Nutrition and Feeding of Wild

Herbivorous Mammals in Captivity

Summer Institute
May 20 to June 8, 1996
Sponsored by
Indian Council of Agricultural Research

Editors
N. N. Pathak, D. N. Kamra
A. K. Garg and N eeta Agarwal

1996
Centre of Advanced Studies in Animal Nutrition
Indian Veterinary Research Institute
Izatnagar - 243 122, India
 ORGANISING COMMITTEE

Kiran Singh Director, I\nRI, Izatnagar

N. N. Pathak Director, CAS & Stunmer Institute
D. N. Kamra Co-Director, Stunmer Institute
A. K. Garg Co-Director, Summer Institute

Transport & Accommodation Committee

D. K. Agrawal
A. Sahoo
Putan Singh
i ')~"i2 r;,? ,
V':"' , rI
Boarding Committee
R. S. Dass
L. C. Chaudhary
A. K. Verma

Registration and Reception Committee

M. Y. Khan
U.R.Mehra
Neeta Agarwal

No responsibility is assumed by the editors for statements and opinio ~ed by authors.
Published by N.N. Pathak on behalf of the Director, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, ]zatnagar.

La:::cr Typesetting by : Technoprint C-I013, Patel Nagar, Bareilly

Printed by : Lata Instant Printers, BareiJly
 FOREWORD

Realising the need of specialized training programmes for

updating the knowledge of teachers and research workers in the
State Agricultural Universities and LC.A.R. Institutes, the
provision of organising Summer Institutes was made by the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research long back.
The subjects selected for the Summer Institute are by and
large need based. Recently courses on nutrition and feeding of
wild animals have been introduced in the under graduate and
post-gradu~te curricula of the Veterinary Education in India.
However, there is dearth of ,~eachers and instructors for teaching.
these courses in most of the\ colleges and universities.
The selection of such an important topic, i.e. "Nutrition and
feeding of wild herbivorous mammals in captivity" at this juncture
was highly needed. In developing the syllabus of this course
efforts have been made to make it as far as possible diversified.
For the maintenance of ecological balance and also for the
education of young generation, the wild animals are being
provided protections in zoological parks and wildlife sancturies.
The wild animals conserved in captive environment require
feeding and management in simulated wild conditions which need
skillful application of science. It gives me great pleasure that the
lectures of the course have been compiled and printed in the form
of a book. This will be a lasting document and will be useful for
the teachers, students and research workers of Animal Nutrition,
personnels of zoological gardens and those associated with the
management of wild animals in captive environment.
The organisers deserve appreciation for bringing out this
useful publication before starting the course .

Kiran Singh
Director
Indian Veterinary Research Institute
Izatnagar
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction N. N. Pathak 1
2. Classification and brief characteristics
of wild herbivorous mammals Neeta Agarwal 3
3. Nutrition and feeding of wild small
ruminants A. K. Verma 9
4. Energy utilization in wild mammals M. Y. Khan 11

5. Digestion and metabolism in wild

non-ruminant hqrbivores D. K Agarwal 13
f. Nutrition and feeding of primiltes Neeta Agarwal 15

7. Rumen digestion and metabolism in

blackbuck Neelam Kewalramani 20
y. Nutrition and feeding of elephants A. K Garg 21
9. Nutritional demands of gestation D. K Agrawal 24

10. Comparative nutrient utilization in

wild and domestic ruminants R. S. Dass 27
11. Seasonal stress on nutrient
availability and need of supplementary
feeding P. Singh 30
Nutrition and feeding of wild rodents
and lagomorphs P. Singh 33
13. Metabolic problems m wild
herbivorous mammals S. K. Dwivedi 36
14. A brief note on energy cycle N. N. Pathak 38

Nutrition and feeding of wild and

tamed pseudo-ruminants N. N. Pathak 40
16. Scope of tracer techniques and remote
sensing in the feeding management of
wild animals D. D. Mall 42
17. Rumen microbiology of blackbuck and
other wild animals D. N. Kamra 44
18. Effect of environmental pollution on
natural herbage and water resources
and their impact on wild life S. A. Khan 46
li Feed and water resources and feed
selection on wild and captive
environment Narayan Dutta 49
Effect of water deprivation on
performance of wild herbivorous
mammals Murari Lal 51
21. Nutritional problems in wild
herbivorous mammals M. C. Sharma 53
22. Feeding of yak, mithun, gaur and wild
buffalo N. N. Pathak 56
23. Effect of nutrition on antlers growth ASahoo 58

24. Feeding of exotic wild herbivores

(non-ruminants) kept in Indian zoos N. Haque 62
25. Zoo forestry and nutritional
management Raman Malik 65
26. Nutrition of exotic wild ruminants
kept in Indian zoos A. Sahoo 66
27. Feeding and nutrition of Indian deer U sha R. Mehra 71

28. Nutrition and Feeding of Rhinoceros S. S. Sengar 75

29. Microbial digestion of feed in

non-ruminant herbivorous wild
animals D.N.Kamra 77
30. Digestion and metabolism in wild
ruminants Neeta Agarwal 78
31. Scope of rearing wild herbivores for
food production L. C. Chaudhary 82
32. Feed selection and feeding behaviour
of wild herbivorous ruminants In
natural habitats Kusumakar Sharma 83
List of authors 89
 INTRODUCTION

The term "Wild Life" deals with the animals which are not
yet domesticated and live away from the human habitat. These
wild animals have been cornered to some isolated pockets of
forest scattered in Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions,
some hilly parts of central plateau, coastal hills of eastern ghats
and western ghats and some dense equatorial forests in South
India. In previous time, these dense forests were untouched
areas and they provided safe ' unpolluted herbage and high
survival rate. With the advancement of transport man has
intruded thes·e wild life areas. Extensive deforestation and
indiscriminate hunting have caused great ecological imbalance.
These factors have disastrous effect on the wild life and many
wild species are leading towards extinction and are being
grouped under endangered species.
Spread of education to make man understand that the
flora and fauna of the country is an asset for them, their
attitude towards wild life is changing. Now it is a common
man's conception that it is their duty to protect the wild
creatures for which they have to be educated about these
creatures.
To understand the wild life although studies are being
made on various aspects of their habits and biological functions,
but these are mostly designed for research in laboratory
conditions. However, true picture of behaviour can be obtained
only by keeping these animals in a simulated natural
conditions. In order to provide protection to the wild animals, to
maintain ecological balance and education to man, a series of
natural parks and wild life sanctuaries have been established
in different parts of India like Gir for lion, Dudhwa and Corbett
for Barahsingha, several other deer species, tiger and other
large cats, Kaziranga and Manas for Indian rhinoceros, Indian
wild buffalo, gaur and golden langur etc. Under the children
education programme for awareness about the nature, zoos and
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botanical gardens are being established extensively. More
advanced zoos are being established with forests, pool and even
artificial falls wherever necessary.
For the proper maintenance of wild animals in captive
environment, trained personnels are required. Like any other
species feeding of animals is one of the most expensive and
skilled aspect. Due to this reason specialized courses on wild life
feeding and health management have been introduced in the
Universities. To cater this need a comprehensive course on
"Nutrition and Feeding of wild herbivorous mammals in
captivity", is being organised as a Summer Institute.

N.N.PATHAK

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 Classification and brief characteristics of wild
herbivorous mammals
Neeta Agarwal

The gr~up of animals having 11. Brain is highly developed with

mammary glands on females for well developed cerebrum and
suckling the young ones is called cerebellum.
mammals. It is most evolved group 12. ' Testes are descended into scro-
of animals on the universe. The ,tal sacs in majority of cases.
specific characteristics of mammals
are: 13. Males have copulatory organ
called penis.
1. Presence of hair, skin having
various glands. Body is insu- 14. Fertilization is internal.
lated. The phylum mammalia is
2. They are homoiothermous i.e. divided into three classes:
warmblooded. Allotheria-{extinct)
3. Presence of mammary glands Prototheria-Incl udes primi-
in females. tiVe mammals.
4. Except a few ancient forms all The distinct characteristics are:
are viviparous.
1. Mamm.ary glands are withQut
5. Placenta is found. teats and opens directly on the
6. Teeth are situated on both the surface of toe SKin.
jaws in sockets or alveoli. Teeth 2. No external pinna is present.
are rarely absent. Tongue is
3. Teeth are present only in
mobile. Ear is with external ear
young ones, adult with horny
or pinnae. The sense of sight,
beaks.
smell and hearing are · well
developed. 4. The two oviducts open directly
into the cloaca alongwith intes-
7. Fore limbs and hind limbs are
tine and urethra as found in
present. Each foot is with five
birds.
toes adoptedfor walking, run-
ning, climbing, flying, burrow- 5. Cloaca is present.
ing, swimming. 6. Testes abdominal.
8. Respiration by lungs, 7. Uterus or vagina absent.
diaphragm is present between
thoracic and abdominal cavity. 8. Oviparous e.g. Tachyglossus
Larynx with vocal cords. (Echidna), spiny ant eater.
9. Heart is four chambered. Red ,cY Theria
blood cells without nuclei. The distinctive characteristics
10. Urinary bladder is present for of class Theria are:
urine. 1. Mammary gland with teats

-3-
2. External pinna is present 3. Marsupial bone or pouch is ab-
3. Cloaca is absent sent.
4. Testes descend into scrotal sac. Class Eutheria is further
divided in 16 orders with living
5. Teeth are present in young examples. 90rders are extinct.
ones and adults both.
i) Insectivora e.g. Moles, Shrews
6. Uterus, vagina present.
etc. notTound in India.
7. Viviparous.
ii) Dermoptera e.g. flying lemur
It is the largest class of phylum
mammalia and most of the
iii) C..biroptera e.g. small and large
mammals belong to this class. bats.
Class Theria is further divided Edentata e.g. New world ant-
into three sub-classes: eaters (Pangolins)
a} Pantotheria - Extinct Pholidata e.g. Manis (scaly ant
t~aters)
b) Metatheria (Order Mar-
supialia) vi) Cetacea _e.g. Platinista gan-
gelica (Gange's dolphin),
The distinctive characters are: Physeter (sperm whale),
1. Young ones are born prema- Balaenoptera indica (whale
turely after a short gestation. bonewhale).
2. After birth young ones are nur- vii) Carnivora e.g. Panthera sps.
tured in a pouch called mar- (lion), Felis (tigers), leopard,
supium on the abdomen of the cat, hyaena, mongoose, wolf,
female. bear, fox, otter, Asian Panda,
3. Mammary gland open by nip- seal.
ples into the marsupium. viii) Tubulidentata e.g. Oryteropus.
4. There is no allantoic placenta. Herbivores Mammals
5. Monophydont with only one set ix) L~omorpha-
'?"
of teeth e.g. Marcopus
(Australian Kangaroo), Phas- 1. The size is moderate to small.
colarctus (Australian Teddy 2. Incisors two pairs (4 incisors on
)3ear). upper TaW) ' premolors three
cY' Eutheria (Placentals>- above and two below.
This is the biggest subclass of 3. Hind limb strongly developed
class Theria anainclude most of the for jumping.
mammals. The order Lagomorpha
Eutherian mammals are comprises of two families
distinct from Prototheria (a) Leporidae
1. Young ones born in advanced (b) Ochotonidae
stage after a long gestation: (a) Leporidae-Family Leporidae
2. An allantoic placenta is always includes hares and rabbits.
present. Previously they were placed in

-4 -
 the genus Lepus. But recently very selective and would not
considering the several dif- even move in pastures which
ferences between rabbit and rabbits have fould.
hare both these mammals are The Leporidae family has
given separate generic names world-wide distribution. The Indian
Le. Oryctologus for rabbit and sps. are Lepus nigricolis, L.
tepus for hare. ruficaudatus, L.dayanus, L.sincoxi,
-
The major differences heteen L.mahadeva, L.rajput, L.cutchensis,
hare and rabbit are : L.singhala (commonly called
7 Rabbit is fossorial but hare is 'khargosh')

2. ---
nomad. .-
Rabbit can be domestiCated but
hare cannot be as it does not
The true rabbit do not occur in
India but closely related Assam
rabbit or Hispid hare (Caprolagus
thrive well in captivity. hispidus) is found along the foot of
the Himl;llayas from Uttar Pradesh.
3.--- Rabbit is gregarious in nature
while hare is solitary. b) Ochotonidae e.g. Ochotona
4. Wild rabbit is brownish-grey roylei (Himalayan mouse hare).
coloured. Hare is brownish on It is some what like guinea pig.
the upperside while the ventral It has rounded ear with no tail.
side is white. The hair is exceedingly fine,
straight and glossy. Reddish
5. Rabbit is comparatively brown colour but there is con-
smaller than hare. siderable seasonal change in
6. Pinna of rabbit is comparative- colour. Their food vary consid-
ly shott and tips are of same erably with the season. They
colour as the rest of the pinnae feed on coarse grasses. A cap-
while in hare~ae are longer tive specimen ate alpine
and the tip~black in colour. flowers, strawberry leaves, ber-
7.,/ The distinctive characteristic is ries, cabbage and carrots.
the, rabbits have vertical x) Proboscida-Characteristic of
grooves on the upper surface of this order is the presence of
anterior incisors of the upper large muscular proboscis which
jaw which are completely ab- has nose and upper lip. Denti-
sent in hares. tion is unique, two upper in-
8. At birth rabbits are blind, hair- cisors elongated as tusks,
less and weak but young ones canines are absent, three
of hare are strong and covered premolors are soon shed and
with fur with both the eyes three molars than develop. The
open. foot changed its posture from
primitive plantigrade or 'sales
)). Litter size of rabbits is 5 - 8 to the ground' positon. The heal
and of hare is 2 - 5. and ankle bones were elevated
Rabbit shows much wider above the ground. There are
range of appetite while hare is only two species of elephant in

-5-
 existence, the Indian (Eliphas guished from the squirrel from
indicus) and the African their stout squat build, short or
(Loxodonta africana). !,n.slian moderate tails and very small
ele'phant is smaller in -size and ears. Two common mormots
does not has enormous ear as are the Himalayan mormot
in African _species. It~ four (Mormota himalayana) and
Illills in each hind foot but long-tailed Marmot (Mormota
African has three. The trunk of caudata). They relish roots,
Indian elephant ends into a leaves, grasses and seeds of
single lip while in African various plants.
species there are two equal size (b) Muridae-The family muridae
'lips'. mcludes rats and mice. They
xi) Rodentia-Mostly small size can be recognised amongst
herbivorous and terristrial other rodents by their naked
animals, 5 toes with claws, in- scaly tail, sometimeSspa[§_eJy
cisors chisel-like Qf which there clotted with hair. According to
IS a single pair in the upper their habit, rats and mice can
jaw, one pair on lower jaw, be divided- into three groups.
~s and anterior premolars Their food mainly consists of
, are absent, therefore a large grains, roots, leaves and gras-
gap, called diastema is found in ses.
front of the cheek teeth. Group 1
The order Rodentia is further Field rats which are common
divided into six families. pests or crops and cultivation e.g.
(a) Sciuridae-The family includes Millardia metada, Mus booduga.
sgyirrels_ and marmots. Group 2
Amongst rodents they can be
easily recognised by their Wild sps which live in forest
slender body, bushy tail, and and are more or less arboreal e.g.
arboreal habits. Some of these Golunda ellioti (Indian bush rat),
acquired the power of sailing Rattus blanfordi (white- tailed wood
and gliding through the air are rat).
popularly known as flying Group 3
squirrels (Papurista plrilijJpen-
sts). Other species are Habitual household pests e.g.
Hylopetes s~ Funambulus sps. Rattus rattus (common house rate).
(rndian squirrels). Ratufa spes. Bandicota indica (Bandicoot rat).
(giant squirrel). Squirrel love to Mus musculus (house mouse). They
are omnivorous in food habits.
eat fruits and nuts from
Depends mainly on household left.
various trees. They also eat
bark and lumps of gum and over grains.
resins coming out from the (c) Gerbillinae-This can be dis-
trees. They also take insects tinguished from the members
and larvae present on the of muridae by their tail which
trees. Mormots can be distin- is clothed with hair and usually

·6·
 ends in a tassel e.g. Meriones xii) Hyracoidea-SmaH, rabbit like
hurrianae (Indian Desert Ger- nernvorous animals with four
bille), Tatera indica (Indian toes on fore limbs and three on
Gerbille). Their food mainly hind limbs; ears and tails
consists of grains, roots, leaves short, e.g. _Hyrax.
and grasses. xiii) Sirenia-Iarge aquatic her-
(d) Microtinae----eommonly called bivorous animals with fore
as Voles. They are exactly rat limbs paddle like, hind limbs
like. They are b.!!!!_owers and absent, tail with hQrizontal fin ,
body is well adapted to this -I.llussle blunt, lips fleshy, ears
purpose. Body is more or less apsent e.g. Halicore dugong
cylindrical with short rounded (~COW).
head, very small pinnae. Tail is
also short, just less than half of Ungulates-a group of
the body size. The teeth are mammals is called hoofed animals or
distinctive and well suited to ungulates. Where hooves encase the
the hard diet of coarse grasses toes. On the basis of toes ungulates
and roots upon which vole lives are divided into two orders.
e.g. Alticola roylei (Royle's Perissodactyla-odd toed ungulates
vole). and Artiodactyla-even toed
ungulates.
(e) ,llliizomyidg_e-Only because of
its projected large incisors they xiv) yerissodactyla-They are large-
are included in rodentia, other- sized herbivorous animals with
wise they look very much like long legs. The order includes two
family.
moles. The eyes are rudimen-
tary, limbs aresh~th large Family Equidae-it includes
craws, tailis short, the body is horses, asses and zebras. In all these
cylindrical and not differen- animals each foot has a single
tiated in head and neck e.g. complete toe (third one) encased in a
Cannomys badius (Bay Bamboo large solid hoof. It is supported by
Rat}. This strange creatures long 'cannon' bOne. Vestigeal second
are especially adapted for sub- ana · fourtIl toes are visible on both
terranean life, found in base of side of cannon bone e.g. Equus
Himalayas, Nepal, Sikkim, hemionus khur (wild ass), Equus
Bhutan. They feed on young caballus (horse).
grasses, leaves and roots.
Other family of Perissodactyla
(t) Hystricidae-Easily recognised include rhinocero~s. The family
oy tnelr hair which are characteristics are massive built, the

ly intoe
modified more or less complete-
e.g . .Indian por-
cupine ~strix indica} nl"ey
thickness and solidity of their bones,
their short stumpy legs each
furnished with three toes. The nasal
fed on all types of vegetables, bone is enlarged to support the
grass fruits and roots. They are single horn or double horns. Horn is
very destructive to the gardens formed of horny fibre of the skin e.g.
and cultivated fields. Rhinoceros unicornis (gainda),

-7-
Didermocerus sumatrensis (two ti!.2!!L from which they are
horned rhinoceros). probably arisen. Primarily they
The odd toed hoofed animals do are arboreal, while their return
not have horns. to land is secondary. Limbs
long, hands and feet enlarged.
xv) Artiodactyla--<:allgd even-toed Each of five digits is provided
hoofed animals. The third and with flattened or cupped nails.
fourth toes are prominent and Molars tuberculate; orbit sur-
are of equal size. The hooves rounded by bony ring. Nervous
which encases them ~ppear . system and intelligence highest
like a single hoof cleft in two. developed. Primate includes
Second and fifth toe diminish man, apes, monkeys, lemurs.
and first toe disappear com-
Order Primate is further
pletely. Divided into three
divided into three sub-classess.
groups.
(a) - Bovidae-Stomach is four 1. . Lemuroide- Characteristic
chambered with a biggest feature is the second toe is with
chamber called rumen which claw and others having flat
gives the name ruminant to nails. Have round eye just like
this group of animals. The spe- owl with dark brown circles
cial feature of true ruminant round it e.g. Lemur, Loris.
are the absence of incisors in 2. Tarsioidea-Rat like with long
the upper jaw and presence of tail but not prehensile, long
true horns. This is the largest pinnae and large eyes. Second
group of Artiodactyla and have and third toe possess claws and
variety of animals e.g. sheep,
rest have nails. e.g. Tarsius..
goat, cattle, buffalo, gazzelles,
antelopes, etc. 3. Anthropidea-Head rounded
(b) Cervidae-ruminants, differ with large brain, eyes facing
from bovidae in structure of forward, pinnae are small with
horn. The outer sheath of the edges rolled over, orbit closed
horn can be removed from the by bones. Opposable thumbs
central bony core. This is why and first toes, nails are
they are also called hollow present. e.g. apes, monkeys,
horned e.g. deer. man (Homo sapiens). The only
(c) The third group of Artiodactyla ape present in India is
includes pig~ peccaries and Hylobatus hoolock- (gibbon).
hippopotami. They are dif- Monkeys.are included in family
ferent from ruminants, that Cerc~thecidae, which is further
their stomach is single cham- divided into two sub-families.
bers.
1. Cercopithecinae--e.g. macaque
_'lY!2PadL These are pseudoru-
minants e.g. camel, Llama etc . . ,- 2. Colobinae-e.g. langurs
xvi} Primates-it includes highest Macaque can be easily
evolved mammals. This group distinguished from langurs by its
shows affinities with insec- built which is sturdy, squat and

-8-
 solid. A langur in contrast is tall, comparatively very long to that of
slim and more cylindrical. Ma&iques - macaques. Indian e.g. Macaca
haVe ~ k pouches which is absent mullatta (bundar), Macaca radiata
"In.:="langurs. Tails of langurs are (bundar), Presbytis sps. (langurs).

-Nutrition and feeding of wild smaIl ruminants

A. K. Verma

Introduction ' the most common of all the wild

The Himalayan and sheep found in the region. Bharals
trans-Himalayan ranges are the are also found in Kumaon, Nepal
habitat of some of the rarest species and Sikkim.
of wildlife in the world. Beyond the ~(Coprq_ibex Linnaeus):
valley of Kashmir, the land of One of the most handsome wild
verdant meadows and snow-capped mountain goats with long deeply
mountains lies in Ladakh, India's no~hed sweeping horns, found in
l~gest district. f1S ecosystem is the western Himalayas in Kashmir
perhaps the most unique in the and Ladakh. The ibex is hunted for
world and its wildlife, the most its wi.llil tender meat, soft wooly
abundant in the country. This is the under fur (pasham) and as a trophy.
only region in the world where both
desert and arctic conditions, Markhor (Capra falconeri
seething summers and freezing Wagner): The Markhor is regarded
winters prevail. Survival in such as the~of_wil4_g_oat~: It derives
conditions and at altitudes from it PerSIan name (mar means snake
2500 to 5000 meters, is extremely
and khor eater) from the popular
difficult for both man and animal. belief that it relishes snakes. The
Small ruminants of these regions markhor has long spiral horns. It
can be broadly classified as wild hasuffiterfur and naturally inhabits
sheep, wild goat and goat antelopes. regions below the snow-line.
Some of the important ones are: Chiru (Pantheops hodgsoni
Urial or shapu (Ouis orietalis Abel): The chiru is a T..fbetan
GmeUiff: Of all species of wild slieep ~ntelope of the great desert tn ilOrth
-the urial is smallest. Its habitat is Tr6et comes down to Ladakh in
above the tree-line, on the steep summer to graze on the newly
grassy hill slopes of Ladakh. sprouted grass.
Bhara! or blue sheep (Pseudois Go~ (Nemorhaedus goral
nayaur Hodgson). 'F®-::Bbarins the Hardwice'>: The goral is the
~nnects sheep and goats. s#l1est of the goat antelopes.
The bharal ram is unheard, unlike ' Smaller than even a domestic goat, it
the male goat; nor does it have a is found in Nepal, Sikkim, Asian,
goatish smell. Although hunted for Kashmir and the western and
mutton in Ladakh and Bhutan, it is eastern Himalayas.
 Grazing or browsing herbivores of Himalayan and trans- Himalayan
intemperate regions must adapt to ranges where other common
seasonal changes in their food ruminant feeds are not easily
supply. It used to be thought that available. During summer, these
the loss of weight during winter, animals usually remain about
reflected the decreasing availability 6500-10,000 feet elevation, in winter
of good food, exacerbated by chilling they move to the lower slopes where
weather. However, it has been found they find more food and where the
that the body weight of sheep wind is less fierce, wide variety of
fluctuates during the year because vegetation is utilized by these
the voluntary intake of even a specialized grazers. Herbage 'utilized
standard diet offered to appetite is by these grazers may be divided into
much higher during summer than following classes.
during winter (Kay, 1979).
Grasses: Members of the family
Choshniak et al. (1981) studied the
gramineace (5000 + species)
capacity of Ibex to cope with adverse
nutritional conditions on feeds of i) Cool season grasses
different quality and compared to ii) Warm season grasses
that of other breeds of goats. A low
calorie demand (1135 KJ/da~g Legumes: Members of the
~)on alfalIallaY andlialf this family leguminasae (11000 + species)
value on wheat straw was ab.seAred. Forbs-Primarily broad leaf,
Hlgllcfigestibility 68, 60 and 48% on non-woody plants.
alfalfa hay, rhodes grass and wheat
straw, respectively and a low Browse-Woody plants con-
metabolic rate was demonstrated in sumed in some degree by these
these animals. Urea recycling ruminants.
amounted to 14% the entry rate on The grasses and herbs they
alfalfa hay. On grass and wheat pluck are often covered with dust
straw it was 64% and 74% and grit in the absence of snow. The
respectively. As the energy grasses such as Saceharum sp. and
requirements of mammals are Imperate cylindrica compose the
approximately proportional to the highest percentage of the diets of
metabolic body weight i.e. Kg WO· 75 ungulates supplemented by
(Kleiber, 1961), small ruminants nutritious flowers and fruits of
need relatively higher amounts of various trees. Fruits and tender
metabohzab1e energy per unit of leaves of Acacia catechu, Albizzia
actual body weight. Chappal and lebbele, DaZbergia sissoo, Ficus
Hodson (1978) observed an energy glomerata and Mallotous
expenditure of 0.44 KCiilIkg BWlhr phillipinensis are the other
fot eating in stallfed big horn sheep. important food species being used by
There is little or no information ungulates during winter season
on the feeding and nutrition of t~ese (Dhungel and O,Gara, 1991).
wild small ruminants under Studies on the feeding and
captivity since they graze at high nutrition of wild small ruminants
altitude on the mountaneous regions under captivity are lacking in our

- 10 -
country. Therefore, there' is an schedule for the economic
urgent need of such research in maintenance of these rarest and
order to develop practical feeding profitable wildlife small ruminants.
References
Chappel, RW. and Hudson, RJ. 1978. Acta. Dhungel, S.K and O'Gara, B.W., 1981. J.
. Theriol., 23:359-363. Wildl. Manage., (Suppl, 119) 55:1-40 .
Kay, RN.B., 1979. ARC Res. Rev., 5:13-15.
Chashniak, I, Arnon, H .. and Shkolnik, A.,
1984. Can.J.Anim.Sci. (Suppl), 64:160- Kleiber, M. 1961. The Fire of Life: an intro-
162. duction to animal energetics, Wiley,
.
I
New York .

Energy Utilization in Wild Herbivorous Mammals

M. Y. Khan
J I
Herbivores, unlike carnivores, measuring basal metabolic rat2 in
depend upon feeding stuffs which are m.a n or fasting heat production of a
dissimilar with the composition of well nourished animal kept in a
body. Their diets mostly consist of favourable environment since the
cellulosic rich materials which are rate of energy expenditure under
not digested by enzymes secreted by such condition is minimal since the
animals. Hence their alimetary tract animal tries to conserve its body
is modified to harbour a large num- tissues which provide energy in the
ber of micro-organisms which secrete absence of availability of energy
enzymes to digest the cellulosic from feeds. Brody (1945)
materials which serve as the major summarized the data of fasting heat
source of energy for the herbivores. production of a large number of
animals whose adult liveweight
Limited information is ranged from 20g of mice to about
available for the requirement of 4000 kg of an elephant. He
energy to captive wild herbivores, demonstrated a linear relationl?hip
although Heusner (1990) has between the log BMR with log live
reported that BMR. the rate of heat weight of the animJt and the
production when resting and fasting .r.egre"ssion obtained,~ BMR = log
(or in some cases, under more 70.5 + 0.73 log Vi) is famous by the
specifically defined basal meta- name (Mouse-Elephant graph) and
bolism) has been measured for at has aCclaimed world wide
least 685 species of mammals. As acceptance, forming the basis for
such requirement of energy for comparing basal metabolism of
captive wild herbivores are predicted different species of farm animals. It
on the basis of energy balance is this relationship which
studies conducted on similar established that basal metabolism is
domesticated animals. related to metabolic body size, i.e.
Energy requirements for liye weight raised to certain power,
maintenance is measured by WO· 73 . Subsequently the suggestgion
- 11 -
 given by Kleiber (1961) for changing thermoregulatory costs. The_ M.E.
the value of 0.73 to 0.75 has gained intake which keeps the animal in
acceptance with the result the E2nergy- equilibrium under. such
equation, BMR (kcaD = 70 vjJ.75 (kg) conditions is called EMR (eXIstence
is now used to predict the minimum metabolic rate).
expenditure of energy by animals, EMR can be estimated from
although certain species of animals BMR by multiplying the latter by 2
J
p~Qwer (sheep) or higher (cattle)
(Brody, 1945, Blaxter, 1989),
I fasting metabolism than the although Clarke et al. (1977)
interspecies mean value. recommended a factor of 1.5 for the
The maintenance requirements same.
of energy include fasting heat The requirement of energy for
production and energy expended for maintenance serve as the basal
a little of walking in search of food. values and for production it is
As such FHP has to be multiplied estimated by factorial method taking
with a factor depending upon the into various factors like
activity of the animal. There is a lot metabolizability and efficiency of
of diffe!'ence of opinion regarding the utilization of ME for different
factor. It has been suggested that · purposes. Robbins (1983) has
energy balance measured under provided a useful table of
captive conditions provides a better metabolizability values of gross
assessment of energy requirements energy of foods consumed by a wide
nf the animal. It includes energy range of species.
expenditure for limited activity and
References
Blaxter, K.L. 1989. Energy Metabolism in Heusner, A.A. 1990. Basal metabolism and
Animals and Man. Cambridge: body mass in dogs. Abstracts of the
Cambridge University Press. Waltham International Symposium on
Nutrition of Small Companion
Brody, S. 19.J.5. Bioenergetics and Growth. Animals, Davis, Calif., University of
New YOl·k: Reinhold. California, p. 8.
Clarke, H.l~.; Coates, M.E.; Eva, J.K; Ford, Kleiber, M. 1961. The Fire of Life. New York,
D.J.; Milnel', C.K.; O'Donoghue, P .N.; John Wiley & Sons.
Scot!., P .P. and Ward, R.J. 1977. Robbins, C.T. 1983. Wildlife Feeding and
Dietary Standards for Laboratory Nutrition, New York, Academic Press.
Animals: I'eport of the laboratory
Animals Centre Diets Advisory Com-
mittee. Laboratory Animals 11:1- 28.

- 12 -
 Digestion and Metabolism in Wild
Non-Ruminant Herbivores
D. K. Agra~-al

Digestion that animal and to what extent.

Digestion of feeds by animal Main reason being the assumption
depends upon two major factors, that the basic physiological processes
type of digestive system and the of digestion are comparable between
feeding habits of the animals. Thus free-ranging and captive state. This
there IS difference between assumption has never been tested
carnivorous and herbivorous animals adequately.
and among herbivores, between The marker method of
ruminants and non-ruminants. determining digestibility among
Within a particular class there is grazing animals has been tried in
very little likelihood of differe:t:lce wild animals also. But as in domestic
because of the fact that a particular animals, it is difficult to find a
animal is wild or domesticated. marker which is ideal. For example,
Determination of digestibility in a many un digestible plant markers,
domesticated . animal is which are supposed to be completely
comparatively very simple. A known recoverable in faeces do not actually
amount of feed is offered to the appear. Added markers such as
animal during a set period of time, chromium are not uniform in their
which usually ranges from 4 to 10 process of excretion and any
days. Residue left is recorded to estimate based on them cannot be
work out the feed ingested. cent per cent reliable.
Simultaneously faeces voided is also
recorded and broadly speaking, the Since all material passed out as
part of feed ingested which does not faeces is not of food origin, some of it
appear in faeces is termed as being of body origin viz. unused
digested feed. Now the problems in digestive enzymes, intestinal mucosa
determining digestibility in a wild etc., the digestibility calculated
animal are multiple. Firstly, the wild without taking this fact into
animal is not supposed to be eating consideration is termed apparent
same types of feeds over days. digestibility and is mostly lower tha_!!_
Similarly the quantity it eats is also the true digestibility.
likely to vary from day to day. Thus In neonates being fed on milk
to have an accurate estimate of apparenCprotein'd1gestilJitity is the
digestibility, the animal will have to hignest with minimum metabolic
be kept under captivity and a loss. The true digestibility of protein
particular type of feed will have to be can be estimated by a regression
fed over a period of time. It is very slope between protein intake and
difficult to say with certainty that apparent digestible amount. This
the figures thus obtained will assumes a constant excretion of
represent the actual digestibility of metabolic faecal nitrogen. Tannins

- 13 -
and other soluble phenolics or differences in losses of methane and
porteinase inhibitors in some seeds urinary energy. Thus these are the
can reduce protein digestibility. ~est in rodentS consuming nuts
The apparent digestibility of and grains, intermediate in small
plant neutral detergent solubles is a non-ruminant herbivores and the
curvilinear function of their dietary lowest in ruminants. ME co-efficient
concentration. NDS of plants and is sometimes corrected to nitrogen
grasses with minimal inhibitory balance because urinary energy is, in
secondary plant compounds are part, dependent on nitrogen
generally uniformly and highly metabolism. In an animal on
digestible. Digestibility of NDF negative nitrogen balance due to
depends upon relative concentration inadequate energy intake, a portion
of structural digestion inhibitors of of urinary energy comes from tissue
lignin, cutin, silica and rate of breakdown. In mammals 7.45 KcaVg
~nitrogen deficit is added in ME.
passage of digesta in the G.!. tract.
Large non-ruminant herbivores The work of digestion including
digest more NDF than small mastication, peristalsis, secretion
non-ruminant herbivores. and active transport and absorbed
nutrient metabolism produce heat
Metabolism because of the inefficiency of
Losses of urinary and gaseous metabolic pathways. The net energy
energy must be subtracted from co-efficient is the estimate of
digestible energy to arrive at efficiency to which metabolizable
metabolizable energy. Excretion of energy can be used in maintenance
urinary energy is largely dependent and productive processes.
on diet and increases from grain and Comparatively lesser studies
n~ to forage diets because have been conducted on protein
plant foli~e contains many high utilization efficiency than on energy
eneigy compounds that although utilization efficiency in wild animals.
absorbed, cannot be oxidised. Browse The efficiency of utilization of
rations produce the greatest loss of absorbed dietary nitrogen is termed
urinary energy because of the biological value, same in wild
excretion of absorbed terpenoids, animals as in domesticated ones.
phenols and etc. Urinary energy This varies with protein source and
losses also increase with increased its amino acid composition, mode of
dietary protein. Methane Is-,;he protein digestion, animal's age and
prfncipal gas accounted for energy productive stage, digestible energy
loss. But non-ruminant herbivores intake relative to energy
donot produce slgmflcant!imounts of requirements, total protein require-
methane. ment and internal physiological
Metabolizable energy co- means of conserving absorbed
efficients. in mammals reflect· the nitrogen.

- 14 -
 Nutrition and Fe eding of Primates
Neeta Agarwal

Primates is a group of availability in different part of the

mammals which includes man also. habitat. Lemurs eat like other
This is the highest developed group animals, thrusting out for their food
of animals amongst mammals. There with its long snout. Apes and
is nothing in the bodily structure in monkeys pickup their food with their
a primate which makes them hands and carry it to the mouth. In
superior to other mammals, it is natural habitat they are always
purely a mental development. The under threat of other animals so
distinctive characters which we find they eat very fast & want to eat
in primates are the structure of hand large quantities of food in the
and feet which are specifically shortest possible time. For this
designed for grasping. As such purpose macaques and baboons have
primates are admirably adopted to l~e poUChes in their cheeks where
the particular habits and mode of they can store excess amount of food.
life. Lemurs do not have such cheek
Primates include man, apes, pouches. They have pouch like
macaques, langurs and lemurs. In stomach unlike monkeys. Langurs
India the only sps. of apes present is stomach consists of three separate
Hoolock (gibbon). Macaques and ~ches or compartments somewhat
langurs are quite common. All these like the stomach of the ruminants.
animals eat leaves, flowers, grain Just like ruminants languur also has
and fruits, These are their main food a special compartment of stomach to
items. Sometimes gibbons steal eggs receive partly chewed food. Their
of other birds also as a food source. stomach is well suited to their
Langurs a~ure1Lvegetarian but strictly herbivorous food habit.
baboons and macaques · are In natural habitat they fulfill
omnivourus. They take vegetable their requirements themselves, but
aiet as well as insects, grubs and in captive conditions one has to take
spiders. Some even eat lizards and care to fullfil their requirements by
frogs while one of the tribe has taken offering balanced diet. It is being
to eating crabs. Lemurs hunt for observed that both human and non
their food in darkness. ~ _ and _ human primates do not require food
monkeys feed only in day time. Some of high nutrient density except
monkeys, babOons and macaques get perhaps at weaning because the
their food on the ground" some nutrients demands of growth and
amongst rock and cliffes but reproduction spread out over time.
majority of apes and monkeys find
their food on tre_es. Because of their While offering the feed to the
universal feeding habits, macaques primates care must be taken about
the feed offered by the visitors.
can obtain food through out the year,
inspite of seasonal changes in its Visitors foodstuffs include bread,
biscuits, apples, bananas, grapes,

- 15 -
Table 1. Energy and protein daily allowances for primates
Species and Stage Energy (DE, Proteina g/kg body wt.
Kcal/kg, BW) % calories
Human
Infant 120-60 1Q(6.0)b 2.4 (2.0)
Adult 30-40 8(5.0) 0.8(0.5)
Baboon
Infant <290 12 5.0
Adult 53-72 12 2.0
Chimpanzee
Infant 120-100 12 5.0
Adult 50-60 12 2.0
Rhesus and Cynomolgus
Infant 270-190 12(6.6) 8.0(4.0)
Adult 75-120 12(6.6) 3.0
Cebus
Infant 400-250 13(7.0) 10.0(5.25)
Adult 100-150 13(7.0) 5.0(2.3)
a) High qUlllity pl·otein
bl Values in psmntheses al·e minimal l-equireme nts.

oranges, carrots, melon, plums, informations some outline has been

onions, peas, potatoes, tomatoes etc. prepared Table 1. which will be
In India, food offered by the visitors helpful in formulating diets for
is less in summer than in winters, non-human primates in captive
sInce number of visitors are less in conditions.
summer. It is being observed that in Energy and protein requirements
London zoo primates left 50% of
their offered by the keepers in The table clearly indicate that
summers and considerable amount the smaller and younger species
in winters also. This is because care have greater energy requirements
was not taken to reduce that amount than their larger counterpart e.g. on
of food offered by the keepers (Bilby ad lib feeding the infants of smaller
1968). New World Monkeys require 300-500
kcal energy/kg/day as compared to
Requirements of nutrients of
200-300 kcal by larger old world
non human primates. The precise
requirements of nutrients for ' non monkeys. At the ceasation of growth
human primates are not available. both adult Old and New World
Based on the NRC data monkeys reduce by 30-50% of their
supplemented with further energy requirement.

- 16 -
 Both human and non-human 100 J.U. and 1 mg for vitamin A, D,
primates have relatively low E and K, respectively. Recommended
requirements for proteins as a levels of water soluble vitamins (mg
consequence of slow growth rates, per kg diet) are Ascorbic acid
small milk yield and relatively dilute 500-600, Niacin 40-50, Thiamin 4-6,
milk. While considering the quantity Riboflavin 8- 10, Pyrioxine 4-6,
of protein, care must be taken for Folacin 4-6 and Biotin 0.2.
quality of the protein (ratio of amino Requirement for pantothenic acid,
acids) which also influences the choline, inositol and cyanocobalamin
protein requirement of the animals. have not been determined but are
Distinction should be made between generally supplemented in the diet.
animals protein which is usually of Mineral requirement
"high quality" and plant protein
which can be low in one or more Inspite of the vital role of
essential amino acids. Follis et al. minerals very few studies have been
(1957) observed protein deficiency conducted on mineral requirement of
signs in grivet monkeys when fed non-human primates. Based on the
exclusively on maize. Just like data of various studies the daily
energy, protein requirement per unit mineral allowances for non- human
body weight is more in smaller sps. primates as percent of diet are
than the Jarge sps. Sodium 0.22-0.44, Potassium
0.24-1.09, Chloride 0.27-0.62,
Fat and Fatty acid requirements
Calcium 0.60-0.80, Phosphoruos
Though the essential fatty acid 0.30-0.40, Magnesium 0.10-0.15. The
requirement has no yet been recommended allowences of iron,
established but essential fatty acid zinc, iodine and chromium are 100,
deficiency does exist in non buman 20, 2 and 0.5 ppm, respectively.
primates similar to human Le. loss' of Requirements for magnesium,
hair, dry scaly skin etc. Non-human copper;-selemum ana fiuonae.Jiaie
primates can very well adjust to 10% not Deen determined for non:human
total dietary fat and also on diets primates, but they are assumed to be
much higher in fat, as long as their required at approximately levels of
essential fatty acid requirement is 20, 2, 0.1 and D.5 ·ppm, respectively.
fullfilled. It appears that like human
1-2% of total caloric requirement Water requirement
supplied as linoleic acid can prevent In natural habitat non-human
EFA deficiency sign. primates mostly take vegetable
Vitamin requirement based diet and thus fulfill their
water requirement. But in captive
Like human, non human conditions when they are fed on
primates also show vitamin concentrated commercial ration, they
deficiency signs. So vitamin require water supplementation. If
supplementation is an improtant there is no unexpected water loss
part of feed formulation. due to some abnormal condition,
The recommended levels per kg water requirement depends on the
diet are 125(}() I.U., 1250 I.U., 20 - energy expenditure. Kerr et al (1972)

- 17 -
 Table 2. Major ingredients for nutrient sources in non human primate diets.

Source
Animal source Fish meal, meat meal, dried milk products
Vegetable source Soybean meal, corn gluten meal
Crude fibre Alfa Alfa meal, beet pulp, oat hulls, wheat bran
Crude fat Soybean oil, corn oB, animal fat
Carbohydrates Whole ground wheat, ground corn, ground barley,
wheat middlings

have demonstrated for most of the It was found that the morbidity
primates water requirement as 1 ml rate was highest in group fed 2.2%
water per kcal of gorss energy/day. dietary crude fibre and lowest in
Rhesus monkey tea a coziiiiiei=Clal animals fed 7% dietary curde fibre.
diet_, require 80 ml waterlkg Recovery period was lowest in 7%
B.W.lday (Feldmahn et al 1960). The group. The authors were of the
water requirement increases in opinion that the diet with 7% dietary
smaller, younger animals, during crude fibre can fulfill the
lactation or Increased environmental requirement of non-human primates.
temperature and increased fluid loss Feed may be prepared in four
(vomiting and diarrhea). ways. (a) extruded diet, (b) baked
Feed formulation diet, (c) as meal and (d) liquid diet.
It is quite difficult to maintain
Diet for non-human primates captive wild animals on liquid diet or
should include one or two on meal. Offering extruded or baked
ingredients as a major source of each diet is quite practical. Barnard et al
nutrient class supplemented with (1979) conducted series of metabolic
mineral and vitamin. Few major trials on Rhesus (Macaca mulatta)
sources are presented in Table 2. monkeys offering extruded and
Diets manufactured at baked diets and found that both the
National Institue of Health shows diets were comparable as far as
mean percent nutrient digestibility is concerned .
concentrations as crude rotein Feeding schedules
11 80, crude fibre 2.61, ash (max.)
Very few experiments have
--
5.27, NFE (min.) 60.77, Calcium 0.95
/ and Phosphorus 0.53. been conducted to standardize the
feeding schedule of non-human
Morin et al (1978) tested diets primates in captive conditions. For
having graded levels of crude fibre rhesus monkey two meals or 8 h
on non-human primates (rhesus feeding per day gives moderate
monkey) in quarantine Table 3. One growth. Feed intake increases if feed
group fed on commercial diet (2.2% is available to the animal for a
dietary crude fibre) was also taken. longer time.

- 18 -
 Table 3. Experimental open formula baked diets for non-huma.
, "lnd dry
Ingredients Percent dietary crude fibre ~"n
2.4 7.0 9.8
/ -iheat flour 50.00 '39.00 28.00
Wheat middlings 6.30 4.75 3.50
Wheat bran 4.20 3.50 3.00
Alfa Alfa meal (17% protein) 2.~5 6.25 10.00
Oat hulss 1.00 10.00 19.00
Soybean meal (48% protein) 7.50 7.50 7.50
Skim milk (dried) 2.75 2.70 2.70
Fish Meal (60% protein) 4.00 4.50 5.00
Brewer's dried yeast 2.50 2.50 2.50
Sugar 3.00 3.00 3.00
Corn starch 8.40 8.60 8.40
Soybean oil 3.70 3.60 3.50
Calcium Carbonate 1.70 1.50 1.30
Monosodium Phosphate 0.40 0.50 0.50
Salt 0.30 0.30 0.30
Mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00
Vitamin premix 1.00 1.00 1.00

References
Bilby, L.W. (1968) S)mp. Zoo!. Soc. Lond. No. F eldmahn, A.L., Smith, W.K., and Leventhal,
21 :6:1-75. C.M. (1960l Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.
85:828-841.
Follis, R.H. (1957) Pr·oc. Soc. Exp. Bio!. Med.
96:523-528. Morin, M.L., Renquist, D.M., Knapka , J ., and
Judge, F.J. (1978) Lab. An. Sci . 28:405.
NRC (1978) requirements of non-human
primates. National Academy of Scien- Nicolosi, Robert J ., Hunt Ronald D. In •
ces, Washington, D.C. 1978. Primates in Nutritional Research"
(K.C. Hayes ed.) Academic Press, New
KhelT, G.R. (1972) Physiol. Rev. 52:415-467. York.

- 19 -
 Rwnen digestion and metabolism in Blackbuck
Neelam Kewalramani

Blackbuck (Anti lope cervicapra) protozoa present are of two types

is a ruminant animal which belongs Isotricha and Dasytricha. On feeding
to family Bovidae, which includes oats or berseem, there is an abrupt
antilopes, goat-antilopes, musk oxen, increase in the population of
goat, sheep, cattle and buffalo. These holotrichs, especially the dasytricha
animals characterstically have horns (Kamra et aZ., 1991). Although the
which grow over a bony core and are holotrichs form only a small fraction
never shed. (14.43 to 16.63%) of the total
Like other ruminants, the protozoal population, their share in
stomach of the blackbuck is divided the protozoa cell mass is significant
into four compartments i.e. rumen, (40.51 to 42.39%). The number of
reticulum, omasum and abomasum. protozoa varies between 142.0 ± 12.8
The first two comparatments often to 179.3 ± 69.8 x 104/ml of rumen
liquor.
referred together as rumino-
reticulum is a smaller proportion of The activities of the fibre
the body weight as compared to degrading enzymes i.e. carbo-
cattle and buffalo and comprises 80% xymethylcellulase and xylanase
of the total stomach tissue weitht. depends upon the fibre content of the
diet as well as the protein content of
Voluntary feed intake : The the diet which leads to the
mean DM intake is reported to be
mUltiplication of cellulolytic bacteria.
greater during summer season as
The activities of carboxymethyl-
compared to winter season (Stafford
cellulase and xylanase were higher
et al., 1995) but a higher intake in
in blackbuck on oats feeding due to
voluntary feed intake has not been
higher concentration of hemi-
observed to be accompanied by an
cellulose in oats as compared to
increase in forestomach motility.
berseem (Agarwal et al., 1993)
Blackbuck can consume 2.2 and 3.5
whereas in maize fodder the
kg DMilOO kg Body wt. fed on oats
activities were lower due to the low
and berseem (Pathak et al., 1992)
protein content of the maize
and on maize fodder, the intake is
(Kewalramani et al., 1992).
2.25 kg/lOO kg Body wt. (Pathak et
al., 1992). The concentration of VFA
present in the rumen liquor of
Rumen Eco-System The
blackbuck increased up to 8 hrs.
rumen pH varies between 6.33 to
after feeding and reached up to 6.92
7.50; specific gravity, 1.017 ± 0.01 to
meq/100 ml SRL on feeding maize
1.027 ± 0.009 on various feeding
fodder (Kewalramani et al., 1992).
regimes. Three types of ru~en
Most of the VFA are absorbed
microorganisms are prevalent in' the
directly from the rumen, reticulum
rumen; bacteria, protozoa, (Kamra et
and omasum. Small amounts may
a/., 1991) and fungi (Fonty et al.,
pass to abomasum and SI from
1989). In blackbuck, the major

- 20 -
where they are absorbed. The pH of adequate amount of coarse and dry
the rumen greatly affects the fodders. During favourable season
absorption of VFA. An increase in i.e. humid, rainy season and winter
pH of 7.0 - 7.5 leads to decreased the quality and quantity of green
VFA absorption rates. fodders are quite satisfactory and
Protein digestion and black bucks are able to consume their
metabolism : The rumen microbes of requirement of protein and energy
on ad libitum feeding. However,
blackbuck produce proteolytic
mineral and salt licks should be
enzymes which hydrolyze the dietary
provided separately. In dry season a
proteins to peptides and amino acids composit concentrate mixture
which are further deaminated to containing about 20 to 22% crude
carbon dio:lj:ide, ammonia and protein and less than 10% crude
organic acids. fibre should be fed at the rate of
Feeding of blackbuck in captive 1.5% of the body weight along with
environemnt would be similar to available fodder. Running drinking
domestic bovines except that black water should be freely available to
bucks are reluctant to consume the animals.
References
Agarwal, N., Kewalramani, N ., Sawal, R.K., Kewalramani, N., Sawal, R.K., Kamra, D.N.,
Kamra, D.N. and Pathak, N.N. (1993) Agarwal, N. and Pathak, N.N. (1992)
lndilln J. Anim. Nut.·. 10,53. Int. J. Anim. Sci. 7,219.
Fonty, G., Breton, A., Fe.,·e, M., Citron, A., Pathak, N.N., Kewalrrunani, N. and Kamra,
Heb.·aud, M. and Gouet, Ph. (1989) IN D.N. (1992) Small Ruminant Research
proceedings of a satellite symposium of 8,265.
7th international symposium on Stafford, K.J., Reid, C.S.W., Barry, T.N., Sut-
ruminant physiology, Hakone, Japan. tie, J.M. (1995) Nutrition Abstract and
Review 6.5, 174.
Krum'a, D.N., Sawal, R.K., Pathak, N.N.,
Kewalramani, N. and Agarwal, N.
(199!) Letters in App!. Microbiol. 13,
165.

Nutrition and Feeding of Elephants

A. K. Garg

Elephants are the largest with many species, now they exist
terrestrial mammals presently only in Asia and Mrica with only two
inhabiting the earth. They are genera and each with only one
classified in the super order species. Their number is still
Near-Ungulates (Paemungulata) reducing day by day both in wild and
being herbivores hoofed animals captivity. Ordinarily the age of
with elastic soles and in the order elephant reaches upto 60-75 years in
Proboscidae due to presence of a the wild conditions, however, they
large trunk or proboscis. Once hardly reach to this age in captivity.
distributed throughout the world The major cause of low life

- 21 -
 expectancy in captivity has been during most of the night and mid
attributed to wrong type and quality day.
of fodder given to these animals. In Calf rearing in wild:
many cases feeding of elephants in
zoos and circuses is very miserable. The new born calf measures
. Sometimes there is over feeding about 1M and weighs about 100 kg.
leading to obesity. Heavier elephants It can stand up after 5 minutes and
are more prone to problems of toe, walk after 1 hour of birth. It suckles
nails and soles and deformities, with its mouth. They also consume
leading to early natural death or some solid food shortly after birth.
euthanasia. As young calves are not able to
masticate their solid food, older
Habitat & Foraging Behavior: members help them by cutting the
Asian elephants inhabit many food into small pieces. They even
biomes, including rain forests, grass snatch half chewed food from the
jungles and dry forests. They are mouth of the adults (Grazime, 1979).
even found in Himalayan snow Suckling takes place till young one is
zones. Due to their huge size and 4-6 months old.
strength and their all purpose trunk, Feeding of elephants in
they have access to practically every captivity:
plant food right from the floor to
moderate heights of trees. They rip In India, there are various
the bark off the trees and can even systems of keeping elephants in
uproot them. They are able to detect captivity. They are:
water sources from long distance. (i) Intensive system
Feeding Behaviour: (ii) Extensive system
Elephants are mixed feeder (iii) Zoos/Circuses
preferring grasses yet consuming (0 Intensive system: Where the
leaves, branches and bark of trees. elephants are kept more or less
Water is an important part of their individually e.g. by private
diet. The peak feeding hours are in owners (temples, big landlords,
early morning and late afternoons. investors) or war and state
Elephants spent most of the day elephants. In this system,
preparing and eating their food as elephants are fed exclusively
they have to consume large on prepared fodder.
quantities of food mainly for two
(ii) Extensive system: It includes
reasons:
the working elephants main-
(i) Their large size - an adult tained in the jungle villages. In
weighs upto 4000-5000 kg. this system, the animals are
left in nearby forest for their
(ii) Poor feed utilization.
food during the period of rest.
AdJJlts are reported to spend In some places supplemental
I J.&2O.._lu:S ..dairy in feeding acti'vity. feeding consisting of millet,
t ':_Thex sle~ j_ust for 2-4 hours. They rice, copra, sugar cane and salt
frequently go for drinking water is also practiced.

- 22 -
Feeding schedule of elephants , of feed materiaL is gestation
in Kanha National Park \, scientific basis for
Following is the prescribed diet of these animals. m, 1972).
for elephants (Saxena, 1991) Feeding Schedule rate of
(i) Working diet - (No~ember - (a) In Delhi Zoo ut to
June). ~wer
Sugar cane/Green fodder 20,-
a) Wheat (in the form of Dry fodder 15 k.,
baked roti) or rice (as
boiled balls) - 9 kg. Tree fodder 60 kg
b) Gur 500 g (b) In Kanpur Zoo
c) Salt 200 g Sugar cane/Green fodder 150 kg
(ii) Rest diet - (JuJy _: Qctober). Wheat flour 40 kg
a) Wheat/rice 5 kg Gur (in winter) 500 g
b) Gur 300 g F~eding and Nutritional
Studies in Elephants
c) Salt 100 g
Feeding and nutritional studies
If work is taken during
in elephants are very less. The
off-season, the elephant is given full
earliest reported work on elephants
working diet. Feeding is done at
appears to be by Benedict (1938) on
about 4-5 P.M. after they return
the basal metabolism. They observed
from field work. They are also given
that basal metabolism of elephants
water. After feeding, the elephants
of 3833 and 1360 Kg mean body
are left free for grazing and rest for
weights were 30924 and_ 16020
whole night.
Ca1Jday. On the basis of large
Addition of tamarind (200 g) number of data right from elephants
and Gram (1 kg) keeps better health. to rats, these workers proved that
Feeding of 5-6 coconuts to the basal metabolism is a function of
mother just after calving is reported metabolic body size and not the body
to make milk clear and fast weight. ------
regaining of strength.
Roehrs et al. (1989) compared
Feeding of calves the digestibility of Timothy in
a) Rice 2.5 kg summer and winter in two female
African elephants and reported that
b) Gur 500 g digestibility of dry matter (DM),
c) Tamarind 100 g crude proteIn (cp), ADF and gross
- / energy were higher in summers at
d) Salt 100 g
39, 45, 36 and 43% as compared to ..)-
e) Gram whole 500 g 35, 30, 24 and 32%, respectively in
(iii) Zoo and Circuses: Feeding of winter season. The dry matter
elephants in zoos and circuses, intake ranged from 1.4 to 1.6% of
in many cases, is very body weight. These figures showlllat
miserable. It is largely based 60-65% of the swallowed food leaves
on experience and availability the body undigested.
- 23 -
 Clemens & Maloiy (1983) material leads to negative
studied the digestibility of different digestibility values for these sites.
nutrients (DM, energy, CP, CF, Net appearance of VFAs (Acetate,
NFE, EE, ce.ll wall, cellulose and Butyrate and Propionate) in the
hemicellulose) in three adult caecal and colon segments indicated
elephants in different parts of the presence of well developed
gastrointestinal tract. They also fermentation process in these
studied the anatomical features of segments. Concentration of TVFAs
G.!. tract. Poor digestibility of dry was highest (80 m mol elL) jn .
matter in the elephants was caecum. whicn rediJceain colon
attributed to consumption of high segment indicating efficient
fibre diet (Le. branches, bark) and absorption of VFAs therein. The
geophagia which was evident by the proportion of different VFAs Was
presence of large quantities of earth about lO:15:1S-for acetic, propionic &
and gravel within the caecum and butyric acids.
colon. The accumulation of such
Refet'ences
Benedict, F.W. (1938) Vital Energetics, a Grzime Kh.c.B, (1975). Animal Encyclopedia-
study in comparative basal metabo- Mammals, Vol. 12 (Ed). Van Nostrand
lism. Carnegie Institute, Washington Reinhold Co., N.York, p. 657.
Pub. 503 p. 175-6 in "Bioenergetics and Roehrs, J .M., Brockway, C.R., Ross D.V.,
Growth" (S. Brody, 1964) Hather Pub. Reichar, T.A. and Ullrey, D.E. (1989).
Co. Inc., New York. pp. 352-403. Digestibility of Timothy hay in African
Clemens, E.T. and G.M.O.Maloiy (1983). elephants. Zoo!. Bio!.8(4):331-351.
Nutrient digestibility and gastrointes- Saxena, A. (1991) Management of Elephant
tinal electrolyte flux in the elephant Camps and Elephant Care. The Indian
and rhino ceros. Compo Biochem. Foresters 117(10):926-934.
Physiol. 75A(4): 653-658

Nutritional Demands of Gestation

D.K. Agarwal

Highest demands of period is over. It has been observed

reproduction are made on the female. that gestation period and birth
Development of testicles and weights are dependent on maternal
production of semen do not cost metabolic weight. The embryonic
significantly. Similarly growth of and neonatal compositions differ
ovary or oviduct in females has not significantly e.g. with development,
been given much attention in water content of foetus decreases
mammals. Nutritional requirements whereas protein, fat or mineral
in females depend upon the nutrients content increases. Composition of
retained by the gravid uterus ~nd neonates differs with species.
enlarged mammary glands. . For estimation of energy cost of
Most of the foetal growth takes gestation, following information is
place after 50-60% of gestation used:

- 24 -
1. Relationship of birth weight Y = 29.6 xO. 10 where Y is gestation
and maternal weight. period and x is
2. Regression of maternal weight maternal weight (Kihlstrom, 1972).
to gestation period. Therefore, the crude rate of
3. Composition and growth char- offspring synthesis works out to
acteristics of gravid uterus. maternal weight to the 0.60 power
4. Estimation of oxygen consump- (xO.70 . xO.19 = x 0.60).
tion of gravid uterus per When total cost Le.
kilogram of tissue. maintenance and production of
For ungulates such values are gravid uterus to the gestation period
available viz. is taken into account, it is closer to
1. Maternal weight to birth maternal metabolic body weight
weight and gestation period (xO. 96 . xO.19 = xO. 77 ). But the
regressions. relatively lower daily productive
costs of larger species are counter
2. Composition and growth char-
acteristics of the gravid uterus balanced by the increasing
in white tailed deer. maintenance costs during the longer
gestation periods. Therefore, the
3. The oxygen consumption of time dependent cost of gestation as a
gravid uterus including foetus. per centage of BMR peaks just prior
For ungulates weighing 10 kg to parturition at 44% and is not
or more, maintenance energy affected by the weight of ungulate.
expenditure of the gravid uterus
becomes relatively asymptotic at 85% During gestation protein in
of the total cost. Thus it is evident gravid uterus and mammary glands
that the maintenance requirement of accumulates curvilinearly. Thus in
the gravid uterus is the major cost of white tailed deer protein content of
gestation for virtually all mammals. uterus increased from 15.3g at
Payne and Wheeler (1967) have conception to 1430g at full term in
suggested that the cost and stress of the experiment of Robins and Moen
gestation in large mammals is felt (1975). Protein accumulation in
less because of relatively smaller gravid uterus can be predicted Y =
neonate and longer gestation period. 0.186 (0.89 WO· 79) or Y = 0.17 WO· 79
According to them, the productive where Y is in g, W is maternal
cost of offspring synthesis, as an weight in g and 0.89 WO· 79 is the
increment of basal metabolic rate relationship between maternal
(0.56 and 0.60) is less in the larger weight and foetal weight (loc.cit.). In
species. In ungulates average foetal larger species protein is accumulated
weight and gestation periods are at a decreasing rate per kilogram of
functions of maternal weight raised foetus produced because of longer
to the 0.79 and 0.19 powers, gestation period.
respectively. The mammary gland begins
Y = 0.89 xO. 79 where Y is birth enlarging after approximately two
weight and x is maternal weight. third of the gestation period is over.
(Robins and Robins, 1979). On the assumption that on an
- 25 -
average protein accumulates in in a 10 kg female ungulate to 35% in
mammary gland at the rate of a 1000 kg female animal.
35g/kg of foetus, the total protein Mineral requirement also
requirement of mammary gland increases curvilinearly as foetal
development during gestation in mass enlarges and ossification of
ungulates is ~redicted by Y(g) = bones takes place. But for minerals
0.035(0.89WO· 7 ), or Y = 0.03WO· 79 , there is no maintenance requirement
where W is maternal weight in g. of foetus because of recycling from
Thus total protein requirement for maternal to foetal circulation. Thus
pregnancy in ungplates works out to the reproductive requirement of
0.17WO·7!T+0.03WO·79 = 0.20 WgO. 79 .
minerals is limited to the quantity
Maintenance cost of the gravid retained by foetus and the larger
uterus can only be speculated. If animals with longer gestation period
EUN losses attributable to gravid and relatively smaller foetus will
uterus are 1.5 mg NIK Cal of experience a relatively smaller
maintenance, the total protein cost increased daily mineral requirement
(g) of maintenance works out to than with the smaller species.
0.006WO· 99 where W is maternal It is thus seen that the
weight in grams. Thus total protein pregnant females can benefit by
cost of uterus and mammary gland lengthening the gestation period if
during gestation works out to protein or minerals are limiting but
0.1501W,·84. This being lesser per not if energy is limiting. However,
unit of gestation for larger animals females usually ingest nutrients
with long gestation period. Similarly, more than gestation cost to
the reproductive protein cost accumulate in reserve to be
increases the total maternal mobilized during lactation as
endogenous requirement (as a per lactation is more costly than
centage of EUN excretion) from 55% gestation.
References
Kihlstrom, J.E. 1972. Period of gestation and Robins, C.T. and Moen, A.N. 1975. Uterine
body weight in some placental mam- composition and growth in pregnant
mals. Corn. Biochem. Physiol., 43A:673- white tailed deer. J. WildI.Manage.,
679. 39:684-691.
Payne, P.R. and Wheeler, E.F. 1967. Com- Robins, C.T. and Robins, B.L. 1979. Fetal and
parative nutrition in pregnancy. Na- neonatal growth patterns and maternal
ture, 215:1134-1136. reproductive effort in ungulates and
subungulates. Am. Nat., 114:101-116.
Robins, C.T. 1983. Wild life feeding and Nutri·
tion Academic Press, New York, p. 172-
180.

- 26 -
 Comparative Nutrient Utilization in Wild and
Domestic Ruminants
R. S. Dass

All the ruminants, wild or Scotland. The animals were all

domestic, are herbivorus in nature. grazing hill pastures but consumed
In popular parlance, the ruminants rather different forages. The various
have been given credit for having bacteria differed considerably in
four stomachs. In reality they have relative importance between the
but one, which is divided into several three animals but the list of species
compartments depending upon the present was much the same,
species. The true · ruminants, resembling that found in farm
including sheep, cattle, goats, deer animals. However, quite different
and antelope, have four population of cilliate protozoa were
compartments. Tylopods, which are present. Rumen fluid in mule deer
comprised of camels, llamas and and elk contained 17 x 109 to 67 x
related species, are often considered 109 bactgeria/ml of rumen fluid.
pseudo-ruminants and have· a three Similar values have been observed in
compartment stomach, the omasum cattle and buffalo. Kamra et al.
being absent. The captive herbivore (1991) studied the effect of feeding
is unlikely to be fed solely on two different fodders (oat green and
synthetic nutrients, at the best it berseem green) on the number of
may be given foods eaten by protozoa in the rumen of black buck
domestic ruminants and that may be (Antilope cervicapra). The average
largely unfamiliar to the animal on number of total protozoa, total
free range. This may affect Holotrichs and total Spitrotrichs in
utilization of such foods in captive rumen liquor were more in
wild ruminants when compared with blackbucks fed on green berseem
the domestic ruminants. than green oats. The average
Rumen microflora: Ruminants number of total protozoa/ml of SRL
have been gifted with a large in blackbucks were similar to other
number of bacteria, protozoa and domestic ruminants.
fungi in their rumen, to make Rumen volume and rate of
efficient use of cellulose and passage: Kay and Goodal (1976)
hemicellulose, the most abundant observed that red deer (Ceruus
carbonaceous material on the earth. elaphus) showed lower digestibility
Rumen microflora of the domestic and shorter mean retention time
ruminant is well known, but little (MRT) than sheep and that MRT
work has been done to establish the showed a tendency to decline with
bacterial and protozoal species increasing DM intake. MRT of the
present in wild ruminants. Hobson et particulate phase marker (103Ru)
al. (1976) compared the population of Phenanthroline for deer and sheep
microbes found in the rumen of were 32.5 and 53.2 h when fed on
sheep, red deer and reindeer in Agrostis festuca. Similar MRT has

- 27 -
been observed in Japanese Sikka higher ratio of readily fermentable
deer and sheep fed on lucerne hay. structural carbohydrates than rye
Detailed mechanism for the shorter grass, yet producing a fermentation
MRT in deer is not known. It is with a higher acetate. The relative
reported that MRT in the stomach of molar proportion of VFAs in rumen
deer is 60 per cent of the total MRT liquor are influenced by the rumen
and that forestomach motility liquid dilution rate, rumen protozoa
pattern in deer does not seem to and pH. A higher liquid dilution rate
differ substantially from those in caused by intraruminal infusion of
cattle. MRT has also been observed artificial salva was found to increase
to be different in different seasons in the acetate:propionate ratio. Acetate
red deer i.e. 29.2 and 34.8 h for and n-butyrate are the principal
winter and summer, respectively. As
fermentation products in the chikory
total rumen volume (Le. capacity) is
fed deer. Higher absorption of
unlikely to change in different
seasons, this may be a · digestive acetate from the rumen relative to
adaptation that deer have evolved to propionate may lower the efficiency
increase rumen MRT (and hence of utilization of absorbed energy.
time for microbial attack) under Ruminal pH and concentrations of
conditions when voluntary feed TVFAs and ammonia were closely
intake (VFI) increases in summer, similar in sheep and deer hinds fed
thus ensuring that apparent on fixed ration of grass hay.
digestibility does not decline with Dry matter digestibility:
the increase in VFI. It has been Digestibility of DM in ruminants, up
observed that rumen liquor to some extent depends upon MRT in
fractional outflow rate (FOR) i.e. the rumen, apart from the nature of
lIMRT was faster for red deer (16 diet. More the retention time, more
per cent/h) than for sheep and goat is the DM digestibility and vice
(10 per cent/h) and this occurred in versa. Maloiy et al. (1978) compared
both summer and winter.
the digestibility of DM in deer and
Rumen fermentation pattern : sheep fed on high and low level of
Rumen fermentation pattern in nitrogen in the diet at two levels of
ruminants is dictated by the nature water intake. The digestibility of DM
of diet fed to these animals. Diets was significantly (P<O.Ol) more in
with a high ratio of readily sheep as compared to deer
fermentable structural carbohy- irrespective of level of nitrogen
drates normally produce rumen intake, but slightly more on the high
fermentation with a lower water regimen. It has been observed
acetate:propionate ratio as reported that despite the similarity in the
by Freudenberger et ~t. (1994) when ruminal digestive process, red deer
they . compared red clover with digest the DM of fibrous diets about
perennial rye grass fed to deer. 5 per cent less than sheep. The
However~ the reverse trend was paradox is probably explained by the
observed by Hoskin et at. (1995) in more rapid passage of food through
deer fed with chikory, a feed having the digestive tract that is usually

- 28 -
found in deer, for this will give less for white tailed deer Wdocoieleus
time for digestion of more refractory virginiil(l.us) and 96.0 per cent for
fibrous components of the diet. red deer' (Cervus elaphus). Although
many of 'values calculated for true
Level of feed intake also affects
nitrogen digestibility for domestic
the DM digestibility in ruminants.
ruminants are slightly lower than
DM . digestibility was compared in
values for wild ruminants, the
Japanese sikka deer and sheep fed
difference may be due to varying
lucerne hay at three levels of intake.
metabolic faecal losses, to
The digestibility of DM was alike in
experimental procedures or to
sheep and deer at low level and
quality and condition of feeds rather
medium level of intake of lucerne
than species difference in efficiency
hay, but it was significantly more in
of nitrogen use.
sheep than deer at higher level of
i~take. However , no ' significant A significant important point
difference in DM digestibility was noted in sheep which excreted
between red deer and sheep were approximately 50 per cent less
observed when pelleted and more nucleic acids in their faeces than the
digestible diets were given, deer, but the amount was related to
pre..sumably because digestion was the amount of food consumed and to
more nearly completed, even with the excretion of faecal nitrogen, as a
the shorter retention time, typical of result the sheep excrete relatively
deer. . more allantoin and uric acid in their
Crude protein digestibility: The urine. It seems that microbial
experiments of Simpson et al. (1978) nucleic acids from which these
indicated that red deer calves can products largely arise, must be
digest and utilize protein of their metabolized in rather a different
diet as efficiently as lambs. The manner in the two species after
leaving the rumen (Razzaque et al.
adult hind also digest the crude
1980).
protein of the diet and it's kidneys
excrete or conserve urea in a similar Fibre digestibility: Red deer
manner to sheep. Digestibility of appeared to digest cellulose less well
crude protein when compared in red than the sheep, which may be due to
deer and sheep fed on same level of lower retention time of the feed in
nitrogen intake was more in sheep the rumen. Wapiti has been reported
as compared to deer. Apparent to digest almost twice as much ADF
protein digestibility ranged from as do white tailed deer. This
-99.9 per cent for maple leaves to 88 difference may be related to the
per cent for fresh spring wheat anatomy of the digestive tract.
herbage in elk. True protein Wapiti are reported to be less
digestibility, which is an estimate of selective feeders and better able to
the per centages of the forages digest fibre than species of
protein ingested that is actually Odocoielus. The digestibility of ADF
absorbed, was 98 per cent for elk. reduced from 43 to 28 per cent in
The true protein digestibility for elk Wapiti when the environmental
is higher than the 84.4-95.7 per cent temperature decreased from 3°c to

- 29 -
-12°c. Similar decrease in ADF and it's use, energy intake is an
digestibility was observed in sheep important consideration because
under similar experimental animals catabolize dietary and body
conditions. fats and proteins to meet energy
Nutrient balance: Not much requirement, when dietary energy is
work has been done to study the deficient. Additionally, animals
balance of nutrients in wild animals consuming protein in excess of their
kept under captivity. Nitrogen requirement, but deficient in energy,
retention of deer on summer may not retain dietary nitrogen as
restricted feeding was intermediate efficiently, because sufficient carbon
and significantly different from substrates would not be availabale
winter ad lib fed deer when for microbial amino acid synthesis.
expressedlKg W· 75 or per 100g dry Nitrogen retention is also affected by
matter intake. Total nitrogen urea recycling rate. The amount of
economy of the ruminant is affected urea recycled (glKg W' 7ey) are
by several variables. In addition to comparable in elk, white tailed deer,
the efficiency of nitrogen absorption cattle and sheep.
References
Freudenberger, D.O., Burne, C.J., Toyokawa, Kay, RN.R and Goodall, E.D. (1976).
K and BaiTY, T.N. (1994). J. Agric. Sci. Proceedings of Nutrition Soc., 35:98A.
(Camb) 122:115-120. Maloiy, G.M.O., Kay, RN.B., Goodall, E.D.
Hobson, P.N., Mann, S.O. and Summers, R and Topps, J.H. (1970). Britist J. Nutr.,
(1976). Proceedings of the Royal 24:843-855.
Society of Edinburgh B 75: 171-1SO. Razzaque, M.A., Topps, J.H., Goodall, E.D.
and Kay, RN.B. (1973). Proceedings of
Hoskin, S.O., Stafford, K.J. and Barry, T.N.
(1995). J. Agric. Sci. (Camb) 124:289-
the Nutrition Society, 32:95A.
295. Simpson, A.M., Webster, A.J.F., Smith, J.B.
and Simpson, C.A. (1978). Comparative
Kamra, D.N., Sawal, RK., Pathak, N.N., Biochemistry and Physiology 59 A:95-
Kewalramani, Neelarn and Agarwal, N. 99.
(1991). Letters in Applied Microbiology
13:165.

Seasonal stress on nutrient availability and need

of Supplementary Feeding
P. Singh

Wild ruminants (Muskoxen, snow for 8-10 months annually.

Cervidae, etc.) show strong seasonal However, what is unusual about
cycles of growth, appetite and energy Wapiti (Cerrus elaphus) is the
metabolism. Their diet is generally exceptionally higher summer values
dominated by grasses and sedges. rather than low winter values which
High quality forage is only available are close interspecific mean.
in summer and access to nearly all Moreover, recent studies on seasonal
forage may be severely restricted by fasting metabolic rates measured

- 30 -
under carefully standardized digestibility in July estimated
conditions in reindeer, white tailed maintenance ME intake was similar.
deer and wapiti question whether Apparent ME requirements for live
metabolic rates and hence weight gain ranged from 25-33 KJ
requirements alter from winter to g-l in winter to 40-43 KJ g"l in
summer. One of the problems with spring and summer but these values
earlier work was that the were not significantly different. The
researchers measured energy expen- voluntary DMI enhanced from
diture rather than requirements. winter to spring concomittantly with
The maintenance requirements can availability of natural pasture. The
be detennined directly by assessing decline of forage intake in summer
the amount of feed required to probably was due to the logistics of
maintain body energy throughout foraging rather than appetite.
the year. Digestibilities of spring pasture
The ability of muskoxen to forage were the highest among all
subsist on sparse winter forage is seasons. Higher digestibility of
essential to their survival and spring pasture forage contributed to
reproduction but relatively a little is the highest rate of live weight gain.
known of their digestive Surprisingly, the increase in level of
characteristics and nutritional intake (2-3 fold) did not depress
requirements. The digestibility of digestibility of standard pelleted
diets fed to captive muskoxen in diets . ./
Alask was 62-65% and an estimated Effects ~ seasons on body
dry matter digestibility in free range weig!if, digestion and energy
muskoxen in Deron Island was 65% requirements:
in early winter and at least 75% in
summer. In young muskoxen Photo period and melatonin
voluntary intake in winter was have been found to affect the food
relatively low at 38gd- l KgO. 75 . intake in most of the seasonal
ungulates. Moreover, growth and
Digestibility and Energy Intake: digestive functions are influenced by
the food intake. The increased food
Over all diet quality was
intake and reduced retention in
similar in March and July, although
summer have been recorded.
CP and most fibre and lignin
Similarly decreased retention and
fractions were slightly higher in
reduced digestibility in summer on
March. Apparent OM digestibility
standard diet was found in soay
was significantly greater in March
sheep. Wild muskoxen would
(73.8%) than in July (60.8%) an_d
normally have access to highly
similarly CP and most fibre fractions
digestible green forage in mid
were more digestible during the
summer and increased intake and
winter. Lignin digestibility was
decreased retention of forage might
found to be 3.9% in July as compared
then be expected.
to 47.9% in March. Moreover,
muskoxen consumed 12.6% more Although body weight and feed
DM in July than in March (44.6 vs intake of non-breeding muskoxen
39 gd-l Kg:.o.75) but owing to lower were less clearly seasonal than in

- 31 -
 breeding females, they showed some and despite their wide muzzles
evidence of photoperiodic effect. Both which were adept at taking the
breeding and non- breeding leafier portions of hay and rejecting
muskoxen tended to lose weight in larger stems. These results suggest
late winter and spring, and to regain that muskoxen are quite selective in
it during autumn and early winter. their natural foraging. Such type of
Whether BMR of wild ruminants in selection may contribute
arctic and temperate environments substantially to increasing the
change with season is not entirely digestibility of low quality diets.
clear. Possible seasonal effects are Maintenance requirements of
often confounded by enhanced intake muskoxen are relatively low in
and an associated increase in energy winter compared with those of most
metabolism in summer. ruminants. ME and DM intake of
Maintenance energy requirements of these animals are 0.425 MJlkgo. 75
muskoxen determined were similar and 38 g/d/kgO.75 respectively.
in winter and summer, but Fasting metabolic rates of muskoxen
estimated as 26% higher in summer are similar to those of domestic
than in winter. The apparent sheep which are relatively low
contradiction may reflect different compared with cattle and most
patterns of feeding. Muskox cows cervids.
showed a weight· surge in the
autumn and castrated muskoxen in Seasons are having great
Palmer, Alaska gain and lose weight impact on the nutrition and feeding
in similar seasonal manner. of animals as their nutrients
Moreover, wild muskoxen generally requirements and feed intakes are
have a more compressed period of altered. Moreover, seasons do alter
compensatory weight gain in the chemical composition and
autumn and winter weight losses nutritive value of feeds and fodders
usually gain earlier. thus their palatability as well as
nutrients availability to the animals
A lower level of nutrition may
are solely dependant on seasons.
result in substantially reduced
weights of liver and vital tissues in. It is pertinent to assess the
sheep, and an associated decrease in difference between the requirements
oxygen intake. Several weeks of of animal and the supply of nutrients
maintenance feeding may be through feeds/fodders. Under
essential to eliminate the shorter seasonal stresses (heat/cold) when
and longer term effects of altered animals are not able to consume full
food intake on metabolic rates. quota of dry matter from feed-stuffs,
then supplementation of suitable
Although muskoxen show amount of nutrients, which are
many of the attributes of grazers, otherwise lacking due to inadequate
they can be quite selective in their intake of dry matter or poor quality
feeding in the wild and in captivity. of forage, is essentially required to
The penned animals never ate all be fed to the animals so that the no
the hay offered, even when offered deficiency of particular nutrients
less than they normally consumed, could arise.

- 32 -
 In tropical countries during day time only. By adopting such
summer months (May-July) feed managemental practices we can
consumption is drastically reduced, reduce the seasonal stresses upto
so far the sustaining animal large extent.
production it is imperative to provide Finally, it may be deduced that
supplementary nutrients for the suitable combination of
maintaining the production. In nutritional and managemental
summer, animals are allowed to practices can render a way to get rid
graze the pasture in night hours for off seasonal stresses to a certain
reducing the day heat stress extent without much affecting
conversely in severe cold animals are animal production.
allowed to graze the pasture during
Further readings:
Adamczewski, J.Z., Chaplin, P.K., Schaefer, Oakes, E.J., Harmson, R. and Eberl, C. (1992)
J.A. and Flood, P.F. (1994). Canadian Canadian J. Zoo!', 70:605-616.
J. Anim. Sci. 74:305-313.
Jiang, Z. and Hudson, R.J. (1994). J.Ronge.
Manage. 47:127-132.

Nutrition and feeding of wild rodents

and lagomorphs
P. Singh

Rodentia is the largest order of herbivorus but some of them are

mammals and more than half of carnivorus.
mammalian species alive today The diet of squirrels consists
belong to it. Rodents may be mainly of herbs, seeds, fruits, tubers,
herbivorus or omnivorus and they
onions, and roots. They also search
thrive on cereals, seeds, vegetables,
melons and other useful plants. They out and eat subterranean
destroy grain even in the field crops. mushrooms. Million tonnes of corn,
Today million tonnes of food is sunflower, legumes, potatoes, turnip
consumed and/or spoiled by rodents and other similar food are
in silos, warehouses and households. consumed/spoiled by these animals.
They also consume other small
A. Rodents: animals like birds and their eggs,
1. Squirrels: mice, small rodents and insects, etc.
Generally these animals Flying squirrels eat all sort of nuts,
remain close to their nests. There including acorns, chestnuts, and
are two sub-families: ground and peanuts. They occasionally consume
tree squirrels (Sciurinae) and flying berries, but never herbs. Moreover,
squirrels (Pteromyinae) with 44 they like so many other rodents,
genera, 380 spp. and 1350 sub spp. meal worms, beetles, grasshoppers
These animals are mainly and other insects.

- 33 -
2. Marmots: and pikas, there are substantial
anatomical and behavioral
They are having a sturdy body
differences. Very few nutritional
and head is broad and round with
studies have been conducted on
clearly visible ears. Tail and legs are
lagomorphs as compared to domestic
short. Different types of marmots are
rabbits.
- Alpine, Bohac, long tailed, Hoary,
yellowed bellied, North American, Wild lagomorphs seem to have
etc. similar digestive physiology as
domestic rabbits. Coprophagy occurs
Their diets consist of roots, in almost all wild lagomorphs.
herbs and grasses. From August and Rabbits and hares have similar
onwards, they consume grass, plant caecotrophic behaviour producing
stalks in large quantity and lay them soft faeces pellets enveloped in a
out to dry. Using their mouths they mucous covering. These are
prepare their nests with hay, which consumed once or twice every 24 h
is used as insulation and as winter directly from the anus without
food. They are also able to find food mastication. Several hours
even when there is · snow on the fermentation occurs in the
ground, they scratch the snow away caecotrophs. Conversely, pikas have
from a particular area and eat the no distinct periods of caecotrophy
plants beneath to it. This process of but produce small amount of soft
eating is continued till snow melts. faeces. It is an amorphous paste
Regarding the nutrients without a mucous envelope. A part is
requirements information are consumed directly from the anus
lacking in the literature but they can while remainder is pasted on stones
fed ad libitum on feeds and fodders and consumed later on in semi dry
to meet out their requirements.
state.
B. Lagomorphs The diet consists exclusively of
Since long time the lagomorphs plant materials such as juicy herbs,
(hares, rabbits and pikas) have been grasses and berries. They can detect
classified with rodents. However, the presence of truffles-wonderful
resemblance between lagomorphs underground fungi. During cold
and rodents is only superficial, and seasons snow hares change their
actually is based on similar feeding feeding habits and concentrate on
habits. Moreover, as per the dry twigs, shods, and the bark of
composition of blood, they are several soft wood and deciduous
actually closer to ungulates (hoofed trees (aspen, willow, birch, oak,
animals) than to rodents. maple, etc.). The most important
food for snow hares in the Scotish
l.Rabbits and hares: moor is heather CCalluna ualgaris).
Lagomorpha contains two families
and 12 genera. The main ',Vild ncp requirement for snowshoe
lagomorphs include cotton · tail IJnlye is- found to be 2.6 g/KgWU:15
rabbit, jack rabbit hares, arctic hare f~h 11% CP ~ntent in th~ep
and snow shoe hare and the pikas or JackliDDit:-f e minimal digestible
rock rabbits. Among rabbits, hares nitrogen requirements was worked
- 34-
 out to be 3'30 to 450 mg/Kg body activity of enzyme in snowshoe hares
weight as compared to 375 mg for was low round the year.
snowshoe hare. The energy For different stages of rabbits
requirements for non-producing jack tIte vitamin A and D requirements
rabbits and desert cotton tails is varied from 6000 to 12000 and 900 to
about 150 Kcal/Kg body weight. The 1000 IU/kg respecftvely. Moreover,
estimated daily requirement of DE, other various vitamins required for
ME and NE was 112, 116 and 91 growth are: 50 ppm Vitamin E; O..oL
Kcal per kgWO· 75 for snowshoe ppm Vitamm B12; ppm Thiamin; 6
hares. ppm riboflavin; 40 ppm pyridoxin;
Only few studies have been and 20 ppm pentothenic acid.
conducted on mineral and vitamin's Several factors influence the
nutrition of wild lagomorphs. It nutrient requirements of animals.
appears that almost all lagomorphs These include productive function
are efficient absorbers of Ca, and . (growth, lactation, maintenance,
excrete more Ca in the urine. Thus etc.), age, sex, body size and
urine was the major route of Ca environment (temperature, humidity,
excretion in jack rabbits and pikas-. air movement). Due to individual
In mountain hare prihcipal excretion variations in the requirements
of Ca, Na, . K and Mg was found between animals a safety margin
through urine. It was also found that allowance over and above
./ mountain hares consuming birch requirements has been given. This
and willow twigs ' were in negative safety factor is for tlJe shake of that no
N a balance. Information available on animals should be underfed.
the requirements of vitamins for Variations between samples of food
wild lagomorphs concerns to vitamin and between animals must always be
C. Activity of L-gulODolactone kept in mind while formulating the
oxidase the lackin in diet.
~als s nthesize
Keeping above mentioned
vitamin C, in cotton-tails,
points in mind the rodents and the
jackrabbits an snowshoe rabbits.
lagomorphs can satisfactorily be
However, cottontails s owe a
maintained nutritionally well fed
seasonal changes in activity, with
.under captive environments.
about a 10 fold greater level in ·
winter than in summer but · the
Further readiangs
Cheeke, P.R. (1987). Rabbit Feeding and Pehrson (983). J . Zoo). 119:563-574.
Nutrition, Academic Press, Inc., New
York.
NRC (972). Nutrients requirements of
laboratory animals. National Academy
Science (No. 10), Washington D.C.

·35·
 Metabolic problems in wild herbivorous mammals
S.K. Dwivedi

The nutritional status of wild Specific metabolic bone disease

herbivorous mammals is of primary a. Osteoporosis
importance to individual health of
animal. Maximal resistance to It is a state of bone in which
environmental changes, infections resorption of osteoid over balances
and parasitic diseases and maximal the deposition of new tissue. The nf;lt
production and infant survival rate result is the decrease in the organic
can only be expected from animals matrix of the bone and thus, density
of the bone. The quality of osteoids
having optimum level of nutrition. remains unaffected. --
Inadequacy or excess of nutrition as
happens sometimes in wild animals Etiology
results in metabolic problems. Protein the· et
However, these diseases are rarely results in Cushing
diagnosed and reported. syn rome (Hyperdenalism) romotes
Metabolic bone disease in wild protein Jiepletion resultin in
herbivorous mammals depletion of bone matrix. Calcium
and phosphorous level has no role in
Metabolic bone diseases are this case. Disuse of bone as in case of
relativel common m Wl er lVores paralysis, prolonged immobilization
compared to other metabolic disease. of bone and confinement certainly
This is due to perfect diagnosis and contribute to osteoporosis. Senile
wide reportin system as compared osteoporosis is recorded in old wild
to ot er disease conditions. . It mammals.
encompasses a number of conditions
Clinically it is difficult to
that result due to deficiencies of distinguish osteoporosis from
calcium, vitamin D or an improper mineral imbalances. Radiographic
ratio of calcium to phosphorous in diagnosis is not accurate uniess it is
the diet. This is characterized by too advanced. Radiographic signs
metabolic defects affecting the include thinning of the cortices with
morphology and function of bones. a corresponding increase in the
Many names are given to this medullary space. Bones become
syndrome and they are at times used light, brittle and fragile. In young
interchangeably. They include animals cartilagenous transfor-
osteoporosis, osteomalacia, rickets, mation to bone is delayed.
simian bone disease, osteogenesis
b. Osteomalacia
imperfecta, cage paralisis,
nutritional secondary hyper- Insufficient mineralization of
parathyroidism, paper bone disease. oste i Ie s to so nt!!g_ 0 bones
Paget's disease and fibrous and decreased bone d~ity. The
osteodystrophy. condition is seen in 114ult bones in

- 36-
 which mineralization fails to keep animals.
pace with mineral resorption. As a Clinical signs
compensatory mechanism body
attempts to deposit osteoid tissue at It varies depending on the
the site of greatest stress, such as species, age, duration and degree of
tendon insertion, points of bone deficiency. They include lameness,
angUlation and curvatures. painful joints, reluctance to move,
difficulty in prehension, mastication,
c. Rickets loosening of teeth and subsequent
Failure <2f._mineralization of dental pain. Other skeletal
bone matrix in young, growing deformities are scoliosis, kyphosis,
animals results in ricket. lordosis and collapsed -pelvis with
Radiologically there is wideninK of the possibilities of dystocia.
radiolucent e iphyseal plate, bowing Diagnosis
or-Iong bones and widening {?f Diagnosis is based upon the
meta hyses. . clinical signs, laboratory
d. Fibrous osteodystrophy examination, radiographic findings
and evaluation of diet. Radiographic
Mineral imbalances or changes come in the latter stages of
osteoporosis causes osteoclastic the disease. Laboratory examination
resorption of osteoids-and it is being includes determination of serum
re aced by highly cellular calcium and phosphorous level as in
connective tissue. Bones of face d._ most of the cases of metabolic bone
mandible are affected most diseases their concentrations lie in
frequently although other bones are normal range. Serum alkaline
also affected. It is a compensatory phosphatase leve~reased in
mechanism for structural weakness conditions involving osteoclastic
resulting from softening of the activity. - -
bones. Excessive connective tissue is Therapy
iaid down to offer support. Clinical
. signs include enlargement ~ial Correction of diet is necessary
and mandibu ar bones. Dysponea for amelioration. . Calcium
results due to occlusion of nasal supplements are availabl
commercially. However, it is a remo
p~sage. Prehension and mastication
possibility in wild animals.
becomes difficult.
Ketosis
e. . Nutritional secondary hyper-
parathyroidistn (NSH) Wild runinants may suffe
from ketosis, either primary 0
Deficiency of calcium in diet or secondary, as a result of feeding 0
iIIlJnediate.'loss of calcium from the onl roughages that are too coarse 0
body leads to resorption of calcium prolonged" starvation. Energy for th
from the bone through excessive adult ruminants is normally derive
production of parathyroid hormone. om car 0 y rates, while he maj
The ultimate result is osteomalacia calorie source of immatu
in adults and ricket in young ruminants is protein and butter fa
- 37 -
When a very coarse mature White muscle disease
roughage is consumed by adult Clinical signs associated with
ruminants, there is negative energy the deficiency of vitamin E Selenium
balance and the animal will be complex are being recognised in
forced to draw on its fat store. primates and feral ruminants.
Pregnancy ketosis occurs in wild Chronic cases demonstrate severe
sheep tnat have been fed on poor anaemia and advanced fibrous
quality grasses and twining muscular dystrophy of skeletal
increases the rate of occurrence. muscles. Muscle stiffness and
Clinical signs of ketosis include hyaline degeneration of straited
annoerxia, central depression, muscle occur. Elevated CPK levels
acidosis and unconsciousness. are diagnostic for nutritional
Diagnosis is made by laboratory muscular dystrophy.
examination and finding increased Clinical signs include muscular
ketone bodies in blood and/or urine weakness, myoglobinemia, myoglo-
or reduced blood pH. binuria and subcutaneous edema.
_-

Correction can be made by Malnutrition

intravenous glucose administration
It is a common problem in wild
and corticosteroid theraphy
animals as a result of non-
supported with increased
availability of feed or behavioural
carbohydrate level in diet.
problems with the colony. Infighting
Hypomagnesemia tetany frequently develops if several males
are maintained in a colony and less
It has been reported in wild dominant animals are often
herbivore mammals fed on lush restricted from feeding leading to
pasture rich in potassium. Clinical malnutrition.
sign include ataxia, depression, or
hypersensitivity to stimuli.

A Brief Note on Energy Cycle

Nityanand Pathak

The sun is the source of life for 70% in tropical arid zone) reaches
all creatures including plants and upto the earth's surface. About 45%
animals due to which the sun was of the total radiation reaching on the
recognised as a 'God' in many earth is in the photosynthetically
ancient mythologies. Solar radiation active range Le. iOO-700 nm."'FOrthe
is the source of energy for the production of one gram dry matter in
maintenance of life hich falls ~ most of the higher plants requires
the surface of earth at the rate of the fixation of about 4000 - 5000
about 20 Kcallm2/minute when ,~ calories of chemically bound energy
r~ fa11 -Qerpendicular. Only about (Cooper, 1970). The factors affecting
half of the solar radiation (ranging the utilization of solar radiation for
from less than 40% in cloudy area to chemical energy fixation in plants

- 38 -
are seasonal variation in day length, per cent of solar energy't ies fed lucerne
duration of cloud and angle of solar the plants in organic .
radiation. Energy conservation is normally stored in the tvr..-.-- -
much higher in summer than in tissues in the body of herbiv6?S
winter in temperate region, but it is animals and of this too only 10 pt.
generally more efficient in tropical cent is stored in carnivores feeding
humid climate. on herbivores. The solar energy
The functional unit of plant cell entering into the food chain by
for photosynthesis is chloroplast. photosynthesis is very small due to
The light absorbing units in the which there is continued
chloroplast are pigments (chlorophyll competetion among the animals and
a, chlorophyll b and many human for food.
carotenoids). In the day light The cycle of energy chain
photosynthesis takes place and this through the formation of organic
is known as light dependent phase of matter by photosynthesis in plants
photosynthesis when solar energy is and their consumption by the
utilized and converted into chemical animals is completed only when
energy. In the dark (night) this considerable part of plants and
chemical energy is utilized for the animals are made available by
conversion of carbon dioxide to recycling for the removal of herbages
organic compounds which are stored
and animal growth.
in the plants forming complexes and
structures water, nitrogen in the The balanced cyclic flow of
form of protein, carbohydrates, energy from producers to consumers
lipids, vitamins, some other organic and subsequently by microbial decay
constituents (some having to environment and soil and again
characteristics of enzymes, enzyme return to producers Le.
inhibition and hormones) and photosynthesizing herbages is
minerals. These substances are the necessary for the maintenance of
sources of nutrients for the desired ecosystem. Due to extensive
herbivorous animals. expansion and modernization of
The plants are the primary cropping systems more land was put
producers of complex organic under farming causing heavy
matters which greatly form the food depletion of forest cover. This
of animals. The plant eating fauna disturbed the balance and increased
are often classified as primary, environmental pollution. Now, all
secondary, tertiary and quarternary round consorted ,fforts are being
consumers. made to revive the balanced
relationship between the
The efficiency of energy atmosphere, herbages, soil and
utilization in this natural food chain animals for the development of
is highly inefficient. Only about 10 friendly ecosystem.
References
Cooper, J.P. 1970. Herb. Abst., 40:1-15.

- 39 -
 Nutrition and Feeding of Wild and Tamed
Pseudo-Ruminants
N. N. Pathak

The camels and cameloids fall chewed for 40-50 times before
in the category of pseudo-ruminants regurgitation. Chewing site is
due to occurrance of rudimentary changed frequently.
omasum and presence of the central Selection of Feeds on Range
upper incisors (one pair). The
camels, both dromedary (Came/us Feeding on herbages in camels
dromedarius) and bactrian (C. is selective. Dromedary Kenerally
bactrianus) are now domesticated avoid to graze on dense and
animals except some small herds of succulent vegetation and move to
feral dromedary in the National drier plants discarded by other
Par s of Mrica and a few small grazing species. However, in some
j he as of bactrian camels in Ceobi other area they prefer to feed on
d sert of Central Asia. succulent, thorny and salty
herbages. The leaves and yods
eeding Behaviour on Range: browsed by the camels contain
The camelids graze and browse 13-24% crude protein on dry matter
on wide herbage species ranging basis. The herbages fermented by
from scanty grasses, thorny herbs, the hot desert camels are Acacia
shrubs and trees. They prefer species, morgosa, khejari, jharberi,
browsing because the leaves of grasses and vines etc.
browse contaih high level of water The bactrian or double-humped
and salt. Camels may cover upto 90 camels- are found in central asia
km in semhof food on poor herbage where _ they graze and browse on
cover in dry season. The quantity of temperate herbages - during the
feed per bite is highly variable and warm month and accumulate more
ranges from 1 to 20g depending on than 50 kg fat in the hump. The fat
the leafyness of the plant and mouth accumulated in hump is the major
is full after several bites. The camels source of maintenance energy supply
do not close their mouth on eating during the winter season. They get
the thorny plants. The herbages only decaying fallen leaves and
collected in the mouth are chewed lichen for feeding duril!,g the winter.
slowly and thoroughly before
swallowing. The camels browse for The llamas are the native of
5-20 minutes at a stretch and then high Andean mountain and well
chew for 10-15 minutes for adopted for feeding on local
regurgitation but these rates herbages.
gradually decrease greatly in the Digestibility of nutrients
afternoon. This may be due , to
attainment of gatiety and/or fatigue Digestibility of f~__rutd
of the jaw muscles. Mastication is a nutrients are generalLY higher in
normal feature and each cud is cameloids than the other berbivores
- 40 -
Table 1. Digestibility of nutrients in different herbivore species fed lucerne
hay (% DM basis)

Feed Constituents Pony Sheep Llamoids

(Non-ruminants) (Ruminant) (Pseudo-
ruminants)
DM 64.8 63.8 71.5
CP 66.7 69.7 74.7
NDF 60.1 58.5 69.4
ADF 46.7 50.5 61.0
Cellulose 51.2 64.8 77.6

(Table 1). Probably higher retention preference for browsin_g higll protein
time of feeds in the gastrointestinal herbages. Recycling of urea
tract and characteristic annu1ated increases on the feeding of low
feature and more absorption area of protein diet and utilization . for
the colon favour higher digestibility protein synthesis is dependent on
of feeds and nutrients in camels in energy supply to the animals.
comparison to other herbivores like The metabolism of VFA in
pony and sheep. Fermentation comeliods is some what different
pattern in camel is similar to that in than the true ruminants because
true ruminants e~wt that glucose generation in former is more
substantial amount orractic acid is than 100 mg% which is much higher
also produced along with the than 50-75 mg% in true ruminants.
common VFAs (acetic, propionic,
butyric and valerie acids). Contrary Feeding of Cameliods in Zoos
to other species, substantial amount From the feeding habits of
of VFA is also present in the different cameliods, it has been found
contentS of caecum and colon of the that meal mixture used for the other
cam eli ods indicating active mjcrobial ruminants is also satisfactory for the
activities in these segments. High cameliods. Similarly dry fodders,
concentration of total nitrogen, green grasses and tree leaves should
ammonia-nitrogen and urea in the be fed as per their supply and
rumen liquor is indicative of requirement of the animals.

- 41 -
 Scope of Tracer Techniques and Remote Sensing in
the Feeding Management of Wild Animals
D. D. Mall

Tracer techniques _and remote data on biology of a variety of species

s~are versatile tools in wildlife and formulation of resource
management, but unfortunately no management strategies.
orvery little work has been done in Remote Sensing
our country. Some of the applications
are : Remote sensing is in essence
collecting data about an object from
1. Marking of animals to study a distance. The data needed for any
their movements by radioactive food management planning are
excrement. population of animals, their
2. Parent - offspring relations are distribution, food habits of the
determined. animals, and their requirements,
~
resource inventory, environmental
3. Predator - prey and food chain
impact assessment. Remote sensing
relations are studied.
covers all the aspects except the
4. Naturally occuring radio- feeding habits of the animals at a
isotopes 40K and fallout very economical cost. Other field
products (90S r , 137Cs, 1311) are techniques are very expensive.
useful in study of natural
ecosystems. Different remote sensing
techniques are enumerated below:
5. Study of pesticides distribution,
translocation and bioaccumula- 1. Aerial Photography
tion in natural environments, 2. Aerial Videography
e.g. 36Cl labeled DDT, 35S
3. Visual survey from aircraft
labeled malathion.
4. Thermal Infrared aerial
Radioisotopes commonly used
in these studies are 90Sr , 134Cs, 1311, sensing
59Fe , 65 Zn , 14C, 45Ca, 22Na, 51Cr, 5. Rremote sensing satellites.
137 Cs, 32p , 64 Cu , etc. Tracers usually
Aerial photographs, with scales
are Gamma radiating, the activity is in the rangeoIl:4{),OOO to 1:10,000
measured by geiga-Muller counter, are. commonly used, _ coupTed with
scintillation counters, solid state human interpretation. Plant
"Semi-conductor detectors- (Gehi). ~ resource data, animal population
and a. particle emitting isotopes are data, data on water resources are
to be avoided as they cause damage easily inferred from using the first
to the tissue. four techniques. These coupled with
The role of tracer technique in data obtained from field observations
food management boils down to the help in evolving computer
determination of food chain programms to obtain reasonably
relations, quantity of forage uptake, accurate estimates by applying
- 42 -
suitable correction factors e.g. These data obtained in
visibility bias, sampling error etc. different months tell us about the
Remote sensing satellites have probable shortages so that we can
put a very versatile tool in the hands take appropriate steps to
of humanity. We have IRS-1 group of supplement in the deficient areas.
satellites geo-stationary satellites
j

!NEAT (Series 1 & 2), they help in Wildlife Telemetry

communications and provide data on In addition to these telemetry
various resources. Remote sensing techniques are there to monitor
satellites have multispectral scanner various activies of animals. This
(MSS). This type of sensors technique requires a device to be
simultaneously measures the fitted on ---ui.""e animal under
intensity of reflected light from 4 observation. The transducer converts
different portions or --ehe the movement, animal temperature,
electromagnetic spectrum-2 in the heart rate, animal sounds, etc. to
visible range green (0.50 - 0 . 59f.UTI~ electrical signal. This signal is
and red (0.61 - 0.68f.UTI) and 2 in the processed and converted to digital
near infra red (0.79 - 0.89lJlIl) and signals which are transmitted. These
(0.90 - 0.98f.UTI) spectral band. This data are received at the observation
image data is transmitted in digital station and recorded on a suitable
form to earth stations. device cassette recorder or floppy .
These data can be processed This data is processed in a computer
into a color image by optically to get the results.
combinin8" 4MSS bands in This technique can be used in
registration to produce an image many applications like monitoring of
commonly called a 'color composite' animal activity, detection of heat in
or 'false color composite'. In additIOn mammals, __gfficiency of chewing
to these Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) during eating, deep throated
caI!lera images ana Data Collection vocalisations under threat and
System (DCS) are usea to monitor numerous other applications.
the movements of wild animals.
With advancement of technology To conclude it can be said that
very small objects can be identified. we have versatile tool, in the shape
The digital techniques are used in of various remote sensing
inventory and map vegetation cover techniques, which can be
related to various animal habitat successfully used in food
requirements. management of wild animals.

- 43 -
 Rumen Microbiology of Blackbuck and other
Wild Herbivores
D.N.Kamra

The vertebrates do not have importance of microbial fermen-

enzymes responsible for digesting tation in the rumen with increase in
lignocellulosic feeds of plant origin, age of the animal and increasing
for which these animals depend upon dependence on lignocellulosic feeds
symbiotic microbial partners for their survival.
. inhabiting in some part of the The microbial ecosystem in the
gastro-intestinal tract. The microbial rumen of domestic and wild
fermentation sacs in GI tracts may ruminants consists of bacteria,
either be pre-gastric or post-gastric. protozoa and fungi. They collectively
The pre-gastric fermenters can be degrade the lignocellulosic feeds into
classified as ruminants and pseudo- volatile fatty acids and have a
ruminants. The ruminants which synergistic effect when they degrade
have a well developed forestomach - the feed collectively. A large variety
include blackbuck, deer and wild of rumen bacteria have been
buffalo; the pseudo-ruminants observed which are responsible for
include camel and llama. The degradation of cellulose, hemi-
non-ruminant herbivores cellulose, starch, sugars, protein,
(post-gastric.fermenters) can further lipid, acids and for generation of
be classified into three sul>- groups methane. In male deer 11.13 x 109
i.e. concentrate feeders like bacteria/ml of rumen liquor have
hippopotamus and wild pig; medium been observed when the animals are
roughage feeders like rabbit, hare fed on alfalfa hay and on inclusion of
and kangaroo and high roughage barley grain in diet the number
feeders like elephant, horse, wild increased significantly to 19.22 x 109
donkey and zebra. In the GI tract the cells/ml. The major bacteria reported
microbial fermentation is strictly in the rumen are Ruminococcus,
anaerobic and therefore only partial Streptococcus, Peptostreptococcus,
oxidation of sugars to volatile fatty Lactobacillus, Propionibacterium,
acids takes place. In this process of Eubacterium, Lachnospira,
anaerobic fermentation, the Bacteroides, Selenomonas and
microbes can extract only 15-20% of Succinimonas. A majority of these
the energy and 80-85% of total bacteria have also been reported in
energy IS preserved in volatile fatty domestic ruminants (Hungate,
acids to be ultimately used by the 1966). In camel the cellulose
host animal to meet their energy digesting bacteria have been found
requirements. In ruminants the to be in the range of 105 - 108
volume of fermentation sac varies bacteria/ml of rumen liquor, while
from 10% in young calves to 90% of the total number ranges from 108 -
the stomach volume in adult 109 cells/ml of rumen liquor
animals. This explains the (Hungate et al, 1959).

- 44 -
 The ciliate protozoa in the number of holotrichs but spirotrichs
rumen can be classified into increased considerably. In many·wild
holotrichs and spirotrichs (Kamra et ruminants the ciliate protozoa are
al, 1991). The holotrich protozoa are represented only by spirotrichs and
sugar fermenting and are that too by entodinia only (Pearson,
represented mainly by Isotricha and 1969), but in our study with
Dasytricha. The spirotrichs are blackbuck kept in captivity the
classified into smaller (mainly holotrichs were also present
Entodinia which are starch represented by Isotricha and
degraders) and larger spirotrichs Dasytricha (Agarwal et al, 1993,
(Diplodinium, Polyplastran, 1996).
Epedinium, Ophryoscolex etc. which In rumen fermentation the role
are cellulose and hemicellulose of anaerobic fungi is very important
degraders). The ciliate protozoa in as far as the degradation of
different Mrican wild ruminants like
lignocellulosics is concerned. These
wild buffalo, impala, springbok and
fungi help in increasing the surface
Kudu varies from 1.69 - 10.6 x 105
cells/ml of rumen liquor (Giesecke area of the feed by breaking down it
and Van Gylswyk, 1975). . The into smaller particles; on which
number of ciliate protozoa increases other rumen microbes can act and
significantly when green maize is hydrolyze the polysaccharides. The
included in the diet of blackbuck fed fungi reported in the rumen are
ad libitum Feen berseem (14.81 to Neocallimastix frontalis, Piromonas
25.55 x 10 protozoalml of rumen communis and Sphaeromonas
liquor). There was no effect on the communis.
References
Agarwal, N., Kamra, D.N., Kewalramani, N. Hungate, R.E., Phillips, G.D., McGregon, A.,
and Pathak, N.N. 1996. Int. J . Anim. Hungate, D.P. and Bueckner, H.K
Sci., 11:21-23. 1959. Science, 130:1192-1194.
Agarwal, N., Kewalramani, N., Kamra, D.N., Hungate, R.E. 1966. Rumen and its Microbes.
Sawal, R.K. and Pathak, N.N. 1993, In- Academic Press, Washington, DC.
dian J. Anim. Nutr., 10:53-55.
Kamra,D.N., Sawal, R.K., Pathak, N.N.,
Giesecke, D. and Van Gylswyk, N.O. 1975. J. Kewalramani, N. and Agarwal, N. 1991.
Agric. Sci. Camb., 85:75-83. Letters Appl. MicrobioL, 13:165-167.

- 45 -
 Effect of Environmental Pollution on Natural
Herbage and Water Resources and their
impact on Wild Life
s. A. Khan
Environment is the aggregate pollutant is consumed. Quite
of all the external conditions and substantial quantities settle down on
influences affecting life and the vegetation affecting the normal
development of an organism. function of leaf food building .. The
food supply to the whole plant is
Environmental contaminants
reduced including seed, stem and
include products of combustion,
flowers. Finer dust particles may
human and animal wastes, expired
also enter the plant stomata
air, dust, pathogenic organisms,
reaching the plant and may also clog
vapours, gases including solvents,
the stomata opening (Darley, 1966).
extreme of temperatures, all sorts of
radiation and noises. Major The various constituents of
contributors to environmental polluted air including the dust
pollution are the r esults of benefit particles are highly damaging to the
drawn by man due to : vegetative growth and production
around the high ways and industrial
1. Pesticide and herbicide applica- areas (Purdom 1971; Stern 1968).
tions to enhance agricultural High chimneys scatter these
production. pollutant to far off areas. Road
2. Production of synthetics to transport, cement, power generation,
replace the expensive natural mining, metallurgical industry etc.
raw materials and to over come are some of the industries which
their shortages. emit dusty and toxic gaseous and
particulate pollutants into the air.
3. Pharmaceuticals production to The toxic minerals like As, Pb, Cr,
extend life. Ni and asbestos fibre etc. produce
4. Fuel combustion processes to toxic symptoms and essential
provide more energy. mineral nutrients like Mn, Fe and
Co when consumed in larger doses
These activities of man as 'contaminants of plant leaves
contributed enormously to produce nutritional imbalance and
environmental pollution and are also harmful.
disturbed ecological conditions such
as decreasing forest area added fuel Some of the gaseous pollutants
to the fire . The pollutants enter our affecting the vegetation are S02,
ecosystem from every route-air, N02, H2S, HCI, NH3, HCN, F, and
water and food. CO.
The affect of air pollution is These toxic substances affect
many fold. It shows its toxic affect the vegetation in many ways and
when food contaminated with also to animal and man.

- 46 -
 The water sources get polluted environmental modification from
by three major routes: . dams and hydroelectric schemes.
The effect exposure to
1. Natural salt water intrusion
organochlorine pesticides on wild life
from coastal areas, leaching
. are good example of persistent
and decomposition of biological
pollutants in aquatic species which
products.
acquire toxic residues by direct
2. Human and industrial waste uptake from water and acquired
water disposal: Industrial with food appeared to be of minor
waste water impoundment and importance and the situation with
disposal, underground injection terrestrial species is less clear
operations, air born fallout of (Moriarty, 1972).
pollutants, washing out of pes- Ground surface is the focal
ticides, herbicides and fer- point for various contaminating
tilizers and municipal land sources. Almost all pollutants
fills. originate from here and most of
3. Other sources: Accidental them settle down on earth surface.
spills, oil arid gas run off, min- The contaminants are taken away by
ing and agricultural operations. wind or flood waters from mineral
rich ore as dust or these pollutants
In this way, all sources of
settles down on earth crust swept
water, underground and overground, away due to heavy rains. All sorts of
are affected. Contamination
pollutants, be they in the form of gas
potential of mining is huge. The loss
like S02 or H2S etc. or toxic minerals
of vegetation of vast areas can be like F or high doses of other minerals
seen. like Mn and Fe or toxic sediments
The washing out of pesticides due to over flow during flood and
and fertilizers into lakes, streams rains over the ground surface cause
and rivers including the under havoc to all form of life-plant,
ground water supply increase the animal and human. Such soils not
nitrate and organochlorine content of only produce vegetation containing
the water supply (Shield, 1987). Both minerals in toxic levels, but toxic
aquatic and land population suffers. levels of these pollutants are also
In this way low concentrations of a consumed by herbivorous animals
variety of toxic substances such as through soil consumption-such
salts of toxic and heavy metals, animals take about 10% soil while
organochlorine and other biocides grazing. Such type of excess intake
are built up to substantial levels and of even non-toxic minerals produce
act as potent pollutants. toxicity and imbalance.
The danger to fresh water Asbestos rich soils reduce
pollution such as Ganges, Sasu, vegetative cover and also produce
Indus and Caspian area is all the vegetation rich in asbestos. This
more because of larger industrial high intake of asbestos penetrate cell
areas around them. Animals in walls of G.I.T. and fibre has been
estuaries seem to be at risk from found both in blood and urine.

- 47 -
Further, large quantities of Ni, Co contaminated can be consumed
and Cr are often associated with by free ranging animals.
such fibre. This may cause health
hazard including nutrient imbalance
* Heavy toxic metal poisoning:
Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg),
and toxicity of Mg, Cr, Co and Mn Chromium (Cr), Cadmium
(Proctor & Woodell, 1975). (Cd), Vanadium (V) and Nickel
Similarly, construction of (Ni) toxicity both acute as well
highways in areas rich in Hg, coal and as chronic are possible due to
thallium (low mining areas) exposed industrial, domestic and
the rocks which were later covered mining operations.
with alluvial soil. The vegetation
grown over such soil was rich in
* Heavy non-toxic metal
poisoning: Iron (Fe),
thallium and gave rise to thallium Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu)
poisoning to both animals and and almost all minerals can
humans through consumption of such cause toxicity/nutritional
vegetation. The toxicity symptoms imbalance when consumed by
were alopecia, neuropathy, visual and animals due to contamination
G.I.T. disorders (Dai-xing, 1985). as well as excess concentration
Dust originating from rock in plants grown on toxic soils.
phosphate mines contaminated
herbage produced Darmous or
* Fluorine toxicity:
contaminated herbage due to
Dust
fluorosis in plants (Cholak, 1959). industrial pollution and mining
Industrial discharges from operation, increase F
chloroalkali, paint, paper and pulp consumption which may cause
and fossil fuel usage etc. are chronic as well as acute
responsible for Hg poisoning through fluorosis. Water contamination
herbage contamination (Fimercite, is a major source ofF ingestion.
1970; Fishbein, 1974). Several Sulphur dioxide (S02), oxidant
hundred ppm of pb contamination smog, ozone, nitrogen oxides,
has been reported in herbage due to fluorides and ethylene are
surface contamination from dust of products of several
Pb mines (Alcroft and Baxler, 1950) metallurgical industries, fossil
and high concentration of this toxic fuel combustion, synthetic
mineral has been found on road side product industries and mining.
soil and grasses and some of this Pb
They damage mostly leaves,
is incorporated into vegetation
thereby restricting food supply
(Skinner and Hargue, 1945; 1946).
to the plant and affecting its
Major pollutants affecting the growth, 'production and
vegetation and their influence to the propagation.
dependent animals: Mercuric chloride, hydrogen
* Organochlorines and other chloride, ammonia hydrogen
biocides, DDT, Dieldrin, 2,4D disulphide, hydrogen cyanide,
or polychlorinated biphenyl are sulphuric acid and herbicides are
common pesticides. Their minor gaseous pollutants affecting
toxicity can arise as herbage vegetation.

- 48 -
 The danger of environmental on the herbage, water and the local
pollution from industrial prey which may be contaminated
development are quite clear and the and polluted with toxic material.
wild life both aquatic and terrestrial Even the low doses of toxicity can
has to face this pollution because have cumulative effect in the long
they live in limited habitat, depend run.
References
Aleron, R., and Baxler, K.L., 1950. J .Comp. Proctor & Woodell 1975. Adv. Ecology Res. 9 ,
Pathol. Ther 60: 209. 255.
Cholak, J., 1959. J . Occup. Med. 1, 501. Purdom, P .W. 1971, Environ. Health,
Academic Press, New York.
Darley, E.F. 1966. J . Air Pollut. Cont. Ass. 16,
45. Stern, AC., 1968, Air Pollut. VoU, Academic
Press, New York.
Dia-xing, Z, 1985. J. Environ. Health 48, 14.
Shield, A.D. 1987. J . Environ. Sci., May/June
Fimercite, N., 1970. Environ. Pollut. 6, 119. Issue, p. 23.
Fishbein, L., 1974. Sci. Total Environ. 2, 341. Skinner, j .T. and Hargue, J .S., 1945. Am. J .
Physiol. 143, 85.
Moriarty, F., 1972. Sci. Total Environ. 1, 267
Cited from Irvine & Knight Pollution & Skinner, J.T. and Hllrgue, J .S., 1945. Am. J .
Use of Chem. in Agri. . PhysioJ. 145, 500.

Feed and Water Resources and Feed Selection on

Wild and Captive Environment.
Narayan Dutta

Most of traditional water and 3. Succulence (water in foods.

feed resources for wild animals are Some plants contain upto 90%
under strain due to heavy pressure water)
of population and exploitation of 4. Metabolic water (from oxida-
various natural eco-systems. tion of carbohydrates and fats) .
Therefore, an insight into the
hitherto available water and feed Salty or brakish water can be
used only by species having
resources and food selection by wild
mechanism for excreting excess salt.
herbivorous mammals under wild
and captivity is necessary to improve In deserts, water availability
their sustainable management. may vary greatly in different seasons
and years. Although deserts tend to
Water Resources have one or two seasons when
The major water resources for precipitation is expected, some years
wild animals are: pass without moisture. Men also
influence on water availability.
1. Surface waters : Fresh water
Historically, men have concentrated
(Lakes, ponds and streams), around water in arid areas. Springs
salt water and snow water. have been diverted or developed for
2. Dew Water livestock or for human use. Roads
- 49 -
have followed streams, and cities Collins (1983) observed that
have been built along rivers. Which under natural condition male deer
has further deprived wildlife of are more forage selective than elk as
access to water. they selected fewer species in a given
Food Resources : subunit than elk did. However, both
species exhibited the lowest degree
Food of herbivores is mainly of selectivity in subunits with lowest
composed of plant species and parts plant diversity or where choice was
of plants (buds, leaves, flowers and otherwise limited. Low selectivity
fruits) in which nutrients are was also exhibited in the dry
concentrated. Usually permanent meadow subunit where the density
pasture, forest, and wood land are and low profile of vegetation
the major sources of wild life food in apparently made selection of
most part of the world. India lost individual plant species different for
about 6 lakh ha of forest land in different ungulates. Selection also
between 1984-1989 and this trend is depends upon bite size e.g. a deer
continuing due to indiscriminate can bite only the terminal half of a
cutting of trees resulting in leaf whereas elk can easily ingest
substantial decrease in the natural the whole leaf. Digestive effeciency
food resources for wild life. has also been found to affect food
The food availability for selection. Elk can consume relatively
herbivores in an area depends on more structural plant parts (stems,
several factors like abundance and twigs) of shrubs and forages because
distribution of plant species, forage of their better ability to digest fiber
production and plant resistance to than deer which are true grazers.
damage caused by excessive use. In The size of the rumen-reticula,
arid areas, the production of omasa and abomosa is also
vegetation usually depends on important in food selection.
rainfall. Selectivity improves diet quality but
Food Selection: often at the expense of feeding rate.
Therefore, selective feeding is
Because herbivores usually possible only where quality forages
have marked food preferences, their are available in abundance.
food habits are usually described in
a hierarchy of food classes. Some A study on critical goats
foods are high quality and highly showed that beside composition of
preffered. Others are usually of pastures social environment also
mediocre quality and less preferred. affect the food selection (Sylvain and
Emergency foods become especially Biquand Guyot, 1992).
important when all preferred food
Feed Selection under captive
have been used. They may sustain a
environment
herbivores population through a
critical period of food shortage. Still In the captive environment, the
other foods are starvation food's of wild herbivores may be adversely
inadequate quality and eaten only affected if their natural feed choices
when all other foods are absent. are restricted. It is usually not

- 50 - ~ 3-1 II(;Hlj
'P273 J\
possible to simulate natural habitats environment but very little
in an artificially created systematic work has been done to
environment. It has been observed '> compare the performance of animals
that herbivores like deer can be under captive and natural
successfully reared in captive environment.
References
Collins, B. W. 1983. Feeding behaviour and Sylvain B. and V. Biquand-Guyot (1992). The
habitat selection of mule deer and elk influence of purs, lineage and environ-
on Northern Utah summer range. J. ment on food selection of criallo goat
Wildl. Manage. 43(3): 643-63. (Capra hircus). Applied Anim. Behav.
Sci. 34, 231-45.

Effect of Water Deprivation on Perfonnance of

Wild Herbivorous Mammals
Murad Lal

Water is indispensable to all body is indicated by Rubner's

organisms. Yet it is unevenly observation that the body can lose
distributed-in time and practically all of its fat and over half
space--across the earth's surface. of its protein and yet live, while a
Water is a simple chemical losS of one-tenth of its water results
compound and unlike most others, it in death.
readily appears in liquid, gaseous Functions of Water
and solid forms that act in an
immense variety of ecological 1. Its solvent and ionizing powers
settings. It occurs in grades facilitate cell reactions.
essentially free of minerals as well 2. Its high specific heat enables it
as in those laden with salts and to absorb the heat of cell reac-
other materials. tions with a minimum rise of
temperature.
It has been estimated that of
the world's water, 97.3% is in oceans, 3. The latent heat of vaporisation
2.05% is frozen and 0.65% is fresh. of water also plays an impor-
Of the fresh water, some 97.6% is tant role in regulating body
ground water, half of which is more temperature.
than one-half mild deep, 1.9% flows 4. Transport of metabolic
in streams, rivers and lakes, 0.28% products and excretion.
is surface soil moisture and 0.22% is 5. Plays an important role during
atmospheric vapour moisture. hydrolysis of protein, fat and
Water comprises about 70% of carbohydrates which takes
the lean adult animal body and place during digestion.
many tissues contain upto 90% 6. Anabolic and catabolic changes
water. The vital role of water in the in intermediary metabolism re-
- 51 -
 quire the chemical addition or that precipitation controls the
release of water. populations of some game species.
7. As sinovial fluid it lubricates Talbot and Talbot (1963) found
the joints. that every major movement of wild-
beest herds was associated with
8. As cerebrospinal fluid, it acts
rainfall. Wildbeest rapidly abandon
as a water cushion for the nerv-
their grazing areas for those where
ous system.
rain stimulates new growth.
9. In ear it transport sounds, and
in eye, it is concerned with Some animals can synthesize
water within their digestive system.
sight.
Reliance on metabolic water has
10. Electrolyte-water inter- forced some animals like Kangaroo,
relationship and water equi- rats, Dipodomys species etc. from the
librium in health and disease necessity of drinking.
are well known functions of
water in the body. Effect of Water Deprivation

Water and Wildlife Population Animals differ markedly in

their ability to conserve water and to
Water's impact on wildlife withstand water deprivation. Some
population takes many different desert animals such as the camel
forms. For many species successful and gerbil can tolerate a more severe
breeding is· directly or indirectly
water dehydration than man or the
related to water, usually in the form
dog without suffering an explosive
of precipitation. Teer et al. (1965)
heat rise. Animals deprived of water
found that population of white-tailed
refuse to consume feed in early
deer in Texas was related to the
precipitation occurring in the stages of dehydration and will not
previous year. In draught years, the eat dry feed untill after they have
relationship was especially close and had a drink of water. The same
lessened only when rainfall again effect of water deprivation on
occurred in average or above- performance of wild herbivorous
average amounts. Sowls (1961) mammals is existing. As such
reported reduced reproduction precautions to avoid water
among javelina CTayassu tajacu) in deprivation should be taken in order
Arizona following uncommonly dry to get normal performance of wild
years. Such relationships suggest herbivorous mammals.
References
Talbot, L.M. and Talbot, M.H., 1963. The Wild Teer, J.G., Thomas, J.W. and Walker,
beest in Western Masailad, East E.A., 1965. Ecology and Management
Mrica. Wildl. Monogr. No. 12, pp. 88. of White-tailed deer in the Llano Basin
of Texas. Wild!. Monogr. No. 15, pp. 62.

- 52 -
Nutritional Problems in Wild Herbivorous Mammals
M. C. Sharma

Provision of required nutrients ' roughages such as dry grass, hay

for growth, maintenance and and straw often suffer from ketosis.
reproduction in .proper amounts, A stage of negative energy balance
forms and proportions for zoo occurs and the animal is forced to
animals is essential for their draw on its fat store. Ketosis may
successful and efficient health also occur in ruminants that have
management. Diseases resulting not eaten for several days or in
from deficiencies of various essential animals with rumen atony
nutrients are unfortunately too associated with some other primary
common among some wild animals illness. Pregnancy toxaemia or
in captivity. Over feeding, on the ketosis is common in wild sheep that
other · hand, can result in obesity, have been fed poor quality grasses,
indigestion, founder and other and twinning increases the rate of
conditions detrimental to health. occurrence. Signs of ketosis include
anorexia, central depression,
Nutritional diseases due to
acidosis and unconsciousness.
different nutrients
Ketosis can be diagnosed by testing
1. Water ketone bodies in urine/milk and/or
by reduced blood pH. Treatment
Water consumption is directly
includes administration cof
affected by environmental tempera-
intravenous glucose, corticosteroide
tures, water content of forage and
and an increased dietary
levels of dietary proteins and salts.
carbohydrate level that should
Wild ruminants that are initially include some molasses. P.M.
intermittent drinkers use a variety lesions of ketosis include fatty
of methods to conserve their body degeneration of the liver and kidneys
water. Dehydration in ruminants and the haemorrhages of the
commonly occurs in the winter when epicardium and icterus.
drinking water freezes or when there 3. Protein
is some pathological condition of the
upper digestive tract that interferes Free-ranging ruminants are
with normal water consumption. The forced to suffer on annual protein
classical P.M. signs of desiccation cycle. Grass protein levels of 12 to
are well demarcated collections of 25% may be available for only two to
peach-colored urates in the corti- three months of the year if the
medullary junction of the kidney and population does not migrate.
dehydration of the carcass. (Abrams, 1968; Crawferd et al.,
1968). In general, grazers tend to
2. Carbohydrates
suffer greater reduction in nitrogen
Energy source for adult intake during the dry season since
herbivores is mainly carbohydrates. high protein levels only occur during
Exotic ruminants fed only coarse the rapid growth stages of the grass.

- 53 -
 Many wild ruminants possess or absent in wild-whether free or
the ability to conserve nitrogen captive ruminants.
during protein deprivation Vitamin D is essential for
CCrawferd et al., 1968) through optional calCium absorption from
reduced urea excretion · (Church, intestine and calcium mineralization
1971) as in the camel falls from 13.0 in the bones.
to 0.2· g/day.
Unlike domestic herbivores,
If there is protein deprivation wild ruminants generally do not
in pregnant animals, it results in suffer from Vitamin D deficiency.
small, weak or aborted kids, lambs Excess vitamin D administration to
and calves. When excess protein is captive wild ruminants results in
fed to the animals, it results in excess calcium absorption from
enterotoxaemia and laminitis. When intestine which interferes with the
protein over 20% level is fed for metabolism of other minerals like
longer times, it results in overgrown phosphorus, zinc and copper. This
hooves (Wallach, 1971). Excess results in fibrous osteodystrophy and
intake by dominant, aggressive male fibrous interstitial nephritis, in
in combination with anabolic effect adults ~d specially in new born
of male sex hormone4estesterone. animals. Excess calcium deposits are
4. Fats found in connective tissue and
elastic tissue.
Fats above 5% level in diet
interferes with cellulose metabolism, Vitamin E plays important role
changes the body fat character and as biological antioxidant and is
also interferes with metabolism and related physiologically with
assimilation of other major selenium (Basson and Hofmeyer,
nutrients. 1973; Basson et al., 1971). Deficiency
symptoms are anemia, weak and
5. Vitamins sproddle-Iegged young one, ~onal
The animals habitated in arid dystrophy and nubitienal muscular
and semi-arid regions are likely to dystrophy. Newborn and suckling
suffer from Vit.A deficiencies because small ruminants are more
mature poor quality roughages are susceptible as compared to large
poor sources of Vitamin A. Nitrate ruminants (Decker and McDermid,
present in forage may also interfere 1977) for Vit E efficiency.
with conversion of ~-carotene to Vitamin K is essential for
Vitamin A Deficiency symptoms are synthesis of prothrombin. This is the
poor growth, anasarca, emaciation, only soluble vitamin which is
lacrimation, corneal opacity, produced by microorganisms in
infertility, weak, dead or aborted rumen. Feeding of moldy fodders to
foetus. Birth defects due to Vitamin A wild animals in captivity may
deficiencies are diaphragmatic interfere with vitamin K
hernia, cleft palates, micro- metabolism. Symptoms are
phthalmia, metaplasia, cardio- . spontaneous nasal or rectal
vascular defects and keratinised haemorrhages and increased blood
epithelium. Hyper vitaminosis is rare clotting time.

- 54 -
 Unlike adult ruminants Calcium and phosphorus are
B-complex vitamins are of dietary very important in skeletal
importance in monogastrics and development, antlers growth, rumen
young ruminants. These are required functions and cellular metabolism.
for metabolism of carbohydrates, Ca : P ratio should be 1.1 to 2.0 : 1.0
protein and lipid. Deficiency of for proper utilisation of both
B-vitamin can also occur in adult minerals. Excess Ca supplemen-
ruminants that have disturbed tation will interfere with metabolism
rumen function. Toxic plants like ... of P, Cu, Zn and Mn. Phosphorus
Pteris acquilira, Equistem polustre supplementation is necessary for
contains thiaminase which produces wild ruminants in captivity.
signs of vitamin B, deficiencies Deficiency signs of P are weight
(Church, 1971). Clin"ical signs of loss and osteoporosis (Wobeser and
deficiency are anorexia, reduced Runge, 1975) "Walking on egg shells"
growth rate, dehydration, weight gait, lameness, spontaneous
loss, diarrhea, head twitching, fractures, anorexia, loss of body
convulsions, opisthotonus and brady weight, pica, reduced fertility,
cardia. Postmartem examination hyperirritability and dyspnea.
shows hydrothorax, hydroperi- Excess P supplementation results in
toneum, polioencephalomalacia, NSH with the associated fibrous
emaciated carcass, flacid skeletal asteodystrophy and urinary calculi
muscle and right ventricular formation (Wallach et al., 1978;
dilatation. Deficiertt animals can be Woolf et al., 1976).
treated with 250 to 500 mg
parenteral vitamin Bl (Church, Magnesium is important as
1971). catalyst in cellular metabolism.
Deficiency signs are depression or
Deficiency signs of vitamin B2 hypersensitivity to tactile or
are anorexia, anemia, lacrimation, auditory stimuli, tremors
excessive salivation, diarrhea, convulsions. The standard level of
alopecia and death. This occurs 0.5% NaCl is sufficient for wild
mainly in . captive wild ruminants ruminants. Trace mineral licks
when diets are improperly should contain 96% salt. Signs of salt
supplemented with vitamin B2. poisoning are enteritis, neurological
disorder and dehydration. Iron is
6. Minerals required for the production of
Free ranging herbivores obtain haemoglobin. Deficiencies are
their mineral requirements from observed in bottle-reared ruminants.
three sources i.e. forages, soil and Milk should be supplemented with
water. In tropical climates, ant iron as it is deficient in iron.
heaps and termite mounds are often Deficiency signs are hypochromic
used as mineral licks by wild anemia, pale mucous membrane,
animals. The mineral requirement of weakness, and increased
wild animals are similar to that of susceptibility to infection.
domestic herbivorous animals Copper is required as a catalyst
(Ulrey, 1974; Wackerrugel, 1966; of cellular metabolism and for proper
Wallach, 1971). hair, hoof, elastic connective tissue
- 55 -
 and bone growth. The liver levels of Deficiency signs include lacrimation,
copper in wild ruminants varies anemia, emaciation and death by
according to species (Howard, 1964). apparent starvation.
Cu toxicity signs are reduced liver Selenium deficiency signs are
function, hemolysis and jaundice.
liver necrosis and nutritional
Deficiency signs are hypochromic
muscular dystrophy, muscle
anemia, diarrhea, poorly keratinized
wool and hair, ataria, lameness and stiffness, hyaline degeneration and
acute cardiac failure. Serum copper calcification. Excess selenium
and ceriloplasma levels in free produces ataria, alopecia of tail
ranging animals are used to assess switch, slunghing of the hooves and
copper status of the animals. Iodine malformed young ones (Church,
is required for production of 1971). Zinc acts ~ enzyme activator
thyroxine by thyroid gland. and is component .of . insulin.
Deficiencies are observed in captive Deficiency signs are salivation,
wild ruminants. Iodine deficiency pruritis, parakeratosis, alopecia of
signs are congenital goitre and dead mussle, flank and .neck and birth
foetuses at birth. defects (Wallach et al., 1978).
Cobalt is essential for Vitamin Deficiency occurs on zinc deficient
B12 synthesis in the rumen. soils and legume rich diets. .

Feeding of Yak, Mithun, Gaur and Wild Buffalo

Nityanand Pathak
/

IL The · Yak (Bo.§_____jJ_!__unniens),

mithun or gayal (Bos [rontaTlSf, gaur
(Bos gaurus) and wild buffalo
buffalo, the nutritional requirements
have been considered similar and
these values are generally used for
/ (Bubalus bubalis uar arnee) are the the determination of their feeding
little known animals. Out of these schedule with suitable modifications
four species the later two species are depending on the difference in feeds
still wild. The yak and mithun have and fodders due to locality etc.
been included in the list of domestic Yak (Bos grunniens)
animals but in more correct term
these two species may be mentioned IIi India, Yak and its crossbreds
as tamed animals, more specifically with cattle are found in Arunachal
the mithun. In some of the Indian Pradesh, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh,
zoos, African wild buffaloes . Himachal Pradesh and Jammu &
(Syncerus caffer) are also Kashmir. The yaks like to live in the
maintained. Very little information cold climate of 1500-5000 m above the
is available on the nutrition and sea level. The crossbred of yak with
feeding of these species. However, in local cattle are capable to live at
view of the close relationship of.yak, lower altitudes. Seasonal migration
mithun ·and gaur with cattle and of yak herd in search of feed to lower
\ that of wild buffalo with domestic altitude is common in winter.

- 56 -
 The calves are reared on digestibility of protein and fibrous
nursing the dam. The composition of feeds in the yak.
yak milk is comparable with buffalo Adequate feeding of yaks is a
milk in fat content and its protein serious problem during the winter.
content is much higher than the cow The herbages available are even
and buffalo milk. However, in most inadequate to meet the maintenance
of the cases only half of the milk is
requirements because these are
allowed to be sucked and that too
covered beneath a thick layer of
during the first 2 or 3 months of life,
when calves are normally kept at snow. At most of the places yaks
home and yaks are let loose for '. loose body weight during lean period
grazing. The birth weight of yak is ' of winter season and feed on fallen
12-18 kg and rate of gain in the body , leaf blades and several species of
weight on suckling supplemented mosses and lichens. Similar to cattle
with grazing on good pasture is 700 the carotene conversion efficiency to
to 1000 g during. 3-4 months of Vitamin A activity is less efficient as
summer season. evident from the high yellow
coloration of butter fat. Yaks like to
System of Feeding drink running water and also eat
Grazing is the basis of yak snow in winter to satisfy their thirst.
rearing and specific supplemental
Mithun (Bos frontalis)
feeding is followed only at the
organized farms. The feeds used for Mithuns are tamed animals
the feeding of yaks are the same reared on ranges and in the deep
eaten by the cattle. The herbages of forests of some north-eastern states
temperate region are more of India. They are grazers and
nutritious due to high digestibility as browsers and prefer browsing. The
a result of structural differences. CP content of herbages eaten by
The herbage cover is quite mithun varies from 6 to 20%
satisfactory during the hot months depending on the season and type of
and quite often surplus fodder is herbages available. Animals have a ·
conserved as hay. The grass cover is strong craving for salt and easily
extensively impregnated with clovers tamed by salt feeding. The two
(oal) in most of the areas. The prevalent systems of salt feeding are
growing yak, cattle and their crosses (a) Owners visit their animals on the
may gain at the rate of 700, 850 and
range on Ii fixed day in a week and
1100 g respectively when grazed on
offer a handful salt to each animal
lush pasture during the flush period.
...)fhe_y:aks consume 9.9 to 13.3 kg individually, or (b) animals come to
F.U. per "kg gain in body weight. owners' house at the tUne of salt
feeding to receive their salt share.
Mean retention time of feed in Mithuns are selective feeders and
the digestive tracts is about 78 hours often travel long distances in the
which is much higher than 65-69 deep forest in search of palatable
hours in taurus cattle on the feeding feeds. They frequently change the
of 'p~leted diets. Higher retention plant and place spending only 5-10
time is -~ associated with higher minutes at a place, herb or shrub.

- 57 -
Gaur (Bos gaurus) cultivated crops is quite common.
This IS wild bovidae and Grazing takes place preferably in
considered to be one of the ancestors early morning and late in evening,
of the mithun. Feeding habits are while day time is spent by wallowing
almost similar to mithun but they in a mud hole or river.
avoid human habitation and live in ~ African wild buffaloes also like
deep forests in some parts of West grazing and they are now selective
Bengal, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh grazers with a broad mouth well
and Andhra Pradesh. adapted for rapid forage ingestion.
Both these species Cmithun and About 52% time is spent on grazing
gaur) have been adopted on the diet 'i.e~t 9 h for grazing and 6.5 h
of domestic cattle and being for rUmiilatlOn. Nocternal grazing is
maintained in many zoos. quite common and about 5-6 h are
spent on grazing. Vegetations grazed
Asian Wild Buffalo (Bubalu8 are grasses about 91%, browse 7%
Bubalis ver arnee) and African and herbs I%. The CP content of
Wild Buffalo (Syncerus .caffer) herbages grazed by buffaloes range
A few herds of wild Indian from 8-10 % on DM basis in wet
buffaloes are still found in the season and less than 5% in dry
forests of Kaziranga and Manas season. The changes in fodder
Wildlife Sancturies. They live in \ composition and climate have
small herds of 10-15 animals significant influence on the
comprising of a bull, few breedable performances of the buffaloes.
females and their young followers. On the basis of aforesaid
Wild buffaloes rarely browse and observations it is evident that the
obtain their nutritional requirement rations for the feeding of these
by feeding on large varieties of
ruminants should be similar to that
grasses along the bank of rivers. fed to cattle and buffaloes.
Trespassing into neighbour

Effect of Nutrition on Antlers Growth

A. Sahoo

Antlers are the most complex annually. Female reindeer caribou

mammalian appendage capable of CRangifer tarandus) possess antlers
regeneration. Antlers of deer are as its male counterpart. Main
unique among mammalian structure functional significance of antlers of
in that they cast and then ungulates is their use as weapons in
regenerate completely each year. intra-sexual combat. Game ranching
Except in muskdeer and Chinese efforts and antler-in-velvet
water deer all males have these production for the oriental trade
weapons on their foreheads which provide impetus to understand and
grow on bony structure of frontal controlling antler growth. But from
bone and in most cases dropped the animal production point of view,

- 58 -
the suppression of antter growth has supplied with blood vessels, but as
been desirable because of the the rut approaches, testosterone
possibility of antler injury during secretion increases causing
growth and the danger to both mineralisation and occlusion of blood
animals and man from the hardened vessels. The resulting dead bony
antlers of aggressive males. It may tissue is frequently broken out but
alsq be possible to a)ter the timing of such damage can be made good the
growth or to double crop the antlers next year provided the damage has
of females and weanling males not extended below the coronet. This
during the annual cycle to increase advantage is presumably the reason
the yield. why deer have evolved deciduous
Testes, thyroid gland and headpieces rather than the
anterior lobe of pituitary are permanently live horns of the horned
involved in controlling antlers species.
growth. Initially pituitary provides In a study on growth and
stimulus to the testicular harmone, mineralization of antlers, Kay et al.
testosterone, that the puberscent (1982) analysed the antlers for total
animal should grow its secondary ash and Ca : P ratio. The ash content
sexual characters and then thyroid from tip to base were 8.2 ± 0.5, 15.9
gland directs the rate of growth of ± 0.8, 30.6 ± 0.84 and 34.5 ± 0_7%
antlers. Antlers grow in 4 phases: and that in hard antler was 51.7 ±
1. Pedicle grows under the control 1.93%. The respective values of Ca :
of testosterone. P ratio were 0.4 ± 0.14, 1.5 ± 0.23,
2.0 ± 0.23, 2.2 ± 0.24 and 2.0 ± 0.02.
2. Velvet antler develops when Thus, the tissue of an antler in
predicle reaches about 6 cm ac- velvet differentiate rapidly, showing
companaied by lowered tes- a sequence of development from the
tosterone secretron and in- tip to the base and mineralization
creased level of insulin like advances as a discrete band, about 2
growth factor (IGF). to 4 em behind the growing tip,
3. Antler is cleaned of velvet at rather than occurring gradually
high testosterone level. throughout the structure. Evenually
just before the rut, the skin dies and
4. Casting of antler at the fall of is frayed off to expose the bone of the
testosterone. hard antler. Robins and Koger (1981)
At the tissue level, testosterone injected calcium chloride at the base
may be metabolised via the area and concluded that the falling
aromatase pathway to oestradiol of antlers may be stimulated either
which is involved in the by the increased localized tissue Ca
mineralization of antler or via the 5- level independent of the injury or by
reductase pathway . to 5- the localized cellular effects of tissue
dihydrotestosterone which is injury independent of traumatization
involved in anlter cleaning. During or method. Earlier reports proposed
the growing phase when testosterone a close link between wound healing
secretion is low the antlers are live, and antler regeneration. However, it
soft, sensible and vulnerable and is is unknown whether injury-induced

- 59 -
 antlers can be stimulated at any available t o meet protein and energy
time or are dependent upon need of animals in addition to
concurrent hormonal cycles. One of vitamin-mineral mix in the diet.
special feature in trauma-induced However, good pasture may not
antlers is that they are covered by require concentrate supplement for
live velvet even though the antler growth. Galkin and Galkina
underlying bone was well ossified. It (1968) recommended nutritive value
is also observed that the serum Ca of 4.2 to 4.7 feed unit CF.U.) for the
level doesnot increase during normal ration of Siberian stags. It is
antler growth and ossification is one observed that the development of
of the latter steps in antler secondary sexual characteristics and
formation. Peak alkaline changes in behavioural pattern of
phosphatase activity is observed in males concomitant with the
early summer when the antlers are development of antlers require
in soft velvet, rather than later when additional nutrition over and above
the antlers are calcifying. the availability of seasonal fodder. In
Amputation of antler decreases the caribou CRangifer tarandus) females
enzyme as it cancels the need for with antlers that on poor range, are
mobilization of skeletal mineral. less likely to have calves than female
Many reports emphasize without antlers. Seasonal changes in
proper and adequate nutrition white-tailed deer COdocoilus
during the period of antler virgeanus) include biannual pelage
regeneration due to its direct molts, reduced appetite and
involvement with tlie male sexual metabolism (hence cessation of
behaviour. The period of antler growth) in winter, antler
growth and calcification coincides regeneration in spring, lactation
with the sexual maturation of deer during summer and fat deposition in
and corresponds to increasing levels autumn. In winter due to snow
of circulating testosterone. It is coverage food availability is very less
suggested that antler formation is and the annual cycle is so regulated
expensive in metabolic terms. that the bucks eat heavily in late
Varying the protein and energy level summer but voluntarily reduce to
as well as its mineral content, near starvation intake at the onset of
mainly Ca and P, it is observed that rut and continue on low intake
body growth takes precedence over throughout the winter. Long et al.
antler development and bucks (1959) applied seasonal feed
making excellent growth develop restriction in white~tailed deer and
large antlers. However, shifting from observed its .effect on antler
a restricted diet or after following a development. In the 3 groups he
period of undernutrition seem to be studied, Group 1 was fed to appetite
less efficient inspite of recovery in with a diet containing dried alfalfa
weight and antler development meal 37.7, shelled maize 34.4,
during compensatory phase of life. soybean cake 9.8, cotton seed cake
So a daily supplement of 0.3 to ·0.7 4.9, ground oat 4.9 and molasses 4.9
kg per head concentratge mixture (@ fortified with minerals and vitamin;
0.5 to 1.0% B. wt.) should be Group 2, 50% of group 1 fed for 5

- 60 -
weeks and Group 3, same as Group they obtain minerals from the
2 but fed for 10 weeks period and roughage and from mineral bearing
then full feeding for the rest of the soils and water. In warm climates
period. He observed that the ant heaps and termite mounds are
replacement of coat was delayed by 2 often used as mineral licks. Calcium
weeks in group 2 and 4 weeks in 3 and phasphorus which are required
and there was slow development of for mineralization of the skeleton,
antlers in restricted group. ' antlers, rumen nutrition and cellular
Development of antlers delayed metabolism, should be available in
about 1 d for each week of restricted the ratio of 1.1- 2.0:1.0 as in other
feeding, shedding was hastened, domesticated ruminants. Body size
density of antler bone was similar in and antler size vary considerably in
group 1 and 2 but less in group 3. In white-tailed deer depending upon
tropical countries scarcity of green the availability of phosphoraus.
fodder during summer also induces Annual regeneration of antlers
similar effects on antler which is related with the male
development. Therefore, herbivores sexual behaviour needs 10% extra
diet specialization should occur calorie due to its activity and vigour.
when food resources are abundant The protein level in the diet ranges
and diet generalization should occur between 13 and 16% and that of fat
at low food levels. Galkin and is 2 to 5%. Supplementation of
Galkina (1968) could replace 30% minerals and vitamins through
protein with urea in the ration of concentrate mixture, maintenance of
Siberian stags fed on sugar beet shrubs grazing, lands or provision of
during January and February. good quality fodder (or hay) will help
However, with feed based on hays, in ameliorating periodic nutritional
silage and concentrate, later deficiency in animals due to seasonal
introduction of urea (March availability and/or non-availability of
onwards) reduced growth of antlers feeds. Placing mineral blocks or licks
by up to 39% compared with control. at different corners of the range land
In addition to major nutrients or near the fountains or watering
like carbohydrates, proteins and fats areas will provide daily supply of
these wild species also require micronutrients where the range or
vitamins and minerals for overall soil is deficient in certain mineral
metabolism. In free ranging system elements.
References
Brown, RD., Cowan, RL. and Kavanaugh, Kay, R.N.B., Phillipo, M., Suttie, J.M. and
J.F. 1978. J. Anim. Sci. 47:435. Wenham, G., 1982. J. Physio!. 322:4 p.
Fennessay, P.F. and Suttre, J.M., 1983. In. Long, T.A., Cowan, RL., Wolfe, C.W., Rador,
Biology of deer production. Procc. Int. T. and Swift, R W., 1959. Pennysil-
Conf. Dunedin, New Zeland, 13-18 Feb. vania Agric. Exp. Station. Prog. Rep.
1983. No. 209, pp 11.
Robbins, C.T. and Koger, L.M., 1981. J. Wild!.
Galkin, V.S. and Galkina, VA., 1968. Nutri- Manage. 45: 733- 37.
tion Abstracts and Reviews
1971:41:1788.

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 Feeding of exotic wild herbivores (non-ruminants)
kept in Indian zoos
N. Haque

The wild herbivores prefer mud wallows. Even though

(non-ruminants) which are imported rhinos perspire, they appear to
from different countries mainly thermoregulate by wallowing in
include ~, Arican black and mud.
white rhinoceros, kangaroo, African Kangaroos are true herbivores.
elephant, hippopotamus, tapir etc. They have developed a ruminant like
The zebra is a member of the dfgestive system, in that they have a
family Equidae. All zebras come large, sacculated fore stomach in
from Africa. The digestive system of which cellulose is digested in a
zebra is similar to that of domestic fermentative process by microflora
horses. They do well on diets similar and fauna.
to those of horses. There are five There are two genera of the
species of rhino still serviving. The family Hippopotamidae with one
Javan, Sumatran and Indian are species in each i.e. the Nile hippo and
Asiatic; the black and white are the Pygmy hippo. The stomach of
African. The white rhino reaches hippos is of complex type. It has three
weights upto 2000 to 2500 kg. The sections. The anterior section is lined
black rhino is considerably smaller with smooth furrows and two
with mature weights approximately secondary pouches. Third section is
1000 to 1400 kg. ThEL.lili!ck rhinos short and thin. The normal habitat of
are mainly browsers, having a the Nile hippo is to remain in the
prehensile tip on the upper tip. In water in day time and graze on land
natural habitat, twigs and small at night. The Nile hippos are social
leaves of the plants Acacia animals and normally live in groups
brevispica, Phyllanthus fischeri, A. of approximately 10 adults females,
hockii, Carissa edulis, Tinnea few adult males and offsprings in
aethiopica etc. are commonly dense forests. They normally eat 1 to
consumed by black rhinos 2 percent of their body weight daily in
CGhebremeskel et al., 1991). The their natural habitat, mostly grasses,
white rhinos are grazer leaves and aquatic plants. The pygmy
characterized by a long head and hippo also lives in the dense forest
square lips. It normally carries its but they are not social. They live
huge head low, with nostrils only almost completely solitary lives.
inches above the ground. The
digestive system of rhino is similar
Nutritional requirements
to the equine, with a simple Nutrition is a fundamental
stomach, short intestine and ,ver;t part of captive management and
large caecum and colon. No gaIl providing appropriate diets for the
bladder is present. In -natural great variety of species maintained
habitat. both olack, and white rhinos in captivity presents a major

- 62 -
 challenge. There is a little specific zebra can be hand reared. Shaul and
information on nutrient require- Miller (1962) reported the
ments on non-domesticated animals composition of zebra milk which was
(Kirkwood, 1991). higher in fat context than the
The BMR of rhinoceros, domestic horses. Cow milk may be
Kangaroo and hippopotamus is fed to orphaned zebra adding maize
t i?etermined to be 71.46, 52.82 and oil.
68.36 kcal/kg WO·75/d (Blaxter, 1989). Feeding of African rhinoceros
The metabolizable energy Pelleted horse feeds are,
requirements ~xpressed as readily accepted by rhinos. Hay
multiplies of BMR is suggested to be should be of good quality but a diet
about 3 for the good early growth of fine lucerne or berseem hay often
and declining to 2.4 at half the proves to have laxative effect. On
mature weight (Abrams, 1968). Not coarse hay rhino tends towards
much information is available on constipation but this can easily be
protein, vitamin and mineral corrected by addition of bran, carrot,
requirements of these animals and potatoes, browse branches or green.
lot of studies are warranted in this Total daily intake of an adult animal
aspect in order to provide scientific weighing 2000 to 2500 kg would be.
and balanced feeding of these 30 to 40 kg on dry matter basis.
animals.
One of the practised problems
Substitute for natural feeds in feeding rhinos is that of unability
It is inevitable that difficulties of providing the necessary essential
are likely to occur in providing the fatty acids. The rhinos in the wild
captive wild herbivores with its ingest the re[.uired essential fatty
natural feeds. All the substances acids from a wide varieties of trees
find their way into compounded and bushes. Both the linoleic and
feeds : oilseed cakes, by-products of linolenic acids are lost during
the processing of cereals such as storage of feeds and preparation of
bran and dried fish and meat meals. hay. Feeding of green fodders may be
helpful in this regard. Low
Feeding of zebra consumption of essential fatty aCIds
The digestive system of zebra is by the captive animal reduces the
similar to that of domestic horses. bioavailability of vitamin E
Obesity is a familier occurance in supplements. The dry scaly skin
most wild zebra in captivity with seen in some captive rhinoceros may
free access to feed. Where available, indicate essential fatty acid
pelleted horse feed, usually with 12 insufficiency. It is suggested that
to 12.5% protein is an efficient vitamin E supplementation in
method of supplying adequate captivity should range from 1 to 5 ~
nutrients. A limited amount of IU/kg body weight. I
pellets, from 1.0 to 1.5 kg/100 kg
Feeding of Kangaroos
body weight, plus a low quality high
fibre hay of equal amount makes a In captivity kangaroos are fed a
good ration. Orphaned foals of wild diet of fresh green feed or good
- 63 -
 quality hay ad libitum and_nelletized An adult Pygmy hippo attains
dairy meal and grain meal about 200 to 240 kg body weight
supplemented with vitamins and which may be maintained with 5 to
minerals. Feeding of low quality 8 kg of berseem or lucern hay
t oughages cause a disease known as alongwith 1 ~ 5 kg commercial dairy
, "lumpy jaw" (necrobacillosis). Sharp concentrate and 0.5 kg vegetable.
pieces of low quality roughages sets Feeding of elephants
up the site for infection. Wild
kangaroos chew at bark of trees, so The feed consumed by
the provisions of green logs covered elephants in wild is low in nutrients
with bark is recommended for the and high in fibre. Hay makes up the
teeth of these animals (Finnie, 1978). basic diet for majority of captive
A pouch young kangaroo may be fed Mrican elephants. Peters (1972)
with a formula low with lactose and reported th~ ~~ric and lauric acids
galactose as the intestinal mucosa of are present in much higher
kangaroo produces low levels of concentrations in elephant milk than
lactase. other species Coconut 'oil is a very
good source of capric acid. It is better
Feeding of hippopotamus to use 20% of the fat from coconut oil
The Nile hippos which are and 80% from soyabeanloil in the
having body weights ranging from feed of infant elephants. A rice-base
1360 to 2000 kg can be maintained formula composed of dried whole
on 40 to 50 kg of hay along with 4 to milk 0.5 kg, cooked rice 0.5 kg,
5 kg grain daily. Berseem and lucern sucrose 0.5 kg water, 8.5 litre may be
hay along with a dairy concentrate used to feed elephant calves. It may
mixture may be used. be supplemented with pediatric
multivitamins.
References
Abrams, J.T., 1968. Fundamental approach to mammals, bards and veptiles in cap-
the nutrition of the captive wild her- tivity. J. Nutr. 121:529-534.
bivore. Symp. Zool. Soc. London. No. Kirkwood, J.K. and Bennet, P .M., 1992. Ap-
21 :4-1-62.
proaches and limitation to the predic-
Blaxter, K., 1989. Energy Metabolism in tion of energy requirements in wild
Animals and Man. Cambridge Univer- animal husbandry and veterinary care.
sity Press, Cambridge. p. 130. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 51 :117-124.

Finnie, E.P ., 1978. Feeding and nutrition : In Peters, J .M., 1972. Composition and Nutrient
Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine (ed. content of elephant (ElepJur.s maximus)
Fowler, M.E.). Philadelphia W.B. milk. J . Mammal 53:717.
Saunders PP. 409-412.
Shaul, B. and Miller, "D., 1962. Animal milk
Kikrwood, J.K., 1991. Energy requirements analysis and hand rearing techniques.
for maintenance and growth of wild International Zoo Year book. 4:282.

- 64 -
 Zooforestry and nutritional management
Raman Malik

Zooforestry way to central optimum temperature

. Each animal has evaluated and humidity. Wooden shelters
with the. habitat it Pives in. They should be covered with grasses to
have their own specific ecological blend with local environment.
niches which they occupy in an During winter windward sides
ecosystem. These niches vary from ,should be broCked with 'kana' sereem
animal to animal. The well being of to fend against could winds. A thick
an animal in a zoo depend mainly on grass floor mattings should be
the environment provided. If the privided in the shelters for the
environment is closer to those animals to rest. The emphasis
occuring in nature, the animal should be given both on quality and
psychologically feel secure and quantity 6f space.
breeding purpose would largely be (ii) Psychological needs
fulfilled. So enclosures of a wild
animal must be enriched by Psychological needs are not
plantation with species closer to through provision of natural foods
their natural habitat. and satisfaction of feeding habits.
The forage most liked by the animals
Food, shelter .-ancL.health._are is provided. The ungulates and
the basic requirements which are to provided green [adder in addition to
be provided to an animal in natural growing vegetation with in
captivity. The natural habitat of an the enclosure. Seeds of fodder
animal, however, caters many more species are also broadcast with in
requirements which should be the enclosure to provide better
providd to satisfy the psychological forage. The deer and antelopes like
needs of the 300 animals. These to browse and the lower branches of
needs vary from species to species. A trees with in the enclosures are soon
proper plantation and environment utilized by the ungulates to the
of enclosers in the 300 fulfill the browse line, hence browse is also
physical, psychological, biological provided for them. Shelter
and behaviour all needs of wild requirements vary with species. IIQg
animals. deer prefer to stay in thick
vegetation, whereas blackbuck like
(i) Physical needs
to have open space in their
The animal enclosers should be environment. The vegetation in their
constructed in such a way to provide respective enclosure is manipulated
the m_aximum physical accordingly.
facilities/structures needed to (iii) Biological needs
stimulate a particular habitat. Such
facilities include a large enclosure Biological needs include the
area, planting of trees for shed, requirement of shelter which may be
diffused lighting conditions and a in the form of trees or bushes and
- 65 -
grazing grounds to satisfy the usual competition and strife to
hunger in the most naturalistic attain the food is, therefore,
manner. In an enclosure of a diminised. Stall feeding is avoided
particular species only those trees with in the enclosure and the feed is
and bushes are planted which are a provided for the groups so that a
part of their own natural definite peeking order is exhibited.
environment. More browse is Nutritional Management
provided in the enclosure of
browsers. Solitude and shelter are Nutrition of the captive
preferred for reproductive activities animals, although on essential
an are provided by begetation. Due feature of maintaining the health of
to good vegetation growth an the zoological collection is a part of
environment thus created, the bird managerial skills needed for the
fauna has greatly improved within successful rehabilitation of wild
the zoo and the environment seems animals in the restricted
to be full. circumtances that are imposed upon
them in zoos. The problem of feeding
(iv) Behavioural needs a wide variety of captive species is to
Behaviour of the captive recognise how they deviate from the
animals undergoes a change due to common patterns taht are familier to
specific captive conditions. A large us. In doing so a knowledge of the
percentage of their food foods they eat under natural
requirements is provided to them, circumtances is essential although
hence they do not show their normal natural diets may be rather different
hunting or foraging behaviour. The from what they are suppose to be.

Nutrition of Exotic Wild Rmninants

Kept in Indian Zoos
A.Sahoo

Almost all zoological parks (Antelope ceruicapra), red panda

display some form of exotic (Ailurus fulgens), gaur (Bos gaurus),
ruminants because of the relative banteng (Bos jauanicus
ease with which natural roughage biramonicus), Mithun (B. frontalis),
diets can be imitated as compared to bali cattle (B.banteng), Kouprey (B.
specialized diets. The exotic wild saureli), Yak (B. grunniens), Eland
ruminants species found in Indian (Taurotragus oryx), Chinkara
zoos are mouse deer CTragulus (Gazella gazella), giraffe (Giraffa
meminna), brow-antlered deer camelopardalis), wildebeest
(sangai)(Gervus e. eldi), sika deer (C. (Connochaetes taurinus) elk, okapi,
nippon), barking deer eM. muntjac), bison, wild buffalo, llama, kudu and
fallow deer, four-horned antelope a lot many other species which are
(Tetraceros quadricornis), blackbuck being gradually adopted to captive

- 66 -
zoo environment as a measure to young. Normally the animals rest or
stop extinction from the animal sleep during the low activity period
kingdom. Ruminants, because of of mid-day and late evening. In deer
their ability to flourish under widely grazing often occurs early in the
different and severe environmental morning and evening in exposed
conditions converting a wide variety localities and consist of a hasty
of coarse roughage into usable snatching of food. This can then be
nutrients, are very adaptable to digested during the day in the
captiva zoo environment after an relatively safe resting ground under
initial rejection period of great care cover. The process of rumination is
and watchfulness. A good number of linked with a definite psychic
animals (spotted deer, swamp deer, situation, with maximum amount of
hog deer, camels, yak, mithun, etc.) rest and lack of disturbance. Elk,
are now well adopted to tropical and moose are very shy animals and they
sub-tropical environment of Indian search food from the snow and
sub-continent. However, rare species consume large quantity of food to
of animals like moose, musk deer, supply energy. During summer
wild goats, wild sheep, banteng moose nearly submerges along the
cattle, Nilghai, etc. are well under border of a lake or bay with its head
the fear of extinction and need to be under water, grubbing water lilies
adopted to creative zoo environment. from the bottom. They seem to thrive
As all ruminants are on water vegetation arid seek water
herbivores, they can thrive well in a to rid themselves of insects during
varied agro-climatic environment. summer. From an analysis of 53 elk
However, their natural feeding stomach it was observed that the
habit opposes initially to the content constitute 11.75% conifers,
changing environment where they 15.46% shrubs, 64.97% grasses and
are forced to adopt. A majority of grass like plants, 2.35% weeds and
species in the feral state~nd 8 h or 5.25% mosses and lichens. Mithun
more each day (4 h in the early graze in a herd on the indigenous
morning and 4 h in the late pasture and are very choosy in
afternoon) actively in grazing and selecting grasiers or tree leaves.
browsing. One or two additional Unlike mithun, yak grazes the lush
feeding periods may be added during grass in valley bottoms in early
the night hour during periods of summer and during scarcity even
extreme deprivation. The panda live on dry, coarse mountain grass.
needs 10 to 12 h to take sufficient When grass is extremely scarce, yak
food, the antelope does not let a day thrives on broken and wilted blades
pass without eating. Hiding the or last year's grass digging through
young during the day and feeding the snow. Nilghai and other species
them at night appears to be the of ruminants (musk, deer,
typical rearing routine of all deer white-tailed deer etc.) at high
during the early period of altitude showed similar feeding
helplessness and dependency of the habits. However, during severe

- 67 -
 winter under-nutrition they utilize dietary protein and salts. Certain
their own body reserves and adjusts deer species (swamp deer, Ceruus d.
physiologically and behaviourally to duuanceli) and wild buffalo prefer to
withstand severe environmental wallow in mud to get rid of excess
stresses. The relative inactivity or ambient temperature. Wild animals
resting state during mid-winter help make periodic visit in free life to
to conserve vital body heat and special spots in their territories or
energy. During spring appetite neutral zones to get various mineral
increases and they consume substances which are often in the
maximum to compensate and to shape of salt crystals and
conserve fat for the scarcity period. occasionally in large quantity. Ant
Grazing and browsing habits also heaps and termite mounds are often
differ from species to species. The used as mineral licks. The soil where
wildebeest prefers vegetation 2.5 to ' former deposit of salt have left traces
10.0 cm high, some species of deer, of mineral is pawed and eaten.
wild goats and sheep pluck the' Exotic wild animals should
leaves from bushes and branches, follow a cyclic feeding patterns-offer
the giraffe camels, llama, greatger roughage and concentrate during the
kudu, okapi prefer their roughage at normal activity periods to ensure
eye level. Certain specific maximum consumption. When
thermo-regulation and nutritional keeping exotic animals in captivity
adaptation are exhibited by eland they should be thought of as animals
and camels. Eland can live in the at rest and fed accordingly. If
desert scrub independent of surface sufficient amount of feed are not
water and able to more efficiently available at appropriate time, the
conserve water by selectively animals will satisfy their
browsing on succulent plants, behavioural feeding drives by
avoiding the mid-day sun and nibbling on their herd mates,
forming dry pelletized feces in bedding or manure which will
addition to possessing a narrow potentiate parasite infestation and
thermo-neutral zone. The camel foreign body ingestion. A high degree
absorbs minimal environmental heat of inter/intraspecies interaction
during the heat of the day elevating combined with lack of access to
its body temperature and cools by pasture, some times result in one or
radiation when temperature falls more individuals getting less than
late in the day. It does not pant or its share of feed and suffer
sweat excessively and also can undernutrition, A bison can easily
concentrate urine thereby reducing consume 4 lb. of an appropriate
its water requirement, Free-ranging concentrate with its roughage to
ruminants may drink only in the late meet its micronutrient requirement,
afternoon or early evening after _the where a dik-dik or duiker with only
last feed which is directly affected by 0.25 to 1 lb consumption capacity
environmental temperature, water needs adjustment for micronutrients
content of forage and the levels of concentration. In the absence of

- 68 -
 pasture green, preserved hay, yellow body weight. Concentrate and water
vegetables or hydroponics. grass offered at 0.5 m below eye level for
should be fed to all ruminants at a giraffe and at floor level for okapi.
rate of 10 to 50 % of total diet to Mineral licks at eye level for giraffe
compensate the bulk along with and ground level for okapi.
concentrate. NB: Newly captured okapi
Various feed recommendations should have a liberal supply of green
are made for different species of wild feeds and vegetables because they
ruminants which are given as below: tend to constipate on high dry matter
rations.
Camels, Llama
Pronghorn Antelope
Greenlhay should be placed ,a t
'Eye level to 0.5 m lower. Concentrate Green fodder at eye level.
~12-13% CP) @ 0.5-1% body weight.
Concentrate (12% CP initially which
.'.lTiiCe mineral salt block at all times gradually increased to 19%) @ 1%
of the year. . body weight. Mineral licks round the
year.
Chevrotains
Kudu, Eland, Nilgai and Cattle
Selective browser, requires
Fodder, above the ground.
high quality leafy legume fodder (or Concentrate (13-19% CP) @ 0.5-1%
matured parts in chopped form). body weight.
Availability of feed early in the
morning and late evening. Grated Duiker1
carrots, hydroponics grass and high Leguminous leafy fodder or
protein concentrate, free of choice. chaffed stemmed one; concentrate
As per the capacity quality diet or (,15-20% CP) ad lib at floor level.
concentrate, 0.5 - 1 Ib in pelleted -Vegetables and hydroponics grass,
form «4 mm diameter). once a day feeding. Vitamin-mineral
Vitamin-mineral mixture and trace mix and salt block, round the year.
mineral salt block supplementation, Wildebeest, Reed Buck, Oryx
round the year.
Leafy legume fodder at eye
Deer _\ level ad lib; concentrate (13- 19%
CP) @ 0.5-1% body weight.
Good quality legume fodder
Hydroponics grass, grated carrots
supplemented with commercially
and minerals licks.
available pelleted concentrate (0.5-
1% body weight), fodder at eye level Mountain Goat, Musk Deer, Ox,
and concentrate in low bunks or con- Wild Goat and Sheep
/ crete pads. Trace mineral salt Leguminous fodder at eye level.
blocks, round the year. Concentrate (12-19% CP) @ 0.5-1%
Graffe & Okapi body weight.
Fodder, at eye level. High Black-buck, Dik-dik, Gazelle
quality legume fodder ad lib and Leafy legume fodder af
concentrates (13-19% CP) @ 0.5-1% browsing height. ConcentratE
- 69 -
 (15-19% CP) twice a day to larger and about 45-50% other carbohydrate
species and ad lib for dik-dik. with the energy value GE 2.5-2.7
Chemical composition of pelle- MCal/kg and TDN 75-80%. An ideal
ted concentrate should have 12-15% composition of vitamins and minerals
CP, 2-3% EE, 20-25% CF, 7-9% ash is also given below:

Mineral Mix Vitamin additive

Elements % Diet Vitamins Unit
Ca 0.375 A 23700 LU.
P 0.226 D3 1160 LU.
Na 0.137 E 57 mcg
K 0.767 Bl 4.4mg
Cl 0.094 B2 3.5 mg
S 0.144 Pantothenic acid 9.9mg
Mg 0.144 Protein 22 mg
with Cu, Fe,l, Mn and Zn in Choline 2212 mg
traces. Folic Acid 4.8mg
B12 0.94 mcg
Ascorbic acid 302 mg

Certain ration scales are ruminants in captive environment

devised for the feeding of wild which are as below.

Amount (kg) of feeds and fodder

I Animal
Mash Green Tree Hay Fruits & Gram Kutti Amla
Fodder Fodder Vegetates
Sika deer 1.00 4.00 2.00 0.05
Fallow deer 0.75 4.00 2.00 0.05
Barking deer 0.50 2.00 1.00 0.05
Banteng cattle 7.00 20.00 10.00 0.10
Eland 3.00 10.00 10.00 0.50 10.00 0.05
Giraffe 5.00 10.00 Moderate 0.10
amount
Okapi 2.00 4.00 -do- 0.05
Cape Buffalo 10.00 30.00 20.00 0.05
Goral 0.50 2.00 4.00 1.00 0.05

- 70 -
 Feeding wild animals in accessible easily by the animals.
captivity is not simply a Feeding off the ground or from food
physiological matter but a troughs that are too low cause
psychological one as well, especially unsuitable posture of the neck and
with newly captured animals. They has a harmful effect on the flow of
should be thought of as animals at saliva in animals like giraffe, camels,
rest and follow a gradual slow llamas etc. The needs of individuals
adoption process. of a species at different stages of
development can be more diversified
However, in fully adopted than the needs at similar stages of
captive animals, conditioning of the different species. It is essential that
animal is made wit}:l gradual proper nutritional standards be
alterations in feed and fodde~ and established for each species from (1)
conducive managemental practices. birth to weaning (2) weaning to
Many animals have been known to reproductive maturity, (3) calendar
go on hunger strike in reaction to season for reproduction terminating
captivity. The substitute food should in parturition and (4) age of
be very less variable than nature's at maturity until senility. In addition
the initial stages of adoption. Care environmental stresses must be
should also be taken while offering
considered.
the feeds and fodder at level
Suggested reading
Abrams, J.T., 1968. Fundamental approach to tious diseases of wildlife (Eds). Hoff,
the nutrition of the captive wild her- G.L. and Davis, J .W., The Iowa State
bivore. Symp. Zool. Soc., Lond. 21:41- Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa, USA _ .
62. Wallach, J.D., 1971. The nutrition and feeding
Wackernagel, H., 1966 Feeding Wild animals of captive ruminants in zoos. In: Diges-
in zoological gardens. Int. Zoo Year- tive Physiology and nutrition of
book, 6:23-27. ruminants. D.C. Church (Ed), Oregon
State Univ. Press, Corvallis.
Wallach, J.D. and Hoff, G.L., 1982. Nutrition-
al diseases of mammals. In: Non-infec-

Feeding and Nutrition of Indian Deer

Usha R. Mehra

Successful feeding of deer farming is a method of utilising a

involves maximum utilisation of the resource which is naturally available.
low cost feed in terms of energy to The animal transference from its forel
achieve the best possible performance habitat to farms has also in many
in terms of weight gain, velvet yield, cases, the important benefit of
fertility, mothering and health. reducing a serious threat to that
Feeding depends on many factors habitat, and is the most effective way
such as state of pasture, climatic of preserving a species. Keeping in
changes and seasonal variations and view the above factors feeding of deer
different feed requirements at under captive conditions is an
different seasons of year. Deer important proposition.

- 71 -
Various breeds of deer, their availability, habit and habitat are given in
Table-I.
Table 1. Indian breeds of deer and their availability
S1. Name of the Zoological Availabili ty Habit and
breed name Habitat
l. White lipped Cervus India, Tibet and Occurs in the
deer or Throldo albirostrus New China swampy or dry
grasslands in the
sal forests.
2. Swamp deer or Cervus North and -do-
Barasingha dwvauceli Central India,
G.Cuvier S.W. Nepal
3. Axis deer or Cervus axis Assam, Punjab, Central
chital Rajputana provinces in the
Terai and sub
Himalayan foot
hills.
4. Hog deer Cervus India, China & Sal forests, grass
poreinus Indonesia lands and
riverine forests.
5. Sambar Cervus India, Depends on
unicolor Philippines, grass coarse
Indonesia grasses, the
flowers of
Mohwa (Bassia
latifolia) aola
tree (Phyllanthus
embZica).

6. Musk deer Moschus India, Nepal, Live in birch

moschiferus S.E.China forest zone
though nocturnal
but its chief food
items are
lichens, ferns,
flowers leaves
and grasses.
7. Mause deer Trag'!"Zus Southern India, It is solitary
memtnna eastern part of creature,
Madhya seclusive and
Pradesh and crepuseular.
Orissa, Chhota
Nagpur and Sri
Lanka
8. Manipur thamin Cervus eldi Restricted to Eats grasses,
melelland the Karpul buds and flowers
lamjao national of jungles.
park in Manipur

- 72 -
 Feeding and Feed Availability Feed Selection
Hog deer diets kept in one of Deer prefers to select good
the national parks consist of grasses, quality feed within and between
flowers and fruits. They were seen species having higher digestibilities
feeding the items lIsted in Table-2 in and rich in protein but low in crude
different season of the year. fibre and lignin.
Body size is positive1y Captive Deer-Many aspects of
correlated with absolute amount of, rumen function have been studied.
energy required by an ungulate Deer living in forest environment
(Moen 1973) but mouth size is have a considerably larger mass of
negatively correlated with the degree rumen contents to body weight than
of forage selectivity. By comparison the small fellow deer though the
with Chital and Sambar (220 kg), difference in the relative weights of
hog deer (25 kg) probably have a the empty rumen are less marked
smaller ;nergy requirement and (Nagg and Ragelin 1975).
spend less time foraging but they
Ruminal digestive process is
apparently cannot subsist on diets as
similar . to other species of
high in fibre as can sambar and
ruminants. Deer digests dry matter
chital. Pellets of the latter two
of fibrous diets about 5% unit less
species contain coarse plant
completely than sheep (Kay and
material, whereas hog deer pellets
Goodall 1976, Miline at at 1978).
are fine and smooth in texture. The
defaecation rate and shape and size Seasonal variation in feed
of pellets of wild ruminants have intake
been used for the estimation of Deer shows a marked
population, herd composition, seasonality effect in voluntary feed
habitat and migration pattern of intake with values lower in winter
animals. (Dinerstein and Dublin and higher in summer
1982) (Freudenberger et at 1994).

Table 2. Hog Deer diets in different season

Seasons
Species
Cool Hot Wet
Bombox Cetba (young leaves, flowers) x x x
Cynodon dactyl on x x
Dalbergia sissoo (young leaves, fruits) x x x
Imperata cylindrica x x x
Saccharun sps x x
Trewia nudiflora (young leaves, fruits) x x x
Vetivoria Zyzanoides x
Zizyphus Zujuba (young leaves, fruits) x x
(x) Available (-) Not available.

- 73 -
Nutrition of growing deer was 0.87 x DE (Simpson et al 1978).
Deer can readily be raised in Higher values expected for animals
captivity (Youngson 1970). Dry feed under natural conditions Le. 689
KJ/kgO.75 day.
pelleted concentrate and dried grass
together with a supply of water are Water
provided from first day to encourage
Maloiy (1968) has shown that
early development of rumen
deer gmserves water less efficiently
function. MJlk can then be than seep. When it is housed in
withdrawn when the calf is about 8
metabolic cages, need a liberal water
weeks old without danger of supply as compared in natural
digestive disturbances of a serious habitat.
check in growth. Suckled calves of
well fed fond hinds gained about 300 Minerals
g daily during their first month of It has been shown that
life ou ling their birth wei ht in 21 deficiency of dietary calcium and
days (Arman et al 1974). - phosphorus reduce the appetite and
Nutrition of adult deer growth rate of deer (French et al
1956). They browse extensively on
Energy is often the most
deep rooted plants which are able to
important single factor in the
tap the mineral resources.
nutrition of the deer. The estimated
maintenance re'q uirement of stag Supplementary food enriched
calves for ME when penned indoors with minerals will improve antler
and weighing 35-5Q kg w.as_ar_Ql!illi growth. There is evidence that both
464 KJ/kg WO· 75 day, 38% higher skeletal demineralization and
than sheep under the same harmonal changes are associated
conditions in _this experiment, ME with mobilization of antler growth.
References
Arman, P., Kay, RN.B., Goodall, E.D. and Milne, JA., MaCrae, J .C., Spence, A.M. and
Sharman, G.A.M., 1974. Journal of Wilson, S., 1978. British Journal of
Reprodu ction and Fertility, 37:67-84. Nutrition 40:347-357 .
Dinerstein and Dublin, H.T., 1982. Journal of Moen, AN., 1973. Wildlife . Ecology,
Wildlife Management, 46:833-835. W.H .Freeman & Co., San Francisco,
Calif., pp. 458.
French, C.E., McEwen, I.C., Mogruder, N.D.,
Ingram, R.H., and Swift, RW., 1956. Simpson, AM., Webster, AJ.F., Smith, J.S.
Journal of Wildlife Management 20: and Simpson, C.A., 1978. Comparative
221-232. Biochemistry and Physiology. 59, 95-
99.
Freudenberger, D.O., Toya Kawa, K, Barry's,
T.N., Ball, AJ. and Suttie, J.M. (1994) Youngson, RW., 1970. Journal of Wildlife
Management, 34:467-470. ·
Kay, RN.B. and Goodall, E.D., 1976. Proceed-
ings of the Nutrition Society. 35: 98

- 74-
 Nutrition and Feeding of Rhinoceros
S. S. Sengar

Rhinoceros or rhino are also Black rhinoceros depend

called Indian rhinoceros or Great heavily on woody planks but can
Indian rhinoceros. It has different utilize trees, shrubs, herbs and
names in different languages, in grasses as well (Leuthold, 1978).
Hindi, Ganda, Gonda, Gorgadan, \, Black Rhinoceros were seen eating
Ganda or Genra, in Marathi Ganda" 70 plant species from 30 botanical
in Assamese Gor. Rhinoceros can be families. They showed marked
classified as follows: preference for Solanum incanum,
Class Mammalia Dichrostachys cinerea and Accacia
spp.
Order Perissodactyla
The selection indices showed a
. Family Rhinocertidae moderate degree of selectivity by the
Genus Rhinoceros rhino. ~chemical composition of a
Species Unicornis (Linnaeus); selected number of plants indicated
indicus (Robert A. moderately nigh concentratien of
sternadale) soluble tannins (Loutil et aI, 1987).
Rhinoceros is one of the largest They were found to visit salt
land animal, next to elephant. It is licks containing Ca, Mg, Na and K
more ferocious than eleI>hanLand when fed in captivity.
can not be made obedient or In an experiment white
submissive (Mishra, 1986). rhinoceroses and ponies were fed
Rhinoceros measures. 300-315 cm..in concentrate cubes and hay m
the body length and about 18O-cm in different proportions. It was
the shoulder height. Unlike African observed that overall digestibilities
rhino, the hidg_ of Indian rhino is were similar in the two species.
hairless. Rhinoceroses given apparent
Habits and Habitat: d}.gestibl~ energy of 109 KJ/kg body
Rhinoceros is a denizen of the weight daily mam allied their
grass-jungles and prefers swampy normal condition (Frape et at, 1982).
grounds. It is a grazer and feeds Feeding schedule :
mainly on grass.
Rhenoceros may be provided
Nutrition and Feeding hay supplemented with concentrate
Two feeding peaks Le. morning mixture. Concentrate can be offered
and afternoon have been ob~ed.1n in the form of pellets, made up of
rJlino. They drink water mainly at oats, barley and soyabeanlgroundnut
night. Rhinoceros speno most of the oil meal (Table 1 and 2). A fairly
night time near watering places and high amount of minerals and
are found walking to feeding ground vitamins should be added in the
in the morning (Mukinya, 1977). ration.

- 75 -
Table 1. Physical Composition of pellets

N arne of Feed Ingredient %

Ground Date 15.0
Ground barley 20.0
Ground grain sorghum 8.0
Ground wheat 10.0
Soyabean oil meal 10.0
Groundnut oil meal 8.0
Linseed meal 3.0
Lucerne meal 10.0
Wheat bran 5.0
Potato flakes 2.0
Pomace 3.0
Liquorice powder 1.0
Ground calcium carbonate 1.0
Bone meal 2.0
Salt 0.9
Magnesium sulphate 0.2
Trace element and vitamin mixture 0.9

Table 2. Chemical composition of pellets (%DM basis)

Nutrients %
Crude protein 18.0
Total digestible nutrients 62.9
Crude fat 2.5
Crude fiber 7.0
Calcium 1.2
Phosphorus 0.6

References
Frape, D.L., Tuck, M.G., Succlife, N.H., and Mishra, G.C., 1986. Summer Institute on
Jones, D.B., 1982. Compo Biochem. Health, Production and Management of
Physiol., A, 72(1):77-83. Wildlife, IVRI, Izatnagar.
Leuthold, W., 1978. Oecologia, 35(2):241-252. Mukinya, J .G., 1977. East African Wildlife J.
15(2): 125-138.
Loutil, B.D., Louw, G.N. and Seely, M.K.,
1987. Madoqu8, 15(1):35-54.

- 76 -
 Microbial Digestion of Feed in Non-Ruminant
Herbivorous Wild Animals
D.N.Kamra

The herbivorous wild animals production of VFA during microbial

depend upon energy and protein fermentation. The dissimilarities
sources of plant origin; which consist i~clude pregastric fermentation in
mainly of soluble sugars, starch, rinnen and post gastric fermentation
cellulose, hemicellulose, protein and in intestine and large difference and
bound lipids. Among the energy variation in the size of fermentation
sources cellulose and hemicellulose sacs (rumen versus cecum).
are the most abundant poly- There is no difference in the
saccharides available to the wild counts of total proteolytic, ureolytic,
herbivores. Unfortunately, the cellulolytic and . NHt utilizing
ammals do not have ability to anaerobic bacteria in the cecal
degrade these polysaccharides and content and soft feces of rabbit, but
depend upon symbiotic microbial the counts were significantly higher
eco-system in some part of the than those in hard feces (Emaldi et
gastro-intestinal tract. The size of al, 1979). In addition to that the soft.
the organ which hosts these feces also have higher content of
microbes, determines the ability of bacterial protein, B-vitamins and
an animal to utilize these amino acids and therefore serve as a
polysaccharides as energy source. good source of protein on
Depending upon the capacity of re-ingestion through cecophagy. In
utilizing fibrous feeds the non- cecum the microbes synthesize
ruminant herbivorous animals can protein and secrete cellulolytic
be classified into three groups e.g. enzymes and produce volatile fatty
* Low fibre digesting animals or acids which are absorbed through
the cecal wall. About 4-12% of the
concentrate requiring anii:nals;
energy requirement of rabbit and
Medium fibre digesting
* animals, and
hare is met through the cecal
absorption of nutrients.
* High fibre digesting animals. An experiment on the studies
The mammalian large intestine of digestive enzymes in the various
and rumen have many similarities segments of gastro-intestinal tracts
e.g. synthesis of microbial protein, of hare (Lepus sp.) indicates that the
degradation of ligno-cellulosic feeds, enzymes responsible for the
VFA as the major end product, hydrolysis of fibrous feeds are
buffered intestinal contents (salvia located mainly in the caecum, colon
or ileal fluid), absorption of VFA and rectum.' These enzymes are
(rumen epithelium and large mainly of microbial origin in these
intestinal mucosa), similar effect on segments. Amylase and protease
feeding high grain ration and have the highest activity in small
adverse effects due to over intestine; as these enzymes may

- 77 -
either be of microbial OrIgm or has not been studied in detail, but
animal origin. Although in small whatever information is available,
quantities, but all the enzymes were indicates that bacteria have a major
present in the stomach, in spite of role to play in degradation of
lower pH. The presence of these lignocellulosic feeds. Protozoa have
enzymes is attributed due to also been reported in the cecum of
cecotrophy in hare and the source of some of the herbivorous animals but
these enzymes is the soft feces of anaerobic fungi have not yet been
hare which pass through the reported in the cecum of any wild
stomach (Agarwal et al, 1993). herbivores. But their presence in the
cecum of domestic herbivores has
The cecal microflora of
been confirmed.
monogastric herbivorous animals
References
Agarwal, N., Kewalramani, N., Kamra, D.N. Emaldi, 0., Croeillni, F., Mattenzzi, D. and
and Pathak, N.N., 1993. J. Vet. Proto, Y., 1979. J. Appl. Bacteriol.,
Physio!. Allied Seo., 12:29-32. 46:169-172.

Digestion and Metabolism in Wild Ruminants

Neeta Agarwal

Ruminants are characterized The stomach of ruminants is

by having four chambered stomach also evolved according to the feeding
one of which is called rumen where habits of the animal. The "forage
complex microbial eco-system eaters" which are predominantly
flourishes. This complex microbial grazers have large stomach, because
eco-system comprises of varieties of the animal feed is rich in fibre and
bacteria, protozoa and fungi. It is poor in nutrients, so has to consume
this microbial eco-system which bulk of it to satisfy its requirement.
provides ruminants a unique But the "selective eaters" which feed
characteristic of utilizing fibre as a on softer and juicy forages like buds,
energy source and non-protein blossoms and fruits (low in fibre and
nitrogen as a amino acid source. rich in nutrients) have smaller
The differential microbial rumen since they can fulfill their
population of rumen is the factor requirement by taking small amount
which determines the digestive and of feed. Accordingly microbial system
metabolic efficiency of a particular is also diverse in case of forage eater
species which itself is regulated by and simplified in case of selective
the number of physiological factors eater. Rate of digestion also depends
like the type of feed, rate of on the fibre content of the feed. The
consumption, rate of saliva higher the fibre content in the diet,
production etc. These physiological the lower is digestibility (roughage
factors are the determining factors eaters) and vice versa in selective
for rumen pH, rate and type of eaters e.g. animals fed on grain diet
fermentation. have very fast fermentation rate

- 78 -
resulting in high volatile fatty acid In view of the feeding habits of
production rate, since the amylolytic wild ruminants further differen-
bacteria become quite active. In tiation in three groups will be more
arctic herbivores food intake, rate of helpful in understanding the feed
digestion and fermentation is quite requirements of these animals and
low during winter as compared to overlapping in behaviour between
summer. It has been observed that the groups may be minimised as '
in these animals during winter
follows:
production rate of VFA is almost one
third of the summer samples .
. Ruminant Feeding Types
Concentrate Intermediate types (IM) Grass/roughage
selector (CS) eaters (GR)
White-tailed deer Ibex
muledeer praghorn big horn, dall
and stone sheep
roe deer red deer mouflon
follow deer
moose sheep
goat elk cattle
musk ox
Simple rumen Advanced (mixed) Highly advanced
(low fiber) (high fiber)
Feeding rhythm (chamios) (red deer) Cattle
(roe deer)

o 6 12 18 24 06 12 18 24 06 12 1824 o 6 12 18 24

(by R.R. Hofman)

The above table indicatges that Clemens et al (1983) have

the greater the capability of compared composition of rumeno-
digesting fibre, the more advance is reticulum contents of various East
the rumen and also the CS has African wild ruminants under three
shorter feeding intervals than the categories (a) browsers, (b)
GR since the structure of rumen is intermediate (browsers . + grazers),
such that the GR can retain food in and (c) grazers. The amount of fresh
rumen for a longer time than CS. content dry matter percentage and

- 79 -
total volatile fatty acids (TVFA) Disbalance between rate of nitrate
concentration in the rumeno- absorption by the roots and its
reticulum of the different ruminant assimilation by the plant results in
species of East Mrican wild accumulation of nitrate. It is
ruminants showed large variation generally being observed that nitrate
which indicates that the microbial level in plant tissue upto 1.5% of dry
fermentation pattern is considerably weight is easily converted into
affected by the feeding habits. ammonia but above this level it is
Brucel (1983) made a toxic. Hence the protein digestion
comparative study between domestic depends on the type of feed taken by
and captive wild ruminants in the animal. It is a common
respect of in vitro dry matter observation that if the feed is not too
disappearance (IVDMD) of various low in nitrogen content and also can
herbages, very common in the diet of provide sufficient energy for
grazers (Table 1). bacterial activity (mean the feed is
not too mature, lignified and
It is quite clear from the above stemmy) then the quality of protein
data that the domestic ruminants digested by the animal does not vary
are comparable with the wild widely.
ruminants in captive conditions.
In wild herbivores and grazing
Thus domestic bovids can be used as domestic animals green leaves
a representative for the wild constitute a greater part of diet.
ruminants. Green leaves chloroplast and stem
Forages contain crude protein are rich in gal acto-glycerides (mono
which comprises of protein fraction and diagalactosyl derivative of
(N) and non-protrein fraction (NPN). diglycerides). These galactogly-
The ratio of N ; NPN varies with the cerides are degraded by the rumen
variety, stage of maturity and microbes into free fatty acids,
growth conditions. Major glycerol and galactose. The glycerol
components of NPN fraction are and galactose are fermented by the
amino acids and peptides. Amides, rumen microbes and release short
nucleic acids, nitrate and ammonia chain fatty acids and unsaturated
also constitute this fraction. Most of long chain fatty acids are partially or
the NPN fractions are water soluble completely hydrogenated. Since the
and are rapidly fermented. glycerides of green leaves and stems

Table 1. IVDMD % in different ruminant species

Fodders Sheep Goat Cattle Muledeer Elk Praghorn
Alfalfa 87.6 88.7 84.7 88.1 85.2 86.2
Wheat grass 78.3 79.2 71.2 72.6 73.8 70.7
Wild rice 72.2 70.6' 64.1 67.9 65.7 62.2
Barley straw 46.6 46.1 32.5 44.6 43.8 34.1

- 80 -
have high contents of linolenic acid, adrenal hormones are the hormones
there is accumulation of stearic acid which regulate rate of digestion and
as an end product of hydrogenation metabolism. In wild habitat the
in wild herbivores and grazing animal is always under stress,
domestic animals. because it has to struggle for its
In wild herbivorous animals in survival. It is in continuous threat of
their natural habitat the amount of other animals native of that habitat.
~en wild animal is transferred in
lipid ingested vary seasonally
because of seasonal variation in the the captive condition the animal
composition of herbage. While in comes under stress e.g. when wild
carnivores there may be day-to-day animal is shifted in the captive
variation. Further unlike carnivores, conditions due to stress, the fasting
in herbivores lipid contents is quite heat production increases upto 20%
low in relation to the total energy and then become normal after 3
value. The lipid content is about 5% weeks in sheep (Graham, 1962).
of total dry matter in wild The animal becomes
herbivorous ruminants. Rumen accustomed for the new environment
microbial digestion of lipids is gradually, where it is more relax and
affected by the extensive changes in safe. Of course, the acclamatization
dietary lipids by changing release of period vary widely in different
esterified fatty acids by hydrolysis of animals. Sometimes this period may
lipids, . fermentation of glycerol and be of a few years. It is an
galactose released during lipolysis, experienced fact that the breeding of
and hydrogenation of unsaturated wild animals is quite difficult in
fatty acids. captive conditions. Here the factor is
not nutritional but is psychological.
The regulatory factors for the Definitely the national parks can
digestion and metabolism other than provide better environment to the
food and feeding habits are of animals than zoological parks for
endocrine origin. The pancreatic, conservation purpose.
thyroid, parathyroid, sex glands,
References
Bruce), L.W., 1983. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:873- Graham, N. Mac.,1962. Br. J. Nutr. 16:615-
877. 626.
Clemens, E.T. and Maloiy, G.M.O., Sultan,
J.D., 1983. Compo Biochem. Physiol. A,
76:217-224.

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 Scope of Rearing Wild Herbivores
for Food Production
L. C. Chaudhary

India is a vast country and Among these most of the species are
exhibits a great variety of fauna and endangered due to their massive
flora. In the early stages, these killing for different purposes. Due to
fauna and flora were used as a socia-economic reason and
source of fuel, tool, food, clothing,- enforcement of Wild Life Act, the
recreation etc. but at that time more deer farming for meat production in
or less equilibrium was maintained our country is not practised but in
between man and eco-system. With other countries like Newzealand,
the advancement of civilization and U.K, China and other European
agriculture, some species became countries the farming of Red deer,
domesticated to serve mankind spotted deer and other deer is very
directly while other continued to be popular.
hunted for meat, horn, skin, etc. The The research study and system
human population explosion in last development work carried out at
few decades resulted in disturbances Glensaugh have shown that farming
in several natural eco-systems. Now of Red deer can provide an
due to population pressure people economically viable alternative to
started searching alternate feed both sheep and cattle production
resources for their survival. To some systems in the hills and uplands.
extent wild herbivores can be used Several species of deer are now
for the above purpose. farmed but the Red deer farming is
Since ages wild herbivores like most common. Properly managed
deer have an excellent reproductive
rat, mice, squirrel, hare, porcupine,
performance and are adoptable to
monkeys etc. are used by the tribals
wide range of nutritional
and some other weaker section
environment. They have long
people for meat purposes. Although productive life of 8-15 ,years and
there is no recorded data available young Red deer produce an excellent
on the country's meat production by low fat (5-10%) and high carcass
these animals but certainly their percentage (34%).
contribution is significant. Some of
the important herbivores which Blackbuck
provide food (meat, milk) to human Blackbuck is one of the
being are as follows . loveliest Indian animal. It occurs
Deer • throughout Indian plains, Orissa,
Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Different species of deer The Indian antelope was once
(swamp deer, musk deer, fallow plentiful all over its range of
deer, sika deer, red deer, rein deer, occurance but has disappeared from
spotted deer, hog deer and four- many places where it was very
horned antelope) are found in India. common few decades ago. It is a
- 82 -
prolific breeder and can be used for Other wild herbivores like
meat production. chinkara, goral, Himalayan Tahr,
Ibex, Markhor, Urial etc. found in
Mithun
Himalayan and hilly region, are also
Mithun is now a domestic used\for meat purpose. Their meat is
indigenous animal of India. Because
of good quality but due to massive
of large body size, high butter fat
content of its milk, it is widely used hunting their number has reduced
for cross-breeding. Mithuns. are kept drastically. Some of these animals
by the hill tribals of Northern India. are reared by hill tribals.
It is the main domesticated animal
These animals seem worth
of Nagas of Nagaland. They are used
for field work, draft, meat and milk considering for use in husbandary in
purpose. many tropical regions where poor
grazing and worse environment limit
Yak the performance of livestock.
Live weight of Yak is 250-550
kg for males and 180-350 kg for There is need of an organised
females. Generally they are used for farms of these animals where they
riding and as pack animals, could be bred, raised and butchered
occasionally the Yak bulls are on demand. Most of the herbivores
slaughtered' for meat. They are require no special foods, needs little
mostly reared for milk production. space and can be kept together with
The average yieldllactation is 600 to many others in relatively small
1000 kg. enclosers.

Feed Selection and Feeding Behaviour of Wild

Herbivorous Ruminants in Natural Habitats
Kusumakar Sharma

India has a diversified wild 2. Arid-grasslands

herbivorous population associated
The arid, semi-arid grasslands
with four main grassland regions.
of western India in Kutch, Thar and
1. Alluvial grass lands Punjab and smaller areas in eastern
Gujarat, Rajasthan and
They are distributed in Maharashtra harbour populations of
Indus-Ganges-Brahmaputra valley Blackbuck and Chinkara.
plus smaller areas on the coastal
plains and the Indravati-Mahanadi 3. High altitude grasslands
rivers. The grazing ungulate species These grasslands constitute
associated with these grass lands are high altitude meadows and steppe-
Indian rhino, hog deer, swamp deer lands of the Himalayas and
and wild buffalo. trans-Himalayas and the Western

- S3--
Ghats. The species associated with endemic. Nine species including one
these grasslands include Tahr, goral, endemic are considered as
Tibetan gazella, chiru, argali, generalists taking grass forbs and
bharal, ibex and urial. woody plants; five species are
4. Secondary grasslands primarily browsers with one
endemic.
They have resulted from main
It is evident from the Table-1
clearing and burning the past forest
that most of the Indian ungulate
cover especially in peninsula India
fauna take grass at sometime of the
over the last few thousand years
year, and that a sizeable proportions
(Rodgers, 1988). Blackbuck and
are primarily grazers (11 out of 37 or
chinkara are normally found in these
37%).
secondary grasslands.
Unfortunately, none of these Herbivore responses to feed
four regions retain extensive natural constraints
vegetation . due to growing It is useful to examine the
cultivation, de-forestation or rapid constraints placed on grazing
degradation by domestic livestock. It animals by the grass land
is only in the small areas set aside as communities and as to how well the
wildlife protected areas that the full animals respond to these constraints
range of the natural grassland by suitable shift in their feed
commuunity can be found. selection habits.
The restricted distribution
pattern of grazing herbivorous * Herbivores can grow in body
suggests a close dependence between size to levels where they
individual species and habitat types. become huge mobile fermen-
This underlines the importance of an tation chambers dependent on
understanding of the factors bulk input of a low quality
influencing the feed choice and fibrous diet (African buffalo
behaviour of wild herbivorous in wet weight rumen contents
their natural habitats and of the exceed one third weight). Large
means of controlling it to advantage. size also means energetic
It is also considered essential for considerations require a lower
wild life managers to evaluate input of energy and protein per
habitat conditions and determine unit body weight. Large size
carrying capacity. not only allows animals to eat
Feeding Habits tall coarse grasses, but also to
modify grassland structure by
An analysis of broad feeding trampling and feeding and
habits of the ungulate fauna is given thus, in most situations,
in Table-I. Eleven species are stimulate production of fresh
considered to be primarily grazers shoots.
and of these 8 (73%) are endemic to
the sub~continent. Twelve speCies * Herbivores could become
feed selectively in the herbs layer, smaller in size with very
taking a mixture of grass, forb and selective feeding habits and
fruit components, 3 (25%) are adaptation to allow greater diet
-84-
Table 1. Broad classification of feeding type amongst Indian wild herbivores
Primarily grazers Selective herb Generalists Browsers
layer
Blackbuck E Chowsingha E
Goral E Mouse Deer E \Chital E Nilgai E
Hog Deer E Pygmy Hog E
Himalayan Tahr E Barking Deer Elephant Javan Rhino
Nilgiri Tahr E Chinkara Gaur Sumatran
Rhino
Indian Tibetan Gazelle Hangul
Rhinoceros E Chiru
Southern Musk Dear Sambar
Swamp Deer E
Northern Argali Shou
Swamp Deer E
Wild Ass Bhara! Thamin
Tibetan Ass Ibex Wild Boar
Wild buffalo Urial Yak
E : Indicate a species endemic to the Indian sub-continent.
Source: Rodgers (1988).

selection (narrow muzzle, however, evidence that feed choice in

mobile lips, long neck). many species is more directly
* Herbivores can become controlled by inmate
pre-programming. Longhurst et al
genetic
generalists or opportunist and
switch diets away from grasses (1968) working with mule deer
when nutrient production and (Odocoilens hemionus) showed that
accessibility becomes limiting. in a cafetaria free-choice feeding
Herbivores would then change situation, fawns artificially reared on
to higher quality browse items: milk and alfalfa pellets showed a
dicot leaf, stem, bark, flower choice of native browse species which
and fruit. was indistinguishable from that of
FACTORS AFFECTING FEED experienced deer brought up in their
SELECTION normal environment.
Genetic aspects of feed choice Influence of sward
characteristics
Feed choice by the animal is a
The botanical and
highly sophisticated process,
morphological composition of
developed through evolution, to
vegetation exert a marked effect
mOOClmlze the efficiency of energy
upon the selection drive of wild
use in food harvesting. There is,
- 85 -
herbivores and variations in sward could be expected to influence diet
structure and the distribution of selection.
components within the sward canopy FEEDING BEllAVIOUR OF
influence the opportunity for HERBIVORES
selection. The factors influencing the
choice of grazing site and choice There has been no systematic
between alternative plants or plant work on feeding behaviour and
components within sites are complex ecology of Indian herbivores. Table-2
and difficult to rationalize with summarises broad feeding type for
present knowledge. ungulate species in three main
habitats: alluvial grasslands, arid
The grazing of animals is a two and sub-arid grasslands, the
phase process involving "site deciduous woodlands and forests of
selection" and "bite selection" (Milne Peninsula India. It shows that all
et al., 1979). The choice of grazing ungulates in the alluvial grasslands
site may be influenced by the are primarily grazers, with the
distribution of green areas, exception of the elephant which also
differences in the constituent species consumes a variety of browse items
and stage of growth of different in habitats away from the alluvial
communities, the patchy distribution plains. Within the grazing
of dung and urine and soil community there is a variety of
contamination. The distribution of feeding strategies. The rhinoceros
grazing activity may also be affected has the ability to move through the
by variations in ground slope aspect tall grasslands and by bulldozing
and micro topography. Selection down the taller culms, fresh shoots
depends upon the preference are stimulated. However, new short
contrasts between alternative grass areas are constantly created by
components of the sward as well as water level reduction, dry-season
their distribution within the canopy. fires as well as by animals
The choice of grazing or browse in concentrating in favoured areas, so
plant communities containing green irowth is availabale for much
shrubs and trees or herbs plants of the year. The swamp deer are
may be regarded as either site or dependent on a short grass (1 m)
bite selection depending upon sward. Hog deer are adapted to
circumstances. feeding within a tussock grassland
and on the short grass surrounds.
Both preference and selection They are more selective feeders
may vary between and within taking the soft herbs within the tall
animal species. Differences in grassland community, the pygmy
preference may reflect inmate or hog has a similar selective ability
induced differences in senstivity to but also uses herbs, shoot bases and
plant characteristics. Selection rhizomes.
differences reflect differenceS' in 'Size In the woodland biomes of
and shape of the body and mouth India from the Himalayan foothills
parts and in grazing strategy which to the south peninsula, there are no

- 86-
Table 2. Feeding behaviour of some Indian ungulates in their natural
habitats
Species Feeding behaviour Approx.
B.W. (kg,
male)
Alluvial Grasslands
i. Indian Rhinoceros Grazing; grass, sedge, 2000
rarely herbs
ii. Wild buffalo Grazing, grass, sedge, 800
aquatic plants
iii. Swamp deer (Barasingha) Grazing, shorter grass 180
patches
iv. Hog deer Grazing, dicot l~aves, 40
fruit
v. Asiatic elephant Mobile, much graze but 3500
. browse
Arid, Semi-arid Grass-Bushlands
i. Nilgai Browse, dry-season use 235
pods etc.
ii. Blackbuck Grazing, some dry 37
season browse
iii. Chinkara Selective browse, young 23
grass
Deciduous Woodlands and Forests
i. Gaur Generalists: browse, 700
graze
ii. Sambar Generalists : browse, 250
grass, bark
iii. Chital Grass, increasing browse 80
in dry
iv. Chowsingha Selective browse, young 25
grass
v. Barking deer Selective browse, young 23
grass
Source: Rodgers (1988).

- 87 -
pure grazers with the exception of The nilgai is a coarser browser,
swamp deer. Most of the ungulates able to reach to 2.2 m high, its large
in these areas, where grass growth is size helps it to subsit easily on
highly seasonal and usually limited poorer quality food items. The nilgai
in quantity, favour strategies of diet is absent from the true arid zone
flexibility by taking browse as the where woody cover is inadequate to
dry season progresses. meet requirements.
Small size necessiates high The future of India's wild
quality dietary items and the small herbivores is largely dependent on
Indian gazelle or chinkara maintains future measures of control and
nutritive requirements by selecting a regulation of domestic stock in forest
wide variety of foodstuffs young and wildlife lands. Rational
green grass, herbs, young leaf and conservation and land use planning
shoots of shrubs, fruits, flowers and depends on adequate information on
seeds. The production of such food feeding behaviour of wild and
items is low in the arid, semi-arid
domestic herbivores so that both can
zones and chinkara densities are low
be managed before one destroys the
as a consequence.
other.
References
Longhurst, W.M., Oh, H.K, Mames, M.B. and Rodgers, W A, 1988. In Range lands Resource
Kepmer, R., 1968. North American and Management (Eds. Panjab Singh
Wildlife Resource Conference, Transla- and P.S. Pathak), Range Management
tions 33:181-192. Society of India, IGFRI, Jhansi, pp 404-
Milne, J. A., Bagley, L., Grant, S.A., 1979. 420.
Grass and Forage Science, 34:45-53.

, • >

- 88 -
 LIST OF AUTHORS

1. Agarwal Neeta A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

2. Agrawal, D.K A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

3. Chaudhary, L.C. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

4. Dass, R.S. ~ N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

5. Dutta, Narayan A 'N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

6. Dwivedi, S. K Experimental Medicine Division, IVRI, Izatn

7. Garg,A K A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

8. Haque, N. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

9. }{amra, D. N. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

10. Kewalramani, N. Cattle Nutrition Division, NDRI, Karnal

11. Khan, M. Y. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

12. Khan, S. A. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

13. Malik, Raman A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

14. Mall, D. D. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

15. Mehra, U. R. AN. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

16. Murari Lal A. N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

17. Pathak, N. N. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

18. Sahoo, A A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

19. Sastry, V. R. B. . A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

20. Sengar, S. S. AN. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

21. Sharma, Kusumakar A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

22. Sharma, M. C. Experimental Medicine Division, IVRI, IzatIl

23. Singh, P. A. N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

24. Verma,A K A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar