -
30 Origanum vulgare - - - - 1 1 - -
31 Oxalis corniculata 2.99 2.92 2.99 2.99 1.934 1.903 - -
Parthenium
32 hysterophorus 1 1 1.99 3 - - - -
33 Phlomis bracteata - - - - - - 1.919 -
34 Poa annua - - - - - 1 1.927 1.93
Polygonum
35 amplexicaule - - - - - - 1.97 2
Polygonum
36 capitatum - - 1 - - - - 1.59
Polygonum
37 macrophyllum - - - - - - 1.72
38 Polygonum plebeium - - - - - 1.948 - -
39 Potentilla fulgens - - - - 2.74 - 1 -
40 Prunella vulgaris - - - - - - - 1.96
41 Primula denticulata - - - - - - -
42 Ranunculas hirtullus - - - - - - - 1.98
43 Reinwardtia indica - 1 1 - - - - -
117
44 Rumex nepalensis - - - - - - - 1
45 Saxifraga diversifolia - - - - 1 1 - -
46 Senecio nudicaulis - - - - 1.62 - - -
47 Sida acuta 1.84 1.99 - - - - - -
48 Thalictrum folidosum 1 - - - - - - 1
49 Trifolium repenus - - - - 1 1 1 1
During the course of present study, the niche width (Bi) of each herb
species was measured separately across all forest sites. Niche width of species
is given in table 3.4.4.1
At PRDF, In the north aspect Oxalis corniculata expressed maximum

niche width (Bi=2.99) across the seasons at north aspectwhich was followed
by Anaphalis triplinervis (Bi=1.98) Similar niche width was exhibited by
many plant species like Centalla asiatica, Cucrcuma angustifolia, Cynodon
dactylon, Gnaphalium affine, Parthenium hysterophorus etc. Desmodium
triflorum (Bi=2.97) highest niche width while lowest niche width was
observed for several species having Bi=1 in south aspect.
At QIDF, the maximum nich width value was recorded Bi=2.99 for
Oxalis corniculata and Bi=3 for Parthenium hysterophorus, respectively while
lowest value (Bi=1) calculated for many of species i.e. Artmisia japonica,
Centalla asiatica, Heteropogon contortus, Polygonum capitatum etc in north
aspect. But in south aspect minimum niche width value was (Bi=1) for
Artemisia japonica and Micromeria biflora.
Potentilla fulgens (Bi=2.74) possessed highest niche width at QSDF in

north aspect and lowest value was Bi=1 for many of species like Cynodon
dactylon, Fagopyrum esculentum, Oenothera rosea etc. In south aspect
maximum nich width value was Bi=1.95 for Polygonum plebeium followed by
Dactyloctenium aegypicum (Bi=1.94) and Gnaphalium hypoleucum (Bi=1.94).
While minimum value (Bi=1) for Fagopyrum esculentum, Origanum vulgare,
Poa annua, Saxifraga diversifolia and Trifolium repenus etc.
At AKDF, maximum niche width was showed by Polygonum

amplexicaule (Bi=1.97) in north aspect and in south aspect Geranium
wallichianum, Potentilla fulgens, Primula denticlata and Trifolium repenus
observed minimum niche width. While in south aspect, again Polygonum
118
amplexicaule (Bi=2) followed by Ranunculas hirtullus (Bi=1.98) had highest
niche width.
Likewise, the niche width (Bi) of shrub species was measured

separately at all forests considering a season as niche (habitat). Niche breath of
species is given in table.
Table 3.4.4.2 Niche width of shrub species.
PRDF QLDF QSDF AKDF

Species name
S.No.
N S N S N S N S
1 Adhatoda vasica 2.84 2.81 - - - - - -
2 Berberis asiatica 2.89 2.81 2.83 2.67 2.77 2.477 - -
3 Berberis chitria - - - - - 2.594 2.96 2.97
4 Cassia floribunda - - - 2.85 - - - -
5 Colebrookia oppositifolia - 2.89 - - - - - -
Cotoneaster
6 microphyllum - - - - 1.99 - 2.99 2.97
7 Daphane paparacea - - - - - - 1.98 1.96
8 Debregeasia longifolia - - 2.95 2.67 - - - -
9 Elsholtzia flava - - - - 2.98 2.99 - -
10 Eupatorium adenophorum 2.69 2.56 1 2.79 - - - -
Gaultheria
11 nummularioides - - - - - - - 1.95
12 Girardinia heterophylla - - - - 1.99 - - -
13 Indigofera gerardiana - - - - 2.98 1.96 - -
14 Jatropha curcus 2.4 1.65 - - - - - -
15 Lantana camara 2.57 2.56 2.95 2.82 - - - -
16 Mahonia borealis - - - - - - - 1.98
17 Murraya koenigii 1.98 - - - - - - -
18 Myrisine Africana - - - - - - - 2.935
19 Osbeckia stellata - - 1 - - - - -
20 Princepia utilis - - - - 2.81 2.86 2.87 2.83
21 Pyracantha crenulata - - - - 2.88 2.959 - -
22 Rhus parviflora 2.84 2.91 2.86 - - - - -
23 Ribes glaciale - - - - - - 1.88 1.97
24 Rosa burnonii - - - - 2.427 2.74 - -
25 Rosa sericea - - - - - - 2.51 2.79
26 Rubus ellipticus 2.98 2.99 2.97 2.82 - 2.69 - -
27 Rumex hastatus - - 1.91 1.898 - - - -
28 Sarcococca saligna - - - - 2.65 2.72 - -
29 Sorbus microphyla - - - - - - 2.97 2.9
30 Spiraea canescens - - - - - - 1.611 -
31 Urtica dioica 2.41 1.64 2.49 2.65 2.67 2.89 - -
32 Woodfordia fruticosa 2.75 2.65 2.89 2.42 - - - -
119
At PRDF the maximum nich width value (Bi=2.98, 2.99) was recorded
for Rubus ellipticus, respectively at north and south aspect while, lowest niche
width (Bi=1.98) calculated for Murraya koenigii in north aspect and Bi=1.64
for Utrica dioica at south aspect.
At QLDF, Rubus ellipticus expressed maximum niche width (Bi=2.97)

which is followed by Debregeasia longifolia (Bi=2.95) and Lantana camara
(Bi=2.95) while minimum niche width is exhibited by Eupatorium
adenophorum and Osbeckia stellata at the north aspect. Cassia floribunda
(Bi=2.85) had highest nich width and lowest niche width was observed Bi=1.9
for Rumex hastatus in south aspect.
Indigofera gerardiana (Bi=2.98) possessed highest niche width at

QSDF in north aspect and lowest value was Bi=1.99 for Cotoneaster
microphyllum and Girardinia hetetrophylla. In south aspect maximum niche
width was Bi=2.99 for Elsholtzia flava followed by Pyracantha crenulata
(Bi=2.96). While minimum value (Bi=196) forIndigofera gerardiana.
Similarly in AKDFmaximum niche width was Bi=2.99 for Cotoneaster

microphyllum and Gaultheria nummularioides in north aspect and Spiraea
canescens niche width was observed (Bi=1.61). While in south aspect, highest
niche width (Bi=2.97) was observed for Berberis chitria and Cotoneaster
microphyllum followed by Myrisine africana (Bi=2.94) and lowest value
Bi=1.95 for Gaultheria nummularioides.
Niche width of dominating and co-dominating tree species at all forests:

In present study the niche breadth (Bi) of tree species was also measured
among all forest stands (Table 3.4.4.3). Rhododendron arboreum expressed
maximum niche width (Bi=5.61) which is followed byQuercus
leucotrichophora (Bi=4.99) whereas minimum niche width was Bi=1.94 for
Listsea lanuginosa. The higer niche width of Rhododendron arboreum and
Quercus leucotrichophora indicates habitat suitability as well as wider
distribution range of these species in the study area.
120
Table 3.4.4.3 Niche breath of dominant trees in the study area.
S. No. Species name Niche width Value

1. Abies pindrow 1.99
2. Alnus nepalensis 3.97
3. Bauhinia variegate 2.00
4. Daphniphyllum himalayense 1.98
5. Listsea lanuginose 1.94
6. Lyonia Ovalifolia 3.95
7. Mallatous philipinsis 1.99
8. Mangifera indica 1.99
9. Myrica esculenta 3.96
10. Persea duthiei 1.93
11. Pinus roxburghii 3.15
12. Prunus cerasoides 3.85
13. Pyrus pashia 1.99
14. Quercus floribunda 1.99
15. Quercus glauca 1.99
16. Quercus leucotrichophora 4.99
17. Quercus semecarpifolia 1.99
18. Rhododendron arboretum 5.61
19. Symplocos paniculata 3.76
20. Toona ciliata 1.98
3.4.5 Nich overlap: The Niche overlap value for dominant and co-
dominating herb species calculated at all forests considering various seasons
as a niche of a species are presented in tables 3.4.5.1 to 3.4.5.8.
Table 3.4.5.1 depicts that Anaphalis triplinervis vs Artemisia japonica

exhibited maximum niche overlap (Chi=0.91) in the north aspect of PRDF
site.Many species observed minimum niche overlap (Chi=0.65). While at
south aspect, maximum overlap was shown by Anaphalis triplinervis vs
Cynodon dactylon, Anaphalis triplinervis vsInula cappa, Artemisia japonica
vs Barleria cristata andArtemisia japonica vs Oxalis acetosella (Chi=0.98).
Minimum niche overlap was possessed by Centalla asiatica vs Desmodium
triflorum (Chi=0.65) and many another species (Table 3.4.5.2).
At north and south aspect of QIDF site, maximum niche overlap was
displayed by Digitaria sanguinalis vs Gnaphalium affine, Anaphalis
triplinervis vs Barleria cristata, Anaphalis triplinervis vs Cyperus niveus,
121
Artemisia nilagiricavs Barleria cristata and Oxalis corniculata vs Parthenium
hysterophorus (Chi=0.99). Minimum niche overlap was shown by Centalla
asiatica vs Desmodium trifolium (Chi=0.65) at north aspect, while in south
aspect many species exhibited minimum niche overlap (Chi=0.66) (Table
3.4.5.3 and 3.4.5.4).
Galium aparine vs Senecio nudicaulis (Chi=0.99) possessed highest

niche overlap in north aspect ofQSDF of north aspect and lowest niche overlap
was Chi=0.68 for many of species (Table 3.4.5.5). In south aspect of this site,
maximum nich overlap was Chi=0.99 for Galium aparine vs Micromeria
biflora followed by many of species (Chi=0.98). While minimum niche
overlap value (Chi=1) was recorded for Oenothera rosea vs Dactyloctenium
aegypicum (Table 3.4.5.6).
In AKDF of north aspect, Anemone rivularis vs Fragaria nubiccola

and Anemone rivularis vs Fragaria nubiccola exhibited maximum niche
overlap (Chi=0.99) and many species observed minimum niche overlap
(Chi=0.60) at north aspect (Table 3.4.5.7). While at south aspect, maximum
overlap were shown by Anemone rivularis vs Anemone rivularis (Chi=0.98).
Whereas, minimum niche overlap was possessed by Fragaria nubiccola vs
Thalictricum spp (Chi=0.58), (Table 3.4.5.8).
122
3.4.5.1 Nich overlap at PRDF (North aspect).
Species At Aj Bt Ca Can Cd Cr Ga Ic Oc Ph Sa Tf
At *
Aj 0.9 *
Bt 0.87 0.68 *
Ca 0.77 0.68 0.65 *
Can 0.77 0.68 0.65 1.0 *
Cd 0.77 0.68 0.65 1.0 1.0 *
Cr 0.77 0.68 0.65 1.0 1.0 1.0 *
Ga 0.77 0.68 0.65 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 *
Ic 0.91 0.82 0.78 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 *
Oc 0.89 0.98 0.98 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.79 *
Ph 0.77 0.68 0.65 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.86 0.66 *
Sa 0.95 0.86 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.79 0.84 0.82 *
Tf 0.77 0.68 0.65 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.86 0.66 1.0 0.82 *
*At-Anaphalis triplinervis, Aj-Artemisia japonica, Bt-Biodens tripartite, Ca-Centalla
asiatica, Can-Cucrcuma angustifolia, Cd-Cynodon dactylon, Cr-Cyperus rotundus,
Ga-Gnaphalium affine, Ic-Inula cappa, Oc-Oxalis corniculata, Ph-Parthenium
hysterophorus, Sa-Sida acuta,Tf-Thalictrum folidosum .
3.4.5.2 Nich overlap at PRDF (South aspect).

Species An Ar Ba Ca Can Cd Cr Dt Ga Ic Oa Ph Ri Sa
An *
Ar 0.89 *
Ba 0.89 0.98 *
Ca 0.78 0.68 0.68 *
Can 0.78 0.68 0.68 1.0 *
Cd 0.98 0.9 0.9 0.77 0.77 *
Cr 0.78 0.67 0.68 1.0 1.0 0.77 *
Dt 0.87 0.97 0.97 0.65 0.65 0.88 0.65 *
Ga 0.78 0.67 0.68 1.0 1.0 0.77 1.0 0.65 *
Ic 0.98 0.88 0.88 0.79 0.79 0.97 0.79 0.85 0.79 *
Oa 0.9 0.98 0.99 0.68 0.69 0.92 0.69 0.97 0.69 0.89 *
Ph 0.78 0.68 0.68 1.0 1.0 0.77 1.0 0.65 1.0 0.79 0.68 *
Ri 0.78 0.68 0.68 1.0 1.0 0.77 1.0 0.65 1.0 0.79 0.69 1.0 *
Sa 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.74 0.74 0.96 0.74 0.92 0.74 0.94 0.95 0.74 0.74 *
*An-Anaphalis triplinervis, Ar-Artemisia japonica, Ba-Barleria cristata, Ca-
Centalla asiatica, Can-Cucrcuma angustifolia,Cd-Cynodon dactylon, Cr-Cyperus
rotundus, Dt-Desmodium triflorum, Ga-Gnaphalium affine, Ic-Inula cappa, Oa-Oxalis
acetosella, Ph-Parthenium hysterophorus, Ri-Reinwardtia indica, Sa-Sida acuta.
123
3.4.5.3 Nich overlap at QLDF (North aspect).
Species At Aj An Ca Cn Dt Ds Ga Hc Ic Oc Ph Pc Ri
At *
Aj 0.71 *
An 0.83 0.87 *
Ca 0.71 1.0 0.87 *
Cn 0.98 0.68 0.82 0.68 *
Dt 0.95 0.66 0.79 0.65 0.97 *
Ds 0.91 0.8 0.93 0.8 0.77 0.86 *
Ga 0.91 0.8 0.93 0.8 0.89 0.86 0.99 *
Hc 0.7 1.0 0.87 1.0 0.68 0.66 0.8 0.8 *
Ic 0.94 0.76 0.89 0.76 0.92 0.9 0.96 0.96 0.76 *
Oc 0.96 0.66 0.79 0.66 0.98 0.99 0.86 0.87 0.66 0.91 *
Ph 0.97 0.73 0.86 0.73 0.95 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.73 0.97 0.93 *
Pc 0.7 1.0 0.87 1.0 0.74 0.66 0.8 0.8 1.0 0.75 0.66 0.73 *
Ri 0.7 1.0 0.87 1.0 0.68 0.66 0.8 0.8 1.0 0.76 0.66 0.71 1.0 *
*At-Anaphalis triplinervis, Aj-Artemisia japonica, An-Artemisia nilagirica, Ca-
Centalla asiatica,Cn-Cyperus niveus, Dt-Desmodium trifolium, Ds-Digitaria
sanguinalis,Ga-Gnaphalium affine, Hc-Heteropogon contortus, Ic-Inula cappa, Oc-
Oxalis corniculata, Ph-Parthenium hysterophorus, Pc-Polygonum capitatum, Ri-
Reinwardita indica .
3.4.5.4 Nich overlap at QLDF (South aspect).

Species At Aj An Bc Cn Dt Ds Ec Ga Is Ic Mb Oc Ph
At *
Aj 0.72 *
An 0.87 0.87 *
Bc 0.99 0.87 0.99 *
Cn 0.99 0.71 0.84 0.84 *
Dt 0.96 0.68 0.81 0.81 0.97 *
Ds 0.93 0.79 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.89 *
Ec 0.91 0.8 0.94 0.94 0.91 0.87 0.98 *
Ga 0.89 0.82 0.95 0.95 0.89 0.86 0.97 0.98 *
Is 0.93 0.78 0.92 0.91 0.93 0.96 0.99 0.98 0.96 *
Ic 0.99 0.72 0.85 0.85 0.99 0.96 0.93 0.92 0.9 0.94 *
Mb 0.72 1.0 0.87 0.87 0.71 0.68 0.79 0.81 0.82 0.78 0.72 *
Oc 0.95 0.66 0.79 0.8 0.95 0.98 0.87 0.86 0.84 0.88 0.94 0.66 *
Ph 0.95 0.66 0.8 0.79 0.95 0.98 0.87 0.86 0.84 0.88 0.94 0.66 0.99 *
*At-Anaphalis triplinervis, Aj-Artemisia japonica, An-Artemisia nilagirica, Bc-
Barleria cristata, Cn-Cyperus niveus, Dt-Desmodium trifolium, Ds-Digitaria
sanguinalis, Ec-Erigeron species, Ga-Gnaphalium affine, Is-Impatiens species, Ic-
Inula cappa, Mb-Micromeria biflora, Oc-Oxalis corniculata, Ph-Parthenium
hysterophorus .
124
3.4.5.5 Nich overlap at QSDF (North aspect).
Species Cn Da Fe Ga Gw Gh Mb Or Ov Oc Pf Sd Sn Tr
Cn *
Da 0.68 *
Fe 1.0 0.68 *
Ga 0.87 0.81 0.87 *
Gw 0.83 0.86 0.83 0.76 *
Gh 0.81 0.87 0.81 0.94 0.98 *
Mb 1.0 0.68 1.0 0.87 0.83 0.81 *
Or 1.0 0.68 1.0 0.87 0.83 0.81 1.0 *
Ov 1.0 0.68 1.0 0.87 0.83 0.81 1.0 1.0 *
Oc 0.7 0.98 0.7 0.83 0.87 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 *
Pf 0.7 0.98 0.7 0.83 0.87 0.88 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.98 *
Sd 1.0 0.68 1.0 0.86 0.83 0.81 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.7 *
Sn 0.87 0.81 0.87 0.99 0.96 0.94 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.82 0.82 0.87 *
Tr 1.0 0.68 1.0 0.86 0.83 0.81 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.87 *
*Cn- Cynodon dactylon, Da-Dactyloctenium aegypicum, Fe-Fagopyrum
esculentum,Ga-Galium aparine, Gw-Geranium wallichianum, Gh-Gnaphalium
hypoleucum, Mb-Micromeria biflora, Or-Oenothera rosea, Oy-Origanum vulgare,
Oc-Oxalis corniculata, Pf-Potentilla fulgens, Sd-Saxifraga diversifolia, Sn-Senecio
nudicaulis, Tr-Trifolium repenus .
3.4.5.6 Nich overlap at QSDF (South aspect).

Species An Cd Da Fe Ga Gh Mb Or Ov Oc Pa Pp Sd Tr
An *
Cd 0.91 *
Da 0.89 0.71 *
Fe 0.81 1.0 0.71 *
Ga 0.94 0.88 0.84 0.86 *
Gh 0.9 0.70 1.0 0.71 0.84 *
Mb 0.94 0.86 0.84 0.86 0.99 0.84 *
Or 0.8 1.0 0.69 1.0 0.86 0.7 0.86 *
Ov 0.8 1.0 0.7 1.0 0.86 0.704 0.86 1.0 *
Oc 0.88 0.69 0.98 0.69 0.83 0.98 0.83 0.69 0.69 *
Pa 0.81 1.0 0.7 1.0 0.86 0.7 0.86 1.0 1.0 0.69 *
Pp 0.98 0.79 0.91 0.79 0.86 0.91 0.93 0.79 0.79 0.9 0.79 *
Sd 0.98 0.79 0.91 0.79 0.86 0.91 0.93 0.79 0.79 0.9 1.0 0.79 *
Tr 0.98 0.79 0.91 0.79 0.86 0.91 0.93 0.79 0.79 0.9 1.0 0.79 1.0 *
*An-Anaphalis triplinervis, Cd-Cynodon dactylon, Da-Dactyloctenium aegypicum,
Fe-Fagopyrum esculentum, Ga-Galium aparine, Gh-Gnaphalium hypoleucum, Mb-
Micromeria biflora, Or-Oenothera rosea, Oy-Origanum vulgare, Oc-Oxalis
corniculata, Pa-Poa annua, Pp-Polygonum plebeium, Sd-Saxifraga diversifolia, Tr-
Trifolium repenus.
125
3.4.5.7 Nich overlap at AKDF (North aspect).
Species Ar Cp Ca Fn Gw Pb Pa Pam Pm Pf Pv Pd Rn Tr
Ar *
Cp 0.97 *
Ca 0.93 0.93 *
Fn 0.99 0.99 0.93 *
Gw 0.6 0.6 0.67 0.6 *
Pb 0.8 0.8 0.87 0.8 0.8 *
Pa 0.93 0.93 1.0 0.92 0.67 0.87 *
Pam 0.83 0.93 0.9 0.83 0.77 0.9 0.9 *
Pm 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.83 0.65 0.85 0.97 0.87 *
Pf 0.6 0.6 0.67 0.67 1.0 0.8 0.67 0.87 0.65 *
Pv 0.76 0.76 0.83 0.76 0.85 0.95 0.83 0.92 0.8 0.84 *
Pd 0.6 0.6 0.67 0.6 1.0 0.8 0.67 0.77 0.65 1.0 0.85 *
Rh 0.6 0.6 0.67 0.6 1.0 0.8 0.67 0.77 0.65 1.0 0.85 1.0 *
Tr 0.6 0.6 0.67 0.6 1.0 0.8 0.67 0.77 0.65 1.0 0.85 1.0 1.0 *
*Ar-Anemone rivularis, Cp-Caltha palastris, Ca-Carex alata, Fn-Fragaria
nubiccola,Gw-Geranium wallichianum , Pb-Phlomis bracteata, Pa-Poa annua, Pam-
Polygonum amplexicaule , Pm-Polygonum macrophyllum , Pf-Potentilla fulgens, Pv-
Prunella vulgaris, Pd-Primula denticulata, Rh-Ranunculas hirtullus, Tr-Trifolium
repens .
3.4.5.8 Nich overlap at AKDF (South aspect).

Species Ar Cp Ca Em Fn Gw Pa Pam Pm Pv Rh Rn Tf Tr
Ar *
Cp 0.98 *
Ca 0.94 0.92 *
Em 0.62 0.6 0.67 *
Fn 0.97 0.99 0.91 0.59 *
Gw 0.62 0.6 0.67 1.0 0.59 *
Pa 0.91 0.89 0.97 0.7 0.89 0.7 *
Pam 0.86 0.85 0.92 0.75 0.84 0.75 0.95 *
Pm 0.99 0.97 0.95 0.62 0.96 0.62 0.91 0.87 *
Pv 0.84 0.82 0.89 0.78 0.81 0.78 0.92 0.97 0.84 *
Rh 0.89 0.87 0.95 0.73 0.87 0.73 0.97 0.97 0.89 0.94 *
Rn 0.61 0.6 0.68 1.0 0.59 1.0 0.7 0.75 0.62 0.78 0.73 *
Tf 0.61 0.6 0.68 1.0 0.58 1.0 0.7 0.75 0.62 0.78 0.73 1.0 *
Tr 0.61 0.6 0.68 1.0 0.59 1.0 0.7 0.75 0.62 0.78 0.73 1.0 1.0 *
*Ar-Anemone rivularis, Cp-Caltha palastris, Cs-Carex alata, Em-Erigeron
multiradiatus, Fn-Fragaria nubiccola, Gw-Geranium wallichianum, Pa-Poa annua,
Pam-Polygonum amplexicaule , Pm-Polygonum macrophyllum , Pv-Prunella
vulgaris, Rh-Ranunculus hirtellus, Rn-Rumex nepalensis, Ts-Thalictricum
foliolosum., Tr-Trifolium repens.
126
Shrub species: The Niche overlap value for dominant and co-dominating
shrub species were calculated at all stands presented in tables 3.4.5.9to
3.4.5.16.
3.4.5.9 Nich overlap at PRDF (North aspect).
Species Av Ba Ea Jc Lc Mk Rp Re Ud Wf
Av *
Ba 0.97 *
Ea 0.98 0.99 *
Jc 0.94 0.92 0.93 *
Lc 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.91 *
Mk 0.94 0.92 0.93 0.98 0.91 *
Rp 0.99 0.97 0.98 0.94 0.96 0.95 *
Re 0.95 0.98 0.97 0.89 0.98 0.9 0.95 *
Ud 0.91 0.94 0.93 0.86 0.95 0.87 0.92 0.96 *
Wf 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.91 0.98 0.91 0.97 0.98 0.94 *
*Av-Adhatoda vasica, Ba-Berberis asiatica, Ea-Eupatorium adenophorum, Jc
Jatropha curcus, Lc-Lantana camara, Mk-Murraya koenigii, Rp-Rhus
parviflora, Re-Rubus ellipticus, Ud-Urtica dioica, Wf-Woodfordia fruticosa.
3.4.5.10 Nich overlap at PRDF (South aspect).
Species Av Ba Co Ea Jc Lc Rp Re Ud Wf
Av *
Ba 0.99 *
Co 0.96 0.97 *
Ea 0.98 0.98 0.96 *
Jc 0.86 0.85 0.83 0.87 *
Lc 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.96 0.83 *
Rp 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.84 0.98 *
Re 0.95 0.95 0.98 0.95 0.81 0.97 0.97 *
Ud 0.86 0.85 0.82 0.86 0.98 0.83 0.84 0.82 *
Wf 0.98 0.98 0.96 0.98 0.86 0.97 0.98 0.95 0.85 *
*Av-Adhatoda vasica,Ba-Berberis asiatica,Co-Colebrookia oppositifolia, Ea-

Eupatorium adenophorum, Jc-Jatropha curcus, Lc-Lantana camara, Rp-Rhus
parviflora, Re-Rubus ellipticus, Ud-Utrica dioica , Wf-Woodfordia fruticosa.
127
3.4.5.11 Nich overlap at QLDF (North aspect).
Species Ba Dl Ea Lc Os Rp Re Rh Up Wf
Ba *
Dl 0.98 *
Ea 0.71 0.69 *
Lc 0.94 0.94 0.64 *
Os 0.71 0.69 1 0.65 *
Rp 0.98 0.98 0.68 0.96 0.69 *
Re 0.97 0.98 0.68 0.96 0.68 0.99 *
Rh 0.9 0.88 0.8 0.84 0.8 0.88 0.87 *
Up 0.93 0.92 0.77 0.87 0.77 0.91 0.9 0.96 *
Wf 0.96 0.97 0.67 0.97 0.67 0.98 0.99 0.86 0.89 *
Ba-Berberis asiatica, Dl-Debregeasia longifolia, Ea-Eupatorium
adenophorum, Lc-Lantana camara, Os-Osbeckia stellata, Rp-Rhus parviflora,
Re-Rubus ellipticus, Rh-Rumex hastatus, Up-Urtica dioica, Wf-Woodfordia
fruticosa.
3.4.5.12 Nich overlap at QLDF (South aspect).
Species Ba Cf Dl Ea Ic Lc Re Rh Up Wf
Ba *
Cf 0.99 *
Dl 0.98 0.98 *
Ea 0.93 0.91 0.92 *
Ic 0.94 0.95 0.94 0.93 *
Lc 0.98 0.97 0.98 0.93 0.93 *
Re 0.99 1 0.98 0.91 0.95 0.97 *
Rh 0.9 0.91 0.9 0.82 0.95 0.88 0.91 *
Up 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.98 0.87 0.92 0.92 0.83 *
Wf 0.94 0.95 0.94 0.86 0.98 0.92 0.95 0.96 0.87 *
*Ba-Berberis asiatica, Cf-Cassia floribunda, Dl-Debregeasia

longifolia, Ea-Eupatorium adenophorum, Ic-Inula cappa, Lc-Lantana camara,
Re-Rubus ellipticus, Rh-Rumex hastatus, Up-Urtica parviflora,Wf-
Woodfordia fruticosa.
128
3.4.5.13 Nich overlap at QSDF (North aspect).
Species Ba Cm Ef Gh Ic Pu Pc Rb Ss Ud
Ba *
Cm 0.99 *
Ef 0.94 0.95 *
Gh 0.97 0.96 0.91 *
Ic 0.95 0.95 0.99 0.92 *
Pu 0.97 0.98 0.97 0.94 0.98 *
Pc 0.9 0.98 0.95 0.87 0.94 0.92 *
Rb 0.98 0.98 0.93 0.98 0.94 0.96 0.88 *
Ss 0.99 0.98 0.94 0.97 0.95 0.97 0.9 0.98 *
Ud 0.92 0.93 0.98 0.89 0.97 0.95 0.97 0.91 0.92 *
*Ba-Berberis asiatica, Cm-Cotoneaster microphyllum, Ef-Elshotzia flava, Gh-

Girardinia heterophylla, Ic-Inula cappa, Pu-Principia utilis, Pc-Pyracantha
crenulata, Rb-Rosa burnonii, Ss-Sarcococca saligna, Ud-Utrica dioica.
3.4.5.14 Nich overlap at QSDF (South aspect).
Species Ba Bc Ef Ig Pu Pc Rb Re Ss Ud
Ba *
Bc 0.98 *
Ef 0.9 0.92 *
Ig 0.98 0.97 0.89 *
Pu 0.9 0.94 0.98 0.91 *
Pc 0.92 0.93 0.98 0.91 0.99 *
Rb 0.93 0.94 0.97 0.92 0.98 0.99 *
Re 0.97 0.98 0.93 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.96 *
Ss 0.85 0.87 0.95 0.84 0.93 0.94 0.92 0.88 *
Ud 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.93 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.91 *
*Ba-Berberis asiatica, Bc-Berberis chirata, Ef-Elshotzia flava, Ig-Indigofera

gerardiana, Pu-Principia utilis, Pc-Pyracantha crenulata, Rb-Rosa burnonii,
Re-Rubus ellipticus, Ss-Sarcococca saligna,Ud-Utrica dioica .
129
3.4.5.15 Nich overlap at AKDF (North aspect).
Species Bc Cm Dp Gn Mb Pu Rg Rs Ss Sc
Bc *
Cm 0.99 *
Dp 0.96 0.95 *
Gn 0.98 0.99 0.94 *
Mb 0.95 0.96 0.92 0.97 *
Pu 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.98 0.95 *
Rg 0.87 0.86 0.91 0.85 0.83 0.87 *
Rs 0.92 0.91 0.95 0.9 0.87 0.92 0.95 *
Ss 0.98 0.98 0.96 0.98 0.96 0.98 0.87 0.91 *
Sc 0.81 0.8 0.84 0.79 0.76 0.81 0.93 0.89 0.8 *
*Ba-Berberis chitria, Cm-Cotoneaster microphyllus, Dp-Daphane paparacea,
Gn-Gaultheria nummularioides, Mb-Mahonia borealis, Pu-Princepia utilis,
Rg-Ribes glaciale, Rs-Rosa sericea, Ss-Sarcococca saligna, Sc-Spiraea
canescens.
3.4.5.16 Nich overlap at AKDF (South aspect).

Species Bc Cm Dp Gn Mb Ma Pu Rg Rs Sm
Bc *
Cm 0.99 *
Dp 0.96 0.97 *
Gn 0.89 0.90 0.93 *
Mb 0.95 0.96 0.99 0.94 *
Ma 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.88 0.94 *
Pu 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.89 0.94 1.0 *
Rg 0.90 0.91 0.94 0.98 0.95 0.89 0.89 *
Rs 0.95 0.96 0.98 0.94 0.99 0.93 0.93 0.95 *
Sm 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.91 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.92 0.97 *
*Bc-Berberis chitria, Cm-Cotoneaster microphyllus, Dp-Daphane paparacea,

Gn-Gaultheria nummularioides, Mb-Mahonia borealis, Ma-Myrisine
africana, Pu-Princepia utilis, Rg-Ribes glaciale, Rs-Rosa sericea, Sp-Sorbus
microphyla.
In shrub stratum, Adhatoda vasica vs Rhus parviflora and Berberis

asiatica vs Eupatorium adenophorum (Chi=0.99) possessed highest niche
overlap indicating high competition for resource utilizationat PRDF of north
aspect and lowest niche overlap was Chi=0.91 for many of species.In south
aspect, maximum nich overlap was Chi=0.99 for Adhatoda vasica vsBerberis
asiatica followed by many of species (Chi=0.98). While minimum niche
overlap value of Chi=0.81 was recorded forJatropha curcus vs Rubus
ellipticus.
130
At north aspect of QLDF, Rhus parvifloravs Rubus ellipticus exhibited
maximum niche overlap (Chi=0.99) while minimum displayed by Eupatorium
adenophorum vs Lantana camara (Chi=0.64). Likewise, at south aspect,
maximum overlap was shown by Berberis asiaticavs, Cassia floribunda and
Berberis asiatica vs Rubus ellipticus (Chi=0.99). Minimum niche overlap at
this aspect was possessed by Eupatorium adenophorumvs, Rumex hastatus
(Chi=0.84).
In Quercusspecies dominant forest (QSDF), maximum niche overlap

was Berberis asiatica vs Cotoneaster microphyllum, Sarcococca saligna vs
Berberis asiatica (Chi=0.99), Principia utilis vs Pyracantha crenulata, and
Pyracantha crenulata vs Rosa burnonii both at north and south aspects.
Minimum niche overlap was shown by Girardinia heterophylla vs Pyracantha
crenulata (Chi=0.87) at north aspect, while in south aspect Indigofera
gerardiana vs Sarcococca saligna exhibited minimum niche overlap
(Chi=0.84).
Berberis chitria vs Cotoneaster microphyllus, Berberis chitria vs

Princepia utilis and Cotoneaster microphyllus vs Gaultheria nummularioides
(Chi=0.99) possessed highest niche overlap at north aspect of AKDF and
lowest niche overlap was Chi=0.81 for Princepia utilis vs Spiraea canescens.
In south aspect maximum niche overlap was Chi=0.99 for Berberis chitria vs
Cotoneaster microphyllus and Daphane paparacea vs Mahonia borealis
followed by many of species (Chi=0.98). While minimum niche overlap value
(Chi=0.88) was observed for Gaultheria nummularioides vs Myrisine
africana.
In tree strata, maximum niche overlap (Chi=0.99) was observed for many
species like i.e. Abies pindrow vs Bauhinia variegata, Abies pindrow vs Pyrus
pashia, Alnus nepalensis vs Lyonia ovalifolia, Alnus nepalensis vs Quercus
leucotrichophora etc. While minimum niche overlap (Chi=0.82) was noted for
Persea duthiei vs Rhododendron arboreum. The Niche overlap value for
dominant and co-dominating tree species were calculated at all forest
presented in table 3.4.5.17.
131
3.4.5.17Nich overlap of tree species at all sites.
Ab An Bv Dh Ll Lo Mp Mi Me Pd Pr Pc Pp Qf Qg Ql Qs Ra Sp Tc
Ab *
An 0.88 *
Bv 0.99 0.88 *
Dh 0.98 0.86 0.97 *
Ll 0.96 0.84 0.84 0.98 *
Lo 0.89 0.99 0.89 0.87 0.85 *
Mp 1.0 0.88 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.89 *
Mi 0.99 0.87 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.88 0.99 *
Me 0.88 1.0 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.99 0.88 0.87 *
Pd 0.96 0.84 0.95 0.98 0.99 0.85 0.96 0.96 0.84 *
Pr 0.92 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.96 0.92 0.92 0.95 0.88 *
Pc 0.91 0.97 0.91 0.88 0.87 0.98 0.91 0.90 0.97 0.86 0.98 *
Pp 0.99 0.87 0.98 0.99 0.97 0.88 0.99 0.99 0.87 0.97 0.91 0.89 *
Qf 0.99 0.87 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.88 0.99 1.0 0.96 0.96 0.92 0.90 0.99 *
Qg 1.0 0.88 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.89 1.0 0.99 0.88 0.96 0.92 0.90 0.99 0.99 *
Ql 0.87 0.99 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.98 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.83 0.94 0.96 0.84 0.86 0.87 *
Qs 1.0 0.88 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.89 1.00 0.99 0.88 0.96 0.92 0.90 0.99 0.99 1.0 0.87 *
Ra 0.86 0.98 0.87 0.84 0.83 0.97 0.74 0.86 0.98 0.82 0.94 0.96 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.99 0.86 *
Sp 0.90 0.98 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.99 0.90 0.89 0.95 0.86 0.97 0.99 0.89 0.95 0.90 0.97 0.90 0.96 *
Tc 0.98 0.86 0.97 1.0 0.98 0.87 0.98 0.98 0.86 0.98 0.90 0.88 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.85 0.98 0.84 0.88 *
*Ab-Abies pindrow, An-Alnus nepalensis , Bv-Bauhinia variegata , Dh-Daphniphyllum himalense , Li-Listsea lanuginose , Lo-Lyonia
ovalifolia , Mp-Mallatous philipinsis , Mi-Mangifera indica , Me-Myrica esculenta , Pd-Persea duthiei , Pr-Pinus roxburghii , Pc-Prunus
cerasoides , Pp-Pyrus pashia , Qf-Quercus floribunda , Qg-Quercus glauca , Ql-Quercus leucotrichophora, Qs-Quercus semecarpifolia , Ra-
Rhododendron arboreum , Sp-Symplocos paniculata , Tc-Toona ciliata.
132
3.4.6 Competition
For measuring competition exclusion among different species at all sites,

dominant and codominant species were selected. Niche overlap value for every
selective species (dominant and co-dominant) was calculated separately at every
site. Niche overlap value of each species at every site was used as a competition
coefficient (α) for equating competition between species at different communities.
The calculations were separately done for each species at every site. Figure 6
presents the possible outcome of Lotka-Volterra competition equation.
In order to understand the prediction of the model it is helpful to draw

graph that show how the size of each population increase or decrease when we
start with different combinations of species abundances. These graphs are referred
as state-space graphs, in which abundance of species one is plotted on the X-axis
and the abundance of species two is plotted on the Y-axis on XY coordinate. Each
point in the statespace graph represents a combination of abundance value of two
species. For each species there is a straight line on the graph called a zero
isoclines. Any given point alone,for example,species 1 zero isoclines represents a
combinations of abundances of the two species where the species one population
does not increase or decrease (the zero isoclines for the species is calculated by
setting dN/dt, the growth rate, equal to zero and solving for N). The zero isoclines
divide each graph into two parts. Below and the left of the isoclines the
population size increases because the combination abundances of both species are
less than the carrying capacity of the one, while above and to the right side the
population size decrease because the combined abundances are greater than the
carrying capacity. For the graph of the isoclines of species one, the isoclines
intersects the graph on the X-axis when N1 reaches its carrying capacity (K1) and
no individuals of species 2 are present. The isoclines intersects the graph on the
Y-axis at K1/α12, when the carrying capacity of species one is filled by equivalent
number of individual of species two and no individuals of species one are present.
The intersection of the isoclines for species two is essentially the same, but on
different axes. On the basis of field survey and data collection, the mathematical
and graphic models were developed using traditional Lotka-Volterra competition
equation for all species, which were dominant and co-dominant in forest during
study periods. Three types of graphical models were derved as follows:
(1) Along four forests sites PRDF, QLDF, QSDF and AKDF, some
species population completely lies above the population of other codominating
species indicating the winning nature of N species at this community.
(2) Among four forests sites, it can be implicit from the graphical model
that the dominant species (Species 1) does not compete strongly for resources and
its isoclines lies below of the isoclines of other codominating species (Species 2).
In this, species 2 always outcompetes 1, and species1 is completely excluded by
species 2.
(3) At all sites and 4 Sp1 formed stable coexistence with codominating
species (Species 2) as the value of k2/α21 is greater than K1 (Carrying capacity of
1 species). In this neither species can contain the other, but both inhibit their own
population growth more than that of the other species. Both species coexist at
densities below their respective carrying capacities.
Table 3.4.6.1: Species interaction and competition between some dominant

tree species of the study area.
S.No. Species Isocline Phenomenon Remarks

K1>K2/α21;K2<
1 Pinus roxburghii vs Toona ciliata K1/α12 Competition Pinus roxburghii wins
K1>K2/α21;K2<
2 Pinus roxburghii vs Mangifera indica K1/α12 Competition Pinus roxburghii wins
K2/α21>K1; Neither species wins,formed
3 Toona ciliata vs Mangifera indica K2< K1/α12 Coexistence stable equilibrium
Quercus leucotrichophora vs Pinus K1>K2/α21;K2<
4 roxburghii K1/α12 Competition Quercus leucotrichophora wins
Quercus leucotrichophora vs Toona K1>K2/α21;K2<
5 ciliata K1/α12 Competition Quercus leucotrichophora wins
Quercus leucotrichophora vs K1>K2/α21;K2<
6 Mangifera indica K1/α12 Competition Quercus leucotrichophora wins
K1<K2/α21;K2>
7 Pinus roxburghii vs Myrica esculenta K1/α1 2 Competition Myrica esculenta wins
K1>K2/α21;K2<
8 Myrica esculenta vs Toona ciliata K1/α 12 Competition Myrica esculenta wins
K1>K2/α21;K2<
7 Myrica esculenta vs Mangifera indica K1/α 12 Competition Myrica esculenta wins
Myrica esculenta vs Quercus K1<K2/ α21 Neither species wins,formed
8 leucotrichophora ;K2< K1/α 12 Coexistence stable equilibrium
157
K1<K2/α
9 Pinus roxburghii vs Alnus nepalensis 21;K2> K1/α12 Competition Alnus nepalensis wins
K1>K2/α
10 Alnus nepalensis vs Toona ciliata 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Alnus nepalensis wins
K1>K2/α
11 Alnus nepalensis vs Mangifera indica 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Alnus nepalensis wins
Alnus nepalensis vs Quercus K1<K2/α
12 leucotrichophora 21;K2> K1/α 12 Competition Quercus leucotrichophora wins
K1<K2/α
13 Alnus nepalensis vs Myrica esculenta 21;K2> K1/α 12 Competition Alnus nepalensis wins
K1<K2/α
14 Pinus roxburghii vs Lyonia ovalifolia 21;K2> K1/α 12 Competition Lyonia ovalifolia wins
K1>K2/α
15 Lyonia ovalifolia vs Toona ciliata 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Lyonia ovalifolia wins
K1<K2/α Neither species wins,formed
16 Lyonia ovalifolia vs Mangifera indica 21;K2< K1/α 12 Coexistence stable equilibrium
Lyonia ovalifolia vs Quercus K1<K2/α
17 leucotrichophora 21;K2> K1/α 12 Competition Quercus leucotrichophora wins
18 Lyonia ovalifolia vs Myrica esculenta 21;K2< K1/α 12 Coexistence stable equilibrium
19 Lyonia ovalifolia vs Alnus nepalensis 21;K2< K1/α 12 Coexistence stable equilibrium
K1<K2/α
20 Pinus roxburghii vs Prunus cerasoides 21;K2> K1/α 12 Competition Prunus cerasoides wins
K1>K2/α
21 Prunus cerasoides vs Toona ciliata 21;K2> K1/α 12 Competition Prunus cerasoides wins
Prunus cerasoides vs vs Mangifera K1>K2/α
22 indica 21;K2> K1/α 12 Competition Prunus cerasoides wins
Prunus cerasoides vs vs Quercus K1<K2/α Neither species wins,formed
23 leucotrichophora 21;K2< K1/α 12 Coexistence stable equilibrium
24 Prunus cerasoides vs Myrica esculenta 21;K2< K1/α 12 Coexistence stable equilibrium
25 Same degree Both species lies above each
Prunus cerasoides vs Alnus nepalensis K1=K2 of other
competition
26 Prunus cerasoides vs Lyonia ovalifolia Same degree Both species lies above each
K1=K2 of other
competition
Pinus roxburghii vs Symplocos K1<K2/α
27 paniculata 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Symplocos paniculata wins
K1>K2/α
28 Symplocos paniculata vs Toona ciliata 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Symplocos paniculata wins
Symplocos paniculata vs Mangifera K1>K2/α
29 indica 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Symplocos paniculata wins
Symplocos paniculata vs vs Quercus K1<K2/α
30 leucotrichophora 21;K2> K1/α 12 Competition Symplocos paniculata wins
Same
Symplocos paniculata vs Myrica degreeof Both species lies above each
31 esculanta K1=K2 competition other
Symplocos paniculata vs Alnus Same degree Both species lies above each
nepalensis K1=K2 of other
32 competition
Symplocos paniculata vs Lyonia Same degree Both species lies above each
ovalifolia K1=K2 of other
33 competition
Symplocos paniculata vs Prunus K1<K2/α Neither species wins,formed
34 cerasoides 21;K2< K1/α 12 Coexistence stable equilibrium
Pinus roxburghii vs Rhododendron K1<K2/α Neither species wins,formed
35 arboretum 21;K2< K1/α 12 Coexistence stable equilibrium
Rhododendron arboreum vs Toona K1>K2/α
36 ciliate 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Rhododendron arboreum wins
Rhododendron arboreum vs Mangifera K1>K2/α
37 indica 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Rhododendron arboreum wins
Rhododendron arboreum vs Quercus K1>K2/α
38 leucotrichophora 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Rhododendron arboreum wins
Rhododendron arboreum vs Myrica K1>K2/α
39 esculanta 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Rhododendron arboreum wins
158
Rhododendron arboreum vs Alnus K1>K2/α
40 nepalensis 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Rhododendron arboreum wins
Rhododendron arboreum vs Lyonia K1>K2/α
41 ovalifolia 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Rhododendron arboreum wins
Rhododendron arboreum vs Symplocos K1>K2/α
42 paniculata 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Rhododendron arboreum wins
Rhododendron arboreum vs Prunus K1>K2/α
43 cerasoides 21;K2< K1/α 12 Competition Rhododendron arboreum wins
The mathematical models derived in the present investigation infer that the
dominant species os a forest behaves as asuperior competitors and wins in
competition by decreaseing the growth of the other species. At all sites
competition ability of species exhibited similar trend except some exceptions. In
site first Pinus roxburghii was the species which remained dominant over all other
species and only two species exhibited same degree of competition K1=K2 and
Pinus roxburghii always had an upper hand in competition. Next to Toona ciliata,
Quercus leucotricophora, Mangifera indica, behaves a strong competitor while
Toona ciliata and Mangifera indica attempted to make stable equilibrium in
which both inhibited their own population growth more than the other species.
In the site II the community was completely dominated by Quercus

leucotricophora and co-dominated by Alnus nepalensis, Myrica esculenta and
Lynoia ovalifolia. The strong competitive nature of these species further supports
their growth. Due to their strong competitive nature these species does not give
any way to develop another specis and to grow. In site III the community is again
dominated by Quercus leucotricophora and possessed some population of Myrica
esculenta, Symplocos paniculata, Prunus cerasoidesand Lynoiaovalifolia. Due to
maximum population of Quercus leucotricophora and suitable environmental
condition these species exhibited wining nature by utilizing maximum resources.
At site IV Abies pindrow and Quercus semecarpifolia displayed wining nature in

this forest patch
159
3.4.7 Similarity index for tree strata.
Sites 1 2 3 4
1 *
2 27 *
3 5.89 29 *
4 0 5.4 6.8 *
The value of similarity percentage for tree was observed to the highest between
site 2 and 3 (29) followed by site 1 and 2 (27) Table 3.4.7.
3.4.8Regeneration Study
3.4.8.1Seedling layer
The seedling strata of all forests table 3.4.8.1 to 3.4.8.4. Seedling density was
recorded to be maximum (1170 seedlings ha-1) at Quercus species dominant forest
(QSDF) while it was minimum (320 seedlings ha -1) at Abies-kharshu dominant
forest (AKDF). The total basal cover for seedling layer was recorded to be
maximum (0.61 m2 ha-1) at Quercus leucotrichophora dominant forest (QLDF)
and minimum (0.11 m2 ha-1) at Abies-kharshu dominant forest (AKDF). Among
the species maximum density and total basal cover (360 seedling ha -1 and 0.225
m2 ha-1) was recorded QSDF. Likewise, maximum (220.4) IVI value was
recorded for Rhododendron arboreum at AKDF and minimum (21.63) Pinus
roxburghii at QSDF. Similarly, at the south aspect, seedling density was highest
(910 seedling ha-1) at QSDF and minimum (280 seedling ha -1) at AKDF. In
general the total basal cover for seedling layer was recorded to maximum (0.727
m2 ha-1) at QSDF and minimum (0.11 m2 ha-1) at AKDF. Along with the
maximum density and total basal cover (220 seedling ha -1 and 0.088 m2 ha-1) was
recorded QSDF. Also, the maximum (220.35) IVI value was recorded
forRhododendron arboreum at AKDF followed by (91.72) Quercus
leucotricophora at QSDF and minimum (12.29) for Symplocos paniculata at
QSDF (Table 3.4.7.1 to 3.3.7.4).
160
Table 3.4.8.1 Vegetation analysis of seedling at PRDF.

Den. TBC Den. TBC
% ha-1 A/F m2 ha-1 I.V.I % ha-1 A/F m2 ha-1 I.V.I
1 Bauchania varigata 60 220 0.06 0.125 76.42 - - - - -
2 Mallatous philipinsis 50 200 0.08 0.103 65.33 50 190 0.076 0.183 105.69
3 Mangifera indica - - - - - 30 110 0.122 0.084 54.841
4 Myrica esculanta 40 140 0.09 0.111 56.01 40 90 0.056 0.022 36.76
Quercus
7 Toona ciliata 30 60 0.07 0.023 23.97 50 90 0.036 0.009 36.963
840 0.477 300 670 0.323 300
Table 3.4.8.2 Vegetation analysis of seedling at QLDF.

Den. TBC Den. TBC
2 Lyonia Ovalifolia 40 110 0.07 0.027 28.55 30 60 0.067 0.006 20.493
Quercus
7 Rhodendron arboreum 40 130 0.08 0.044 33.38 30 110 0.122 0.02 29.64
980 0.613 300 260 760 0.508 0.548 300
Table 3.4.8.3 Vegetation analysis of seedling at Quercus species dominant forest.

Den. TBC Den. TBC
%. ha-1 A/F m2 ha-1 I.V.I % ha-1 A/F m2 ha-1 I.V.I
Daphniphyllum
2 himalense 60 160 0.04 0.042 37.82 70 200 0.041 0.061 53.687
4 Lynoia ovalifolia 70 220 0.04 0.022 41.56 - - - - -
5 Quercus floribunda 50 110 0.04 0.041 30.73 30 140 0.156 0.021 28.271
Quercus
7 Rhodendron arboreum 40 130 0.08 0.046 30.8 40 90 0.056 0.045 29.446
8 Symplocos paniculata - - - - - 20 40 0.1 0.009 12.295
1170 0.506 300 910 0.727 300
161
Table 3.4.8.4 Vegetation analysis of seedling at Abies kharsu dominant forest.

Den. TBC Den. TBC
1 Betula alnoides 30 70 0.04 0.091 220.4 - - - - -
Rhodendron
2 arboreum 60 250 0.04 0.02 79.65 70 210 0.043 0.091 220.35
3 Sorbus cuspidata - - - - - 40 70 0.044 0.02 79.647
320 0.111 300 280 0.111 300
3.4.8.2 Sapling layer
The seedling strata of all forests table 3.4.8.5 to 3.4.8.9. The north aspect
total sapling density was recorded between 130 sapling ha -1 to 860 sapling ha-1 at
north aspect different forests. Quercus leucotrichophorawas found in sapling
stage at all forest except AKDF and its density ranged from 60 to 180 saplings
ha-1. This showed comparatively better regerenration pattern of this species in the
area. The maximum sapling TBC 0.62 m2 ha-1 was recorded for Quercus
leucotrichophora at QSDF and minimum 0.076 m2 ha-1 for Toona ciliata
respectively. In the sapling layer Rhododendron arboreum exhibited the
maximum IVI (172.21) followed by (127.89) for Betula alnoides at AKDF.
However minimum sapling IVI (20.61) was recorded at QSDF for Pyrus pasia.
Similarly, at the south aspect total sapling density was recorded between110
sapling ha-1 to 580 saplings ha-1 at all forest. Quercus leucotrichophora was found
in sapling stage all forests indicated better regeneration except at AKDF and its
density ranged between 30 to 150 sapling ha-1.The maximum sapling TBC 0.61
m2 ha-1 was recorded for Quercus leucotrichophora at QSDF and minimum 0.07
m2 ha-1 for Pyrus pasia.In the sapling layer maximum IVI (192.5) was noted for
Rhododendron arboreum and minimum sapling IVI (14.51) was recorded for
Quercus glucaat QSDF.
162
Table 3.4.8.5 Vegetation analysis of sapling at PRDF.
Den. TBC Den. TBC
1 Bauchania varigata 50 120 0.048 0.041 72.06 - - - - -
2 Mallatous philipinsis 20 40 0.1 0.095 23.00 50 120 0.048 0.42 84.65
3 Mangifera indica 20 60 0.15 0.097 27.07 30 30 0.033 0.228 36.74
Quercus
7 Sapium insigne - - - - - 30 30 0.033 0.075 26.06
8 Toona ciliata 20 40 0.1 0.076 21.86 40 40 0.025 0.154 38.55
510 1.693 300 340 1.429 300
Table 3.4.8.6 Vegetation analysis of sapling at QLDF.
Den. TBC Den. TBC
2 Lyonia ovalifolia 30 100 0.111 0.11 30.348 30 60 0.067 0.08 29.87
5 Pyrus pashia 30 40 0.044 0.09 20.61 20 20 0.05 0.07 16.71
Quercus
Rhododendron
7 arboreum 50 90 0.036 0.26 42.159 30 60 0.067 0.61 55.51
680 2.41723 300 230 460 0.387 2.137 300
Table 3.4.8.7 Vegetation analysis of sapling at QSDF .

Den. TBC Den. TBC
Daphniphyllum
2 himalense 70 220 0.045 0.24 56.0545 50 70 0.028 0.519 53.075
4 Lynoia ovalifolia 40 90 0.056 0.42 39.4796 - - - - -
Quercus
5 floribunda 40 50 0.031 0.38 33.1139 30 40 0.044 0.152 24.38
6 Quercus glauca - - - - - 20 20 0.05 0.088 14.514
Quercus
Rhododendron
8 arboreum 40 120 0.075 0.47 44.9326 40 70 0.044 0.17 33.927
Symplocos
9 paniculata - - - - - 20 30 0.075 0.075 15.642
860 2.45 300 580 2.243 300
163
Table 3.4.8.8 Vegetation analysis of sapling at AKDF .

Den. TBC Den. TBC
1 Betula alnoides 20 50 0.125 0.308 127.789 - - - - -
Rhododendron
2 arboretum 40 80 0.05 0.242 172.211 30 60 0.067 0.354 192.5
3 Sorbus cuspidate - - - - - 20 50 0.125 0.1 107.5
130 0.550 300 110 0.454 300
Table 3.4.8.9 Regeneration patten of seedling sapling and tree.
Regeneration Pattern
PRDF QLDF QSDF AKDF
Ratio North South North South North South North South
Seedling : Sapling 1.64:1 1.97:1 1.44:1 1.65:1 1.34:1 1.56:1 2.46:1 2.56:1
Sapling : Tree 01:02.6 01:03.4 01:02.0 01:02.8 01:02.0 01:02.9 01:08.6 01:09.8
Seedling : Tree 01:01.6 01:01.7 01:01.4 01:01.7 01:01.1 01:01.8 01:03.5 01:03.8
The ratio of community density of seedlings: Saplings: trees are presented

in table 3.4.7.9. It depicts that seedling: sapling ratio at both aspects of all sites
was between 1.34: 1 (North aspect, QSDF) to 2.56:1 (South aspect, AKDF)
(Table 3.4.7.9). This sowed very poor renaissance of seedling into sapling and
also indicates poor regeneration status during the present investigation in study
area. On the other hand, sapling: tree and seedling: tree ratio also indicated higher
share of trees compared to sapling and seedlings in respective ration. This also
indicates dominance of tree strata over sapling and seedling layer. Based on above
observations it is apparent that regeneration status of these forest is poor
especially in the establishment of sapling layers which needs to be observe in
more details in future study.
164
3.5 Discussion: - The distribution of plant is determined by climatic variables like
rain, temperature, soil conditions, moisture, nutrients, historic events,
palaeoclimatic changes, and interaction with fauna, competition between tree
species for crown and root space as well as human influence (Veenendaal et al.,
1996). The impact of climate on community development is rather loose and
several factors such as burning, geology, soil, culture practices and non-human
interference (surface removal due to landslide) that are rather frequent (Lata,
1991) may modify the straight forward relation of climate and the community
pattern in the given region. In the Himalayan region with pronounced exploitation
of species for fodder and fuel (Singh et al., 1984) community with nutrient poor
leaves or with unpalatable leaves, and was continuously unabated.
In the present investigation, the study area across the western Ramganga
watershed in Kumaun Central Himalaya in Almora, and boarder areas of Pauri
and Chamoli districts border area was explored. The whole study area on each
aspect was divided into 4 altitudinal ranges viz. 1000-1500m asl, 1500-2000m asl,
2000-2500m asl and 2500-3000m asl. The study resembles to the earliar studies
conducted in Kumaun (Central Himalaya) (Rawal et al., 1991) and that of Garhwal
Himalaya (Vats et al., 2009).In all altitudinal ranges ten random quadrats each of
10 x 10 m2 (100 marea) were laid down for vegetation analysis.
Based on structure and composition of available forests, study sites were

categorized as: Pinus roxburghii dominant forest (PRDF), Quercus inncana
dominant forest (QLDF), Quercus species dominant forest (QSDF) and Abies
kharshu dominant forest (AKDF). The herbaceous species in the study area were
mainly Cynodon dactylon, Inula cappa, Gnaphalium affine, Tephrosia pumila,
Senecio graciliforus, Oxalix acetosella, Cucrcuma angustifolia, Thalictrum
folidosum, Centalla asiatica, Cypercus rotundus, Parthenium hysterophorus,
Anaphalis triplinervis, Artemisia japonica, Artemisia capillaries, Rainwardtia
indica, Bidens bipinnata, Strobilanthes wallichii, Cassia tora, Oxalis corniculata,
Desmodium trifolium, Digitaria sanguinalis, Gnaphalium affine, Cyperus niveus,
Chrysopogon fulvus, Polygonum capitatum, Heteropogon contortus, Polygonum
165
barbatum, Fagopyrum esculentum, Barleria cristata, Strobilanthes wallichii,
Oxalis corniculata, Oenothera rosea, Micromeria biflora, Origanum vulgare,
Saxifraga diversifolia, Senecio nudicaulis, Trifolium repenus, Micromeria biflora,
Oenothera rosea, Saxifraga diversifolia, Veronica cana, Aeschynomene indica,
Dactyloctenium aegypticum,Chrysopogon gryllus, Anaphalis busua, Fragaria
nubicola, Leucas lanata, Micromeria biflora, Senecio nudicaulis, Oplismenus
composites, Gnaphalium hypoleucum, Carex alata, Poa annua, Anemone
rivularis, Caltha palastris, Geranium wallichianum, Fragaria nubiccola,
Polygonum macrophyllum, Potentilla fulgens, Ranunculas hirtullus, Rumex
nepalensis, Anemonerivularis and Polygonum macrophyllum.
Dominant shrubs in the study area were: Eupatorium adenophorum,

Woodfordia fruticosa, Murraya koenigii, Urtica dioica,Carissa opaca, Berberis
aristata, Rubus ellipticus, Adhatoda vasica, Lantana camara, Adhatoda vasica,
Jatropha curcus, Colebrootia oppositifolia, Rumex hastatus, Pyracantha
crenulata, Indigofera gerardiana, Indigofera heterantha, Debregeasia longifolia,
Elshotzia flava, Cotoneaster microphyllum, Principia utilis, Sarcococca saligna,
Camellia indica, Girardinia heterophylla, Rosa burnonii, Daphane paparacea,
Mahonia borealis, Rosa sericea, Sorbus spp, Berberis chitria, Mahonia borealis,
Princepia utilis and Gaultheria nummularioides. In this study it was observed
that altitude, aspect and habitat condition all are determing for distribution of
above mentioned species. However, it was quite interesting to note that,
Rosaceae, Fagaceae and Asteraceae were the families represented by more
number of species in the study area, as elsewhere, in such habitat conditions.
Plants belong to Aceraceae, Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Pinaceae, Rosaceae and
Taxaceae were compositional representative families in the study area. The
herbaceous flora of this area was represented by the genus belonging to
Asteraceae, Rosaceae and Polygonaceae. Interestingly, Ranunculaceae was the
family with least representative plants in the present study area. Findings of
phyto-sociological investigation in the selected area indicated that, species
composition and richness of various species varying at different sites.
166
Frequency of Pinus roxburghii at PRDF, Quercus leucotrichophora at
QLDF and at QSDF and Abies pindow, Quercus semecafolia at AKDF was
highest. Other species occurring in the forest stands within study area were
represented by not less than 15% frequency.
In present investigation the highest forest density (1760 trees ha-1) and
(1680 trees ha-1) was recorded in the north and south aspect at QSDF respectively.
Maximum density of tree species was recorded 430 trees ha-1 for Quercus
semicarpifolia at Abies-kharsu dominant forest (AKDF), Abies pindrow with 415
trees ha-1 at AKDF, 385 trees ha-1 of Quercus leucotrichophora at QSDF and 380
trees ha-1 for Pinus roxburghii at PRDF. Density of other species was observed to
be varying forest to forest. Quercus species was found to dominate three forest
sites in the study area. Similar results were also observed by Singh et al. (2000)
for Kumaun and Garhwal Himalayan forests. These findings also resemble to the
findings of Singh and Singh (1992) that oak occupied most of the area between
1000 m to 3000 m altitudes. These results also findings resembles to a study from
East Nepal forests in the Himalayan region (Koirala, 2004).
The study showed that highest tree richness was attributed between 2000-
2500 m asl. The total tree species richness ranged between 5-16, being minimum
at 2500-3000 m asl and maximum at 1000-1500 m asl. Shrubs and herbs were
also present in good number in this altitudinal zone. The maximum species
richness at intermediate altitudes in this area decrease with increasing altitudes is
in line with the review of Rahbek (1995) who found that half of the studies
showed maximum species richness at intermediate elevations. Grytnes and Vetaas
(2002), Bhattarai and Vetaas (2003, 2006) and Kharkwal et al. (2005) also found
similar patterns of plant species richness along the Himalayan elevation gradient,
with maximum species richness at mid altitudes.
The increasing pattern of species richness with the disturbance may be due
to space invasion by new species. Pandey and Singh (1985) reported increasing
species diversity in disturbed ecosystems of Kumaun Himalaya. Bhuyan et al.
(2003) observed highest species richness (54 species of 51 genera) in moderately
167
disturbed forest and lowest (16 species of 16 genera) in highly disturbed forest,
while studying the tropical wet evergreen forest in Arunachal Pradesh, India.
Mishra et al. (2004) also found maximum species richness in intermediate
position of disturbance (49 species) and lowest in highly disturbed stand (27
species). It was concluded by them that mild disturbance favored species richness,
but with increased degree of disturbance, it markedly decreased. It also indicates
that mild disturbed forest is a stable community for more species.
In present study tree species richness varied along the altitudinal gradient
in different forest. The QLDF showed the highest species richness at middle
altitudinal range. Tree species richness was lowest in the highaltitude at AKDF.
Forest types and elevation may have more influence on species richness. The
findings of the present study, depicting maximum species richness and diversity at
QLDF, are in conformity with the results of earlier workers. Devlal and Sharma
(2008) also found maximum species richness in the middle altitudinal range (1800
m) due to relatively open habitat which provides congenial environment for the
growth of different species. The low elevational ranges near to relatively densely
populated habitat and human interference in these areas facilitates the introduction
and establishment of non-native species (Rawal and Pangty, 1994).
The varied species richness of the forest may be due to the variations in
their altitudes, edaphic factors, biotic characters and microclimate. Uniyal et al.
(2010) reported highest tree species richness (17) in moderately disturbed forest
while undisturbed and highly disturbed forest recorded 16 and 14 tree species,
respectively. Shrub and herb strata also achieved the highest species richness 53
and 83 species respectively in moderately disturbed forest and in both cases the
lowest species richness was observed in highly disturbed stands. Hussain et al.
(2008) found variation among the species richness and composition and recorded
overall 63 tree, 56 shrub, 90 herb and 21 grass species in 23 forest stands of
Kumaon Himalaya, similar to present results for species distribution i.e.
tree<shrub<herb.
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Species richness of all vegetation layers in present study varied with the
intensity of anthropogenic disturbance. At north aspect highest (16) tree species
richness was found in the PRDF followed by QSDF (15), QLDF (13) and AKDF
(5) forests. In south aspect also the forest showed maximum (15) tree species
richness and minimum (6) at AKDF. Whereas, shrubs showed the higher richness
at north and south aspects of forest QLDF. In north aspect maximum (21) shrub
species richness was found inrainy season of QIDF followed by rainy season of
PRDF (18) and rainy season of QSDF (17). Highest richness (19) for shrub layer
was recorded in rainy season of QLDF and lowest (12) recorded at rainy season of
AKDF in the south aspect.Simarlaly in herbs strata highest richness was 28 in
winter season of PIDF followed by 27 in winter season of QIDF and lowest 21 in
summer season at PRDF, QLDF and QSDF in north aspect while in south aspect
maximum species was 29 during winter at PRDF and minimum 21 at PRDF,
QRDF and QSDF. The species richness was found higher mostly in middle
elevation forest. It may be attributed to the influence of altitudinal ranges in which
the anthropogenic stands were situated. Kumar and Ram (2005) observed higher
species richness and diversity in low elevation-high disturbance forests of Central
Himalaya along anthropogenic disturbance gradients. This may be due to forest
types and elevation. Uniyal et al. (2010) observed maximum tree (17) shrub (53)
and herb (83) species richness in the moderately disturbed forest in Quercus
leucotrichophora forest of Dewalgarh watershed in Garhwal Himalaya which is
similar to present study results.
In present investigation, the total basal area at AKDF of both the aspects
occupied higher values as compared to QSDF, PRDF and QLDF. Total basal area
in north facing aspect was recorded within the range of 39.83 m 2 ha-1 to 97.2 m2
ha-1 and in south facing aspect also same trend was found as maximum basal area
(110.8 m2 ha-1) at AKDF was followed by QSDF (85.85 m 2 ha-1), PRDF(57.136
m2 ha-1) and QLDF (48.1 m2 ha-1).The total basal area for tree species decreased
with increasing magnitude of anthropogenic disturbance (Uniyal et al., 2010) in a
Quercus leucotrichophora dominated forest in Dewalgarh watershed in Garhwal
Himalaya. The values are comparable to the reported values of 990 trees ha-1 to
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1150 trees ha-1 in Anogeissus mixed forest of sub-tropical belt of Garhwal
Himalaya (Kumar et al., 2009). Bhandari and Tiwari (1997) reported 1570 -
1787.5 trees ha-1 in sub montane forests of Garhwal Himalaya. Rajwar (1991)
reported density values between 1020 and 2460 trees ha -1 in temperate forests of
Uttarkashi, Garhwal Himalaya. Upadhaya et al., (2004) also reported values of
density between 938 to 1476 stems ha -1 for woody species in sub-tropical humid
forest of Meghalaya in India. Pande et al., (2001) carried out a study on
quantitative vegetation analysis as per aspect and altitude in Garhwal Himalayan
forests and he observed tree density between 885 to 1111 trees ha -1.
As Quercus leucotrichophora is the dominating species in these forests

which is considered as multipurpose species for fulfilling the daily needs of the
surrounding villages. Human induced disturbance and livestock grazing also
cause changes in species number, tree density and basal area (Rao et al., 1990).
Unrestricted and open accessibility may cause enhanced utilization of the forest
resource and this may eventually lead to a species poor state (Vetaas, 1993;
Murali et al., 1996).
A/F ratio is used to interpret the distribution pattern of the species. Odum
(1971) stressed that contagious distribution is the commonest pattern in nature,
and it is due to small but significant variations in the environment. The analysis of
distribution pattern for all stands indicates that the disturbancestands indicates that
the contagious distribution was more prominent than regular and random. It may
be attributed to sufficient gap formations which facilitate micro-habitat for species
occurrence in all studied forest. Contagious pattern of distribution of species
might be related to the seed dispersal mechanism of tree species and gap
formation (Barik et al., 1996). Armesto and Picket (1985) and Richards, (1996)
assumed that death of trees creates large gap which encourages recruitment and
growth of seedlings. Grieg-Smith (1957) and Singh and Yadav (1974) have also
reported contagious distribution in natural vegetation. Regular distribution is
found where sever competition between the individuals occurs and random
distribution is found only in very uniform environment (Panchal and Pandey,
170
2004). Kumar et al. (2004, 2005 and 2009), Bhandari et al. (1998), Pande et al.
(2002), Upadhaya et al. (2004) and Laloo et al. (2006) have also reported the
contagious distribution for different sub-tropical forest in Garhwal Himalaya.
The species diversity is regulated by long term factors like community

stability and evolutionary time as heterogeneity of both micro and macro climate
affects the diversification among different communities (Verma et al., 2004).
Shannon diversity index (H‟) and concentration of dominance (CD) were found
inversely proportional to each other which have also been suggested by Magurran
(1988) and Pande et al. (2002). Forest diversity is mostly influenced by
topography, soil characteristics, climate, altitude, soil moisture, geographical
location and intensity of biotic factors of the area (Joshi and Johari, 1985;
Kharakwal et al., 2004).
It is a well known fact that the altitude represents a complex gradient

along which many environmental variables change concomitantly (Kharakwal et
al., 2005). Shannon diversity index (H‟) for tree species was recorded highest
(2.53) at north aspect in PRDF and followed by 2.457 at QSDF, QLDF (2.346)
and AKDF (1.36). In south aspect the Shannon diversity was recorded maximum
(2.568) at QSDF followed by 2.343 at QLDF, PRDF 2.282 and 1.355 at AIDF.
Higher diversity at middle altitude forests may be due to the effect of altitudinal
variation as the species richness decreased with the altitudinal ranges except
QSDF forest. Uniyal et al. (2010) reported higher Shannon diversity in
undisturbed forest (1.4) followed by moderately disturbed forest (1.3) and highly
disturbed forest (0.7) in an Oak forest of Garhwal Himalaya. Shannon diversity
for tree reported by Sharma et al. (2010) in a temperate forest of Garhwal
Himalaya ranged between 0.41–1.81 is also similar to present findings. These
values are also similar to the reported values (1.34-2.22) by Giri et al., (2008) in a
mixed banj (Quercus leucotrichophora) and tilonj (Quercus floribunda) forest in
Kumaum Himalaya. Simpson dominance index was recorded as reversed of
Shannon diversity which is a general trend i.e. where dominance is higher
diversity will be lower. It ranges between 0.109 to 0.291 in north aspect and 0.009
to 0.145 in south aspect. The mean Shannon (H) values reported for the forests of
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Uttarakhand Himalaya vary from 0.08 to 1.29 (Shivnath et al., 1993) and 1.55 to
1.97 (Mishra et al., 2000).
Shannon diversity of shrub layer ranged from 2.28-3.4 among all forests.
Highest diversity was found at QLDF of middle elevational range of north aspect
followed by QSDF of middle elevation of south aspect. Uniyal et al. (2010)
reported highest value (2.75) in moderately disturbed forest followed by
undisturbed forest (2.72) and highly disturbed forest (2.49). These values were
similar to the findings of Kumar et al., (2004), who reported values of 2.67 to
2.76 and Bhatt et al. (2003) (1.94 to 2.84) for shrubs in different Anogeissus
mixed forest in Garhwal Himalaya. Bhandari (2003) assessed the composition,
population structure and diversity of blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) forest stands
of Garhwal Himalaya with reference to altitude and observed diversity range from
1.87 to 2.33 for shrubs. Similar trend for shrub Shannon diversity was reported by
Ram et al. (2005), (2.6 to 3.8) of diversity for different forest types in Kumaun
Himalaya. Saxena and Singh (1982) have recorded diversity (0.74-3.10) for shrub
layer in Oak forest of Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand (1700-2400 m asl), which
is more or less comparable to the present study. Species diversity along altitudinal
gradients was studied by Bhandari et al. (1998), for tree and shrub and he
observed highest values (2.53) on the middle slopes while it was lower (2.34 and
1.64), for the upper and lower slopes, respectively.
In case of herb species, Shannon diversity index ranged from 2.174 to

3.539 among all forests. The diversity was higher at QSDF of middle elevation of
north aspect and lower at AKDF in the upper elevation of north aspect. These
values are less than the reported herb Shannon diversity as reported by Uniyal et
al, (2010) but found similar with the reported values for different forests by many
workers (Singh and Singh, 1986 and Pande et al., 2002). Kumar et al, (2005)
studied the diversity and population dynamics of herbaceous plant community
within a tropical foothill forest in Garhwal Himalaya and reported the values (3.2-
4.22) for herb diversity. Kharkwal et al. (2005) also observed values from 3.24-
4.03 for three different Oak forests in Kumaun Himalaya. These values were more
172
or less similar to the present values. They observed higher number of species,
genera and families in Kharsu forest than Banj and Tilonj oak forest. They
concluded that in terms of ecological structure and composition, Banj and Tilonj
oak forest were less complex in comparison to Kharsu oak forest. This indicates
that as altitude increases the diversity became more complex in case of
herbaceous flora. In Central Japan, Nagaike (2002) reported a high mean value of
H‟ (4.597) and equitability (0.831) in a coniferous stand. Arunachalam and
Arunachalam (2005) reported the Shannon diversity index (1.83-2.94) for herbs
for a broad leaved forest and (0.99-1.27) for pine forest in sub-tropical forest.
Pande et al. (2001), recorded values for Shannon diversity between 1.80-2.33 for
tree species, 2.23-2.57 for shrubs and 2.54-2.99 for herbs for Garhwal Himalaya.
Whittaker (1972) has suggested that dominance of one stratum may affect
the diversity of another. Diversity is inversely proportional to dominance (CD)
(Pande et al., 2002). In present study, the concentration of dominance (Simpson
index) ranged from 0.09 to 0.308 in tree layer. The value for concentration of
dominance (CD) is more or less similar as reported by Whittaker and Niering
(1975) and Risser and Rice (1971) for temperate vegetation (0.01-0.99). However,
CD values upto 0.91 and 1.0 have also been reported by Singh and Kaushal
(2006) and Pandey et al. (2002) for temperate Himalayan forests. Kharkwal et al.
(2004) also reported the higher estimates of H (3.37-3.92) and CD (0.11-0.62) in
the forests of Kumaun Himalaya. As CD increases diversity decreases because it
is based on the most abundant species in the sample (Magurran, 1988). Kumar et
al. (2004) has also reported the similar trend (0.014 to 0.26), (0.0 57 to 0.142) and
(0.3 to 0.6) for different Anogeissus mixed forest in Garhwal Himalaya. Sagar et
al., (2003) also reported the Simpson values from 0.69 to 0.90 for dry tropical
forest in Vindhya hill ranges.
The Simpson‟s index values ranged from 0.066 to 0.169 for shrubs and
0.058 to 0.121 for herbs in the present study. For shrubs, these values are more or
less similar to the findings of Bhatt et al. (2003) who reported Simpson value of
(0.18 to 0.71). Kumar et al. (2004a, 2005b) reported Simpson index of 0.13 to
0.15 for shrubs and 0.05 to 0.10 for herb layer in different sub-tropical forests in
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Garhwal Himalaya. Kumar et al. (2004b) found values between 0.057 on highly
disturbed site to 0.14 on moderately disturbed site for herbaceous flora while
studying the disturbance and dynamics in sub-tropical forest of Garhwal
Himalaya. Kharakwal et al. (2005) reported values of Simpson index for herbs
ranging from 0.08 to 0.39 in different oak forest of Kumaun Himalaya. They
observed Simpson index higher for Banj oak (Quercus leucotrichophora) and
Tilonj oak (Quercus floribunda) forest compared to Kharsu oak (Quercus
semecarpifolia) forest, indicating lower stability of this forest. While, Nath et al.
(2005) observed CD from 0.07 to 0.17, for tropical evergreen forests in
Namphada national park north east India. Many workers reported the values for
shrubs and herbs, ranging from 1.16 to 3.40 for temperate forests (Singh and
Singh, 1986; Pande et al., 2002). Arunachalam and Arunachalam (2005) reported
Simpson‟s index of 0.17-0.19 for shrubs and 0.14-0.17 for herbs in sub-tropical
forest.
Margalef index of species richness for trees layer ranged from 0.738 to
2.718 among all forests and it was highest at PRDF ofnorth aspect. Maximum
Margalef value for shrub was 2.37 at QLDF of north aspect and for herbs it was
maximum (3.415) at 2500-3000 m asl. Ram et al. (2004) also reported tree
richness (3.4), shrub richness (9.4) and herb richness (2.0) for six forest types of
Uttarakhand. Mishra et al. (2003, 2004) reported the value of 12.2 to 21.8 to tree
richness for different sub-tropical forests of the north east region. Chauhan et al.
(2008) reported Margalef index of 9.88 for planted and 23.8 for natural forest in
Dudwa National Park which is much higher to the values of present study.
Saxena and Singh (1982) have recorded high species richness (4 to 22)
and diversity (0.74 to 3.10) for shrub layer in Kumaun Himalaya. Species
composition changes with respect to altitude and varies in similar forest types.
Forest practices that alter site conditions to improve tree regeneration may change
the biological diversity patterns (Elliot and Hewitt, 1997).
Another important attribute explaining community structure is evenness,

which gives an idea regarding the equal abundance of the species. High evenness
174
occurs when species are equal in their distribution and abundance. For trees layer,
the maximum value (0.948) for evenness was observed for QSDF (middle
altitude) of south aspect and lowest (0.756) for AKDF (higher altitude) of south
aspect. The values are more or less similar to the reported value (0.4) for a sacred
grove in Meghalaya, North-east, India (Mishra et al., 2004) and (0.9) reported for
Western Ghats, India (Arunchalam, 2002). Chauhan et al. (2008) recorded the
value for evenness from 2.06 (planted forest) to 2.15 (natural forest) in
Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, India. These values are much higher than the
values of present study. Similar results (0.55 to 0.93) were observed by Nath et al.
(2005) for tropical evergreen forests in Namphada national park. The higher the
values of evenness index, the more even the species are in their distribution.
The evenness values for shrubs and herbs layer was recorded 0.84 to 1.14
and 0.68 to 1.062, respectively. The results of present study are more or less
similar to the values recorded by Arunachalam (2002) for the forest in Western
Ghats. They recorded evenness index ranging from 0.940-0.949 for shrubs and
0.91-0.92 for herbs species. Arunachalam and Arunachalam (2005) recorded the
values for herbs species ranged from 0.74-0.95 for broadleaved forest and 1.07-
1.29 for pine forest in sub-tropical forest.
In present investigation, species richness displayed negative correlation

with elevation (r =-0.89, P >0.005) as the elevation increasing the species richness
was decreasing. In case of Seedling and sapling at present forests showed positive
correlation (r =0.860, P >0.005) although correlation was significant. Similarly
Sapling and trees at this forests showed positive correlation (r= 0.880, P>0.005)
as the increasing in sapling takes place the number of trees was also increasing
although correlation was significant.
Alpha diversity expresses the species richness in a community or given

area. In the present investigations, it has been observed that a total 45 tree species
were found. Out of a total 16 tree species were present in PRDF, and minimum 7
species in AKDF.
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Inter community or inter-habitat diversity is termed as beta diversity. It is
also defined as extent of species replacement or species turnover along an
environmental gradient (Whittaker, 1972; Cody, 1993). The beta diversity is
important because it allows the comparision of habitat diversity of two different
study systems, provides information about the degree of partitioning of habitat by
species, and together with alpha diversity provide information about the overall
diversity and biotic heterogeneity of an area (Wilson and Shmida, 1984). The low
values of beta diversity denoted homogenous community. Less difference in the
value of beta diversity indicates that different growth forms respond in similar
fashion (Adhikari et al., 1991). Beta diversity values reported here are much than
the values reported for oak forest of Kumaun Himalaya (Tiwari and Singh, 1985).
The altitudinal gradient is believed to be limitating of the latitudinal

gradient in terms of species richness (Rahbek, 2005). The diversity in the life
forms, structure and composition of timberline vegetation is important aspect in
changing global climate condition. In past few decades, loss of the plant diversity
has been increased due to population pressure, mass destruction of forests, land
transformation and over exploitation of useful resources. Himalaya, the youngest
mountain chain of the world is facing severe ecological disturbances; most of
them are results of anthropogenic activities. It is now well understood that, the
habitat destruction, overgrazing, and legal and illegal exploitation of plant
resources have caused a serious threat to the survival of many species (Bhadula
and Purohit, 1994). As a result, a large number of Himalayan species have been
declared as endangered (Nayar and Sastry, 1987).
Species richness is mostly used measures of diversity pattern (Stirling and

Wilsey, 2001). This is simple and interpretable indicator of biological diversity
(Peet, 1974, Whittaker, 1977). The distribution pattern of plant species in
subalpine and alpine regions depends upon a number of factors such as altitude,
temperature of given habitat, moisture content of the soil, light intensity and
precipitation (Purohit, 1991; Austin el al., 1996; Kharakwal et al., 2005; Schuster
and Diekmann, 2005; Wieser et al., 2009) etc. A review by Rahbek (2005) on 204
176
species that narrated on species richness patterns for different species along
elevational or latitudinal gradients in different parts of the world. Ellu and Obuva
(2005) have suggested that different altitudes and slopes influences species
richness and distribution pattern of tree species. Grytnes and Vetaas (2002) have
also reviewed the effect of altitudinal gradient on species diversity in Nepalese
Himalaya. Some of the species are found distributed in a wider altitudinal range
whereas, many others may be restricted to very small pockets depends on the
adaptation of the species. As in Garhwal Himalaya, Quercus spp. occurs between
1000 to 3000 m asl while Betula utilis, Litsea spp. Rhododendron campanulatum,
R. arboreum, Danthonia spp., Duchesnea indica, Polygonum amplexicaule are
widely distributed species in subalpine and alpine regions (Singh and Singh,
1992). However, a number of species such as Sorbus microphylla, Taraxacum
officinale, and Tanacetum dolichophyllum are restricted to small microclimate
within a particular area.
The dominance diversity curve (d-d curve) often been used to interpet the
community organization in terms of resource sharing and nich spsce (Whittakar,
1975). Dominance diversity curve were drawn on the basis of log transformed
importance value of ranked species showing the geometric series, which confirms
to niche pre-emption hypothesis of Whittaker (1975). Hence the most dominant
species always utilized the maximum niche space and resources within these
communities. The d-d curves for all the vegetational layers (i.e., trees shrubs and
herbs) fit for the lognormal situation (Figure 10-12). The lognormal series
describes the partitioning of realized niche space among various species and it is
the consequence of the evolution of diversity in the species along the niche
parameters that it exploits (Whittaker, 1965). In these communities many biotic
and abiotic disturbances reduced the importance of old natural tree, shrub and
herb vegetation and allowed more or new plant species to share community
resources. Minor differences in d-d curves reflect the importance of each species
in community. Differences in d-d curves among tree species was due to much
influence of biotic pressure, which makes suitable ground for the succession of
secondary growing species. In middle strata the d-d curve indicate that the species
177
dominant earlier associated equally with the existing grown weed (Eupatorium
adenophorum) till date. Different aspects, elevations, soil moisture, humidity,
topography, solar insolation, upper and middle strata alter the growth of herb
species in study area.
The analysis of niche relationship in natural communities is of

considerable interest. The way in which species within ecological communities
partitions available resources among themselves is a major determinant of the
diversity of co-existing species (Mac Arthur, 1958). All else being equal, a
community, with more resource sharing, or greater niche overlap, will clearly
support more species than one with less niche overlap (Pianka, 1974). Niche
width means species adapted to or able to tolerate environmental conditions at the
interface between different types of habitats. Niche breadth measures the degree
of specilisation of a species and its ability to exploit an environment. Niche width
indicates the adaptation and tolerance capability of the plant species in different
community conditions type. The species that show the highest values of niche
breadth are more generalized and which govern narrow niche width are restricted
in particular habitats types. The maximum value of niche breadth for a species
indicates that an equal number of indivisuals of of the species are associated with
each resource state. Minimum niche breadth means maximum specilisation. In
other words, the minimum value shows that all indivisuals of the corresponding
species are associated with one resource state.
In the present investigations, it was observed that different herb

species showed wider niche width at different sites or in particular community
(Table 3.4.4.1). Anaphalis triplinervis and oxalis corniculata exhibited maximum
niche width in a community. This means that the species does not discriminate
between the different resources or prefers them equally. The view is further
conceived when we observe the relative density value of the species in its
different resources (sites) in the resource matrix. According to Smith (1980), the
species with wider niches are considered to be more generalized, while those with
narrower niches are more spacilised. The generalists are able to utilize a wide
178
range of resources whereas specialists are equipped to exploit only a specific set
of resources. This indicates that vegetation would be expected to change markedly
in response to tropographic altitudinal gradients. Anaphalis contorta, Oxalis
corniculata, Inula capa, Artimisia japonica, Gnaphalium affine, Desmodium
triflorum, Parthenium hysterophorus had higher niche width explain their
vastrange of adaptability along different environmental and altitudinal gradients
and the species, Caltha palastris, Erigeron species, Pranella vulgaris and
Ranunculas hirtullus which had minimum niche width possessed their specific
adapatation range in microhabitat of the region.
Niche width measures the degree of specializetion of a species and its

ability to exploit an environment. The maximum value of niche width for a
species indicates that equal numbers of individuals of the species are associated
with each resource state. While mimimum values show that all individuals of the
corresponding species are associated with one resourcestate. It generally increases
as resource availability decreases. Anaphalis triplinervis showed wider niche
width along four sites in herb species, Berberis asiatica in shrub and Quercus
leucotrichophora in tree species.
The higher values of niche overlap present the maximum resources share
by the species and the minimum value indicates least number of resources by
species. The dominated species exhaust all the available nutrients and other
necessary reqirement from soil and atmosphere including those resources that are
used by its associates. Thus short supply of nutrient result niche overlap among
them. Anaphalis triplinervis showed wider niche overlap along first three sites
and Anemone rivularis in forth site of herb species, Berberis asiatica in shrub
species and Quercus leucotrichophora in tree species.
Niche width measures the degree of specialization of a species and its

ability to exploit an environment (Bisht and Kusumlata, 1993). This disturbance
range of the species within and among different ecosystems can be predicted by
their niche width value (Pandey et al., 1999). Niche width indicates the adaptation
and tolerance capability of the plant species in different community. The species
179
that show the highest values of niche breath is more generalized and had vast
range of adaptavity while narrow niche width species is restricted in particular
habitat types. The maximum value of niche width for a species indicates that an
equal number of individuals of the species are associated with each resource state.
Minimum value shows that all individuals of the corresponding species are
associated within one resources state. Anaphal was showed wider niche width
along all sites indicated preference of Pine, Quercus dominated habitat. Similarly,
low niche overlap may indicate weak competition if species have evolved
different habitat preferences or strong competition if species have evolved
different habitat preferences or, strong completion if mutually preferred habitats
(Young, 2004). Nich overlap may also vary with species densities and inter or
intraspecific competition (Morris 1999). Human activities and high pressure on
grazingland decrease the available nutrients results in niche overlap and
competition among the species. Higher niche overlap value of native species is
attributed to the greater share of its resources that is used by invading species. The
dominated species exhaust all the available nutrients and other necessary
requirements from soil and atmosphere including those resources that are used by
its associates. Thus, shortly supply of nutrients results niche overlap among them.
Anaphalis shows more overlap along all sites. Plants which are similar size and
distance apart, but located on different sites may experience different level of
resources avaiailability. Competition is a result of plant density and size relative
to available resources. The changes in species composition and niche size when
resources level of a habitat lter can also provide evidence of the role of
competition. Competition has been an important evolutionary force that has led to
niche separation, specialization and diversification (Young, 2004). It varies
continuously as the ratio of demand over supply changes. Interspecific interaction
along with population dynamics operate through individuals organisms that exist
and interact only within their immediate neighborhood (Tilman and Karevia 1997;
Wanger 2004). Higher niche breadth, niche overlap value and less competitive
ability against newely invading species, and other features of natural vegetation
indicate higher pressure on them.
180
Competition has been an important evolutionary force that has led to niche
separation, specialization and diversification (Young, 2004). Competition exists
only for limited resources. Competition arises when all species share resource
states. Resource based competition can be major structuring force in plant
communities (Goldberg, 1990; Tilman, 1997). Competition had adverse effects on
all species utilizing a similar and limited resource at the same time and place.
When individual compete, they make the resource less readily available to their
competitor, either by using it or defending it. The competition will be minimized
when two species have different niches while severe competition occurs when
two organisms have utilized same space but different food habit. Natural selection
favours good competitors. Quercus leucotrichophora was strongly competitor
along three sites (PRDF, QLDF and QSDF). It suppresses the growth of other
plant species. It spreads over all stands except AKDF, it means that it utlises all
resources available in an effective way. At site AKDF it is completely
absent.Quercus semecarpifolia showed strong competition among other site plant
species at site AKDF. Grime (1973) suggests that species richness in vegetation is
controlled by antagonistic forces of inter-specific competition and disturbance. In
stable, productive habitats, competitively dominant species are able to
monopolize space, excluding inferior competitors from the community.
Natural regeneration of any tree species depends on the response of seeds,

performance of seedlings in varied environment and sprouting ability of cut
stumps (Barnes et al., 1998; Tripathi and Khan, 2007). Regeneration of species is
greatly influenced by the interaction of different biotic and abiotic factors of the
environment (Akasmit and Iring, 1984). These factors may affect the recruitment,
survival and growth of tree regeneration. Unfortunately, the regenerative capacity
of Oak forest is poor not only in the Himalayan region but also in North America
(Lorimer et al., 1994) and Europe (Andersson, 1991). In general regeneration of
species is effected by anthropogenic factors (Barik et al., 1996, Khan and
Tripathi, 1989) and natural phenomena (Welden et al., 1991). The greater
contribution of seedlings, saplings and young trees to the total population
181
indicates successful regeneration (Khan et al., 1987, Saxena and Singh, 1984,
Bhuyan et al., 2002) of most of the tree species.
Seedling density alone is a good indicator of regeneration, potential

because the probality of establishment of an individual seedling is closely related
to its size (Hardwick et al. 2005). According to Jones et al. (1994) seedling layers
differ in composition from their respective overstory. In the present study,
seedlings of dominant overstory species Pinus roxburghii, Quercus
leucotrichophora, Rhododendron arboreum were found in most of the study sites.
The presence of sufficient number of seedling, sapling and young tree in given
population indicate successful regeneration (Khan and Tripathi, 1987).
It has been observed that regeneration of the species is affected by fire

(Murthy et al. 2002), grazing light, canopy, density, soil moisture, soil nutrient
and anthropogenic pressure. In general, the regeneration of species is also affected
by natural phenomena such as light gaps (Welden et al., 1991). Similar factor may
attribute in regeneration pontential at the present study area. Seedling population
was recorded high but sapling population was very low during the present
observation which showed low species density. In the present study area foliage
collection was operated without any restrictions followed by fire and grazing and
thus regeneration status of various tree species was poor.
The process of seedling growth and development of forest trees largely

depends on gaps/canopy openings in the forest created due to natural disturbance,
thus influencing the regeneration and species composition of the forest
(Khumbongmayum et al., 2005). The recruitment also varied with the differences
in times of seedfall of different species in the permanent plots. Some species like,
Myrica esculenta, Pyrus pashia, Benthmidia capitata and Lyonia ovalifolia
showed high recruitment after the rainy season, as in them seedfall occur during
summer season and seedlings emerge during post rainy season. These findings
were found similar with the study carried out by Viswanath et al., (2002),who
observed that the regeneration for Banj (Quercus leucotrichophora) and Harainj
182
(Quercus glauca), started by late December and staggered regeneration continued
until April-June.
The human influence on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning have

largely taken the form of rapid, large and frequent changes in land and resources
use, increased frequency of biotic invasions, reduction in species number, creation
of stresses and the potential for changes in the climate system (Kumar and Ram,
2005). Recently disturbance parameters and disturbance indicators have been
analyzed by several workers in various ways in Garhwal Himalaya (Uniyal et al.,
2010; Kumar and Ram, 2005; Kumar et al., 2004 and Khera et al., 2001). Some
part of northeast India was also investigated for the influence of disturbance on
forest diversity and regeneration (Mishra et al., 2004; Mishra et al., 2003; Bhuyan
et al., 2003; Barik et al., 1996; and Khan et al., 1987). All these workers assumed
the different disturbance level or degree of disturbance in the form of density, tree
cover, grazing, fuelwood and fodder collection etc.
The Quercus and Abies species present in the study area are generally heavy
lopped for their fuel wood and fodder at Abies kharshu dominant forest and
Quercus species dominant forest. This activity reduces vitality and seed
production which ultimately affect the regeneration process of these species. The
other main cause of lower regeneration may be trampling and for some extent
grazing by animals at seedling and samplings stages (Dhar et al., 1997). Poor
recruitment of these and other species in this region indicates possible decline in
their population in future.
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Chapter-4
SOCIO ECONOMIC STUDY
4.1 Introduction
Forests are “green gold” of a country which is an important renewable
natural resource. Trees are the most dominating component of forest ecosystems
and their species compositions is varying in different parts of the world. They
play an important role in enhancing the quality of the environment by influencing
the life support system. Forests in India are an integral part of cultural life of its
people, deliver many of the ecosystem services at the foundation of India's
economy, and support India's status as one of the world's mega-biodiversity
countries. The forest meet nearly 40% of the country‟s energy needs and 30% of
the fodder and over 12 million m3 of the timber and several non timber forest
products are removed from forests, annually. Non timber forest products activities
hold prospects for integrated development that yield higher rural income and
conserve biodiversity while not competing with agriculture (Sharma, 1992).
Million of forest dwellers and agriculture communities depends on forests for
range of non timber forest product such as fruits, nuts, edible flower, medicinal
herbs, rattan and bamboo, honey and gum. The value of goods and services
provided by forest sector is estimated to be Rs 25,984 crores (Planning
Commission, 2002). However in recent times, heavy biotic pressure have started
to exert tremendous stress on natural resources and hence many of the plant and
animal species are under various degrees of threat. Almost 300 million Indians
depend on forest resources for their livelihoods, including 87 million tribal
people.
Indian forests are facing tremendous anthropogenic pressures. This has

resulted in deforestation and degradation of valuable forest resources. Local
community who live near forests are largely dependent on natural resources like,
fuel, fodder and other minor forest produces for their livelihood. Over the years,
the pressure on the forest resources has increased manifold. Socio-economic
184
survey is an exercise to collect socio-economic data from the rural areas adjoining
the forests and to analyze and interpret in relation to the forest resources. It
involves surveying of selection villages by means of variety of methods such as
Participatory Rural Apprisal (PRA), questionnaire survey, interview, directly
observing, measuring or combining any or all of them. Natural and planted forest
resources are an integral part of the habitat and socio-culture framework of rural
communities (Byron and Arnold, 1999).
The Himalaya constitutes a unique geographical and geological entity

comprising a diverse social, culture and environmental set up. This region is more
than 2,800 km in length and 220 to 300 km in width. Uttarakhand is basically a
mountainous and hilly region consisting of 13 districts. It likes the rest of the
Himalaya and other mountain areas of the world, is characterized by
inaccessibility, fragility, marginality, diversity and niche which constraint its
development as well as provide opportunities. The region is facing a complex set
of problems, which includes population pressure, subsistence level farming,
deforestation, landslides, soil erosion, floods, water scarcity, out migration,
drudgery of women and poverty etc. The Himalayan region occupies an important
place in the economy of the country. Its forest resources provide timber, fuel
wood, fodder medicinal herbs, resin and a number of other minor forest products.
Its water resources are used for generating hydroelectrically and providing
irrigating and drinking water. Several major rivers including the Ganga and its
tributaries have their origin here. The high mountain of Himalaya also controls
the climate of the country and provides a natural protection against the icy cold
wind from Siberia in winter. Historically, the region has been famous for a major
attraction to pilgrims as a result of numerous important shrines and temples being
located here.
The Uttarakhand state has its own potentialities and resources, which need
to be harnessed in the best possible way. Forests are one of the most important of
these natural resources and cover 64.81% of the total geographical area of the
state. The agriculture sector, through covers only about 13.21% of total
185
geographical area of the state, engages about 71% of the total population (Dutta
and Pant, 2003). The natural resources form the major livelihood base for the
downtrodden communities inthe remote villages of this hill state. Forest resources
have historically played a significant role in the economy of the Uttarakhand since
ancient times. The forests of Himalaya have a permeative influence on the
ecosystems, environment and the lives of people of the area. The state can sustain
forestry and agriculture for the survival of the people, live in this rural and hilly
area (Bisht, 2006). Million of forest dwellers across the world depends from forest
for their livelihood (Patnaik, 1986),but their need varies place to place. Forest
diversity is the main source of livelihood of the people living in Uttarakhand,
Central Himalaya and provide resources such as fuel wood, fodder, fibers, food,
green manure, medicine, agricultural tool and construction timber which are
critical to the household economy. Three major important trees species Chir
(Pinus roxburghii) in lower elevation, Oak (Quercus leucotrichophora) in mid
altitude and Kharsu (Quercus semecarfolia) in higher altitude consumed largely
for fuel wood, fodder and cutting of grass for stall feeding in this study area. The
increasing population trends over the last few decades and consequent over
dependence on plant products has led to the vast exploration of natural flora of
this region. Agricultural practice continue to be the main occupation of people of
the Himalaya as about 70% population gets direct and indirect employment from
agriculture (Sati, 2011).
In the Himalaya region the agriculture production is directly linked to the

surrounding forest ecosystems (Nautiyal et al., 2005). Agriculture is the base of
the region‟s economy. More than 74% of the total work force is engaged as
agriculture workers and laborers. Land holdings are very small and highly
fragmented. The average land holding size in Uttarakhand is less than 0.98 acre.
The division of lands among family members has reached a critical point where
further division of land will make the agricultural economy totally unrealistic. The
high fragmentation of land holding substantially increases the workload in tending
to crops. This combined with environmental factors has caused agriculture in
Uttarakhand, especially in mountain regions, to drop below subsistence levels.
186
Agriculture is not providing food for more than 4-5 months in the ridges of the
hills and 6-10 months where irrigation is available in the valleys. Other economic
activities such as handicraft and household industries are scarce in the region.
Poor agriculture and absence of other economic options in the hill districts causes
outmigration as cheap labor in the plains. According to one estimate an average of
75% of the total potential male work force from 18-45 years of age is out
migrated. This places enormous pressure on the women left behind who must
maintain their homes, fields and care their children with no other support but the
money the men send back. The responsibility of providing food, fuel and fodder
to the household has traditionally been on women, all of which are made more
difficult due to environmental degradation. Though the situation is now set to
change with MNREGA and other opportunities coming as development
programmes, life in general continues to be difficult for women.
The people of the region are simple, intelligent and hardworking

especially women engaged in domestic and agriculture work. A large percentage
of potential male workforces out migrates for better opportunities and livelihoods.
In Uttarakhand, unlike other parts of India, women outnumber men because of
large scale out migration of men towards cities in the plain. Traditional livelihood
systems based on agriculture are no longer able to sustain the population.
Infrastructure developments like roads and linkage with the market economy have
so far led to more destruction of the natural resources and weakened the agro-
ecosystem which is base of the Himalayan economy.
Due to anthropogenic pressure, agricultural practices and dependency of

people on natural resources, the forest covers in Garhwal Himalayas has altered
drastically (Wakeel et al., 2005). Continuous heavy and unsustainable
exploitation of forest resources has resulted in overall degradation of forests
(Khanduri et al., 2002). The link between forest management and the well being
of communities in forested areas has traditionally been defined by forest sector
employment opportunities (Sharma and Gairola, 2007).The study was therefore,
187
based on assessment of socio-economical status of people and the impact of
socio-economic change use management in Central Himalaya villagers.
The study areas lie in the western Ramganga watershed of Kumaun

Central Himalaya in Uttarakhand State in India. The study was carried out in two
villages, one in the Masi-Chaukhutia area (Farika village), which lies at latitude
290 50‟ N and longitude 790 16‟ E between 1500 m and 1650 m in Almora district,
and one in the Ghyniyal area (Ramara village), which lies at latitude 30 0 02‟ N
and 790 14‟ E between 2000m and 2100m in the Chamoli district. Climate and
cropping patterns in these study areas are shown in (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: General Climatic and agriculture details for the study areas
Climate data(2011-2013)
Study
Mean annual maximum Mean annual minimum Mean annual
area
Temperature* Temperature* rainfall*
0 0
Ramara 15.23±3.34 C 4.58± 1.85 C 765±148 mm
Farika 21.12± 4.960C 5.87 ±1.490C 450±120 mm
*Source:UttarakhandForest department
Cropping Pattern
Ravi Kharif Common

(Winter season crops) (Rainy season crops) Leguminous crops
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) Pea (Pisum sativum)
Mustard (Brassica Horse gram (Dolichos
campestris) Soyabean (Glycine max) uniflorus)
Kidney bean
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) Hog millet (Panicum miliaceum (Phaseolus lunetus)
Amaranth (Amaranthus Black gram (Vigna
Lentil (Lens esculenta) paniculatus munga)
Barnyard millet (Echinocloa Gahat (Macrotyloma
Jau (Hordeum vulgare) frumentacea) uniflorum)
Paddy rice (Oryza sativa)
Theclimate in study areas can be divided into three distinct season, namely
summer season (April to June), rainy season (July to September) and winter
season (November to February). The rainfall pattern in the region is largely
governed by monsoon rains (July-September), which account for about 60-80% of
188
the total annual rainfall. The vegetation in the study areas is natural. Farika village
is situated at the base of natural Pinus roxburghii dominant forest, whereas
Ramara is situated in Quercus leucotrichophora mixed forests. Leaf litter from
the forest is used as bedding material in the cattle shed. The litter mixed with
cattle excreta is used as manure in the crop fields. Cattle feed is met partly from
crop by products and tree fodder from the private farms and partly from grazing
and lopping of fodder trees in the community and government forests. Summer
camping sites the villagers of both the villages migrate to the Dudhatoli forest
area for grazing of animals where temporary Kharaks constructed earlier.
A door to door survey was conducted in two villagers of the study area to
illicit information on socio-economic status. Structured and pre tested
questionnaires were used to personal interview. These questionnaires were based
on the requirement of the study and on information extracted from general
discussion with villagers to gather information from each social caste, economic
level, gender and age. We also used different ways of collecting precise,
quantitative data on income and income sources, questionnaires, personal
observation, and discussion with gram pradhan (Head of village legislative
council). The head of each sample household was interviewed. The data collected
for study included general information about each household, such as literacy
level, family size, landholding, number of animal per family, sources of income,
occupation, source of energy, extraction of non timber forest products, and so on
(Table 4.2).
To estimate the amount of fuel wood and fodder consumption per day per
households, 20% of the households per village (12 and 18 HH) were surveyed in
the 2 villages, and their consumption pattern were noted seven consecutive days
in three different season: summer, rainy and winter. The families surveyed were
chosen to include equal representation from all economic classes and family sizes.
To understand pressure on individual forest tree species, we asked about villagers
preferences for various purpose such as fuel wood, fodder, agricultural
189
implements, household articles, and other uses; a maximum of 10 points was
given for each (Sharma et al., 2009).
4.3 Results and Discussion
4.3.1 Socio-economic observations
The average family size varied between 7.9 person per households in
Ramara and 7.3 per household in Farika (Table4.2). The sex ratio
(females/thousand males) ranged between 933 in Ramara and 1036 in Farika
village. This difference can be attributed to lack of employment, which has led to
migration of the male population from Ramara area to other areas in search of
jobs. The literacy rate was above 65% in two villages; most of people were
educated between grades 5 and 10 in Ramara village area and above grade 10 in
the Farika village. 33% and 25% people were uneducated, and the majority of
those were older. In two studied villages males exhibit a higher literacy level than
female. Female children only get primary education in the schools situated nearby
villages, whereas male children have option to study in the cities. Although the
literacy rate was high, most people were unemployed because of lack of
employment opportunities. Women work hard through the day, starting with the
family works, nurturing children and livestock, going out for fuel wood, fodder,
and drinking water. The villagers therefore still relied for their sustenance on
rainfed agricultural land and forests.The average cultivated land at both sites was
less than 0.5 ha; therefore, production was supplemented from the adjacent forest
ecosystem. More than 70% of the agricultural fields in the Ramara area and about
60% in the Farika area were rain fed. Approximately 85% houses in two villages
were made of traditional type of slates (Pathals), wood and straw and rest made of
cement. Usually, villagers have been using tranditional stoves (Chullas) for
cooking which is generally situated at the corner of the kitchen.
4.3.2 Sources of income
The main occupation in those villages was agriculture, which was

practiced at a small scale on terraced farms and was not sufficient to feed an
190
entire family for the year. Vegetables such as Radish, Mustard leaf, Bean, Potato,
Pea,Spinich and fruits from agricultural land were sold on the open market to earn
money. The rural economy has been greatly improved by largely Cannabis sativa
and Camellia sinensis cultivation. Dairy production was the second largest
sources of employment in Ramara village. Transmittal income sent by people who
had migrated to other places also accounted for large portion of income in the
Ramara (48.6%), whereas in the Farika it was just 54.44%. This is because most
of the men in the both (Ramara (65%) and Farika(30%) area are nomadic
shepherds and migrate to Dudhatoli (higher altitudes) during the summer and
rainy season. They earn most of their income while residing outside their
conventional kharaks. Dairy products were sold to personal agencies that collect
them and sell in town.
Employment as a labour was the third-largest source of income for the

villagers. People worked in MNERAGA, Hariyali and other welfare schemes run
by government and they sometimes worked as laborers in the private construction
sector. Other sources of income were goat rearing, government pension, and
extraction of non timber forest products. Most of peoples dependency on
agriculture and forest resources for income from which they earn general money.
191
Table 4.2 Socio- economic profile of the study villages, inwestern Ramganga watershed
Village Ramara Farika

Altitute(m asl) 2100 1500
District Chamoli Almora
No.of households 37 90
Sampled house 12 18
Total Population 292 676
Average household size 7.9 7.5
Percentage Percentage
Illiterate 97 33.21 171 25.29
Primary 89 30.47 214 31.65
Education level Middle 41 14.04 106 15.68
Matric 35 11.98 88 13.01
Higher Secondary 17 5.82 59 8.73
Graduate 13 4.45 38 5.621
Up to 25 year 83 28.42 197 29.14

Age
26 to 50 year 144 49.31 293 43.34
50 onward 65 22.26 186 27.51
Below Poverty Line 5 27.02 12 13.33

(i.e. below Rs 25000)
Income Level
Rs 25,000 -35,000 8 21.62 11 12.22
Rs 35,000 -50,000 12 32.43 26 28.88
Rs 50,000 & above 13 35.14 41 45.55
192
Government Job 9 24.32 22 24.44
Private Jobs 6 16.21 19 21.11
Employment Pattern Business 3 13.51 8 8.88
Agriculture 15 40.54 29 32.22
Landless Labour 4 15.06 12 13.33
Total livestock population 285 494

Average number of
animal/household 7.7 5.48
Livestock owning families 34 78
Livestock Average fodder
consumed/household/day(kg) 38.31 30.027
Fodder extracted from the
forest 85.4 72.2
Distance travelled for fodder
collection(Km) 1.5 to 2.5 2 to 3
Average fuelwood
consumed/household/day(Kg) 23.34 13.26
Fuelwood extracted from forest 96.4 74.6
Distance travelled for fuel wood
Energy consumption collection (Km) 1 to 2 1.5 to 3
Average LPG
consumed/household/year(L) 2.4 53.26
Average Kerosin
consumed/household/month
(L) 4.5 6.6
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Table 4.3 Preference of the tree species used by village Ramara in western Ramganga watershed
Preference
Rank Species Comman name Availability
Fo Fw Ag. I. HA T Fr M BL WH RE
1 Quercus leucotrichophoraA.Camus Banj A A A B N.A. N.A. N.A. A A N.A. +++
2 Quercus floribunda Lindl.exRehder Tilonj A A A D N.A. N.A. N.A. A N.A. N.A. +++
3 Quercus glaucaThunb Haring B D D D N.A. N.A. N.A. A N.A. N.A. ++
4 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Buras D B N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. B B N.A. N.A. ++
4 Myrica esculentaBuch-Ham ex D.Don Kafal N.A. D N.A. N.A. N.A. A C D N.A. N.A. ++
5 Alnus nepalensis (D.Don) Spach Utees B D N.A. D N.A. N.A. N.A. D N.A. N.A. ++
5 Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude Anyar N.A. C N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. C N.A. N.A. ++
6 Pinus roxburghiiSarg. Chir N.A. D D A A N.A. N.A. B N.A. A ++
7 Cedrus deodara (Roxb.)G.Don Devdar N.A. D N.A. C A N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. A ++
8 Juglansregia L. Akhroot N.A. D D N.A. N.A. B N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. +
9 Pyrus pashiaBuch.Ham. Ex D.Don Mehal N.A. D D N.A. N.A. B N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. ++
9 Ilex dipyrenawall. Kanel N.A. D N.A. C N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. +
10 Daphniphyllum himalense (Benth.) Mull. Arg. Ratnalee N.A. D N.A. D N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. +
11 Symplocos paniculata(Thinb.) Miq Lodh D D N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. D N.A. N.A. +
11 Persea duthei (King ex Hook. F.) Kostermans Kaul D C N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. +
12 Carpinus vimineaLindl. Chamkharik D C N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. +
Abbreviations:-R-Ranking(Based in the combined points given for performance for uses),Perference:-A highest used ,B-Mostly used,C-Intermediate used,D -Lowest used
N.A.-Not applicable;Fo-Fodder,Fw-Fuel wood,Ag. I-Agricultural implements,HA-Household uses,Fr-Fruit, BL-Bedding material for livestock,WH-Wooden huntments,RE-Resin
Availability: +++(Easily available), ++(Moderately available), + (Lowest available).
194
Table 4.4 Preference of the tree species used by village Farika in western Ramganga watershed
Preference
Rank Species Comman name Availability
Fo Fw Ag. I. HA T Fr M BL WH RE
1 Pinus roxburghiiSarg. Chir N.A. A N.A. A A N.A. N.A. B N.A. A +++
2 Toona ciliata M. Roem. Toon N.A. D C A A N.A. N.A. N.A. A N.A. +++
3 Quercus leucotrichophoraA.Camus Banj A A A B N.A. N.A. N.A. A A N.A. +++
4 Myrica esculentaBuch-Ham ex D.Don Kafal N.A. C N.A. N.A. N.A. A C D N.A. N.A. ++
4 Alnus nepalensis (D.Don) Spach Utees A B N.A. D N.A. N.A. N.A. D N.A. N.A. ++
5 Grewia optivaJ.R.Drumm. Ex Burret Bhimal A B N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. ++
6 Ficus roxburghi Wall. Timala A D N.A. N.A. N.A. C N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. ++
7 Pyrus pashiaBuch.Ham. ExD.Don Mehal N.A. B D N.A. N.A. B N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. ++
7 Mangifera indica Linn. Aam N.A. N.A. N.A. B B A B N.A. N.A. N.A. ++
8 Bauhinia varigataLinn. Kachnar A C N.A. C N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. ++
9 Emblica officinalisGeartn. Awala N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. A A N.A. N.A. N.A. +
9 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Buras N.A. B N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. B B N.A. N.A. +
Abbreviations:-R-Ranking(Based in the combined points given for performance for uses),Perference:-A highest used ,B-Mostly used,C-Intermediate used,D -Lowest used
N.A.-Not applicable;Fo-Fodder,Fw-Fuel wood,Ag. I-Agricultural implements,HA-Household uses,Fr- Fruit, BL-Bedding material for livestock,WH-Wooden huntments,RE-Resin
Availability: +++(Easily available), ++(Moderately available), +(Lowest available).
195
4.3.3 Livestock and fodder consumption
Animal husbandry is an integral part of farming system. In the Central

Himalaya region, agriculture is by and large based on livestock. Increase and
changes in composition in livestock population are a common trend (Mishra
1997). Livestock is one of the most important economic resources of the local
people. Every household invariably keeps a few cows and many more sheep and
goats. These animals are usually kept for wool, meat and manure. Sheep‟s wool is
used by the villager for making, shawls, sweaters, and blankets, while goat hair is
used for making blankets only. The dung of these animals is of course, good
manure for the fields. Hilly agriculture is socio economic symbiosis of crop,
livestock, production, and manpower. Livestock are considered a capital asset. In
addition, livestock provide gainful employment to a large section the population
throughout to a large section of the population throughout the year. Common
livestock domesticated by people in the study region are cattle, buffalo, sheep,
goat, horses and poultry. Among Hindus, only the meat of goats and chickens is
eaten, and these animals are often sold earn income, whereas large animals rarely
sold and hence are kept as a source of wealth. The major fodder resources are
leaves from trees, ground vegetation in forest areas, crop residues, and dried
grasses, which are stored on tree tops in heap and used as feed during winter
season. The seasons also play a major role in the availability of fodder. Generally
winter season, most of the trees remain leafless and grass were not available, at
the time the fodder was obtain from the agroforestry trees like Grewia optiva,
Bauhinia variegata etc. Similarly the storage grasses and agriculture residue
mainly of Eleusine coracana (finger millet) and Echinochloa frumentacea
(barnyard millet) is also to feed during lean period of Farika village. The forest is
the major sources of leaf fodder and bedding material for livestock in the study
area.
Most of the families in the study areas owned livestock. Fodder consumed
per house hold per day was 38.31 and 30.00 kg in Ramara and Farika,
respectively (Table 4.2). This difference in fodder consumption per household
between the Ramara and Farika areas is due to higher number of livestock in the
196
Ramara areas. Mostly women spent about 2 to 3.5 hours daily to collect fodder
from forest areas, which was their main work of everyday. In the Ramara areas,
approximately 85% of the fodder was being extracted from the forest and 72% of
the Farika village. All the animals graze in forestland, even up to an elevation
2100 m, which evils the ground vegetation and delay regeneration of dominant
species in the area.
The number of animals varied according to economic and social

conditions of the villages. As dairy farming was one of the major occupations in
the Ramara village, it accounted for a higher number of animals per households
(7.7) compared with the Farika (5.48) village (Table 4.2).
4.3.4 Pattern of fuel wood consumption
In the study area in Central Himalaya region fuel wood is one of the most
important natural resource that villagers extract from for their daily use. Each
household require fuel wood for cooking, space heating, lighting, heat rooms and
water during winter season. However, the families with better economic condition
were also using kerosene oil, LPG and bio-gas. Other forms of commercial energy
are beyond the reach of ordinary people because of poor socio-economic
condition, lack of communication, high prices, and limited supply in inaccessible
mountain areas (Chettriet al., 2002). It has been reported that 54% of the total
global wood harvest is for fuel (Nautiyal and Kaechele 2008). Therefore, fuel
wood plays a major role in the succession of forest degradation.
In Ramara village, 100% of the families use wood as the chief source of
fuel for cooking and heating. Village is situated in the temperate zone, where it is
usually cold, villager extract wood for heating and cooking throughout the year.
Collection of fuelwood from forests and private lands requires at least 2 to 3 hours
of work every day in the study areas. The villagers travel 1-2 km in the Ramara
area to 1.5–3 km in the Farika area every day to collect fuelwood from the forest.
In the Ramara area, approximately 95% of fuelwood is collected from the forest,
and the rest is collected from personal lands; for the Farika area, 75% of the
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fuelwood is collected from the forest (Table 4.2). Reasons for less forest wood
collection in Farika area could be linked to the greater distance of the forest from
the village.
Average fuelwood consumption per household per day was recorded as

23.34 and 13.26 kg for Ramara, and Farika villages, respectively. Lots of
fuelwood were collected during summer and stored for the winter season, when
snowfall is high and accessibility to the forests at higher altitudes is minimal.The
abandoned lopping and falling of trees for fuelwood, leaf fodder, burning of
ground vegetation, livestock grazing and harvesting of ground vegetation for
forage are some of the factors responsible for formation of grassland. Average
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) consumed per household per year was2.4 kgand
53.26 kg in Ramara, and Farika villages, respectively. In the study villages, LPG
is hardly used for cooking and usually for preparing tea or quick food. Other
sources of energy used in the area include kerosene oil, which is used mostly for
lamps.
4.3.5 Demands on Forest
The Ramara forest is extremely dense and diverse compared with the
Farika forest. We recorded 16 tree species in the Ramara forest and 12 tree
species in the Farika forest. Villagers in both study areas use natural and
agroforestry tree species to fulfill their various requirements. In the Ramara area,
the villagers favored 16 tree species (12 tree species in Farika) for a variety of
purposes. As these species were easily available, pressure on them was enormous
(Table4.3 and 4.4).
4.3.6 Extraction of mosses and lichens
Lichens a mutualistic association of a dominant fungus (mycobiont) and
green (phycobiont) and or blue green algae (Cyanobiont). Lichens, group of lower
plants growing in bark, wood, rocks, soil, and other fixtures in the environment,
are represented by thousands of species from arctic to tropical regions. Many of
these plants are used commercially as spices, dyes, foods, medicines, animal feed,
architect models, wreath and floral decorations, perfumes, and as test organisms
for atmospheric pollution (Anonymous 1962, Ding 1988, and Sochting 1999).
198
Due to their economic value easy accessibility ready availability, mosses and
lichens(locally called Makku or JhullaGhas) are collected on oak tree from April
to September is the most commonly collected non timber forest product in the
Dudhatoli forest area. Kumar andUpreti (2008) and Kumar (2009) lichen
exploitation is a common practiceamong the villagers and the rivals in moist
temperate regions of the Western Himalaya to collectthe lichens together with tree
twigs as oak and other trees bears plentiful growth of lichens. Lichens in India are
collected from the temperature regions of Himalayas and usedindigenously for
preparation of perfumes, dyes, and condiments (Kumar and Upreti, 2008).
Approximately 750 tons of lichens are collected from Uttarakhand Mountains and
another 800 tons are exported every year (Shah, 1997). Lichens are sold at 100-
130/kg on local market. After grading and trading its value become double or
triple. Estimates indicate that a professional person can collect between 6 and 12
kg of lichens a day from a lichen-rich forest and local villagers collect 3-5 kg. As
climbing on large trees to collect lichens and mosses is very tough and time
consuming, collectors prefer to either cut branches of trees or even fell old trees,
leading to large amount in the forest. Cutting of species in large proportions
would reduce its chance to dominate in the canopy formation and thus affected
associated species. This significantly influenced the floral composition and
subsequently the structure and functioning of entire forest ecosystem.
4.3.7 Grazing
Ramara and Farika villager‟s livestock animals are generally maintained
as free grazers. Only a few calves and milking animals are kept at home and stall
fed. Villagers take their animals to higher altitude (Dudhatoli forest area) during
the summer season (generally from April to October) and bring them back to the
lower altitude during winter. Increasing in livestock population and reduction in
fodder production from farmland along with changing cropping pattern implies
more intensive grazing in forest (Saxena et al., 2005). Large herds of cattle were
seen grazing freely in the Dudhatoli forest area, which may reduce or even
prevent the regeneration of the tree cover in case of livestock overstocking and
uncontrolled grazing. Goat and sheeps rearing Gujjars and Bhotiya, who migrates
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with their herds every year, halt in various places in the Dudhatoli and stay for
some days. In the forth site, Kodiyabagarh at 3000m asl., is one such traditional
kharaks, where the animals are kept for free grazing in the forest for few days.
Grazing of animal in the higher regions has mounted added pressure on the forests
due to which the regeneration of palatable species has become difficult at certain
tract. Grazing and trampling prevent the regeneration of woody species, and the
understory is transformed from tussock grassland into short, pasture like
grassland.
4.3.8 Manufacture of seasonal wooden Kharaks
Phytosociological observations reveal that Abies pindrow and Quercus
semecarpifolia are dominant species in Dudhatoli forest area. The seasonal
movement of villagers to higher reaches of forest during summer months (April-
May) is also causing harm to dominant tree species because planks of these
species are used for making short-term wooden kharaks inside the forest by the
inhabitants and wandering shepherds. In facts these kharaks are used only during
summer and rainy season. The villagers repair these kharaks every year by
replacing old planks and logs with new-fangled. There were about 19 kharaks in
the area located at 3000m asl in Kodiybagarh alone and many more spread at
other places in the area.
4.4 Conclusion
Harvesting of forest resources to meet livelihood needs can impact forest
regeneration, structure and diversity (Fashing et al., 2004; Olupot, 2009), but
there is scope for considerable variation with location, human activities and
histories. Forest biodiversity is the chief resource of livelihood of the people of
Uttarakhand. Agriculture is the main occupation around which all human
activities are centered and is mainly managed at the cost of the surrounding
natural resources. Local peoples are the principle actors in management of
diversity. Decision making by local people in choice of component for their field
is influenced by environmental, socio-economic, and cultural factors as well as
political climate (Morin et al., 1998). The forests present around the crop fields
are highly degraded due to continuous anthropogenic disturbances. Thus, the
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biodiversity of these forests is under great anthropogenic pressure. Pinus
roxburghii forest is present around the crop field in lower altitude and has the
highest anthropogenic disturbances. Quercus leucotrichophora forest in mid
altitude and higher elevation and has least anthropogenic disturbance. Oak forest
has been subjected to maximum change through reduction in density after heavy
biotic influence. Trees are lopped for fuel wood, fodder for the domestic animals,
timber for house construction and industrial raw material. Various products like
removal of forest floor biomass and minor forest products are exploited from the
forest. These disturbances influence the climatic conditions and nutrition
condition.
Socio-economic point of view, forest fuelwood is the only renewable
energy sources easily available to human being. But while forest biomass is a
resource, the availability of forest fuelwood is limited over short time period by
both the amount of land in forest and the rate of forest growth. Therefore an
increased use of biomass for fodder, fuelwood, and timber woody will likely
impact all other user of the forest resources. Extreme use of forest biomass as a
form of major and minor forest products has resulted in environmental
degradation. Fuelwood is required for cooking food and warming rooms in winter
season. Higher and mid altitude region suffer cold climates. Therefore, the
fuelwood needs in these region is high, particularly during the winter, when the
highlands receive snowfall. Inaccessibility of the settlement does not provide a
base for consuming other means of such as LPG. Therefore, the dependency on
the forest for fuelwood consumption is high and thus cause for deforestation.
In valley region or lower altitude the proper management of biogas plants
may reduce fuel requirement. Due to sustainable management of forestation and
plantation should conserve pastureland. It may reduce soil erosion and shelter
biodiversity of flora and fauna. For the best conservation of forest, the use of land
surrounding villagers can most helpful by growing grasses and plantation of
fodder trees. Introduction of forestry practices for maximum production of
fuelwood, fodder, fruits, timber and fiber etc must be encouraged. The
participation of community is very important, people ensuring to develop a
201
suitable methodology to conserve grass land and stop deforestation for that the
whole forest area can be divided in to using sector and non using after a time span
of one year or two years the non using area can be opened for use the villagers
according to their requirement and the using area of the forest can be closed. This
rotation will provide conservation of biodiversity of that forest area as well as
protection of fauna habitats also and reduce soil erosion also. The Government
also should provide biogas, LPG and Kerosene reduce burden on forest especially
fuelwood consumption.
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SUMMARY
The present investigation entitled “Vegetation analysis along an altitudinal gradient

in forests of western Ramganga watershed in Kumaun Himalaya” was carried
outforests in Almora, Chamoli and Pauri District of Uttarakhand. The main objectives
of the study were:
 To make an inventory of vegetation composition of different forest sites along

an altitudinal gradient.
 To study the soil characteristic of these forest sites.
 To examine dominance– diversity distribution pattern and niche of dominant
flora along an altitudinal gradient.
 To study level of disturbances in the study site.
 To carry out the socio-economic study of village in relation to forest
ecosystems.
Study Area
 The present study was carried out in the western Ramgang watershed forests of
Almora, Chamoli (small part lies in the kedarnath forest division) and Pauri
border area of Central Himalaya in Uttarakhand state of India. River Western
Ramganga is spring fed river and important tributary of holy river Ganga,
originated in the southern slopes at Dudhatoli of middle Himalaya of
Uttarakhand state. The total area of the watershed is 49 sq km and located
between 290 49‟ to 300 03‟ N latitude and 0790 16‟ to 0790 12‟ E longitude. This
watershed is marked with wide altitudinal range from 1000 m asl (subtropical) to
ending with a summit at 3100 m asl (high altitude forests dominated by Quercus
semecarpifolia and conifers).
 The area experiences three distinct summer, winter and rainy season. The slope
and face of a hill has also an important part in the climate of a particular place.
203
The findings are summarized as follows:
Soil Dynamics
1. The soil was acidic in nature.Soil pH ranged between 5.0 to 7.1 Soil colour
varies from dark brown, Reddish brown, Dull reddish brown andGrayish brown.
The heavy leaching of iron causes grey soil in coniferous forests. The soil was
classified as sandy soil. Soil temperature at 10 cm depth was maximum during
summer season being 280C and lowest 70C during winter season.
2. The WHC varied from forest to forest and it was maximum at AKDF north
aspect (95.3 to 61.33%) and minimum at PRDF south aspect (24.14 to 55.21%).
The soil moisture percentage was recorded to be 14.3 to 42.41% at all forests
during different season.
3. The quantity of total available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and organic
carbon recorded at different forests was varying and did not show any definite
pattern. Nitrogen was found in the range 0.12% to 0.39%. Similarly, phosphorus
and potassium content in the soil ranged from 4.89 to 37.89 Kg ha -1 and from
92.04 to 727.38 Kg ha-1 respectively. Likewise, the organic carbon in the soil
varied from to 0.54% to 4.564%.
Forest composition along an altitudinal gradient
1. Sampling was done following the stratified random sampling along altitudinal
transects. Transects were laid down along footpath and streams in forest and
spatially distributed so as to minimize the autocorrelation among the vegetation.
Tree structure analysis was done using 10 x 10 m quadrats. Two sample plots or
quadrats (5x5m) which were nested within 100m2 plots were used for shrubs and
four1m2 (1m X 1m) sample plots which were also nested within 100 m 2 were
used to enumerate herbs.
2. On the basis of altitudinal gradient, the whole study area was divided into four
altitudinal ranges viz. 1000 to 1500m asl,1500 to 2000m asl, 2000-2500m asl
204
and 2500m to 3000masl north and south facing aspects. All the ranges come
under sub-tropical to temperateforest according to the classification of
Champion and Seth.
3. For recording the flora of the study area, extensive field survey was conducted
from June 2011 to January 2013 (For two successive years). The plant diversity
consisted of 262 species of angiospermand 82 families (76 dicots and 6
monocots). Only 3 species (3 genera and 1 family) of gymnosperms were
recorded during study period.
4. Among 262 species of angiosperm, there were 42 tree species, 56 shrub and 164
herb species.
5. Woodfordia fruticosa, Murraya koenigii, Urtica dioica, Berberis aristata, Rubus

ellipticus, Eupatorium adenophorum, Lantana camara, Pyracantha crenulata,
Debregeasia longifolia, Elsholtzia flava, Cotoneaster microphyllum, Principia
utilis, Girardinia heterophylla, Sarcococca saligna, Rosa burnonii,Daphane
paparacea, Mahonia borealis were found dominant shrub species.While Oxalis
corniculata, Inula cappa, Cynodon dactylon, Gnaphalium affine, Centalla
asiatica, Parthenium hysterophorus, Artemisia japonica, Rainwardtia indica,
Strobilanthes wallichii, Polygonum capitatum, Fagopyrum esculentum,
Oenother arosea, Micromeria biflora, Senecio nudicaulis, Veronica cana,
Potentilla fulgens, Poa annua, Fragaria nubicola, Carex alata, Caltha palastris,
Geranium wallichianum, Erigeron spp, Polygonumam plexicaule, and
Polygonumm acrophyllum were the common herb species found in all the forest
sites.
6. The overall structural pattern of the present forest sites revealed that the sites
II,III were dominated by Quercus leucotrichophora while site I was dominated
by Pinusroxburghiiand Site IV was dominated by Quercus semecarpifolia and
Abies pindrow.
205
7. The total density of the trees was found highest in site III and lowest in site IV.
The seedling density of study sites ranged from 280 to 11790 individuals ha -1 at
IV andIII sites, respectively. Across all the sites, the maximum IVI (111.9) was
recorded for Abies pindrow at site IVfollowed by Quercus semecarpifolia
(100.6).
8. The natural regeneration of dominating tree species was very poor in higher
altitude. But there was good number of seedling of secondary tree species in
othersites i.e. Toona ciliata, Myrica esculenta, Lynoia ovalifolia, Prunus
cerasoides, Rhododendron arboretum etc during the study period.
9. The abundance to frequency ratio revealed that majority of species was

contagious distributed whereas the remaining species exhibit randomly
distribution.
10. The value for tree diversity and dominance are well within the range as reported
for various temperate zones.
11. Alpha diversity expresses the species richness in a community or given area. In
present investigation alpha diversity was recorded highest at site for tree sapling
and seedling layer while site exhibited highest alpha diversity
12. Higher the value of H greater is the species diversity in the community. The
highest value of H for tree of H for tree species was recorded at site I being 2.53
and lowest 1.35 at site IV.
13. Anaphalis triplinervis, Oxalis corniculata, Parthenium hysterophorus, Cynodon

dactylon,Polygonum plebeium, Gnaphalium hypoleucum, Polygonumam
plexicaule and Potentilla fulgens were the species showed wider niche width at
different sites or in particular community. Which explain their vast range of
adaptability along different environmental and altitudinal gradients.
14. The mathematical models based on traditional Lotka-Volterra competition

equation derived in the investigation infer that the dominant species of a forest
206
behaves as a superior competitor and wins in competition by decreasing the
growth of other species.
15. Quercus leucotrichophora at site II was the species which remained dominant
over all other species and only two species exhibited same degree of competition
K1=K2 and Quercus leucotrichophora had upper hand in competition.
16. In the site I the community was completely dominant by Pinus roxburghii and
co-dominated by Toona ciliata,Quercus leucotrichophora.
17. In site III the community is again dominant Quercus leucotrichophora and
possessed some population of Alnus nepalensis, Daphniphyllum himalense,
Lyonia ovalifolia, Myrica esculenta, Quercus floribunda and Rhododendron
arboreum were the dominant tree species.
18. At site IV Abies pindrow and Quercus semecarpifolia displayed winning nature
in this forest patch. In this the results of the competition revealed that maximum
species were trying to make a stable equilibrium by inhibiting their own growth.
19. Generally, the dominating species exhibited their wining competitive nature in
all stage of life. But sometimes co–dominating species also win the competition
exclude the dominant species by arriving at stable equilibrium K2=N2 and N1=0.
Such types of conditions were observed in the present study site. This indicated
that in near future the co-dominated species would emerge as a dominant
species.
Socio-economic study
20. The average family size varied between 7.9 person per households in Ramaraand
7.3 per household in Farika. The sex ratio (females/thousand males) ranged
between 933 in Ramara and 1036 in Farika village.
21. The literacy rate was above 65% in two villages; most of people were educated
between grades 5 and 10 in Ramara village area and above grade 10 in the
207
Farika village. 33% and 25% people were uneducated, and the majority of those
were older.
22. Agriculture was the main occupation of those villages. More than 70% of the
agricultural fields in the Ramara village and about 60% in the Farika village
were rain fed.
23. Vegetables such as Radish, Mustard leaf, Bean, Potato, Pea,Spinich and fruits
from agricultural land were sold on the open market to earn money. Dairy
production was the second largest sources of employment in Ramara village.
24. Fodder consumed per house hold per day was 38.31 and 30.00 kg in Ramara and
Farika villages respectively
25. Dairy farming was one of the major occupation in the Ramaravillage, it
accounted for a higher number of animals per household (7.7) compared with
the Farika (5.5) village.
26. Average fuelwood consumption per household per day was recorded as 23.34
and 13.26 kg for Ramara, and Farika villages, respectively.
27. The Ramara forest is extremely dense and diverse compared with the Farika
forest. We recorded 16tree species in the Ramara forest and 12 tree species in
the Farika forest which are fulfill the requirement of villagers.
28. Extraction of lichens was the one of employment of those villagers.Estimates

indicate that a professional person can collect between 6 and 12 kg of lichens a
day from a lichen-rich forest and local villagers collect 3-5 kg.Lichens are sold
at 100-130/kg on local market. After grading and trading its value become
double or triple.
29. Pinus roxburghii, Quercus leucotrichophora, Abies pindrow and Quercus

semecarpifolia are lopped for fuel wood, fodder for the domestic animals, timber
for house construction and industrial raw material in the study area. Oak forest
208
has been subjected to maximum change through decline in density after heavy
anthropogenic disturbances.
209
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239
3
North aspect
2.5
2 Site I
Value
Site II
1.5
Site III
1 Site IV
0.5
0
Simpson Shannon Margalef Evenness
Dominance diversity parameter
3 South aspect
2.5
2 Site I
Value
Site II
1.5
Site III
1 Site IV
0.5
0
Simpson Shannon Margalef Evenness
Dominance diversity parameter
Figure7: Dominance diversity parameter in tree species
240
3 3
North aspect
South aspect
2 2
Site I Site I
Value
Value
1 Site II 1 Site II
Site III Site III
0 0
Site IV Site IV
Dominance diversity parameter in summer Dominance diversity parameter in summer

season season
South
4 North 3
aspect
aspect
3
2
Site I Site I
2
Value
Site II Value Site II

1
1 Site III Site III
0 Site IV 0 Site IV
Dominance diversity parameter in rainy season Dominance diversity parameter in rainy season
North South
3 aspect 3
aspect
2 Site I 2 Site I
Value
Value
1 Site II 1 Site II
0 Site III Site III

0
Site IV Site IV
Dominance diversity parameter in winter season Dominance diversity paremeter in winter season
Figure 8: Dominance diversity parameter in shrub species at different season
241
3 3 South
North
aspect
aspect
2 2
Site I Site I
Value
Value
1 Site II 1 Site II
Site III Site III
0 0
Site IV Site IV
Dominance diversity parameter in summer Dominance diversity parameter in summer

season season
North
4 aspect 3.5 South
3 aspect
3 2.5
Site I 2 Site I
2
1.5
Value
Value
Site II Site II
1 1
Site III 0.5 Site III
0 Site IV 0 Site IV
Dominance diversity parameter in rainy season Dominance diversity parameter in rainy season
North
4 South
aspect 4 aspect
3 3
Site I Site I
2 2
Value
Value
Site II Site II
1 Site III 1 Site III
0 Site IV 0 Site IV
Dominance diversity parameter in winter season Dominance diversity parameter in winter season
Figure9: Dominance diversity parameter inherb species at different season
242
Fabaceae
Rosaceae
Asteraceae
58%
Poaceae
Lamiaceae
Polygonaceae
Other
Figure 4: Percentage contribution of angiospermic families in study area
Gymnosperma
93%
Dicotyledones
Monocot
Figure 5: Percentage contribution of angiosperms, dicots and monocots in

the study area
243
120
North aspect
100
Importance Value Index
80
PRDF QLDF
60
QSDF AKDF
40
20
0
Species---------------------n
120
South aspect
100
80
PRDF QLDF
60
QSDF AKDF
40
20
0
Species ---------------------n
Figure 10: Tree species showing dominance diversity curve
244
40 45

35 40
35
30

30
25 PRDF PRDF
25
QLDF QLDF
20
QSDF 20 QSDF
15
AKDF 15 AKDF
10
10
5
5
0 0
Species-------------------n Species ------------------n
Figure 11: Shrub species showing dominance diversity curve
50 40
South aspect
45 North aspect
35
40
30
35
PRDF 25 PRDF
30
QLDF QLDF
25 20
QSDF QSDF
20
15
AKDF AKDF
15
10
10
5
5
0 0
Species-----------------n Species-----------------n
Figure 12: Herb species showing dominance diversity curve
245
Studyarea
Figure 1: Map of study area
Figure 2: Location map of Western Ramganga Watershed
246
-
A B
C D
E F
Plate 1: A-GloriosasuperbiaB- AbrusprecatorusC- Murrayakoenigii D-

Rhusparviflora E & F- Callicarpamacrophylla
247
A B
C D E
F G H
Plate 2:A-Centallaasiatica B-Osbeckiastellata C- Arisaemaflavum D-

Neriumoleander E- Polygonumemodei F- Rubusellipticus G- Rubusnivenus
H- Cotoneaster microphyllus
248
A B C
D E F
G H I
Plate 3: A- Sarcococcasaligna B- Codonopsis ovate C- Prinsepiautilis D-

HedychiumspicatumE- Clintonia borealis F- Elsholtziaflava G-Erigeron
karvinskianus H- Senaciochrysanthemoides I- Swertiacordata
249
A B C
D E F
G H I
Plate 4: A-Prunella vulgaris B-Rubiacordifolia C-Sedum imbricatum D-

Anemone rivularis E-Arisaemajacqmontei F- Calthapalustris G-
Polygonummacrophyllum H- Gaultheria nummularioides I-Mahonia
borealis
250
A B
C D
E F
Plate 5: A-DaehniphyllumhimalayenseB- Irexdipyrena C-

LynoiaovalifoliaD- Orxylumindicum E- Erythrinasuberosa F- Bauhinia
variegata
251
Plate 6: Non Timber Forest Products collection of studied villages
252

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VEGETATION ANALYSIS ALONG AN ALTITUDINAL

GRADIENT IN FORESTS OF WESTERN RAMGANGA

KUMAUN UNIVERSITY, NANITAL

FOR THE DEGREE OF

DR. A. K. YADAVA HIMANSHU PANDEYA

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Forest resources of the Himalaya are shrinking in size due to over-exploitation

This work could not be reached completion without positive thoughts,

It is hard for me to find words to express my sincere gratitude and

I am highly grateful to Prof. Jeet Ram, Head Department of Forestry

I also acknowledge the support and continuous guidance which I

I am extremely thankful to Shri Hem Gairola, Director, Centre for

I wish to express my sincere thanks to all my friends; Vikas, Kailash,

I am especially thankful to my wife, Smt. Mamta Pandey as without

Last but not least, I fell paucity of words to express adequately my

Date HIMANSHU PANDEYA

PRDF Pinusroxburghii dominant forest.

1. Pandeya, H. and Yadava, A.K. (2015). APhytosociological Analysis in

2. Pandeya, H. and Yadava, A.K. (2014). Vegetation analysis along an altitudinal

The Himalaya is world‟s sixth largest bio regions. It is recognized

Physical structure in terms of diversity in topographical setup, soil

Gauthier et al. (2000) reported that the vegetation dynamics of

Unfortunately, all of above concerns raised elsewhere are true to

Forest soil plays an important role by influencing the vegetative

Variation in species diversity along environmental gradient is a

The study of species diversity is helpful to understanding

Himalayan biodiversity is severely threatened by natural and

Forests and forest wealth are equally important for sustenance of

In view of above facts, present study was mainly aimed at

1. To make an inventory of vegetation composition of different forest

1.1. Description of study area

1.1.1. Study area

The state of Uttarakhand is situated in the northern part of India and

1.2.Geography of the area

Tectonics plays an important role in the development of the

The high-grade Ramganga rock group of Cambrain age, comprising

The mean annual rainfall was 450 mm to 765 mm during2011-13.

Soil is a natural product of the environment. Native soil forms the

The growth of vegetation depends upon the nutrient supplying

Soil organic matter (SOM) is a major terrestrial pool for carbon,

Vegetation plays an important role in soil formation (Chapman and

According to Sexana and Singh(1982), Himalaya offers and array of

In a Central Himalayan forest study, Singh et al., (2007) recorded that

Effect of micro site variation on four important multipurpose shrub

2.3 Materials and Methods

2.3.1 Physical parameters of the soil

2.3.1.2 Soil Temperature

Soil temperature was be measured at 10 cm depth on each sampling

2.3.1.3 Water holding capacity (WHC)

Where V1 = volume of water poured, and V2 = volume of water

2.3.1.4 Soil moisture content

2.3.1.5 Soil texture

Soil texture was observed by using sieves of different pore sizes.

2.3.2 Chemical parameters of soil

Dried soil samples were passed through 2 mm sieve. Soil suspension

2.3.2.2 Soil organic carbon

Where K is standard value and W is the weight of the sample in grams

2.3.2.3 Soil organic matter

Corrected ml of N/70 HCl = plant tissue titrate of N/70 HCl – reagent