International Journal of Environment and Climate Change

Volume 13, Issue 9, Page 2578-2590, 2023; Article no.IJECC.103456

ISSN: 2581-8627
(Past name: British Journal of Environment & Climate Change, Past ISSN: 2231–4784)

A Systematic Review on Challenges

and Conservation Strategies for
Marine Megafauna
Suman Kashyap a, Morajdhwaj Chandravanshi b++*,
Praveen Kumar Meena c#, Gaurav Dubey d,
Arpit Singh Yadav e#, Hiren Das f† and Prashant Tiwari c
a
Agronomy, College of Agriculture and Research Station, Indira Gandhi Agriculture University,
Raipur, C.G., India.
b
Department of Agronomy, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur,
Bihar, India.
c
Department of Agroforestry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India.
d
Nagaland University, India.
e
Soil Science- Soil Water Conservation, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India.
f
Department of Soil Science, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-13, Assam, India.

Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/IJECC/2023/v13i92491

Open Peer Review History:

This journal follows the Advanced Open Peer Review policy. Identity of the Reviewers, Editor(s) and additional Reviewers,
peer review comments, different versions of the manuscript, comments of the editors, etc are available here:
https://www.sdiarticle5.com/review-history/103456

Received: 16/05/2023
Systematic Review Article Accepted: 21/07/2023
Published: 02/08/2023

ABSTRACT
Marine megafauna play pivotal roles in oceanic ecosystems, contributing to their health,
functionality, and biodiversity. These species are facing escalating threats, from direct harms such
as overhunting to indirect pressures like habitat degradation and climate change. This systematic
review explores the challenges confronting marine megafauna, examines current conservation
strategies, and explores innovative future strategies. Current efforts, while beneficial, often fail to
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
++
Ph.D.;
#
M.Sc (Ag);
†
Phd Scholar;
*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];
Int. J. Environ. Clim. Change, vol. 13, no. 9, pp. 2578-2590, 2023
 Kashyap et al.; Int. J. Environ. Clim. Change, vol. 13, no. 9, pp. 2578-2590, 2023; Article no.IJECC.103456

address socio-economic factors and cumulative threat impacts, and lack robust long-term outcome
evaluations. Potential strategies, leveraging emerging technologies, climate-smart conservation,
sustainable blue economies, and rights-based approaches, are discussed. Despite their potential,
these strategies present challenges, necessitating further interdisciplinary, social, cumulative
impact, and long-term monitoring research. Understanding and addressing these aspects is
essential for the development of holistic, effective, and sustainable marine megafauna conservation
strategies. Future research should address gaps in species-specific knowledge, socio-economic
understanding, cumulative threat assessments, and long-term conservation outcomes to provide a
more comprehensive approach towards the protection of these vital species.

Keywords: Megafauna; conservation; threats; innovation; research.

1. INTRODUCTION ecosystem-level management, which can have

far-reaching benefits for biodiversity and
Marine megafauna, a diverse group of large- ecosystem health [9]. Lastly, these charismatic
bodied organisms that inhabit the oceans, species serve as important flagships for marine
including cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and conservation, drawing attention to issues that
porpoises), pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and may otherwise be overlooked [10].
walruses), sirenians (dugongs and manatees),
marine reptiles (turtles and marine iguanas), and Given the complexity and scale of the challenges
large fish species (sharks, rays, and tunas), have facing marine megafauna, a systematic review of
a profound influence on the structure and the current knowledge on these issues is
function of marine ecosystems [1]. These warranted. This review will allow us to evaluate
species serve as keystone species, modulating the effectiveness of current conservation
biodiversity and ecosystem productivity, aiding in strategies and identify knowledge gaps that need
nutrient cycling, and impacting commercial to be addressed. As recent advancements in
fisheries [2]. Their large body sizes, relatively technologies such as satellite tagging and
long lifespans, and wide-ranging behaviors make genetic analysis have provided unprecedented
them highly influential within their ecosystems, insights into the life histories, behaviors, and
but also particularly susceptible to human- threats facing these species [11], a
induced changes [3]. As apex predators and comprehensive synthesis of this new knowledge
ecosystem engineers, they also have a strong will be invaluable in informing future research
influence on the trophic dynamics and physical and conservation actions. Systematic reviews, by
structure of their environments [4]. For example, nature, provide a transparent and replicable
cetaceans, through their feeding and defecation means of synthesizing a large body of research,
behaviors, help transport nutrients across thereby minimizing bias and providing a reliable
different oceanic zones, thereby contributing foundation for decision-making [12]. In the
significantly to primary productivity and the context of marine megafauna conservation, such
biological carbon pump [5]. Despite their a review will allow us to consolidate information
importance, many species of marine megafauna on the diverse array of threats faced by these
are under threat due to a multitude of species, evaluate the efficacy of existing
anthropogenic factors including overfishing, conservation strategies, and highlight priority
bycatch, pollution, habitat degradation, and areas for future action. It will contribute to the
climate change [6].The International Union for development of evidence-based conservation
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed a strategies, ensuring that resources are allocated
significant proportion of these species as in a manner that maximizes their impact on the
vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered, conservation of these ecologically important
underlining the urgency of addressing these species.
threats (Table 1) [7]. The focus on challenges
and conservation strategies for marine 2. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF
megafauna is crucial for several reasons. First, MARINE MEGAFAUNA
as top predators, these species play a key role in
maintaining the balance of marine ecosystems. The study of the history and evolution of marine
Their loss can lead to cascading effects on lower megafauna necessitates diving deep into the
trophic levels, potentially resulting in ecosystem annals of Earth's past, as these species are an
instability [8]. Second, the conservation of these integral part of our planet's natural history (Table
species often necessitates broad-scale, 2). The evolution of marine megafauna is an

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exemplary tale of adaptation and survival, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), the
encapsulating numerous instances of terrestrial largest animal ever known to have lived on Earth,
species re-entering marine habitats, a process and the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus),
known as secondary aquatic adaptation [13]. known for its deep diving abilities and large brain
One of the earliest instances of secondary size [20] The group also includes pinnipeds, such
aquatic adaptation is found in the lineage leading as the elephant seal (Mirounga leonina),
to today's cetaceans, approximately 50 million renowned for its size and long-distance
years ago [14] Archaeocetes, the ancient migrations [21]. Marine reptiles such as the
ancestors of whales, are believed to have leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
evolved from terrestrial, hoofed mammals known and saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) are
as artiodactyls, a group that includes deer, cows, also part of marine megafauna. Among the fish,
and pigs. Through a series of morphological the whale shark (Rhincodon typus), the largest
changes such as the development of a known extant fish species, and the manta ray
streamlined body, paddle-like limbs, and a dorsal (Manta birostris), the largest ray, are notable
blowhole, these terrestrial animals transitioned to members of marine megafauna [22].
a fully aquatic lifestyle [15]. Pinnipeds (seals, sea
lions, and walruses) evolved from terrestrial 4. MARINE MEGAFAUNA TO THE
ancestors around 23 million years ago [16]. Their HEALTH AND FUNCTIONING OF
transition to an aquatic environment is marked by OCEAN ECOSYSTEMS
the evolution of flippers and a fusiform body
shape for efficient swimming. Marine reptiles, Marine megafauna play a pivotal role in
such as sea turtles, also have terrestrial maintaining the health and functioning of ocean
ancestors. It's estimated that their adaptation to ecosystems. They serve as apex predators,
marine life occurred approximately 110 million exerting top-down control on food webs, helping
years ago in the Cretaceous period, and involved to maintain biodiversity and stability in their
significant changes like the development of a ecosystems [23]. Their predation pressure can
flattened, paddle-like limb and a streamlined regulate the abundance and behavior of their
shell [17]. Large fish species, including sharks, prey, with effects cascading down to lower
have an even older evolutionary history, dating trophic levels, a phenomenon known as trophic
back approximately 420 million years [18]. These cascades [24]. Marine megafauna contribute to
species have evolved a range of unique nutrient cycling. Whales, for instance, play a vital
adaptations to their marine environment, such as role in the 'biological pump', facilitating the
electroreception and the ability to osmoregulate transfer of nutrients from nutrient-rich deep
in varying salinities. waters to the nutrient-poor surface waters [25].
This 'whale pump' enhances primary productivity,
3. MARINE MEGAFAUNA which in turn, supports higher trophic levels. The
large-scale movements of marine megafauna
Marine megafauna are typically defined as connect disparate marine ecosystems, both
marine species that reach a large size at horizontally across latitudes and longitudes, and
adulthood, usually exceeding 100 kg in weight vertically across depths. These movements aid in
[19]. This group is characterized by its broad the transportation and distribution of energy and
taxonomic diversity, encompassing various nutrients, influencing productivity and diversity in
classes of vertebrates including mammals, various ecosystems [26]. Consequently, the loss
reptiles, and fish (Table 3). Examples of marine or reduction of marine megafauna can have far-
mammalian megafauna include cetaceans like reaching consequences, leading to ecosystem
Table 1. Threats, current and innovative conservation strategies for selected marine
megafauna species
Species Main threats Current conservation Potential innovative strategies
strategies
Blue Ship strikes, noise Marine Protected Areas Use of AI and remote sensing for
Whale pollution, climate change (MPAs), shipping regulation monitoring and management
Sea Bycatch, habitat Nesting beach protection, eDNA for population monitoring,
Turtles degradation, climate bycatch reduction devices climate-smart conservation
change
Dugong Hunting, habitat loss, Hunting restrictions, seagrass Rights-based approaches,
pollution habitat conservation sustainable blue economy
initiatives

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Table 2. Key events in the history and evolution of selected marine megafauna

Period (millions Evolutionary events Species

of years ago)
220-200 First appearance of ichthyosaurs, marine reptiles resembling Ichthyosaurs
dolphins
110-90 First appearance of plesiosaurs, long-necked marine reptiles Plesiosaurs
66-30 Evolution and diversification of early cetaceans (whales, Early
dolphins, and porpoises) from land-dwelling ancestors Cetaceans
35-30 Evolution of the first sirenians, including ancestors of dugongs Early
and manatees Sirenians
15-10 Diversification of baleen whales following the development of Baleen
baleen plates for filter feeding Whales
6-4 Evolution of modern sea turtle lineages Modern Sea
Turtles
5-2 Diversification of pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses) Pinnipeds
2-0 Evolution and diversification of modern cetacean species Modern
Cetaceans

Image 1. Mismatches in scale between highly mobile marine megafauna and marine protected
areas
(Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/)

instability and loss of resilience [27]. for the survival of these species, but also
Understanding and mitigating the threats to for the overall health and functioning
marine megafauna, and developing effective of our planet's marine ecosystems.
conservation strategies is not only crucial

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Image 2. Traits shared by marine megafauna and their relationships with ecosystem functions
and services
(Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/)

Table 3. Overview of selected marine megafauna species

Species Defining Features Typical Habitat Role in Ecosystem

Blue Whale The largest animal ever to Found in all the As predators, they play a key
have lived on Earth, world's oceans, role in maintaining the health of
reaching up to 100 feet in except the Arctic, the ecosystem. Their fecal
length. primarily in cold, plumes also promote primary
productive waters. productivity by increasing
nutrient availability.
Great White Notable for their size, with They are found in They are apex predators,
Shark larger females individuals cool, coastal waters maintaining the species below
growing up to 20 feet in all over the world. them in the food chain and
length. serving as an indicator for
ocean health.
Leatherback The largest of all living They are found in the They influence jellyfish
Turtle turtles and the fourth- open ocean, as far populations, helping to keep
heaviest modern reptile. north as Alaska and these potentially explosive
as far south as the populations in check.
southern tip of Africa.
Dugong A medium-sized marine Found in warm They influence seagrass
mammal, it is one of four coastal waters from ecosystems and associated
living species of the order the western Pacific species as prolific grazers.
Sirenia, which also Ocean to the eastern
includes three species of coast of Africa.
manatees.

5. METHODOLOGY Initial searches were performed using online

databases such as Web of Science, PubMed,
The process for selecting studies and articles for ScienceDirect, JSTOR, and Google Scholar. The
this systematic review adhered to the PRISMA search strategy was developed using a
(Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic combination of keywords and controlled
Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines [28]. vocabulary relevant to the review topic. The

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keywords included terms such as "marine of the included studies [30]. The findings were
megafauna", "conservation", "challenges", grouped and analyzed based on the type of
"threats", "strategies", and "ecosystem". Boolean marine megafauna, the challenges they face,
operators ("AND", "OR") were used to link the and the conservation strategies discussed.
terms, refining the search. Studies and articles Trends and patterns across the studies were
published in English from 2000 until 2023 were identified, and the implications of these findings
considered. The search focused on original for the conservation of marine megafauna were
research articles, literature reviews, reports, and discussed.
policy documents. Conference proceedings,
theses, dissertations, and book chapters were 6. CHALLENGES FACED BY MARINE
also considered if they met the inclusion criteria. MEGAFAUNA
The titles and abstracts of the returned results
were screened for relevance. If they seemed to 6.1 Specific Threats to Different Species
address the topic of challenges and conservation of Marine Megafauna
strategies for marine megafauna, the full text was
retrieved and assessed for eligibility. This Marine megafauna face a multitude of threats,
screening process was carried out independently both direct and indirect, stemming from human
by two reviewers, and disagreements were activities. These threats are multifaceted, varying
resolved through discussion or the involvement across species and geographies, and are often
of a third reviewer. interconnected, exacerbating their impacts.
5.1 Criteria Used to Evaluate the Quality 6.1.1 Direct threats
and Relevance of the Sources
1. Hunting: Historically, marine megafauna
The quality and relevance of the sources were have been targeted for their meat, blubber,
evaluated using predefined criteria. For a source bones, and other body parts. For instance,
to be considered relevant, it had to focus on whaling decimated numerous cetacean
marine megafauna, addressing either the th
populations globally during the 19 and
challenges they face or the strategies employed th
20 centuries [31] Although commercial
for their conservation. The quality of the sources whaling has largely ceased due to
was assessed using a critical appraisal tool, international regulations, some countries
adapted from the Joanna Briggs Institute's critical still practice whaling for scientific research
appraisal tools for use in JBI systematic reviews or cultural purposes [32]. Similarly, hunting
[29]. The tool evaluated the methodological of seals for fur, meat, and oil has impacted
quality of the studies based on parameters like populations in the Arctic and sub-Arctic
clarity of objectives, appropriateness of design, regions [33].
adequacy of sample size, soundness of data 2. Bycatch and Entanglement: Bycatch, the
collection and analysis methods, and credibility unintentional capture of non-target species
of results and conclusions. A source was in fishing gear, is a significant threat to
considered of high quality if it met most of the marine megafauna. Dolphins, turtles,
criteria on the appraisal tool. Low-quality sources sharks, and seals are often caught in
were excluded from the review. gillnets, trawls, and longlines, leading to
serious injury or death [34]. In addition,
5.2 Process for Extracting and discarded or lost fishing gear, known as
Synthesizing Data from the Sources ghost gear, can entangle marine
megafauna, causing drowning, impaired
Data extraction was performed using a movement, or infection [35].
standardized form designed to capture
information pertinent to the review objectives. 6.1.2 Indirect threats
The extracted data included the author(s), year
of publication, type of marine megafauna studied, 1. Habitat Degradation: Coastal
location of study, key findings related to the development, pollution, and destructive
challenges faced by the species, and fishing practices can degrade marine
conservation strategies proposed or habitats, affecting the food resources,
implemented. Data synthesis was conducted breeding grounds, and migratory routes of
through a narrative synthesis approach, given marine megafauna. For instance, coral reef
the likely heterogeneity in the types and designs degradation due to blast fishing and ocean

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acidification can reduce the habitat and 6.4 Conservation Strategies in Place
prey availability for species like the manta
ray [36]. Various conservation strategies have been
2. Climate Change Impacts: Climate developed and implemented to protect marine
change, through increasing ocean megafauna. These strategies are often multi-
temperatures, acidification, sea level rise, faceted, combining legal, technical, and socio-
and shifts in ocean currents, can disrupt economic approaches.
the life cycles and distribution of marine
megafauna. Changes in sea ice extent due 1. Protected Areas: The establishment of
to global warming can affect ice-dependent Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and
species like polar bears and seals [37]. Marine Reserves is a critical tool for the
Warmer sea temperatures can also alter protection of marine megafauna. These
the distribution of prey species, forcing areas limit or prohibit activities like fishing
predators like sharks and whales to shift and resource extraction, allowing species
their ranges [38]. to recover [42].
2. Legislation and Regulation: International
6.2 Exploration of Case Studies treaties, national laws, and regulations are
Illustrating These Threats also key. The Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
1. Vaquita (Phocoena sinus) Bycatch: The controls the trade of marine megafauna
vaquita, the world’s smallest and most species and their products, while the
endangered marine mammal, provides a International Whaling Commission (IWC)
stark example of the impact of bycatch. regulates whaling activities [43]. National
Found only in the Gulf of California, legislation, such as the U.S. Endangered
Mexico, their population has plummeted Species Act and Marine Mammal
due to accidental entanglement in gillnets Protection Act, offers additional protection.
used for fishing totoaba, a critically 3. Bycatch Reduction: Bycatch reduction
endangered fish also found in the Gulf [39]. strategies, such as modifications to fishing
2. Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys gear (e.g., turtle excluder devices, bird-
coriacea) and Climate Change: scaring lines), spatial and temporal fishing
Leatherback sea turtles, the largest of all restrictions, and bycatch quotas, have
living turtles, are experiencing threats from been developed to reduce the incidental
climate change. Rising temperatures can capture of marine megafauna [44].
skew sex ratios in hatchlings as the sex of 4. Community Engagement and
these turtles is temperature-dependent. Education: Engaging local communities
Moreover, sea level rise and increased and improving public awareness is
storm activity can erode and destroy their fundamental. Community-based
nesting beaches [40]. conservation programs, such as
ecotourism and citizen science projects,
6.3 Severity and Urgency of These can provide alternative livelihoods and
Challenges encourage stewardship of marine
resources [45].
The severity and urgency of these challenges
cannot be overstated. The IUCN Red List of 6.5 Evaluation of the Effectiveness of
Threatened Species reports alarming statistics: These Strategies
33% of shark species, 5 out of 7 species of
marine turtles, and 26% of marine mammal The effectiveness of conservation strategies
species are threatened with extinction [41]. varies, influenced by factors like enforcement,
These numbers underscore the immediate need funding, political will, and community support.
to address the threats facing marine megafauna.
The urgency is further heightened by the fact that 1. Protected Areas: While MPAs can be
marine megafauna, as apex predators and effective in increasing species abundance
ecosystem engineers, play vital roles in and diversity, their success often hinges on
maintaining the structure and function of marine proper management and enforcement [46].
ecosystems. The loss or decline of these species 2. Legislation and Regulation: International
could trigger cascading effects, leading to treaties and national legislation have made
ecosystem instability and loss of biodiversity. significant strides in marine megafauna

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conservation. For instance, the ban on to be adaptable and resilient to changing

commercial whaling by the IWC has conditions [53].
allowed several whale populations to
recover [47]. However, compliance and 9. INNOVATIONS AND FUTURE
enforcement remain challenging. STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION
3. Bycatch Reduction: Bycatch reduction
strategies can effectively reduce The future of marine megafauna conservation
megafauna mortality. For instance, the use will hinge on developing and applying innovative
of turtle excluder devices has significantly strategies, rooted in advances in science and
reduced sea turtle bycatch in shrimp trawl technology, policy, and social engagement.
fisheries [48].The adoption of such
strategies is not universal and often faces 1. Emerging Technologies: The rise of
resistance from fishers. technologies such as artificial intelligence
4. Community Engagement and (AI), remote sensing, and environmental
Education: These efforts are critical for DNA (eDNA) offer exciting opportunities for
long-term conservation success. Yet, they marine conservation. For instance, AI can
are often under-resourced and aid in identifying and tracking marine
undervalued, and their impacts can be megafauna, enhancing monitoring and
challenging to measure. research capabilities [54]. eDNA, on the
other hand, can provide non-invasive
methods of detecting and monitoring
7. CASE STUDIES OF SUCCESSFUL
species in the ocean, offering a powerful
CONSERVATION EFFORTS tool for conservation [55].
2. Climate-Smart Conservation: As climate
1. Humpback Whale Recovery: The change continues to impact marine
humpback whale is a compelling example ecosystems, conservation strategies need
of successful conservation. Once near to be 'climate-smart'-considering how
extinction due to commercial whaling, their climate change affects marine megafauna
numbers have rebounded since the and their habitats and implementing
international moratorium on commercial adaptive measures [56].
whaling in 1982, demonstrating the power 3. Sustainable Blue Economy: The 'Blue
of regulatory action [49]. Economy' concept emphasizes the
2. Sea Turtle Conservation in Costa Rica: sustainable use of ocean resources for
The community-based conservation economic growth, improved livelihoods,
program in Tortuguero, Costa Rica, has and jobs while preserving the health of the
played a crucial role in the recovery of ocean ecosystem. It promotes sustainable
green turtle populations. This program fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, and other
combines research, ecotourism, and marine-based industries that can support
community engagement, providing an conservation goals [57].
economically viable alternative to turtle egg 4. Rights-Based Approaches: Indigenous
poaching [50]. and local communities often have deep
connections with marine megafauna.
8. EXPLORATION OF CHALLENGES IN Recognizing and strengthening these
IMPLEMENTING THESE STRATEGIES communities' rights to manage their local
marine resources can be a potent
Implementing these strategies is fraught with conservation strategy, fostering
challenges, including enforcement difficulties, stewardship and local buy-in [58].
economic pressures, and socio-political conflicts.
For example, MPAs often face issues of illegal 10. ANALYSIS OF THE POTENTIAL
fishing and resource extraction, highlighting the BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF
need for effective enforcement mechanisms [51]. THESE STRATEGIES
Similarly, economic and cultural pressures can
hinder the adoption of bycatch reduction While these innovative strategies hold great
technologies and the compliance with promise, they also come with potential
conservation regulations [52]. Climate change challenges and drawbacks.
exacerbates these challenges by altering marine
habitats and increasing the uncertainty 1. Emerging Technologies: These
surrounding conservation efforts. Strategies need technologies can enhance data collection

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and monitoring capabilities. However, they remain, hampering the development and
can also be costly, require specialized implementation of effective conservation
skills, and raise privacy and data strategies (Table 4).
ownership issues [59].
2. Climate-Smart Conservation: This 1. Species-Specific Knowledge: For many
approach allows for more resilient species, basic information about their
conservation strategies. However, the biology, life history, habitat use, population
uncertainty associated with climate change status, and response to threats is lacking
projections can make planning difficult [60]. [63]. This paucity of knowledge impedes
3. Sustainable Blue Economy: While this effective species-specific management and
approach can align economic and conservation planning.
conservation goals, it also risks being co- 2. Socio-Economic Factors: Understanding
opted to justify exploitative practices the socio-economic factors that drive
without sufficient safeguards [61]. threats to marine megafauna and influence
4. Rights-Based Approaches: These can the success or failure of conservation
empower local communities and foster interventions is critical. However, these
stewardship, but they also require clear aspects are often understudied, leading to
and equitable rights frameworks and conservation strategies that fail to address
can be challenging to implement in root causes [64].
contexts with weak governance structures 3. Cumulative and Synergistic Threat
[62]. Impacts: While individual threats to marine
megafauna are often studied in isolation,
11. RESEARCH NEEDED TO DEVELOP less is known about the cumulative and
AND IMPLEMENT THESE synergistic impacts of multiple threats,
STRATEGIES such as the combined effects of
overfishing, habitat loss, and climate
To advance these strategies, several areas of change [65].
research are needed: 4. Long-term Conservation Outcome
Evaluation: The long-term effectiveness of
1. Interdisciplinary Research: Developing many conservation strategies remains
effective conservation strategies requires poorly understood, largely due to the lack
an interdisciplinary approach, combining of long-term monitoring and evaluation
insights from biology, ecology, economics, [66].
social sciences, policy, and more.
2. Policy and Governance Research: 13. FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Understanding how to design and BASED ON THESE GAPS
implement effective marine governance
structures and policies is crucial. Addressing these gaps will require concerted
3. Technological Research: Continued research efforts across a range of fields:
research into the development and
application of conservation technologies is 1. Species-Specific Research: Enhanced
vital, from improving data collection efforts to study the biology, ecology, and
methods to developing new analytical behavior of marine megafauna are
tools. needed. This includes the use of novel
4. Community Engagement and Social technologies such as satellite telemetry
Research: Understanding the social and and genomics, which can shed new light
cultural dimensions of marine on aspects like migration patterns,
conservation, including how to effectively population structure, and adaptation to
engage communities and foster local environmental changes.
stewardship, is key. 2. Socio-Economic Research: A greater
focus on the social sciences in marine
12. GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE AND FUTURE megafauna conservation is required, such
RESEARCH DIRECTIONS as studying the socio-economic drivers of
threats and the social impacts of
Despite the significant progress made in conservation interventions. This includes
understanding and conserving marine research on human behavior, economics,
megafauna, important gaps in our knowledge policy, and governance.

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Table 4. Gaps in knowledge and future research directions for marine megafauna conservation

Knowledge Gaps Future Research Directions

Species-Specific Knowledge Enhanced biological, ecological, and behavioral studies on various
marine megafauna species using novel technologies
Socio-Economic Factors Increased focus on socio-economic drivers of threats and impacts of
conservation interventions
Cumulative and Synergistic Interdisciplinary research and development of holistic ecological
Threat Impacts models to understand cumulative threats
Long-term Conservation Investment in long-term monitoring programs and robust evaluation
Outcome Evaluation of conservation interventions

3. Cumulative Impact Assessment: Future and mammals: behaviour patterns,

research should aim to better understand mechanisms and conservation
the cumulative and synergistic impacts of implications. Advances in Marine
multiple threats on marine megafauna. Biology. 2008;54:107-170.
This requires interdisciplinary research and 2. Press MC, Phoenix GK. Impacts of
the development of more complex and parasitic plants on natural communities.
holistic ecological models. New Phytologist. 2005;166(3):737-751.
4. Long-term Monitoring and Evaluation: 3. Burton AC, Sam MK, Balangtaa C,
Increased investment in long-term Brashares JS. Hierarchical multi-species
monitoring programs and robust evaluation modeling of carnivore responses to
of conservation interventions is critical. hunting, habitat and prey in a West African
This will enable us to learn from past protected area. Plos
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