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Biodiversity and Livelihood Assessment in Jagadishpur Reservoir Ramsar Site
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INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR
CONSERVATION OF NATURE
Nepal Country Office
Kupondole, Lalitpur
P.O.Box 3923, Kathmandu, Nepal
INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE
Tel: +977 1 5528781 Nepal Country Office
Fax: +977 1 5536786
I
Email: [email protected]
www.iucn.org/nepal
Norad Convention
on Wetlands
Biodiversity and Livelihoods Assessment in
JAGADISHPUR RESERVOIR RAMSAR SITE
"WETLANDS FOR THE FUTURE"

Improving Livelihoods and Enhancing Biodiversity through
Participatory Restoration and Management of
Jagadishpur Reservoir Ramsar Site in Nepal

JuNE, 2015
International Union for Conservation of Nature

IUCN_Book_Tables_05_change.ind 9/4/05 0:9:3 AM


Technical Team:
Rajendra Khanal
Sony Baral
Bijendra Basnyat
Amit Poudyal
Prof Karan Bahadur Shah
Dr Yam Malla
The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal status of any country,
territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN.
Published by: IUCN Nepal, Kupondole, Lalitpur, Nepal
Designed by: Sunil Khadgi (Anup Samrat Enterprises Pvt. Ltd., Bagbazar# 977-1-4243616)
Copyright: © June 2015, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
`
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without
prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.
Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written
permission of the copyright holder.
ISBN No: 978-9937-8467-1-4
Available from:
IUCN Nepal
Kupondole, Lalitpur
P.O. Box 3923, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel: (977-1) 5528781
Fax: (977-1) 5536786
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.iucn.org/nepal
This book has been published under ‘“Wetlands for the Future: Improving Livelihoods and Enhancing Biodiversity
Through Participatory Restoration and Management of Jagadishpur Reservoir Ramsar Site in Nepal Project”,
implemented in the Jagadishpur Reservoir Ramsar Site of Nepal, by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN Nepal). This project is part of the "Wetlands for Water and Cities Fund" of the Ramsar Convention
Secretariat. This fund is supported by the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD).


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Nepal’s wetlands with an area of 743,563 consultancy services for the study. We would
ha, host significant biodiversity and are the also like to thank all the study team members,
country’s most diverse and productive especially Mr. Bijendra Basnyat (Team leader,
ecosystems. Wetlands provide environmental Ecosystem Management and Livelihood
goods and services that are vital for Specialist), Prof. Karan Bahadur Shah
livelihoods, conserve biological diversity and (Biodiversity Specialist), Mr. Ram Prasad
act as safety net and environmental insurance Acharya (Institution Development Specialist),
against the impacts of climate change and Mr. Sushil Khadka (GIS Specialist), Ms. Asha
ecosystem degradation. However, wetlands Paudel (Botanist), Mr. Seejan Gyawali
in Nepal are facing many socio-economic and (Ornithologist), Ms. Ambika Poudel (Forestry
environmental challenges, including a decline Specialist), Dr. Rajendra Joshi (Water Quality
in the ecosystem services provided to local Specialist), Mr. Ram Chandra Sedai
people. (Tourism Specialist) and Mr. Gyanendra
Dhakal (Agriculture Scientist) for concerted
Considering this, IUCN, International Union efforts towards successful undertaking and
for Conservation of Nature, Nepal Country timely completion of the study. IUCN also
Office implemented the “Wetlands for the appreciates the work of Dr. Hem Sagar
Future Project (Improving Livelihoods Baral, Dr. Maheshwor Dhakal and Dr.
and Enhancing Biodiversity Through Kalyan Gauli for reviewing the manuscript.
Participatory Restoration and Management
of the Jagadishpur Reservoir Ramsar Site We would also like to appreciate the efforts
(JRRS) of Nepal”, as a part of the “Wetlands of IUCN staff. Special thanks are to Mr.
for Water and Cities Fund" of the Ramsar Rajendra Khanal, Ms. Sony Baral, Mr. Amit
Convention Secretariat. Norwegian Agency Poudyal and Ms.Tory Grieves for excellent
for Development Cooperation (NORAD) coordination, technical backstopping to the
provided funding support of the project. The consultants, conceptualizing and producing
project aimed to restore and enhance wetland this publication. Support and cooperation from
ecosystems and local livelihoods through the the IUCN field staff, Mr. Kamal Thapa, Ms.
sustainable management and governance of Bigya Gyawali and Mr. Injun Acharya is also
wetland resources in Nepal. highly appreciated.
This book presents bench mark situation IUCN greatly appreciates all assistance
of biodiversity and livelihoods in the JRRS and support provided by the institutions and
focusing on (a) biodiversity, (b) livelihoods, individuals who became part of this study.
(c) institutions, (d) tourism and; (e) wetland
health monitoring. The book has been IUCN strongly believes that this book will
prepared based on intensive field study over establish a comprehensive baseline status
the period of three months (March - May, of the JRRS and will be useful to monitor
0 5) following structured household survey, progress and devise appropriate interventions
stakeholders’ consultations while building on for this important site.
past studies conducted in the JRRS.
IUCN would like to thank B&B Research IUCN Nepal

Center Pvt. Ltd. and Practical Solution June, 2015
Consultancy Nepal Pvt. Ltd. for providing

I

II

Abbreviations & Acronyms
CITES : Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
CVM : Contingent Valuation Techniques
DADO : District Agriculture Development Office
DDC : District Development Committee
DFO : District Forest Office
DIO : Divisional Irrigation Office
DSCO : District Soil Conservation Office
DNPWC : Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation
GIS : Geographic Information System
GPS : Global Positioning System
HHs : Households
IUCN : International Union for Conservation of Nature
IVI : Important Value Index
JRMF : Jagadishpur Reservoir Management Multi-stakeholder Forum
JRRS : Jagadishpur Reservoir Ramsar Site
MFSC : Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation
NGOs : Non-Government Organizations
NRs : Nepalese Rupees
NTFPs : Non-Timber Forest Products
RD : Relative Density
RF : Relative Frequency
RM : Result based Management
spp : Species (Plural)
TUCH : Tribhuvan University Central Herbarium
VDCs : Village Development Committee

III
IUCN_Book_Tables_05_change.ind3 3 9/4/05 0:9:3 AM


IV

Table of contents
Preface i
Abbreviations & Acronyms iii
Table of Contents v
Summary vii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Project overview 3
1.3 Objective 4
2 Jagadishpur reservoir ramsar site 5

2.1 Jagadishpur reservoir 5
2.2 Irrigation system and coverage 6
2.3 Land use 7
2.4 Demography 9
3 Floral diversity 11
3.1 Methodology 11
3.2 Forest ecosystem 15
3.3 Wetlands ecosystem 18
3.4 Agricultural ecosystem 22
4 Faunal diversity 23
4.1 Methodology 23
4.2 Fishes 26
4.3 Herpetofauna 27
4.4 Birds 28
4.5 Mammals 31

5 Livelihoods assessment 33
5.1 Methodology 33
5.2 Respondent characteristics 35
5.3 Household characteristics 36
5.4 Demography 38
5.5 House and housing condition 40
5.6 Livelihoods capital 42
5.7 Dependence on forest resources 46
5.8 Energy consumption for cooking 48
5.9 Dependence on wetlands 50
5.10 Irrigation services 54
5.11 Human wildlife conflicts 58
5.12 Livelihoods outcomes 58
5.13 Wetland value 60


6 Institutional assessment 63
6.1 Methodology 63
6.2 Jagadishpur reservoir management multi-stakeholder forum 64
6.3 Government line agencies 64
6.4 Local bodies 68
6.5 Community institutions 69

7 Tourism assessment 71
7.1 Methodology 71
7.2 Visitor status 72
7.3 Tourism attraction 72
7.4 Potential tourism activities 77
7.5 Tourism infrastructure and facilities 78
7.6 Emerging issues and challenges 79
8 Wetlands monitoring 81
8.1 Indicator species 81
8.2 Wetland biodiversity threats 83
8.3 Water quality assessment 86
9 Management priority 89
9.1 Floral management 89
9.2 Faunal management 90
9.3 Livelihoods diversification 91
9.4 Institutional capacity building 92
9.4 Tourism development 93
References 95
Annexes 97


VI

Summary
This study establishes a comprehensive baseline status of the JRRS, focusing on biodiversity and
livelihood situation, with a view to keeping track of progress and changes and devising appropriate
interventions. Specifically, the study documented floral and faunal diversity, assessed current
socio-economic status of the communities, including their dependence on wetland resources,
and identified biological indicators for monitoring wetland health. The study used wide range
of methods from forests inventory, wetland inventory, stakeholder consultations, focus group
discussions, review of secondary sources of information, HHs survey etc.
Floral Diversity
Forests
 Forest is in the climax stage and dominated by the Sal forest
 A total of 55 forest plant species, consisting of 22 herbaceous plants, 18 shrubs
species and 15 tree species were recorded in the JRRS
 Forest is degraded along with high incidence of lopping, logging and grazing
Wetlands
 Wetland vegetation is at a submerged succession stage
 A total of 68 plant species were recorded at the wetland sites, of which four are
submerged, 19 are emergent, 13 are floating plant species and rest are terrestrial
Existing
plants
Status
 Around one third of the reservoir is covered by invasive species such as Baya
(Ipomea carnea) and Jaal Kumbi (Eichornia crassipes)
Agriculture
 Local farmers are cultivating various local landraces, especially of paddy and
cucurbits
 Extent of cultivation of local landraces is very less, which is almost replaced by
improved or hybrid varieties
 Major local landraces, which are cultivated for commercial purpose, include Kala
namak (Paddy), Kunru (Pointed gourd) and Basi (Cucumber)
 Invasive and alien species invasion
 Sedimentation and siltation, including river cutting and flooding
 Livestock grazing around wetland sites
 Excessive collection of timber, fuel wood, fodders, and NTFPs
Threats
 Sand and stone collection
 Land use conversion including urbanization and settlement expansion
 Cultivation of high-yielding varieties, mainly due to land fragmentation, agriculture
intensification and commercialization
 In-situ conservation of threatened, endangered and commercially exploited plant
species
 Alien and invasive species management
Management  Forest resource base creation
Priority  Alternative energy promotion
 Soil and water conservation
 Community seed bank establishment for local landraces conservation
 Commercial cultivation of local landraces

VII

Faunal Diversity
A 295 species of fauna in the area, compared to 209 species in a previous survey.
Unit Previous checklist Present checklist

Fishes Number of species 39 43
Herpetofauna Number of species 39 52
Birds Number of species 118 168
Mammals Number of species 13 32
Total Number of species 209 295
Of the 295 faunal species reported in the area, 23 are nationally threatened, 40 are included in
the IUCN Red List while 37 species are included in the CITES appendices.
Nationally CITES
Unit IUCN Red list
Threatened Appendices
Fishes Number of species - - -
Herpetofauna Number of species 2 9 12
Birds Number of species 17 15 15
Mammals Number of species 4 16 10
Total Number of species 23 40 37
 Exploitation of local fishes using long nets with fine mesh, including exotic fish
farming
 Sedimentation and siltation, including river cutting and flooding
 Livestock grazing and high extraction of firewood from forests
 Sand and stone collection and exploitation of other natural resources, especially in
the upstream area
 Indiscriminate killing and poaching of wildlife such as turtles, monitors, birds, rabbits,
Threats porcupines, and boar
 Water pollution from agricultural chemicals and fertilizers
 Human-wildlife conflicts, including killing of birds
 Land use conversion, urbanization and built up area expansion
 Poor coordination and partnership among actors and stakeholders inadequate
investment in conservation-related activities
 Poor conservation awareness among stakeholders
 Inadequate scientific research on local fauna
 Indicator species identification and monitoring
 Conservation awareness
 Community-based anti-poaching operations
 Habitat improvement
Management  Fish farming & good aqua-culture practice promotion
Priority  Water quality monitoring
 Forests resource base, creation especially through plantation
 Alternative energy and energy-saving devices promotion
 Integrated livestock management (grazing control, fodder and forage expansion,
biogas support)

VIII

Livelihoods Assessment
 Majority of the population (74.1%) is literate

 Agriculture is the main occupation and primary source of income
 Most of the HHs have permanent houses (79.4%), i.e. of concrete or zinc roof
Livelihoods  Almost all HHs have access to safe drinking water (97.1%)
Capital  Two third of HHs (67.1%) have basic sanitation facilities (toilet)
 Bicycle, television and radio are common HHs assets, with an average value of NRs
132,825 per HHs
 Nine-tenths of HHs have own land, with an average land holding of 1.03 ha per HHs
 Average income is NRs 114,481/HHs, mostly coming from non-farm sources such as
salary, wage earning and remittances
 Gini coefficient of the HHs income is 0.51, which reveals high income disparity among
Livelihoods the people living around in the JRRS
Outcome  Half of the HHs (56.5%) have food sufficiency from their own farm production and
other permanent sources of income, such as service and business
 Wage earnings, remittances, debt, sale of livestock and livestock products are major
coping strategies adopted by most of the HHs during food-insecure months
Dependence  Each HHs consumed 260 kg of firewood and 440 kg of grasses every month
on Forest  National forests, including community forests remain main sources of forests products
Resources followed by private forests and river bank
 Wetlands are mostly used for irrigation, followed by tourism, fishery and grazing
 There is no specific wetland dependent community in the JRRS, however, poor and
Dependence
marginalized communities depend on the wetlands products
on Wetland
 Local communities consumed wetland products amounting to NRs 16.9 million (US$
Resources
1.6 million) annually from the JRRS
 People living in vicinity of the wetland areas are more wetland products
Access to  Half of the HHs (52.3%) are using irrigation facility
Irrigation  Majority of the HHs are not paying irrigation fee, even though fee is very nominal
Facility  Two third of HHs have not participated in irrigation related activities
 Two-thirds of the HHs are willing to pay for reservoir protection and irrigation canal
repair
Wetland
 Each HHs is willing to contribute voluntary labor of 5.9 days per year, along with cash
Value
contribution of NRs 539
 Wetland value of JRRS is NRs 71.3 millions, based on use and non-use value
 Quick impact interventions (Income generating activities, targeting poor and women)
 Enterprise development
Future  Strengthening community institutions on wetland management
Intervention  Grazing control around the reservoir
 Good aqua-culture practices promotion
 Irrigation facilities improvement including revision of irrigation service fee

IX

Institutional Assessment
 Jagadishpur Reservoir Management Multi-stakeholder Forum has been formed under

the leadership of the District Development Committee, with representation of private
and public sector institutions
 Government agencis such as DFO, and DSCO have some level of awareness about
the importance of wetland conservation while DADO, DLSO, DIO DDC, and VDC are
less aware on wetlands conservation
 There is limited budget allocation for the management of the wetland resources,
Existing
however, DFO, DSCO and DIO programme indirectly contribute towards wetland
Status
conservation
 All the stakeholders have poor knowledge and competence on wetland management
 Community institutions have relatively better capacity in organization, especially
conducting meetings regularly, accounting and recording system and keeping
minutes and following an inclusive approach and ensuring representation of poor
and marginalized communities in community institutions. However, they have poor
capacity on human resources and financial management
 Poor coordination and collaboration on wetland conservation
Emerging
 Limited knowledge and competencies on wetland management
Issues and
 Inadequate investment or budget on wetland conservation
Challenges
 Lack of joint programme planning and monitoring
 Strengthen Jagadishpur Reservoir Management Multi-stakeholder Forum (JRMMSF)
 Mainstream wetland conservation in government line agencies’ programme
Management
 Strengthen capacity of the District Forest Officials
Priority
 Build capacity of community institutions
 Introduce sustainable financing practices


Tourism Assessment
 Emerging as a popular tourism hub with the expansion of Lumbini World Heritage
Site-based tourism into the greater Lumbini area
 Around 150 to 200 international and about 10,000 to 12,000 domestic visitors make
trip to Jagadishpur area each year
 JRRS contains abundant natural resources for the development of eco-tourism in
Existing the region. Major natural attractions in the area include the Jagadishpur Reservoir,
Status Bhagirathi River (Ban Ganga River), Sagarhawa Lake (Lambu Sagar), Nigali Lake
(Niglihawa)
 Major iconic Buddhist heritage and archaeological heritage sites in the area include
Tilaurakot, Kudan, Sagarhawa, Niglihawa, Arourakot, Gotihawa and Sishahaniya
 A mix of diverse communities, including Shakya clans and Tharu, offers opportunities
for village tourism and home-stays promotion providing different cultural experiences
 Poor destination marketing,
 Poorly developed tourism related infrastructure such as road facilities, view tower for
Emerging
bird watching, and picnic and other recreation facilities
Issues and
 Poor capacity of local people on visitor management
Challenges
 Limited private sector involvement in promoting tourism of the area
 Poor visitor satisfaction, due to absence of tourism related facilities and services
 Sustainable tourism development along with enhancing visitor's satisfaction
 Destination marketing for attracting visitors and tourism entrepreneurs
Management  Partnership with tourism entrepreneurs on product development and marketing
Priority  Tourism facilities improvement
 Capacity building of local communities on tourism business operations
 Ethnic cultural home-stays and village tour packages development and promotion
Wetland’s Monitoring
 Lesser whistling duck is identified as indicator species due to its large population
size, high incidence of illegal hunting and illegal trade
Indicator
 A total population of Lesser whistling duck is 1676 ( ±24)
Species
 A duck population is fluctuating, due to illegal hunting and poisoning
 Nearly 1000 ducks are illegally hunted every year, primarily for recreation and pride
 Water exhibit acceptable properties and suitable for the wetland’s biodiversity
 Physio-chemical properties of water such as pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, total
Water Quality dissolved solid, bicarbonate and chemical oxygen demand are within permissible
Monitoring range
 Nitrate and phosphate is below detection limit, suggesting very less or no agricultural
run-off of nutrients to water
 Wetlands threats were identified and prioritized following participatory and consultative
processes
 Illegal fishing for commercial and subsistence use
Wetland’s
 Flooding/sedimentation and river cutting
Threat
 Inadequate water supply/water level locations/poor distribution
Assessment
 Agriculture commercialization and intensification
 Cattle grazing
 Inadequate investment/no regular programme

XI


XII

Chapter One
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and harbour 42 globally threatened species
(MFSC, 2014). In addition to providing habitat
Within their area of 743,563 ha, 5% of for several species of wildlife, their role in
the total landmass of the country, Nepal’s sustaining people’s livelihoods is crucial. Nepal
wetlands host significant biodiversity (MFSC, has demonstrated its commitment to wetlands
2014). Nepal’s wetlands include permanently conservation, especially the conservation of
flowing rivers, seasonal streams, lowland waterfowl habitats of international importance,
oxbow lakes, high altitude glacial lakes, by signing the Ramsar Convention in 1971.
swamps and marshes, paddy fields, reservoirs Nepal has already designated nine wetlands
and ponds. Globally, wetlands are considered as Ramsar sites of international importance,
one of the most diverse and productive including the Jagadishpur Reservoir.
ecosystems in the world, and indeed they are
one of the important natural resources in Nepal. The Jagadishpur Reservoir, with an area of
Wetlands provide environmental goods and 225 ha, was declared a Ramsar site in 2003,
services that are vital for livelihoods, conserve in recognition of the fact that it supports
biological diversity and act as safety net and an vulnerable, endangered, and critically
environmental insurance against the impacts endangered species as well as threatened
of climate change and ecosystem degradation. ecological communities (MFSC, 2014). The
Furthermore, these provide a unique habitat for reservoir is the largest man-made irrigation
a wide variety of flora and fauna. reservoir in Nepal. It supports four percent
of the Asian population of Ferruginous Duck
Nepal’s wetlands support a wide spectrum of (Aythya nyroca) and one percent of the Lesser
nationally and globally important biodiversity Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna javanica)

IUCN_Book_205.indd 9/24/205 0:6:02 AM

population found in Nepal (MFSC, 2014). The Nature, is implementing the “Wetlands for the
reservoir is surrounded by cultivated land, Future Project” in the Jagadishpur Reservoir
canals and small ponds. There are other Ramsar Site (JRRS) of Nepal, covering 185
two smaller lakes known as Sagarhawa and sq. km of 12 local government units (selected
Niglihawa situated in the area that serves as wards of two municipalities and 10 Village
a buffer habitat for bird movements. Development Committees). This project is
a part of the “Wetlands for Water and Cities
The Jagadishpur reservoir and its surrounding Fund" of the Ramsar Convention Secretariat,
area are rich in biodiversity. It provides a home of which funding support is provided by
for many species of migratory waterfowl, the Norwegian Agency for Development
including endangered species like Sarus Cooperation (NORAD).
crane. The biodiversity of the area has not
been fully studied and therefore only limited With a view to establishing benchmarks and
information is available. Local communities use monitoring project results, IUCN conducted a
the reservoir for irrigation, fishing, grazing, and comprehensive baseline survey, focusing on
plant collection. However, the level and extent biodiversity and the socio-economic situation
of dependence on wetland resources of local of the beneficiaries of the project area. This
communities, especially extraction of wetland will provide guidance to plan effectively and
products and services is not fully documented. coherently in realizing the project objectives
IUCN, International Union for Conservation of in a systematic way.
Map 1.1: Project VDCs/municipalities

IUCN_Book_205.indd 2 9/24/205 0:6:04 AM

This study serves as a benchmark study of command area, which is considered as

the JRRS, which will be used for measuring the project intervention area. Jagadishpur
project progress as well as devising reservoir supplies irrigation water for 6,070
appropriate management interventions. ha of farmland from selected ward of two
municipalities and 10 Village Development
1.2 Project Overview Communities (VDCs). The project covers
185 sq. km. encompassing agricultural land,
The “WETLANDS FOR THE FUTURE” forests and wetland ecosystems, which also
project is aimed at restoring and enhancing includes Ramsar designated area is 225 ha.
wetland ecosystems and local livelihoods
through the sustainable management and The project’s target groups include the
governance of wetland resources in Nepal. government agencies responsible for the
The project will contribute in achieving the management and use of the wetland,
Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan's NGOs and civil society organizations, and
(2014-2020) paired goals of poverty reduction representatives of local communities, in
and biodiversity conservation in Nepal, with a addition to the Lumbini World Heritage
special focus on the Jagadishpur Reservoir Committee, the Nepal Tourism Board, the
Ramsar site. Specifically, the project will Ramsar Secretariat and the general public.
The direct beneficiaries of the project are over
• Safeguard wetland ecosystem integrity 40,000 members of the local communities
while promoting wise-use of wetland who live around the Jagadishpur Reservoir
resources with active participation of local and depend on the wetland resources
community; for their livelihoods, especially targeted
• Enhance livelihood opportunities towards women, poor, Dalit and marginalized
through income generation activities, communities.
community managed eco-tourism and
green enterprises for local communities, The project activities are implemented in
particularly targeting women, poor, Dalit partnership and collaboration with public,
and other marginalized population;
• Strengthen institutional capacity of the
government agencies and local community
organizations for effective management of
the wetland system;
• Design, test and develop a sustainable
financing mechanism (including
institutional arrangements) for sustainable
management of the wetland;
• Establish and strengthen the Multi-
stakeholder Forum for wetland
governance; and
• Strengthen knowledge management,
communication and documentation
The Jagadishpur Reservoir Ramsar

Site (JRRS) encapsulates the irrigation

IUCN_Book_205.indd 3 9/24/205 0:6:05 AM

private and community institutions, especially • Assess the socio-economic status of the
the District Forest Office, Divisional Irrigation communities, focusing on HHs-based
Office, District Development Committee, economic and social indicators such as
District Agriculture Development Office, Water education, occupation, income, land-
User Association, Jagadishpur Reservoir holding size, and food sufficiency
Management Multi-Stakeholder Forum and • Assess dependence of local communities
local community organizations for sustainable on wetland resources, especially on wetland
management of the Jagadishpur Reservoir. products and services
• Map existing institutions working on
1.3 Objective wetland conservation including their
institutional capacity
The main objective of the study is to establish • Explore tourism potential in the JRRS,
a comprehensive baseline status of the JRRS, including mapping of tourism destination
focusing on biodiversity and livelihoods with a and services
view to keeping track of progress and changes • Conduct water quality assessment around
and devising appropriate interventions. the JRRS
Specially the study • Suggest measures for improving the
livelihoods of local communities and
• Prepare and update the checklists of floral conservation of wetland resources.
and faunal species (plants, birds, fishes,
amphibians, reptiles and mammals)

IUCN_Book_205.indd 4 9/24/205 0:6:06 AM

Chapter TWO

The JRRS includes 10 Village Development of Taulihawa, the district headquarters of
Committee (VDCs) and select wards of Kapilvastu District; 40 km from Butwal (32 km
Banganga Municipality and all wards of west from Butwal on east west highway) and
Kapilvastu Municipality of Kapilvastu district, 8 km south of Banganga Bridge along the
where the “Wetlands for the Future Project” is eastern embankment road.
implemented. This project working area does
not coincide with the Jagadishpur Ramsar The reservoir lies at an elevation of 197 m
site, which only covers only 225 ha, mostly (Baral and Inskipp 2005). The reservoir was
water bodies and surrounding catchment created at the location of Jakhira Lake and
area of the reservoir. Hence, JRRS include surrounding agricultural land. A rock-fill dyke
area of 185 sq. km., which comprises of the was constructed throughout the reservoir.
project working area. An earthen dyke runs north to south from
the centre of the reservoir. The eastern
2.1 Jagadishpur Reservoir part consists of shallow water whereas the
western part of the reservoir is deeper and
The Jagadishpur Reservoir (27°37’N 83°06’E) completely covered by water.
is located in Niglihawa Village Development
Committee of Kapilvastu District, Lumbini The Jagadishpur Reservoir is one of the largest
Zone of Nepal. It is located 10 km north man-made wetlands of Nepal, constructed in

IUCN_Book_205.indd 5 9/24/205 0:6:06 AM

1979 for irrigation. The reservoir, with an area diversity; these include the endangered
of 118 ha, has the capacity to store 4.7 cubic plants Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentine),
million litres of water. At the reservoir’s deepest the threatened Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera),
point, the water depth varies from a maximum endangered and the tallest flying bird, Sarus
of 5-7 meters to a minimum of 2-3 meters crane (Grus antigone) and resident stork
(Shah et al., 2010). Water in the reservoir is fed species.
from the nearby Banganga River, which has a
catchment area in the Chure hills. The reservoir 2.2 Irrigation System and Coverage
is surrounded by cultivated lands and there are
two smaller lakes, Sagarhawa and Niglihawa, The Banganga irrigation system was constructed
located nearby. in 1979. The Banganga River serves as the head
of the reservoir, from which water is brought into
The total catchment area of the reservoir is 225 the reservoir. A canal extends south from the
ha, which was also designated as a Ramsar reservoir to the Indian border. The length of the
site in 2003 considering its assemblage of rare, main canal from the reservoir is 20.5 km. Three
endangered, monogenetic plant species, that branch canals stem from the main canal, with
holds importance for conservation of genetic a total length of 43.9 km. Likewise, irrigation

IUCN_Book_205.indd 6 9/24/205 0:6:07 AM

system contains 168 field canals along with water distribution, as well as branch canal
farmers’ distributaries and minor canals, which and field canal management. The water user
pass through 10 VDCs and two municipalities. association is governed by a 27 member
The reservoir has the capacity to irrigate 6,070 committee, which is formed by election.
ha of farmland. Though there is no water
distribution canal in Banganga municipality, 2.3 Land Use
farmers irrigate farmland by extracting water
from a pump set and blocking water in the A Google Earth satellite image from March
canal. Map 2.1 presents reservoir along with 2015 was digitized to prepare the latest
irrigation canal in JRRS. land use and land cover map of the JRRS.
Table 2.1 presents land use of the JRRS.
Water User Association is managing the The reservoir area encompasses 18,506
irrigation system in partnership with the ha. Of the total area, more than nine-
government. The Divisional Irrigation tenths (92.34%) is agricultural, followed by
Office looks after head works, reservoir forests (2.86%) and other land uses, such
management and main canals, while the as river and barren land (2.92%). Map 2.2
water user association is responsible for shows the land use map of the JRRS.
Map 2.1: Reservoir and irrigation canal in the JRRS
Source: Digitized from Google Earth Image, 2015

IUCN_Book_205.indd 7 9/24/205 0:6:09 AM

Table 2.1: Land use pattern of JRRS, 2015

have declined in the last 20 years while
SN Land use Area (ha) Percent agriculture land has expanded. Likewise,
1 Forest 529 2.86 area under private ponds and orchards has
3 Grassland 175 0.95
increased. The main reason for land use
changes in the JRRS include (a) demographic
5 Orchards 85 0.46
factors, mainly population growth, settlement
6 Ponds 88 0.47 expansion and urbanization (b) infrastructural
7 Agriculture land 1 7,088 92.34 development such as road and built up
8 Others 541 2.92 area expansion (c) fringe encroachment by
Total 18,506 100.00 the people and (d) river bank cutting and
Source: Computed from Google Earth Image, 2015 extraction of sand, gravel and boulders from
Chure foothills, which results in destruction
Interactions with local communities and a of the forests. The forests in the JRRS lie
comparative assessment with the topographic at the edge of the Banganga River, which is
map (1996) reveal that forests and grasslands annually eroded.
Map 2.2: Land use map of JRRS, 2015

IUCN_Book_205.indd 8 9/24/205 0:6:0 AM

2.4 Demography
More than 17,390 HHs (a population

of 109,572) are dependent on wetland
resources; by geographic area, ranging from
5,130 HHs in Kapilvastu municipality to 458
HHs in Basantapur VDC. Table 2.2 presents
HHs and population by VDC.
Population density was measured in terms of

number of people per sq km. The average
population density is 822 persons per sq. km
of land, which varies from 401 persons per
sq km in Niglihawa VDCs to 868 in Parsohiya
VDCs. Map 2.3 presents population density
by VDC.
Table 2.2: VDC, HHs and population in JRRS
Area Household Population (No)

SN VDCs/Municipality
(sq. km) (No) Male Female Total
1 Baidauli VDC 5.4 753 2,790 2,743 5,533
2 Basantapur VDC 11.6 458 1,639 1,609 3,248
3 Gauri VDC 6.9 600 2,110 2,229 4,339
4 Jahadi VDC 11.4 851 2,878 3,090 5,968
5 Niglihawa VDC 28.0 1,941 5,435 5,800 11,235
6 Parsohiya VDC 5.0 557 2,172 2,170 4,342
7 Rangapur VDC 9.2 735 2,594 2,494 5,088
8 Sauraha VDC 7.4 568 2,141 1,979 4,120
9 Sinkhore VDC 8.9 804 2,854 2,827 5,681
10 Somdiha VDC 9.9 852 3,110 2,907 6,017
Tilaurakot* (Kapilvastu Municipality) 16.7 1,316 4,131 4,179 8,310
11 Gotihawa* (Kapilvastu Municipality) 9.8 683 2,411 2,322 4,733
Kapilvastu Municipality 37.0 5,130 15,204 15,224 30,428
12 Kopawa^ (Bangana Municipality) 18.0 2,142 4,889 5,641 10,530
Total 185.1 17,390 54,358 55,214 109,572
Source: Megha Publication and Research Centre, 2013
Note: * Now under Kapilvastu Municipality; ^ Now under Banganga Municipality

IUCN_Book_205.indd 9 9/24/205 0:6: AM

Map 2.3: Population Density

10
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Chapter THREE
FLORAL DIVERSITY
Floral diversity of the JRRS was studied in the 3.1.1 Forests
forest, wetland and agricultural ecosystems.
This section presents recorded floral diversity Natural forests in the JRRS exist in a very
of the JRRS, in terms of species richness, narrow strip, with width ranging from 202 to
composition, and abundance of vascular 2,291 m. Likewise, the length of the forest
plants species. Plants were also classified area is 3,209 m. Vegetation composition
based on their habitat and use. Threats to changes significantly with every increase in
plants were also identified. 100 m altitude, but as the JRRS is generally
flat, no significant altitudinal variation was
3.1 Methodology observed. Considering this, forests were
longitudinally divided into two parallel
The study adopted separate methods to assess transects at a distance of 200 m, and plots
the floral diversity found in the forests, wetland were located at 500 m intervals of each
and agricultural ecosystems. The following transects. The plots were identified with the
section discusses the specific methods used to support of Geographic Information System
study the floral species under each ecosystem. (GIS). This resulted in 22 total sample plots.
The Geographic Positioning System was
The study reviewed secondary sources of used to identify coordinates in the field. After
information to identify plants found in the JRRS coordinate identification, 10 m x 10 m plots
sites. However, no previous comprehensive were set (eleven plots at the centre of each
study on floral diversity was found, though a transect at a distance of 500 m) for tree
few studies had mentioned about few species counting. In each plot, diameter at breast
found in the JRRS. height (dbh) was recorded using a dbh tape,
The nomenclature of plants included in the Figure 3.1: Plot layout map
study followed the e-version of the Annotated
Checklist of Flowering Plants of Nepal
(Press et al. 2000). Voucher specimens were
10 M
deposited at Tribhuvan University Central
Herbarium (TUCH). Unidentified plant species
within the sampling site were photographed,
collected and tagged as voucher specimens.
5M
These were further identified by consulting
10 M
experts in the national herbarium, and by

following standard literature (Press et al.
5M
2000). After collecting the plant specimens,

local peoples’ ethnobotanical study was
done, focusing on plants part used and 1M
purpose of use, such as religious/cultural
value, medicinal use food/edible, cattle feed,
and aesthetics/cosmetic use.

11
IUCN_Book_205.indd 9/24/205 0:6:3 AM

and height for the tree and pole stage of the knowledge was also collected, focusing on
species was recorded. Likewise, the number parts of plant used and purposes such as
of saplings (dbh<10 cm) and seedlings (30cm- religious/cultural value, medicinal use food/
100 cm height) were recorded for every tree edible, cattle feed, and aesthetics/cosmetic
species. Furthermore, 5 m x 5 m quadrat was use. The occurance of species such as native,
nested within each main plot to count shrubs, exotic or alien species along with extent of
while a 1 m x 1 m sub-quadrat was nested in coverage and threats to the forests were also
each quadrat to count herbs. Only the adult assessed.
stages of herbs and shrubs were counted.
Figure 3.1 shows the plot layout map. In each The study calculated the Important Value
plot, the study also recorded threats to forest Index (IVI) for each species of tree, shrub
resources, especially incidence of lopping, and herb to assess species dominance. The
logging, minor forest product collection, IVI was computed based on Relative Density
grazing, grass cutting, forest fire, and soil (RD), Relative Frequency (RF), and Relative
erosion. Likewise, the occurrence of wildlife Dominance (RA). Box 3.1 presents methods
signs was also recorded. After collecting the and formula used for computation of IVI.
specimens, local peoples’ ethnobotanical

12
IUCN_Book_205.indd 2 9/24/205 0:6:4 AM

Box 3.1 Formula for computation of IVI
Number of individual of the species X 100

Relative density (RD)=
Number of individual of all the species
Number of occurrence of the species X 100

Relative frequency (RF) =
Number of occurrence of all the species
Total basal area of the species X 100

Relative dominance (RA) =
Total basal area of all the species
IVI = RD+RA+RF; IVI = RD+ RF; IVI = RD+ RF;
Map 3.1: Sampling plots in the forests

13
IUCN_Book_205.indd 3 9/24/205 0:6:5 AM

3.1.2 Wetlands inside the reservoir were also collected through

local fisherman, since a boating facility was not
Wetland vegetation sampling followed the available. The study assumed that most of the
RELEVE (CNSP Vegetation Committee 2000) plant species which are found in the reservoir
methodology, which is considered a “semi and nearby sites have been recorded, but it
quantitative” method. Plant species cover is possible that there are a few plant species
was estimated visually, rather than precisely which have been excluded.
measuring the cover and biomass by counts of
‘hits’ or weighing techniques. Considering the The plants found in the reservoir were
diversity of the wetlands in the JRRS, the study classified into four categories: submerged,
did not estimate plant coverage; however, it free floating, rooted floating and emergent
identified plant species found around wetland (Jha, 1997). Moreover, species present in the
sites. The study mostly focused on preparing periphery of the reservoir were also recorded
checklists of plant species found in the and added as the fifth category, “terrestrial”.
Jagadishpur Reservoir, since only the reservoir Plant species were also identified in nearby
is designated as a Ramsar site. wetland sites, especially other natural ponds
and rivers; checklists were updated to include
The Jagadishpur Reservoir is considered a those species.
single strand, and every plant species that
could be visually identified standing on the 3.1.3 Agriculture land
bank (using binoculars when necessary) was
recorded, moving in a clock-wise direction The study only focused on the local landraces
around the reservoir. Furthermore, information and local breeds that are being cultivated in
on a few plant species that were seen at a the agricultural ecosystem. Hence, the study
far distance from the boundary of reservoir or identified the local landraces that are being

14
IUCN_Book_205.indd 4 9/24/205 0:6:6 AM

cultivated for domestic and commercial 3.2 Forest Ecosystem

use. Focus group discussions with local
communities were organized to identify Sal forest (Shorea robusta) is the dominant
different local landraces that are cultivated in forest, followed by Tropical Riverine forest
the area. (Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo and Bombax
ceiba). Forests cover 528.63 ha, varying from
Furthermore, interactions with the District the largest, of 452 ha in Nigalihawa VDC, to
Agriculture Development Officials and 3.0 ha in Singkhor VDC (see Annex 3.1).
District Livestock Service Officials were also Apart from the natural forests, there are private
carried out to enhance their understanding of orchards or forests, which also provide suitable
conservation of local breeds and landraces. habitat for birds. Sisso (Dalbergia sissoo) and
The local market (Haat bazar) and farmers’ mango (Magnifera indica) are the dominant
fields were also observed during the study tree species in private forests/orchards. Total
to identify local breeds and landraces, along private forests area in JRRS is 85.1 ha. Map
with identification of the challenges of local 3.2 shows natural and private forests in the
landraces conservation. JRRS.
Map 3.2: Forests area of JRRS

15
IUCN_Book_205.indd 5 9/24/205 0:6:7 AM

Figure 3.2: No of species robusta), and Simal (Bombax ceiba), which

are found in the JRRS, have been banned
30
for harvesting, transport and sale according
22
to the Forest Rules (1995). Of the reported
20 18
15 plant species, Khair (Acacia catechu) is
No.
10 commercially threatened, Mushiikand

(Curculigo orchioides) and Rohini (Mallotus
0 philippensis) are endangered, while Palas
Herbs Shubs Tree (Butea monosperma) is vulnerable (see
Annex 3.2).
3.2.1 Species diversity 3.2.3 Uses
A total of 55 forest species were recorded, All the plant species that are found in the
belonging to 36 families and 49 genera; of forest lands of JRRS are further classified
which 22 were herbaceous plants, 18 were into three groups (Table 3.1), based on their
shrubs and 15 are tree species (Figure 3.2). current use, into the following categories:
Of the 15 tree species, Sal (Shorea robusta) (a) mostly used for commercial purposes
is the dominant species followed by Jamun especially sale in market or have high market
(Syzygium cumini), Mauwa (Madhuca demand (b) domestic or HHs consumption,
longifolia) and Kutmero (Litsea monopetala). especially for pole/shafts, firewood, edible
Other associated species include Simal foods, livestock feed, litter etc. (c) both
(Bombax ceiba), khair (Acacia catechu), Saaj uses (commercial and domestic) and (d) no
(Grewia oppositifolia) Bel (Aegle marmelos), notiicable use, plants are not preferred for use
and Barro (Terminalia bellirica). and usually remain as forest weeds. Of the
total 55 plant species, three are commercially
Of the 18 shrubs species, boksibayar (Zizyphus used; namely, Khair (Acacia catechu), Rohini
oenoplia) is the dominant species followed (Mallotus philippensis) and Sal (Shorea
by bannebiya (Murraya koenigii), Siru kamini robusta). Some of the plant species that are
phool (Murraya paniculata), Rohini (Mallotus used for domestic purposes include Kutmero
philippensis) and Phulungo (Flemingia (Litsea monopetala), Dativan (Achyranthes
macrophylla). Likewise, Munj (Saccharum aspera), Bidi paat (Diospyros tomentosa),
munja) is dominant species among the grasses Dubo (Cynodon dactylon), and Seto aank
followed by Kush (Desmostachya bipinnata), (Calotropis procera). About 13 plant species
Siru (Imperata cylindrical), Batulpaate are either exploited commercially or have
(Cissampelos pareira), Lahare (Ichnocarpus domestic use (Table 3.2).
frutescens) and Unnu (Lygodium flexuosum).
Annex 3.2 presents the name of trees, shrubs Table 3.1: Uses of the plants
and grasses found in the JRRS. SN Uses Number
1 Mostly commercial 3
3.2.2 Conservation status 2 Mostly domestic 29
3 Both commercial & domestic 13
The Government of Nepal has protected
4 No noticeable use 10
many plant species under the Forest Act of
1993. Khair (Acacia catechu), Sal (Shorea Total 55

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Table 3.2: List of plant species that are used or commercial or domestic use
SN Name of plants Scientific name Staus

1 Khair Acacia catechu Commercially exploited
2 Palans Butea monosperma Domestically exploited
3 Barro Terminalia bellirica Commercially exploited
4 Rohini Mallotus philippensis Domestically exploited
5 Jamun Syzygium cumini Commercially exploited
6 Sal Shorea robusta Commercially exploited
7 Simal Bombax ceiba Commercially exploited
8 Rajbriksha Cassia fistula Commercially exploited
9 Mauwa Madhuca longifolia Domestically exploited
10 Mushiikand Curculigo orchioides Commercially exploited
Ethnobotanical uses of the plants were 3.2.4 Threats

also recorded through interviews with local
informants (Table 3.3). The ethnobotanical Some of the threats that affect forest
uses of plants were grouped into four biodiveristy include logging for timber/
categories which include: (a) cultural and firewood, lopping or branch cutting for fodder/
religious value such as worship, need during wood, forest fires, grazing, grass cutting,
special events or festivals (b) aesthetics/
cosmetics such as dyes (c) medicinal value Figure 3.3: Threats to forests ecosystem
(antiseptics, medicine) (d) food to supplement
HHs food requirements (leaves, flower, 100.0
81.8
fruits, roots, shoots, and branches). Plants 80.0
50.5
having ethnobotanical uses are Dativan 60.0
Percent
27.3 31.8
(Achyranthes aspera), Bel (Aegle marmelos), 40.0 22.7 18.2
20.0
Dubo (Cynodon dactylon), Rohini (Mallotus
0.0
philippensis), Sal (Shorea robusta), Jamun
Logging
Looping
Grazing
Grass Cutting
River cutting/Flood
Fire
(Syzygium cumini), Simal (Bombax ceiba),

and Seto aank (Calotropis procera). Annex
3.3 presents the plant names along with parts
of plant used and purposes.
Table 3.3: Ethnobotanical uses of the plants and river cutting/erosion/flooding. Figure 3.3
SN Use value Number presents the relative occurrence of forest
1 Cultural/Religious 7
threats. The occurrence of threats is a ratio
of total number of threats observed in the
2 Aesthetics/cosmetics 3 plots to total number of plots, which was then
3 Medicinal 15 converted into a percent. Grazing is the major
threat to the forests, followed by logging, and
4 Food 10
river cutting.

17
IUCN_Book_205.indd 7 9/24/205 0:6:7 AM

The destruction of keystone tree species has floating species and reed swamp formations.
had a deleterious impact on the population of Map 3.3 depicts the wetland ecosystem
birds and orchids. It is reported that the decline of the JRRS, which consists of a reservoir
in number of Bombax ceiba has led to rapid area of 118 ha, 87.5 ha of ponds (private
reduction in the number of White-ramped and community), and the Banganga River
vulture (Gyps bengalensis) (Baral et al. 2005) along with small streams. There are around
and loss in the habitat of the honeybee, 261 ponds that are used for aquaculture,
"the main pollinating agent", and endangered especially for commercial fishing. Annex 3.4
bird, Greater Adjutant Stork (Leptoptilos presents the number of ponds in the JRRS.
dubias).
3.3.1 Species diversity
3.3 Wetlands Ecosystem
A total of 68 plants, belonging to 35 families
At the JRRS, wetlands include private ponds, and 54 genera, were recorded from the JRRS
rivers, streams, canal and the reservoir. The wetlands (Table 3.4). Out of these species,
wetland vegetation in the reservoir is in a 56 are herbaceous, seven are shrubs and
submerged succession stage, with patches of five are trees. The wetland consists of

18
IUCN_Book_205.indd 8 9/24/205 0:6:8 AM

Table 3.4: Wetland plants recorded from JRRS The wetlands are extensively covered
by floating leaved species, mainly lotus
Plant types Number (Nelumbo nucifera), religiously important
Submerged 4 and threatened species, are Wild Rice
Emergent 19 (Hygrorhiza aristata) (Kafle and Savillo
Free floating 6 2009). The abundant submerged species
Rooted floating 7
include Naja minor, Ceratophyllum
demersum, and Hydrilla verticillata,
Terrestrial 32
whereas the emergent species found
Total 68 around the reservoir margin are Ipomea
diverse plants from primitive algal flora (blue- carnea and Typha angustifolia. Annex
green algae, brown algae), pteridophytes like 3.5 and Annex 3.6 presents conservation
Azolla (walking fern) to smallest angiosperm status of plant species found in wetland of
(Wolffia globosa). the JRRS.
Map 3.3: Wetlands in the JRRS

19
IUCN_Book_205.indd 9 9/24/205 0:6:9 AM

3.3.2 Uses
All of the plant species found in the wetlands

of JRRS were further classified into three
groups based on their current uses (see
section 3.2.3). Of the total 68 plant species,
five are commercially used, namely: Khair
(Acacia catechu), Bojo (Acorus calamus),
Nim (Azadirachta indica), Sissoo (Delbergia
sissoo) and Munj (Saccharum munja). Some
plant species that are used for domestic
purposes include Mauwa (Madhuca
longifolia), Kamal (Nelumbo nucifera),
Singara (Trapa natans), and Pater (Typha
angustifolia). Annex 3.7 presents uses of the
plant species.
Table 3.5: Uses of the plants

SN Uses Number
1 Mostly commercial 5
2 Mostly domestic 29
3 Both commercial & domestic use 6
4 No uses 28
Total 68
Singara (Trapa natans), and Pater (Typha

Ethnobotanical uses of the plants were angustifolia). Annex 3.7 presents the plants
also recorded through interviews with local name along with parts used and purposes.
informants. The ethnobotanical uses of
plants were grouped into four categories 3.3.3 Threats
as discussed above (see section 3.2.4).
Plants with ethnobotanical uses are Dativan Alien and invasive species invasion:
(Achyranthes aspera), Bojo (Acorus calamus), Around one third of the Jagadishpur Reservoir
Nim (Azadirachta indica), Mauwa (Madhuca is covered by invasive species, namely: Baya
longifolia), Kamal (Nelumbo nucifera), (Ipomea carnea), Jaal kumbi (Eichornia
crassipes), Parthenium hysterophorus,
Table 3.6: Ethnobotanical uses of the plants Lapetuwa (Xanthium strumarium), Lajvanti
SN Uses Number (Mimosa pudica) and Kuro (Bidens pilosa).
1 Cultural/Religious 6 Invasive species often leads to succession
2 Aesthetics/cosmetics 2 and irreversible conversion of the existing
3 Medicinal 11
wetland to marshy and finally to terrestrial
climax vegetation. In such cases, the desired
4 Food 13
pre-existing vegetation may not return even
5 Other 9 the invasive species is cleared (Chapman

20
IUCN_Book_205.indd 20 9/24/205 0:6:20 AM

Table 3.7: Invasive plant species Likewise, sedimentation and siltation are
quite high in the reservoir, which is altering
Extent of
Local the composition of vegetation. Terrestrial
SN Botanical Name cover (% of
name plant species are growing in the wetlands.
reservoir)
1 Ipomea carnea Baya 15
Cattle grazing, and human encroachment
Eichornia Jaal
2
crassipes Kumbi
10 around the wetlands side are also affecting
plant species.
Parthenium
3 5
hysterophorus
Eutrophication: Due to the increased
Xanthium
4 Lapetuwa 2 dominance of nutrient leaching from local
strumarium
farmland, algae, plankton and other micro-
5 Mimosa pudica Lajvanti 1
organisms are growing, which has negative
6 Bidens pilosa Kuro 1 impacts on other plants and wetland
dependent animals.
and Reiss 1999). These species threaten the
important wetland plant species like Lotus Collection of wetland plants: Wetland
(Nelumbo nucifera) and Singara (Trapa plants such as Singara (Trapa natans),
bispinosa). Kerungo saag (Ipomea aqaticus), karkalo
(Colocasia esculenta) are collected for food,
Sedimentation and siltation: Some of the which is also affecting on plant diversity.
natural wetlands, such as the Lambusagar Similarly, collection of the medicinal plant
wetland, have been converted to marsh land, Kamal (Nelumbo nucifera), and Bojo (Acorus
which will gradually transform to dry land. calamus) may also disturb plant diversity.

21
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3.4 Agricultural Ecosystem
The agricultural ecosystem mostly includes

agricultural crops such as paddy, wheat,
maize, vegetables and fruits. The present
study focused on examination of local
landraces, which are being cultivated in the
area either for self-consumption or sale.
Cereal-based farming, especially paddy
and wheat cultivation, still dominates the
area. Nevertheless, farmers are generally
maintaining kitchen gardens near their
homesteads and are also cultivating fruit
trees.
3.4.1 Local landraces
Very few local landraces are being cultivated

in the area, especially related to cereals, fruits
and vegetables, which have either market local landraces is on the verge of extinction,
value or have religious importance. Table 3.8 mostly due to:
presents the local landraces that are being
cultivated in the area for self-consumption • Fragmentation of land, urbanization and
and sale. land use changes
• Crop diversification and agriculture
Nevertheless, a few local landraces of paddy, intensification
especially kala namak and cucurbits, such as • Poor soil quality due to extensive use of
local pointed gourd (kunru) and cucumber (basi), chemical fertilizers
are cultivated commercially. These commodities • High use of improved or hybrid seeds
have high market demand as well. • Lack of incentives to conserve the low-
yielding local species and varieties
3.4.2 Threats • Low productivity of local landraces
• Lack of market or poor market prices
Interaction with local communities and district • Poor seed management and storage/low
stakeholders revealed that cultivation of the availability of the seeds
Table 3.8: Cultivation of local landraces in the area by purpose

Landraces mostly
SN Crops Landraces mostly cultivated for self-consumption
cultivated for sale
1 Paddy Saraya, Satha, Bhaisaloth Aromatic rice (Kala namak)
Kubhindo (ash gourd), Iskush (chayote) Ghiraula
Cucumber (Basi), Local
2 Vegetables (sponge gourd), Karkalo (colocasia), Pumpkin, Bitter
pointed gourd (Kunru)
gourd, Lauka (bottle gourd)
3 Fruits Lemon, Jackfruit, Banana, Mango, Banana, mango

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Chapter FOUR
FAUNAL DIVERSITY
The Jagadishpur Reservoir and its other 4.1 Methodology
associated habitats were found to be
comparatively rich in sub-tropical biodiversity. A comprehensive assessment of the faunal
Highly diversified faunal elements were diversity of an area requires long term field
observed in the area, among the recorded observation; at least a year-long study is
fauna the occurrence of annelids (earthworms essential to collect data on seasonal activity
and leeches), molluscs (slugs and snails), and population dynamics of the wild animals,
arachnids (spiders and scorpions), insects which is especially important for migratory
(mosquitoes, bugs, beetles, butterflies, and birds. As this was not possible due to short
moths), fishes (inhabiting in the reservoir, time frame and resource constraints, this
its feeder and outlet canals, Banganga and study used a combination of methods to
other wetlands), amphibians (frogs and document biodiversity of the area. The faunal
toads), reptiles (turtles, lizards and snakes), survey was carried out around JRRS for seven
birds and mammals is confirmed from the days during the month of April, to prepare
area. However, the scope of the present checklists of fauna found in the area, including
study included fish, herpetofauna, birds and identification of summer visitor, resident birds
mammals found in the JRRS. Hence, a study and few remaining wintering birds.
was conducted, focusing on species richness,
status, distribution and conservation status of Literature review: Available literature on
these fauna found in the area, along with the biodiversity of the Jagadishpur Reservoir
threats and management priorities. was thoroughly reviewed. The Jagadishpur

23
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Reservoir Multi-stakeholder Forum (JRMF) In addition to this, the study team showed
and IUCN Nepal had already prepared a local people colour photographs to record
checklist of the reservoir’s biodiversity. The the occurrence of potential species that
checklist, along with the findings of present had not been observed by the survey
fieldwork, was used as the baseline to record team, either due to their secretive nature
species richness and habitat situations of the and occasional visits to the area, and also
area. Furthermore, the study also reviewed to confirm their records from the observed
previous bird checklists of the area which indirect signs.
include Baral (2008); Thapa and Saund
(2012); Cox (1978); DNPWC and IUCN A systematic arrangement for herpetofauna,
(2003); Chaudhary and Giri (2006) and Baral birds and mammals was followed as provided
and Chaudhary (2003). by Shah and Tiwari (2004), Grimmet et al.
(2003), Prater (1971), Corbett and Hill (1992)
Use of the publications: Herpetofauna, and Baral and Shah (2008).
birds and mammals of the area were
identified with the help of field guides by Shah Group meetings/Interactions: Several
and Tiwari (2004), Grimmet et al. (2003) and group meetings with local government
Baral and Shah (2008), respectively. If the officials, NGOs, and interactions/interviews
identifications were questionable, follow- with local stakeholders (key informants,
up questions regarding behaviour, calls, JRMF members, school teachers and
indirect signs and habitat characteristics students, livestock grazers, grass collectors,
of the concerned species were discussed guards, and officials) were conducted to
with the local knowledgeable people to gather information on the various aspects of
ensure that the identification was accurate. the area’s faunal diversity.

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IUCN_Book_205.indd 24 9/24/205 0:6:24 AM

Faunal diversity and species richness: In allowed surveyors to concentrate on

order to get information on the targeted faunal finding less common species.
diversity and species richness, following
methods provided by Gibbons et al. (1988), • Line transects: Line transects were
Sutherland (1996), and Sale and Berkmuller undertaken by moving along a wildlife trails
(1988) were used in the field. and recording the observed herpetofauna,
birds and their calls, and mammals and
• Timed species counts of birds: their indirect signs (such as scat, digging,
The method yielded relative indices rootling, tracks, and pug marks) seen on
of abundance and was based on either side of the route for an unlimited
the simplistic assumption that, when distance. This method has been slightly
conducting a bird survey, common birds modified from Sutherland (1996), as there
are generally the first to be noted, while was no fixed length and width of these
rare birds usually take longer to find. The transects. Because the observer needed
time to first observation is thus a crude to be able to move freely through the land,
measure of abundance, and can be used the method is more suitable for large areas
to make comparison both between and of continuous, open habitat like Banganga
within species (Gibbons et al. 1988). forest.
The survey was conducted using a timed
species count along transects in order to • Direct/Indirect and incidental
get record the abundance of the species. observations: Different sites of the
Birds were observed within a distance area were visited either on foot or by
of 250 m in both sides (right and left) by a vehicle, and live and dead animals
using binoculars with 8x50 range. were identified either directly or by
using binoculars. The resting animals,
The method required surveyors to walk especially herpetofauna, were sought by
slowly through the study area for a set lifting stones, logs, digging burrows and
period (e.g. an hour) and record the disturbing vegetation. Fish collected by
time at which each species was first local contractors by using large gill nets
seen. Subsequent observations of that from the ponds along the reservoir were
species within the hour were ignored. thoroughly examined.
If a species was recorded in the first
ten minute interval, it was allocated a In addition to these, a few species of
score of six; species recorded during fish and turtle used for commercial and
the second received a score of five, HHs purposes were also examined. This
the third received a score of four, and includes examination of local fish kept
so on. Unrecorded species were scored for selling in the weekly market (saptahik
as zero. The one-hour count was haat/bazaar) at the premises of the
then repeated 10 times, and a mean reservoir and turtle shells kept in houses
score across all one-hour counts was for medicinal purposes.
calculated for each species.
The survey team also observed the fishing
The advantage of this method was its practices of the local fishermen, including
efficiency. Because common species discussions with them about different local
were ignored once first seen, the method fishes found in the area.

25
IUCN_Book_205.indd 25 9/24/205 0:6:24 AM

Evaluation of habitats: The existing major (Pseudambassis baculis). The newly

habitats (wetlands, forests, and agricultural recorded species were results of a single
lands) were visited either on foot or by vehicle. sampling, therefore, it can be presumed
A direct observation method was used to that further detail inventory on this group
assess habitat occupancy by the flora and will reveal occurrence of many new species
fauna, habitat quality and their major threats. from the area. A single species of prawn also
Interactions with local stakeholders (focus occurs in the area.
groups, herders, community members, school
teachers and students) were also conducted 4.2.2 Threats
to assess various parameters (occurrence,
quality, distribution, diversity, abundance, and Local fish are harvested for personal
potential threats) of the existing prominent consumption and commercial purposes,
habitats of the area. and are generally sold in the weekly market.
Likewise, they are also sold in local hotels
4.2 Fishes nearby. Extensive fishing is carried out from
the wetlands for both recreation and sale.
4.2.1 Species diversity The local fishermen are harvesting all of the
fish. Fish are killed via several conventional
Wetlands (reservoir, private and public ponds, methods such as netting, angling, water
river, streams and canals) harbour a variety of draining and manual search. Some of the
fish fauna. Based on interviews, literature and modern techniques used for fishing include
direct observations, 43 species (see Annex electro fishing and poisoning. A few people
4.1) of fish were recorded in the JRRS. Earlier still use chemical poisons (pesticides) to kill
studies identified 39 species of fish in the fish, though the law forbids it. Fresh native
area. Likewise, lowland Terai endemic fishes fish are relatively cheaper, and one kilogram
include Notopterus notopterus, Oxygaster of fish only costs NRs 150 to 200, while carp
bacaila and the threatened Puntius chola. is sold at NRs 200/kg. There is high demand
for local fishes for personal and commercial
The study recorded four new fish species consumption; hotels around the reservoir
from the area, which include Dwarf Gourami even sell such fishes. Small fish are also
(Colisa lalius), bami (Macrognathus aral), collected from the irrigation canal and private
Silver Razorbelly Minnow (Salmostoma ponds.
acinaces) and Himalayan Glassy Perchlet
Apart from commercial fishing, the fish
population is also decreasing in the area due
to eutrophication, alien and invasive species
invasion and sedimentation and siltation of
the reservoir and ponds. Local fishes are also
found in the private and community ponds,
where the local community harvests the fish
and eats small breeds of the crabs. Likewise,
most of the private ponds are completely
dried at least twice a year by the owners and
contractors to collect fish. In some places
turtles are also collected.

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IUCN_Book_205.indd 26 9/24/205 0:6:24 AM

4.3 Herpetofauna
At the JRRS, the Indian Flap Shell Turtle
4.3.1 Species diversity (Lissemys punctata) is reported as being the
most common turtle species. The mugger
The JRRS harbours 52 species of crocodile (Crocodilus palustris) was observed
herpetofauna (Annex 4.2). This includes 10 just once in 1990, during the rainy season.
species of amphibian (frogs and toads), one According to local fishermen, marsh mugger
species of crocodile, six species of turtle is not a resident of the Jagadishpur Reservoir,
(both land and aquatic), 12 species of lizard but occasionally it enters the reservoir during
(skinks, wall lizards, common garden lizard the monsoon season. The area harbours only
and monitors) and 23 species of snake (5 five species of poisonous snake, while there
poisonous and 18 non-poisonous). During are 18 species of non-poisonous snakes.
the present fieldwork, only a few species Every year, people are bitten by poisonous
were active due to high ambient temperature snakes such as cobras and kraits.
and lack of humidity. However, the Common
garden lizard (Calotes versicolor) was 4.3.2 Conservation status
observed more than any other species of
herpetofauna, indicating its high abundance in Among the recorded herpetofauna, 12
the area. Some of the herpetofauna species species (see Table 4.1) are included in
found in the area include Hoplobatrachus different threat categories and legal status
tigerinus, Crocodylus palustris, Aspideretes of the Government of Nepal’s National
gangeticus, Lissemys punctata andersoni, Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973)
Melanochelys tricarinata, Python bivittatus, (two species), IUCN’s Red Data Book (six
and Ptyas mucosus. The study recorded 13 Species) and CITES (12 species).
new species of herpetofauna in the JRRS.
Table 4.1: List of the protected species of herpetofauna recorded from the area
NPWC
SN English name Scientific name IUCN CITES
Act, 1973
1 Indian Bull Frog, Tiger Frog Hoplobatrachus tigerinus - - II
2 Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus palustris - V I
3 Indian Softshell Turtle Aspideretes gangeticus - V I
4 North Indian Flapshell Turtle Lissemys punctata andersoni - LC II
5 Tricarinate Hill Turtle Melanochelys tricarinata - V I
6 Eastern Black Turtle Melanochelystrijuga indopeninsularis - NT II
7 Roofted Turtle Pangshura tectum - LC I
8 Elongated Tortoise Indotestudo elongata - E II
9 Yellow Monitor Varanus flavescens P I I
10 Burmese Rock Python Python bivittatus P V I
11 Asiatic Rat Snake Ptyas mucosus - - II
12 Spectacled Cobra Naja naja - - II
Legend: P = Protected by National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (NPWC) Act 1973-Nepal: IUCN: E = Endangered, I= Indeterminate,
LC = Least Concerned, NT= Nearly Threatened, V = Vulnerable, CITES Appendices =I, II

27
IUCN_Book_205.indd 27 9/24/205 0:6:24 AM

4.3.3 Threats In addition, species of monitor lizard are

killed at sight mostly due to a false belief that
Habitat loss, indiscriminate killing and if a monitor lizard spits on one’s body then it
poaching for meat and traditional medicine will produce blisters on the skin! The belief
production are major threats. Overuse also follows that no modern medicine exists
of pesticides on agricultural lands is also to cure the blisters and only chanting would
affecting the population of herpetofauna. cure them.
Likewise, there is less suitable habitat
available for nesting of turtles and birds in the One or two people die each year due to
reservoir. poisonous snakebites, especially in the vicinity
of wetlands and forests. Local people still
Turtle meat and shells are used for treating show faith in traditional methods of snakebite
several ailments related to human and treatment, and are rarely taken to hospitals for
livestock health. Almost all species of turtle treatment. Poor availability of the anti-snake
found in the wetlands are harvested for venom serum (ASVS) around the reservoir
personal consumption (food and medicine), further increases the problem. Hence, all
as well as for commercial purposes. According snakes are considered to be dangerous and
to local informants, turtles are caught in the are killed on sight by the locals. Local people
reservoir and sold for meat in nearby towns. are generally not aware about role of the
Turtles are captured by using fishhooks or snakes in the local ecosystem. For example,
iron stakes and sold in hotels for NRs 300/ snakes are an excellent rodent control.
kg. The Netuwa people of the area, as well
as nomads from outside, visit the area and 4.4 Birds
kill whatever wild animals they find, including
turtles, monitor lizards and snakes. They also 4.4.1 Species diversity
use iron stakes to detect and kill the turtles.
According to local informers, the Netuwa Around one-fifth of the birds observed in the
people kill and eat almost all snake species. country are also reported in the JRRS. A total
of 168 species of bird from 42 families are
recorded in the area (Annex 4.3). Out of 168
species, 90 are residential, seven are summer
migrants, 64 are winter migrants, and three
are partial migrants, while the status of four
species are unknown. Grebes, cormorants,
herons, egrets, storks, duck and kingfishers are
quite common in the area. The timed species
count reveals that spotted dove (Streptopelia
chinensis), is quite common in the area followed
by rufous treepie (Dendrocitta vagabunda),
Asian koel (Eudynamys scolopacea), common
tailorbird (Orthotomus sutorius), green bee-
eater (Merops orientalis) and rose-ringed
parakeet (Psittacula krameri). The study
recorded 50 new species of birds in the study
sites, compared to the previous checklist.

28
IUCN_Book_205.indd 28 9/24/205 0:6:25 AM

4.4.2 Conservation status reservoir. Grazing may cause food scarcity,

contaminate water, degrade habitats and possibly
The study noted that 33 species of bird spread contagious diseases to the birds.
found in the JRRS are included either in the
CITES Appendices, IUCN Red list, globally Pesticides: Use of pesticides and chemical
threatened or national red list (Table 4.2). fertilizers is high and is adversely impacting
the birds, especially those that are dependent
4.4.3 Threats on the farmlands.
Major threats to the birds include illegal Developmental activities: The construction
hunting, human disturbances due to activities going on around JRRS include
collection of wetland products and fishes, extension of roads, construction of many
grazing of domestic animals, high use of sub-roads, establishment of brick chimneys,
chemical fertilizer and pesticides, siltation and extraction of constructing materials for
and sedimentation along the canal. buildings, and houses from the river. These
development initiatives will also impact bird
Illegal hunting: One of the biggest threats to population, especially creating food scarcity,
birdlife is illegal hunting. Many species of bird, pollution and habitat destruction.
especially migratory and residential water
birds such as cormorants, lesser whistling Siltation: Siltation, which affects the
duck, and ruddy shelduck are trapped and Jagadishpur water resources, is also a
killed for meat. Some of these birds are sold primary threat to birds. Suitable habitat for
in the hotels near JRRS. Chemical pesticides birds is declining as a result of this.
are also used for killing birds; according
to local respondents, insects, especially Invasive species: Besharam (Ipomea
grasshoppers, are mixed with pesticides and carnea) and Jal Kumbhi (Eichornia crassipes)
kept as bait for birds like cattle egrets, cranes, cover nearly one-fourth of the wetlands,
and ducks. After consuming poisoned bait, causing encroachment of bird habitat.
the birds die instantly. Sometimes, two to Furthermore, high deposition of aquatic
three large sacks of dead birds are collected, macrophytes, such as lotus, nymph, hornwort
each sack containing 15-20 ducks, with a and water hyacinth is negatively impacting
single duck fetching 250-300 rupees in local bird population.
market. Likewise, catapults (Guleli), used to
kill birds, are openly sold in local markets.
Human disturbances: The collection of

forest prodcuts, such as timber, firewood, and
fodders, is leading to habitat degradation.
Many local people harvest fish, molluscs,
and some aquatic vegetation such as water
chestnut, which is creating food scarcity for
the birds as well as disturbing them.
Grazing: Domestic animals, such as cows,

buffalos and goats, are grazing throughout the

29
IUCN_Book_205.indd 29 9/24/205 0:6:25 AM

Table 4.2: List of the protected species of birds recorded from the area
CITES National NPWC,

SN English name Scientific name IUCN RED list
Appendix status 1973
1 Sarus Crane Grus antigone Vulnerable II Endangered P
2 River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii Near Threatened
3 Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda Endangered
4 Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Endangered II Vulnerable
Critically
5 White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis II Critical
Endangered
6 Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris Vulnerable II Critical
Critically
7 Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata
Endangered
8 Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga Vulnerable II Endangered
9 Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster Near Threatened Vulnerable
Near-
10 Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus Near Threatened
threatened
11 Asian Woolyneck Ciconia episcopus Vulnerable
12 Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus Vulnerable Vulnerable
13 Spotted Owlet Athene brama Least Concern II
14 Black Kite Milvus migrans Least Concern II
15 Himalayan Vulture Gyps himalayensis - II Vulnerable
16 Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Least Concern II
17 Short-toed Snake Eagle Circaetus gallicus Least Concern II
18 Pied Harrier Cirus melanoleucos Least Concern II Vulnerable
19 Shikra Accipiter badius Least Concern II
20 Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus Least Concern II
21 Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Least Concern I
22 Cotton Pigmy-goose Nettapus coromandelianus Least Concern Vulnerable
23 Ferruginous Pochard Aythya nyroca Near Threatened Vulnerable
24 Asain open Bill Anastomus oscitans Vulnerable
26 Black Stork Ciconia nigra P
27 White Stork Ciconia ciconia P
28 Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus Endandered
29 Falcated Duck Anas falcata Near Threatened
30 Black-breasted Weaver Ploceousbengalen sis Vulnerable
31 Pied Harrrier Circus melanoleucos II Vulnerable
32 Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus Vulnerable
33 River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii Near Threatened
Legend: P = Protected by National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973-Nepal: CITES Appendices =I, II

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4.5 Mammals Key informants opined that the royal

Bengal tiger is an occasional visitor in
4.5.1 Species diversity the Banganga forest; however the odds
are slim as there is no sufficient prey
The occurrence of 32 species of mammal base for the tiger in the area. Among the
from the area is confirmed (Annex 4.4). Some recorded mammals, some species seem
of the mammals reported in the area includes to be seasonal visitors In addition to these
Indian hare (Lepus nigricollis), Indian crested mammals, the occurrence of the ruddy
porcupine (Hystrix indica), Jungle cat (Felis mongoose is expected in the area. The
chaus), Common leopard (Panthera pardus), occurrence of Indian grey wolf (Canis
Crab-eating mongoose (Herpestes urva), lupus pallipes) is particularly notable. It
Bengal fox (Vulpes bengalensis), Grey wolf is probably the first record of the species
(Canis lupus), Smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale in Nepal’s Terai region (see Jnawali et
perspicillata), Horshoeshoe bat (Rhinolophus al., 2011). The species is known by local
sps.), and Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus). inhabitants as “Biguwaa” and said to
Otter is the only wetland-dependent mammal be responsible for stealing goats from
observed in the JRRS. The study identified 19 local houses. Fresh tracks of wolf on the
new mammals in the study sites compared to Banganga riverbed were observed by the
the previous checklist. study team during the field work.
Table 4.3: List of the protected species of mammals recorded from the area
National
NPWC
SN English name Scientific name Red List IUCN CITES
Act, 1973
(2011)
1. Large Indian civet Viverra zibetha NT NT
2. Jungle Cat Felis chaus LC LC II
3. Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis P V LC II
4. Clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa P E V I
5. Common Leopard Panthera pardus V NT I
6. Crab-eating Mongoose Herpestes urva V LC
7. Bengal Fox Vulpes bengalensis V LC
8. Grey Wolf Canis lupus pallipes P CE LC I
9. Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus E V I
10. Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata E V II
11. Terai Langur Semnopithecus hector LC NT I
12. Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta LC LC II
13. Barking Deer Muntiacus vaginalis V LC
14. Chital Axis axis V LC
15. Blue Bull Boselaphus tragocamelus V LC
16 Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus P E E II
Legend: P = Protected by National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973-Nepal: IUCN: E = Endangered, I= Indeterminate, LC =
Least Concerned, NT= Nearly Threatened, V = Vulnerable, CITES Appendices =I, II

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4.5.2 Conservation status Livestock grazing has tremendous negative

impacts because they compete with herbivore
Among the recorded mammals, 16 species wildlife for food and interfere in their normal
(see Table 4.3) are included in different biological activities; in addition, sharing
threat categories and legal status of Nepal common habitats may promote the spread of
government’s National Parks and Wildlife some contagions livestock diseases to them.
Conservation Act, 1973 (4 species), National
Red List (13 species.), IUCN’s Red Data The Banganga River has heavily eroded
Book (7 species) and CITES (10 species). most parts of the forest. Local contractors
have over exploited the river for sand and
4.5.3 Threats stone collection. Aquatic habitats have been
polluted due to use of pesticides for fishing.
The major problem confronted by mammals
in the area is encroachment on their habitat Blue bull is said to be serious agriculture pest
by humans through several activities. Local in some areas, however the loss is generally
villagers widely use all accessible lands and tolerated. Similarly wild boar is pest on
wetlands for livestock grazing, collection of potato crop. Wolf and the small Indian civet
timber, fuel wood, fodder, NTFPs, irrigation, are said to be pests on goats and poultry,
fishing, sand and stone collection and respectively; however, losses seems to be
exploitation of other natural resources. These insignificant. Scarecrows have been erected
activities inevitably impact wildlife habitats, by local farmers in the vegetable farms to
both directly and indirectly and also create food fend off parrots and local livestock. Likewise,
shortages and general habitat disturbances. crop damage by birds, especially cranes and
These activities may drive wild animals away ducks in the paddy fields, is quite common;
to areas of sub-optimal habitat. however loss is not very significant.

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Chapter FIVE
LIVELIHOODS ASSESSMENT
The study assessed the livelihood situation of results. Following steps were followed for
the local communities in the JRRS, focusing sample selection from the HHs.
on income, land-holding size, food sufficiency,
housing and living conditions. Likewise, the • Determination of statistically
study also assesses the dependence of representative total sample size using
local communities on wetland resources, random HHs selection. The statistical
especially on wetland products and services. formula used for this purpose was:
Annex 5.1 presents indicators, which are
used for a livelihoods assessment of local NZ2 p(1-p)
communities. Households survey was carried n= ----------------------,
Nd2 + Z2 p (1-p)
out for the livelihoods assessment, which was
supplemented by focus group discussions Where,
and key informant interviews. N = population size (estimated number of
HHs in project area)
The JRRS was classified into three categories Z = the normal variable (area of standard
based on distance from the reservoir, which normal curve under certain confidence
include (a) adjoining area (within 5 km from limit)
reservoir), nearby area (between 5 to 10 km n = estimated sample size
from reservoir) and distant area (beyond 10 p = percentage or proportion of HHs
km from the reservoir). HHs survey data was benefited from the program
analysed by these categories. d = allowable error
5.1 Methodology • The value of p is taken as 0.5, which

allows maximum variation, thus obviating
The HHs survey followed a multi-stage the need for using mean-variance
stratified random sampling method. consideration in the sample. The
Households located within the project VDCs, confidence interval, taken as 10 percent,
are the target population of the survey. yields the Z-value of 1.96. This gives
Sample size and sampling techniques were sample size of 96.
based on minimizing sampling errors and
maximizing sample performance to ensure • Allocation of the sample size to the three
precision and generalization of the survey clusters – adjoining area, nearby area and
Table 5.1: Distribution of HHs by distance from reservoir
Group Distance from reservoir No of HHs Percent

Adjoining Within 5 km 6250 35.9
Nearby Between 5 to 10 km 5130 29.5
Distant Beyond 10 km 6010 34.6
Total 17390 100.0

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IUCN_Book_205.indd 33 9/24/205 0:6:26 AM

distant area of the reservoir – based on randomly selected. Furthermore, three

the proportion of total HHs in the three settlements in municipal ward and three
clusters with required upward adjustment wards in VDCs were randomly selected.
in sample size warranted by the loss of The samples HHs were divided equally
variation due to clustering. However, the among selected VDCs and municipal
design effect is expected to be minimal. ward. The minimum sample size has
Sample size was further increased by 20 been doubled for additional two stages of
%, which resulted in sample size of 116. sampling. This result in the sample size
of 348.
• Addition of a stage in sampling (VDCs and
Municipal Wards in the municipalities) with • Required number of HHs from selected
required upward adjustment in the sample wards of VDCs and settlements of municipal
size warranted by the loss of variation due wards were randomly selected with 5 percent
to stage addition (design effect). Three extra provisions for non-approachable and
VDCs each from total VDCs and three non-responding HHs. This result in sample
municipal wards from municipalities were size of 365.
Map 5.1: Survey area

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IUCN_Book_205.indd 34 9/24/205 0:6:27 AM

Table 5.2: Number of sample size
Adjoining Nearby Distant Total

Base sample size based on random selection 96
Base sample size distribution based on proportion of HH 35 28 33 96
Sample size to offset cluster effect (+20%) 42 34 40 116
Sample size to offset design factor (stage) (+200%) 126 102 120 348
Sample size to non-availability (+5%) 132 107 126 365
Actual survey 136 112 136 384
Table 5.2 presents sample size that was were cross checked and edited in the field
identified by applying the above steps and itself by the field supervisors in order to avoid
rules, along with number of HHs surveyed. A discrepancies and data inconsistencies. The
minimum of 365 HHs from three clusters were consultants/subject matter specialists also
required for interview purposes; however, monitored and supervised the enumerators
384 HHs were randomly selected (slightly and field supervisors to get more reliable and
increased relative to the minimum required accurate information. The data was analysed
number to ensure statistical reliability of the using Statistical Package for Social Sciences.
sample coverage). The required sample Pre-survey stratification was carried out and
size was further increased by 10% for poor data was analysed by three clusters.
responses, incomplete responses and non-
responses. 5.2 Respondent Characteristics
An objectively designed and pretested 5.2.1 Sex

survey questionnaire was used to collect
necessary primary data. The questionnaire As shown in Table 5.3, majority of the
was translated into Nepali language. The respondents are women (58.9%). This
field supervisor and enumerators were situation remains similar in both the adjoining
trained at the research site. Enumerators and distant area of the JRRS, where 72.8%
were primarily responsible for collecting and 52.9% are women, respectively. Almost
field information, whereas the supervisor equal portion of male and women were
was responsible for field supervision. The surveyed from the nearby area (49.1%
questionnaires filled by the enumerators women) of the JRRS.
Table 5.3: Sex of the respondents

Unit: % of respondents
Male Female Total
SN Area
Number % Number % Number %
1 Adjoining area 64 47.1 72 52.9 136 100.0
2 Nearby area 57 50.9 55 49.1 112 100.0
3 Distant area 37 27.2 99 72.8 136 100.0
Total 158 41.1 226 58.9 384 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2015

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IUCN_Book_205.indd 35 9/24/205 0:6:27 AM

5.2.2 Caste Dalit (19.8%) followed by Terai backward

caste (15.9%), Muslim (14.3%) and Hill
Respondents’ castes were grouped into Janajati (11.2%). Large numbers of hill origin
seven categories based on origin (Table community were surveyed from the adjoining
5.4). The majority of the respondents were and nearby areas while most of Terai origin
Hill Bramhan/Chhetri (20.1%) and Terai are located in the distant area.
Table 5.4: Caste of the respondents

Adjoining area Nearby area Distant area Overall
SN Caste
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Hill Brahman/Chhetri 29.4 30.4 2.2 20.1
2 Hill Dalit 15.4 4.5 2.9 7.8
3 Hill Janajati 14.0 19.6 1.5 11.2
4 Muslim 15.4 1.8 23.5 14.3
5 Terai Brahman/Chhetri 5.9 15.2 12.5 10.9
6 Terai Dalit 10.3 13.4 34.6 19.8
7 Terai Backward caste 9.6 15.2 22.8 15.9
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
5.2.3 Age group
More than half of the respondents are adults. Table 5.5 presents the age group of respondents. More than
half of the respondents are from 25-49 years age group followed by 50-64 years age group and 18 -24
years age group.
Table 5.5: Age group of the respondents
Adjoining area Nearby area Distant area
SN Age group Overall (n=384)
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136)
1 18 - 24 years 19.9 17.9 11.0 16.1
2 25 - 49 years 50.7 46.4 53.7 50.5
3 50 - 64 years 23.5 25.0 24.3 24.2
4 65 and above 5.9 10.7 11.0 9.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
5.3 Household Characteristics However, recent years have witnessed

females increasingly heading the HHs.
5.3.1 Household head Table 5.6 presents the sex of the HHs head.
More than four fifth of the HHs (80.7%) are
Males dominate the HHs head. Traditionally, headed by males.
males are the heads of HHs in Nepal.

36
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Table 5.6: Sex of the HH head

Unit: % of HHs
Female Male Total
SN Area
No % No % No %
1 Adjoining area 22 16.2 114 83.8 136 100.0
2 Nearby area 31 27.7 81 72.3 112 100.0
3 Distant area 21 15.4 115 84.6 136 100.0
Total 74 19.3 310 80.7 384 100.0
5.3.2 Educational level of HHs head (37.8%) in the JRRS can only count, followed
by those with secondary (19.5%) and primary
The majority of the HHs heads can only levels of education (19.0%).
count. More than one third of survey HHs
Table 5.7: Educational level of the HHs head

Unit: % of HHs
SN Education
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Can count only 31.6 36.6 44.9 37.8
2 Can read and write 19.1 12.5 11.8 14.6
3 Primary level pass 25.0 8.9 21.3 19.0
4 Secondary level pass 19.1 21.4 18.4 19.5
5 Above secondary level 5.1 20.5 3.7 9.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
5.3.3 Income source
Agriculture remains the main source

of HHs income followed by wage
labour and services. Table 5.8 presents
the main source of HHs income.
Agriculture remains main sources of
HHs income (54.4%) followed by wage
earning (12.5%), service (11.7%) and
trade/business (8.9%). People from
adjoining and nearby area of JRRS
have more permanent source of income
such as trade/business, services while
that from distant area are involved in
wage earning.

37
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Table 5.8: Main source of HHs income

Unit: % of HHs
SN Sources
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Agriculture 52.9 37.5 69.9 54.4
2 Trade/Business 14.7 8.9 2.9 8.9
3 Service 8.1 24.1 5.1 11.7
4 Wage earning 8.1 13.4 16.2 12.5
5 Occupational work 3.7 7.1 0.7 3.6
6 Outside for work 11.0 7.1 5.1 7.8
7 Entrepreneur 1.5 1.8 1.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
5.4 Demography
distant area. The relatively small family size in
5.4.1 Population nearby area is due mostly to its urban nature,
relatively better education and involvement
Proportion of male members is high in in services or business related activities. In
the family. Table 5.9 presents population terms of sex composition, there is a relatively
and sex composition of the HHs. The higher proportion of males (53.6%) in all three
average HHs size in the JRRS is 6.3, varying areas of JRRS, ranging from 51.2% in nearby
from 5.6 in the nearby area to 7.1 in the area to 55.4% in distant area.
Table 5.9: Population and sex composition of survey HHs

SN Characteristics
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Households (number) 136 112 136 384
2 Population (number) 851 623 961 2,435
3 HH size (person per HHs) 6.3 5.6 7.1 6.3
Sex composition (Percent)
2 Male 53.3 51.2 55.4 53.6
3 Female 46.7 48.8 44.6 46.4
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
5.4.2 Population structure youth (15-29 years), adult (30-59 years) and
elderly (60 and above). Table 5.10 presents
The economically active population is age group of the family members. Youth
high. Population structure generally refers (33.6%) dominated the population structure
to the distribution of a population by age. followed by adults (32.1%), children (25.6
This survey divided it into four groups, which %) and elderly population (8.7 percent). This
includes children (up to 14 years of age), situation was similar in all three areas.

38
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Table 5.10: Age group of the family members

Unit: % of population
Adjoining Nearby area Distant area Overall
SN Age groups
area (n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Children (up to 14 years) 22.6 23.4 29.9 25.6
4 Youth (15 - 29 years) 36.9 33.4 30.8 33.6
5 Adults (30 - 59 years) 32.1 34.3 30.6 32.1
6 Elderly (60 years and above) 8.5 8.8 8.7 8.7
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
5.4.3 Education level of family members

fourths of family members are literate, which
More than three-fourths of the population remained similar in all three areas. But still
is literate. Table 5.11 presents the educational large majority of the family members can
level of the family member, of 5 years and only read and write. High dependence on
above. Individuals aged five years and above farming and wage earning might be one of
are considered literate if they can read and the reasons for low level of formal education
write. Taking this definition, more than three- in the area.
Table 5.11: Education level of population of 5 years and above

Unit: % of population above 5 years
SN Education level
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Can count only 22.7 20.2 32.6 25.9
2 Can read and write 8.1 8.0 5.8 7.1
3 Primary 25.4 17.3 26.0 23.5
4 Lower secondary 12.9 8.0 14.2 12.1
5 Secondary 18.3 19.7 15.2 17.5
6 Higher secondary 6.7 14.4 4.9 8.0
7 Above Higher secondary 5.9 12.5 1.4 5.9
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
5.4.4 Occupation of family members

main occupation of family members of 10
A large majority of family members still years and above. Of the total population
dependent on agriculture for livelihoods. (10 years and above), majority (22.8%) are
Household members are involved in different involved in farming followed by study (19.4
types of occupations. Table 5.12 presents percent).

39
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Table 5.12: Occupation of population of 10 years and above

Unit: % of population above 10 years
SN Occupation
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Study 16.7 25.7 17.6 19.4
2 Wage income 9.0 7.7 10.1 9.1
3 Micro entrepreneur 1.9 2.1 0.9 1.5
4 Service 9.5 14.1 6.7 9.6
5 Business 4.7 3.6 0.8 2.9
6 Agriculture 23.6 15.8 26.8 22.8
7 Fishery 1.6 0.4 0.7
8 Household work 10.6 12.8 15.9 13.2
9 Dependent (No work) 19.7 15.2 17.3 17.6
10 Pension 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.2
11 Remittance 2.7 2.6 3.6 3.0
Total 100 100 100 100
5.5 House and Housing Condition concrete roofing (b) Semi-permanent, which
have roofing of cemented tile/stone or mud
5.5.1 Housing type tile (c) Temporary, which have roofing of
thatch, straw, plastics etc. and (d) Others,
A large majority of the HHs have permanent which includes house like structures built with
houses. Housing is an important indicator of very temporary and endurable materials like
the level of living and social status. All survey straw, plastics, tent etc. Table 5.13 presents
HHs live in their own houses. This survey type of housing units. Nearly four fifth of the
has divided housing units into four categories HHs (79.4%) are living in permanent houses
based on roofing: (a) Permanent, which followed by temporary (12.8%) and semi-
refers to those houses whose zinc sheet or permanent houses (7.8%).
Table 5.13: Housing type

Unit: % of HHs
SN Housing type
area (n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Temporary (Thatch) 13.2 8.0 16.2 12.8
2 Semi-permanent (Tile) 9.6 7.1 6.6 7.8
3 Permanent (zinc/concrete roof) 77.2 84.9 77.3 79.4
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

40
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5.5.2 Drinking water
Almost all HHs have access to safe

drinking water. Safe drinking water includes
use of improved drinking water sources such
as tube wells and taps. Almost all HHs in
JRRS have access to drinking water from
tube well/tap (97.1%) followed by ponds/
water hole (1.6%) and river canal (1.3%).
This situation is similar in all three areas.
Table 5.14: Source of drinking water

Unit: % of HHs
Adjoining Nearby Distant
Water Overall
SN area area area
source (n=384)
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136)
Tube
1 well/ 95.6 99.1 97.1 97.1
Tap
Pond/
2 water 4.4 1.6
hole
River/
3 0.9 2.9 1.3
canal
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
5.5.3 Sanitation access to basic sanitation facilities. Nearly

one third of HHs are yet to construct toilets
Nearly one-third of the HHs don’t have varying from 11.8% in adjoining area to 57.4%
access to basic sanitation facilities, in distant area. The HHs in the distant area
especially those from Terai Dalit and Terai are dominated by the Terai backward caste
backward caste: Access to basic sanitation and Dalit, who are less aware about the use
is measured in terms of use of toilets. Table of toilets (see Annex 5.2).
5.15 presents the proportion of HHs with
Table 5.15: Access to basic sanitation

Unit: % of HHs
SN Household
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Without toilet 11.8 26.8 57.4 32.3
2 With toilet 88.2 73.2 42.6 67.7
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

41
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5.5.4 Lighting in Table 5.16, electricity is main sources

of lighting (86.5%) followed by kerosene
Electricity is the main source of lighting. (10.2%), battery (2.1%) and others such as
Respondents were asked to report one main solar, candle etc.
source of lighting in their houses. As seen
Table 5.16: Main source of energy for lighting

Unit: % of HHs
SN Energy
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Electricity 91.9 89.3 78.7 86.5
2 Kerosene 5.9 8.0 16.2 10.2
3 Battery 0.7 0.9 4.4 2.1
4 Others (Solar, candle etc.) 1.5 1.8 0.7 1.3
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
5.6 Livelihoods Capital television, refrigerator, motorcycle, and

bicycle. Table 5.17 presents different
5.6.1 Physical capital assets possessed by the HHs. Nearly nine-
tenths of the HHs (87.5%) have a bicycle,
Bicycle, television and radio are the followed by a television (55.7%), radio
most common HHs assets. HHs possess (34.6%) and motorcycle (24.7%).
various physical capital, such as radio,
Table 5.17: Physical assets of HHs

Unit: % of HHs
SN Assets
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Radio 49.3 40.2 15.4 34.6
2 Television 65.4 72.3 32.4 55.7
3 Refrigerator 19.1 30.4 3.7 16.9
4 Motorcycle 22.1 29.5 23.5 24.7
5 Carts 1.5 0.9 2.9 1.8
6 Bio Gas 19.1 17.9 0.7 12.2
7 Solar 15.4 4.5 0.7 7.0
8 Bicycle 88.2 84.8 89.0 87.5
9 Tractor 5.1 3.6 6.6 5.2

42
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The figure below shows average value of the

HH assets. The average value is NRs 132,825
ranging from NRs 124,566 in the distant area
to NRs 147,163 in the nearby area. Higher
asset values in the nearby area are mainly
due to the urban nature of the area.
Figure 5.1: Average value of HHs assets
147,163
140,000 132,080 124,566 132,825
120,000
100 ,000
NRs/HHs
80,000
40,000
20,000
0
Adjoining Nearby Distant Overall
of the HHs have land varying from 77.7%

5.6.2 Land in nearby area to 94.9% in distant area.
Average land holding size is 1.03 ha, which
Nearly nine-tenths of the HHs have land, varies from 0.75 ha in the nearby area to
with average land holding size of 1.03 ha. 1.42 ha in the distant area. Relatively smaller
Table 5.18 presents the proportion of HHs land holding size in nearby area is mostly
with land and distribution of the HHs based due to urban nature or characteristics of the
on land holding size. Nearly nine-tenths area.
Table 5.18: Access to land

SN Characteristics
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Proportion of HHs with land (%) 93.4 77.7 94.9 89.3
2 Average land holding size 0.85 0.75 1.42 1.03
Distribution of HHs based on land holding size (%)
1 Up to 0.1 ha 20.8 26.4 11.4 18.8
2 0.1 to 0.5 ha 34.4 29.9 32.5 32.5
3 0.5 to 1 ha 25.6 21.8 16.3 21.2
4 1 to 5 ha 16.8 19.5 35.0 24.2
5 Above 5 ha 2.4 2.2 4.8 3.3

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5.6.3 Livestock 5.6.4 Natural capital
Livestock rearing is quite common in the Very limited HHs have access to natural
area, where each HHs contains livestock capital varying from 30.9% in nearby
worth NRs 28,391. Livestock is an integral area to 2.2% in distant area. The HHs
part of the farming system and often seen with membership and decision-making
as a HHs asset. Table 5.19 presents the positions in natural resource-related groups,
proportion of HHs with different categories of especially with forestry related groups such
livestock. The number of HHs with livestock as community forestry, public land forestry or
is less in the nearby area, mainly because collaborative forestry, have been considered
these HHs are located in the municipal ward proxy indicators to measure access to natural
of the Kapilvastu, which is also the district capital, especially forest resources. Very few
headquarters. HHs (12.5%) have membership in forestry-
related groups, varying from 2.2% in distant
Table 5.19: Proportion of HHs with different types of livestock

Unit: % of HHs
SN Assets
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Cow/ox 30.9 16.1 58.8 36.5
2 Buffalo 31.6 19.6 30.1 27.6
3 Goat 36.0 26.8 37.5 33.9
4 Chicken/duck 18.4 17.9 13.2 16.4
As shown in Figure 5.2 below, the average

value of livestock possessed by the HHs
is NRs 28,391 ranging from NRs 36,141
in adjoining area to NRs 18,507 in nearby
area.
Figure 5.2: Average value of livestock
40000
36141
35000
30000 28779 28391
25000
NRs/HHs
18507
20000
15000
10000
5000
0

44
IUCN_Book_205.indd 44 9/24/205 0:6:30 AM

area to 30.9% in nearby area. The forests

along the adjoining area have been handed
over to the local community as community
forests, while natural forests are fewer in the
nearby and distant area. Though public land
forestry had been promoted in the distant
area, the respondents do not consider them
as forestry institutions since they are yet
to receive forest products and have less
awareness about their importance. Very few
survey HHs hold decision-making positions in
forestry-related groups.
Table 5.20: Membership and decision making

position in forestry related group
Unit: % of HHs
HHs holding
HHs having
decision making
membership
position
Adjoining
30.9 2.2
area (n=136)
Nearby area
2.7 0.0
(n=112)
Distant area
2.2 1.5
(n=136)
Overall
12.5 1.3
(n=384)
membership in community institutions and
holding of decision-making positions in such
institutions. Table 5.21 presents proportion of
5.6.5 Social capital HHs with membership and decision making
positions in the community institutions
Nearly half of the HHs have membership such as drinking water, agriculture, women
in community institutions, with HHs development, agriculture, livestock groups
located on adjoining area have more etc. More than one third of HHs have
access to social capital. Social capital membership in community institutions.
of a community is measured in terms of
Table 5.21: Membership and decision making position in community institutions
SN Community institutions
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 HHs having membership 61.0 44.6 19.9 41.7
HHs holding Decision
2 12.5 7.1 2.2 7.3
making position
3 Fishery related groups 2.2 0.0 0.7 1.0

45
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5.6.6 Financial capital
More than one third of HHs are saving in

groups or cooperatives with an average
monthly saving of NRs 307. Monthly saving
in groups and cooperatives is taken as a
proxy indicator to measure financial capital of
the community. More than one-third of HHs
(39.8%) is saving money either in a group
or cooperative, which is relatively high in the
adjoining area (56.2%), followed by nearby
(43.7%) and distant areas (19.8%). As shown
in figure 5.3, average monthly saving is 5.7 Dependence on Forest Resources
NRs 307 per HH, varying from 484.7 in the
adjoining area to 101.8 in the distant area. 5.7.1 Timber consumption and sources
Figure 5.3: Monthly saving of HHs in saving In the last year, there has been low HHs
and credit groups/cooperatives dependence on timber, which might be
due to limited extent and number of house
600
construction or repairs. People use timber
500
484.7 for construction and maintenance of houses,
cattle sheds, making agricultural implements,
400
341.1 bullock carts, fencing and construction of
NRs/HHs
307
watchtowers (machan). Timber should not
300
be considered as a basic forest product like
200 firewood or grass, which HHs need regularly.
101.8 As shown in Table 5.22, the average quantity
100
of timber consumed in the last year is 0.42 cft
0 per HHs varying from 1.1 in adjoining area to
0.1 cft in distant area.
Table 5.22: Timber consumption in last year (2014) and sources

SN
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Average quantity (cft/HHs) 1.10 0.00 0.10 0.42
Source of timber (% of total consumption)
1 Community forests - - - -
Government managed
2 - - - -
forests
3 Private forests/own source - - 82.5 55.0
4 Purchase 100.0 - 17.5 45.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

46
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5.7.2 Firewood consumption and source monthly firewood consumption and sources.
Average quantity of firewood collected per
Each HHs consumed around 260 kg of month is 6.6 Bhari, with highest in the adjoining
firewood per month, of which most was area (10.8 Bhari) and lowest in distant area
supplied from national forests and other (4.1 Bhari). Community forest remains main
common pool resources. Firewood is source of firewood for HHs belonging to
primarily used for cooking food, as well as adjoining area while it remains private forests/
preparing animal feed. Table 5.23 presents own sources in rest of the area.
Table 5.23: Monthly firewood consumption in last year (2014) and sources

SN
area (n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Average quantity (Bhari/HHs) 10.79 7.46 4.06 6.58
Source of firewood (% of consumption)
1 Community forests 34.0 18.2 6.9 22.3
2 Government forests 15.0 25.0 20.4 18.9
3 Private forests/own source 28.6 50.8 45.2 31.7
4 Purchase 22.4 6.1 27.6 27.2

Source: Field Survey, 2015; *Note 1 bhari firewood= 40 kg
5.7.3 Grass consumption and source own sources or farmland. Grass is used
for livestock feeding. Table 5.24 presents
Each HHs consumed around 440 kg of monthly grass consumption and sources
grasses monthly, which are mostly from for each HHs.
Table 5.24: Monthly grass consumption in the last year (2014) and sources

SN
area (n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Average quantity (Bhari/HHs) 19.2 7.5 24.7 17.7
Source of grasses (% of consumption)
1 Community forests 13.9 0.0 2.9 10.1
2 Government forests 16.7 0.0 21.7 20.5
3 Private forests/own source 69.0 82.5 72.8 66.9
4 Purchase 0.4 17.5 2.6 2.5
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2015; Note 1 bhari grass = 25 kg

47
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5.7.4 Livestock feeding practices 5.8 Energy Consumption for Cooking
Open grazing and stall-feeding of cattle 5.8.1 Sources of energy

and goats around the reservoir and canal
is quite common. As shown in Table 5.25 Firewood still remains the main source of
below, the survey reveals that nearly half of energy for cooking, followed by dung cake
the HHs are practising both open grazing and and LPG gas. HHs are using firewood, LPG
stall feeding of their livestock. This situation gas, biogas, dung cake, agriculture residues
remain similar irrespective from the distance for cooking. Table 5.26 presents proportion
from the reservoir. However, HHs in distant of HHs using different sources of energy for
area are grazing more cattle compared cooking. More than two-thirds of HHs are
to nearby area, mainly because the canal using firewood for cooking followed by dung
remains dry for almost six months a year and cake and LPG gas. Use of firewood is quite
growth of green grass is quite high. common in the adjoining area, while LPG
Table 5.25: Livestock feeding practices

Unit: % of HHs
SN Feeding practices
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Stall feeding 33.8 18.8 26.5 26.8
2 Open grazing only 4.4 0.9 2.9 2.9
3 Both open grazing and stall feeding 45.6 50.0 57.4 51.0
4 No livestock 16.2 30.4 13.2 19.3

48
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gas and dung cake are common in nearby dependent on dung cake, since there is no
and distant area, respectively. The use of natural forests in nearby area and have to
other sources of energy such as biogas, travel a longer distance to collect firewood.
kerosene, electricity is minimal. The nearby The urban nature of the nearby area might
HHs are more dependent on firewood, be one of the main reasons for high use of
because they are living in vicinity of forests LPG gas, but still significant portion of the
area. However, HHs from distant area are HHs are using firewood for cooking.
Table 5.26: Household using different sources of energy

Unit: % of HHs
SN Emergy sources
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Firewood 86.8 58.9 66.2 71.4
2 Kerosene 6.6 0.9 1.5 3.1
3 Electricity 9.6 8.9 1.5 6.5
4 LPG Gas 41.2 60.7 11.0 36.2
5 Bio gas 22.1 15.2 1.5 12.8
6 Dung cake 40.4 23.2 84.6 51.0
7 Agriculture residual 19.1 20.5 36.8 25.8
5.8.2 Energy utilization pattern the proportion of use of energy from different
sources. Assuming 100 percent as the total
The energy utilization pattern varies energy consumed, they were requested to
based on distance from the wetlands, assign a score for each energy source, so
where adjoining HHs are more dependent that total sum would be equal to 100. Table
on forests resources, nearby HHs on LPG 5.27 presents share of energy to the total
gas and distant HHs on dung cakes. The energy consumed by the HHs for cooking.
respondents were further asked to specify
Table 5.27: Share of energy to total HHs consumption
Unit: % of total energy consumption
SN Energy sources
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Firewood 47.5 26.9 26.4 34.0
2 Kerosene 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2
3 Electricity 0.5 0.9 0.4 0.6
4 Gas 19.1 45.6 6.1 22.2
5 Bio gas 13.9 9.3 0.7 7.9
6 Dung cake 15.4 12.9 60.2 30.5
7 Agriculture residual 3.2 4.3 6.1 4.6
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

49
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5.8.3 Energy saving devices
Very few houses are using energy saving

devices such as improved cooking stoves
and rice husk stoves. As shown in Table
5.28, nearly one-tenth of the HHs is using
rice husk stove varying from 18.4% in distant
area to 7.1% in nearby area. Likewise, only
6.5% of the HHs are using improved cooking
stove varying from 4.5% in nearby area to
7.4% each in adjoining and distant area.
Table 5.28: Households having

energy saving devices
Energy Adjoining Nearby Distant
Local communities are directly or indirectly
Overall dependent on wetland resources, especially
SN saving area area area
(n=384) for irrigation, fish, foods and recreational
device (n=136) (n=112) (n=136)
Improved uses. Large majority of HHs uses wetlands
1 cooking 7.4 4.5 7.4 6.5 for irrigation (81.8%), followed by tourism
stove (51.3%), fishery (32.6%) and grazing (30.7%).
Rice husk Local people use water for rice, wheat and
2 13.2 7.1 18.4 13.3
stove high value crops, such as vegetables. The
Source: Field Survey, 2015 JRRS is emerging as an important tourism
destination of the country. Its close proximity
5.9 Dependence on Wetlands to the Lumbini World Heritage Site further
enhances its tourism value. Fishing, grazing
5.9.1 Uses of wetlands and livestock bathing are other common
uses. Local communities also collect green
Local communities use wetlands mostly grasses, wild edible foods, roofing materials,
for irrigation, tourism, fishery and grazing. livestock feeds from the wetlands.
Table 5.29: Uses of wetlands Unit: % of HHs
SN Uses
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Irrigation 73.5 91.1 82.4 81.8
2 Fisheries 30.9 37.5 30.1 32.6
3 Grazing 33.1 28.6 30.1 30.7
4 Tourism 58.8 62.5 34.6 51.3
5 Firewood/fuel 8.1 3.6 3.7 5.2
6 Roofing material 6.6 2.7 0.7 3.4
7 Foods 8.1 9.8 7.4 8.3
8 Drinking water 0.7 0.0 1.5 0.8
9 Bathing/washing water 26.5 22.3 16.9 21.9

50
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5.9.2 Wetland products consumption this, poor and marginalized communities are
still involved in illegal fishing and hunting of
There is no specific wetland-dependent birds, turtles and selling in local markets,
community in the JRRS; however poor mostly to supplement HHs income and food
and marginalized communities depend during non-farm seasons. However, this
on wetland products, especially for food. practice is declining rapidly, mostly due to
Wetland products include fish, snails, tortoise, increasing employment opportunities in Gulf
edible plants, fruits, roots, thatches, canes countries and availability of labor work in
and drift wood. There are no specific wetland nearby towns along with strong surveillance
dependent communities who derive their and monitoring by local communities and
livelihoods from wetland products or who decreasing fish population. But still many
are fully dependent on livelihoods. The HHs poor people are involved in fishing during
survey shows that none of HHs are involved their leisure time.
in sale of wetland products, though very few
have collected for self-consumption. More than one-fourth of the HHs have
purchased at least one wetland product
Figure 5.4: Proportion of HHs consuming from the local market in the last year.
wetland products Considering the low level of wetland product
self-collection, respondents were further
50.0
44.1 asked whether they have purchased wetland
products such as fishes, snails, turtle, edible
40.0
plants, fruits, roots, thatches, cane and drift
wood in the last year. Figure 5.4 presents
30.0 27.1 the proportion of HHs consuming at least
% of HHs
one wetland product, either from purchase or

18.8 self-collection. More than one-fourth of HHs
20.0 16.9
(27.1%) have consumed at-least one wetland
10.0 product, ranging from 44.1% in the nearby
area to 16.9% in the distant area.
0.0
Adjoining Nearby Distant Overall People living in the vicinity of the wetland
area are consuming more wetland products,
Source: Field Survey, 2015 compared to other areas. Table 5.30 presents
different wetland products consumed by HHs,
Only five HHs mentioned that they are either by purchase or self-collection. Nearly
involved in the collection of wetland products, one-fifth of the HHs have consumed fish,
especially fishes and reptiles. As a result of varying from 16.2% in distant area to 43.4% in
this, contribution of the wetland products to nearby area. The HHs consumption of other
HHs income is virtually non-existent. The lack wetland products is higher in the adjoining
of reporting wetland products by most of the area compared to other areas. This reveals
HHs can also be attributed to strong policing that people living in the vicinity of wetlands are
measures adopted by the local community consuming more wetland products compared
and conservation authorities. Fishing and to other areas. Local fishes are harvested
collection of other wetland products are illegal from the nearby irrigation canal, private and
and violators might face prosecution. Despite community ponds. Likewise, illegal fishing

51
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Table 5.30: HHs consuming different wetland

products
Unit: % of HHs
Adjoining Nearby Distant
Wetland Overall
SN area area area
products (n=384)
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136)
1 Local 43.4 17.9 16.2 26.3
fish
2 Tortoise 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.3
3 Edible 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.8
fruit
4 Drift 1.5 0.0 0.7 0.8
wood
in the reservoir is also quite observable,

especially during the night. Electric shock,
as well as fine fishing nets, is used to
harvest fish. Apart from this, farmers have
constructed private and community ponds
near the irrigation canal. Canal water is
used to fill the ponds. Furthermore, flooding
during the monsoon season also makes
local fish available in these ponds. The
local community does not prefer local fish wetland products consumed by the HHs.
for farming, since they negatively impact Each HHs is consuming around 3.8 kg of
the population of high-yield fishes. People local fish every year, while consumption of
harvest all the local breeds of fish using other products is almost negligible. Local fish
fine nets because they will affect the exotic are in high demand, easy to sell and their
or high yield fish varieties, such as grass price is lower than exotic fish. Many local
carp and common carp. Likewise, there is communities have constructed small ponds
high demand of local fish in the market and near the reservoir and canal area for fish
local fish are easily available in weekly farming, from which they collect and sell local
markets or hotels around the JRRS. fish to the markets.
Table 5.31 presents the amount of different
Table 5.31: Amount of wetland products consumed per HHs

SN Wetland products Unit
area (n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Local fish Kg 6.86 2.41 1.86 3.79
2 Tortoise No 0.01 0.0
3 Edible fruit Kg 0.44 0.09 0.07 0.21
4 Drift wood Bhari 0.08 0.04 0.04

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Table 5.32: Value of wetland products consumed
Average Value Total HHs in Total products

Area % share by area
(NRs/HHs) (a) JRRS (b) consumed (a*b)
Adjoining 1640 6250 10250460 60.6
Nearby 713 5130 3659705 21.6
Distant 500 6010 3005000 17.8
Overall 966 17390 16915165 100.0
Local communities consumed wetland the total value of the wetland product. The
products amounting to NRs 16.9 contribution of the other products is almost
million (US$1.6 million) annually. negligible.
The major wetland products that are
consumed by local communities include 5.9.3 Wetland threats
fish, turtles, crabs, birds, edible plants,
fruits, grasses and thatches. These Inadequate water, poor canal repair
products are obtained through purchase and maintenance, illegal hunting of
or self-collection. Nearly one-third of the birds and fish are the main threats to
HHs have consumed at least one of the the wetlands. The respondents were
above wetland products in the last year, asked to list at least three main threats to
with average purchase value of NRs 966 the wetlands. Table 5.34 presents threats
(around US$ 10) per year. The total value to the wetlands envisioned by the local
of wetland products consumed from the community. Major threats or problems
sites would reach about NRs 16.9 million, related to wetlands include insufficient or
based on a simple extrapolation. Table inadequate water, lack of regular repair
5.32 below presents value of wetland and maintenance of the canals, illegal
products consumed by area. hunting of birds, open defecation around
wetland sites and grazing. Irrigation
Fish is main wetland products consumed facility management remains a main
from the area. As shown in table 5.33, fish problem in all three areas, followed by
is the main products consumed from the open grazing and poor conservation
wetlands, contributing to more than 95% of awareness.
Table 5.33: Share of different value of wetland products consumed

SN Wetland products
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Local fish 93.9 99.4 96.0 95.4
2 Tortoise 0.3 0.
Edible fruit 4.3 0.6 1.5 3.0
Drift wood 1.6 2.6 1.4
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

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Table 5.34: Threats to the wetlands

Unit: % of HHs
SN Wetland products
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
Problem in irrigation/No water/
1 42.6 40.2 61.0 48.4
Insufficient water
2 Open grazing 37.5 31.3 41.2 37.0
3 Massive use/ Collection of local fish 27.9 29.5 32.4 29.9
4 High use of water 19.1 15.2 22.8 19.3
5 Mud and Sand Collection/Sedimentation 31.6 26.8 36.0 31.8
6 Water hyacinth problems 30.9 25.9 23.5 26.8
7 Illegal hunting of birds 44.9 50.9 35.3 43.2
No regular maintenance of canal /no
8 46.3 53.6 46.3 48.4
management
9 Open defecation 41.2 48.2 47.1 45.3
10 Poor community support 30.9 24.1 33.1 29.7
11 Low conservation awareness 27.9 27.7 27.9 27.9
12 Poor co-ordination among agencies 41.2 29.5 35.3 35.7
13 High decency of people 17.6 19.6 24.3 20.6
14 Illegal fishing 39.0 45.5 58.8 47.9
5.10 Irrigation Services nearby area is primarily due to distribution

of water started farther from the reservoir
5.10.1 Use of irrigation facilities and the canal network is quite extensive in
the distant area. However, there are three
Nearly half of the HHs are using the local branch canals constructed in the main canal
irrigation facilities. Only half of the HHs before the reservoir to supply water; local
(52.3%) are using irrigation facilities, varying people have blocked the main canal in a few
from 41.2% in adjoining area to 67.6% in places and are using the pump to irrigate
distant area. Relatively low coverage in the farmland in the upstream area.
Table 5.35: HHs using irrigation services
Yes No Total
SN Area
1 Adjoining area 56 41.2 80 58.8 136 100.0
2 Nearby area 53 47.3 59 52.7 112 100.0
3 Distant area 92 67.6 44 32.4 136 100.0
Total 201 52.3 183 47.7 384 100.0

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More than half of the agricultural land

is irrigated, mostly during the monsoon
season that too from flooding of the canal.
The reservoir has the potential to irrigate
more than nine-tenths of farmland in the
area. However, its performance is decreasing
day by day. Figure 5.5 below presents the
proportion of land irrigated to total agricultural
land. Of the total land area, nearly half of the
land is irrigated varying from 63.1% in the
nearby area to 49.0% in the adjoining area.
The respondents reported that they are able
to irrigate fields from flooding water rather
than from the canal during paddy cultivation.
Figure 5.5: Proportion of agricultural land

irrigated from reservoir
70.0
63.1
Farmers are mostly using irrigation during
60.0
51.9 53.1 the summer season. Those HHs that are
49.0
50.0 using irrigation facilities were also asked about
the season of the use. More than two-thirds
% of farm land
40.0
of HHs (68.7%) use water in summer season,
30.0 especially for cultivation of paddy, followed by
yearly (22.4%) and winter (9.0%). This shows
20.0
that farmers are facing water shortages when
10.0 they need water, especially for winter crops,
such as wheat. As a result of this, farmers are
0.0 less paying for irrigation facility. During the
Adjoining Nearby Distant Overall summer season, there will be no shortage of
water due to flooding of the canal.
Table 5.36: Season of irrigation

Summer season Winter season Yearly Total
SN Area
Number % Number % Number % Number %
1 Adjoining area 37 66.1 5 8.9 14 25.0 56 100.0
2 Nearby area 34 64.2 1 1.9 18 34.0 53 100.0
3 Distant area 67 72.8 12 13.0 13 14.1 92 100.0
Total 138 68.7 18 9.0 45 22.4 201 100.0

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5.10.2 Sufficiency of water than three-fourths (75.6%) of HHs faced

water shortage. Poor water distribution and
More than three-fourths of the farmers management, along with inadequate water
are facing water shortages. Table 5.37 supply during winter season are main reason
presents the sufficiency of water for irrigation. for water shortage.
Of those HHs using irrigation facilities, more
Table 5.37: Households reporting sufficiency of water for irrigation

Sufficient In-sufficient Total
SN Area
1 Adjoining area 15 26.8 41 73.2 56 100.0
2 Nearby area 18 34.0 35 66.0 53 100.0
3 Distant area 16 17.4 76 82.6 92 100.0
Total 49 24.4 152 75.6 201 100.0
5.10.3 Functioning of irrigation system the irrigation system. Of those HHs using
irrigation facilities, three-fourths (75.1%) of
The majority of HHs are not satisfied the HHs are not satisfied with functioning of
with the functioning of the irrigation irrigation facility, which was similar among all
system. Table 5.38 presents functioning of three areas.
Table 5.38: Households satisfied with functioning of the irrigation system
Yes No Total
SN Area
1 Adjoining area 12 21.4 44 78.6 56 100
2 Nearby area 14 26.4 39 73.6 53 100
3 Distant area 24 26.1 68 73.9 92 100
Total 50 24.9 151 75.1 201 100
5.10.4 Payment of irrigation fee the number of HHs paying the irrigation
fee. Of those HHs using irrigation, only
The majority of HHs are not paying the one-third of the HHs reported that they
irrigation fee, even though the service are paying irrigation fee. Water seepage,
fee is negligible. Users are required to inadequate supply of water, poor water
pay NRs 150 per ha for use of irrigation controls and distribution mechanism are
facility. The water user association the main reasons why people do not pay
distributes the water. Table 5.39 presents the water use fee.

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Table 5.39: Households paying irrigation fee

Yes No Total
SN Area
1 Adjoining area 19 33.9 37 66.1 56 100.0
2 Nearby area 12 22.6 41 77.4 53 100.0
3 Distant area 37 40.2 55 59.8 92 100.0
Total 68 33.8 133 66.2 201 100.0
5.10.5 Participation in irrigation activities about their participation in irrigation related

activities, a large majority of the HHs (59.9%)
Very few HHs participated in irrigation reported that they have never participated in
canal repair and maintenance operations. irrigation activities. Likewise, more than one
Users are required to participate in canal third of the HHs have (36.5%) occasionally
repair and maintenance work, especially in participated on repair and maintenance of
cleaning, prior to the monsoon. When asked irrigation canal.
Table 5.40: Households participation in irrigation related activities

Unit: % of HHs
SN Participation level
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Never 52.9 71.4 57.4 59.9
2 Occasional 41.2 25.9 40.4 36.5
3 Often 5.1 0.9 1.5 2.6
4 Always 0.7 1.8 0.7 1.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

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5.11 Human Wildlife Conflicts 5.42 presents the percent of HHs reporting
different human wildlife conflicts. Not even a
Crop raiding by birds and mammals is single incidence of human casualty and injury
common but incidence is less. Major is reported by the HHs. Crop raiding by birds
human-wildlife related conflicts are damage is the major human wildlife conflict (6.4%)
of property, incidence of human casualty, followed by crop raiding by mammals (4.9%)
crop depredation and loss of livestock. Table and livestock depredation (0.8%).
Table 5.42: Households reporting different types of human wildlife conflict

Unit: % of HHs
SN Conflicts
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Human death/injury - - - -
2 Crop raiding by wildlife 14.0 4.9
3 Crop raiding by birds 14.7 0.9 2.2 6.3
4 Livestock depredation 2.2 0.8
5.12 Livelihoods Outcomes the whole year. Wage earning, remittances,

debt, sale of livestock and livestock products
5.12.1 Food sufficiency are the major coping strategy adopted by
the most of the HHs to survive during food
More than half of the HHs have food insecure months. Very few HHs mentioned
sufficiency from their own farm production the collection of wetland products as a coping
and permanent sources of income. Table strategy. Nevertheless, women and children
5.43 presents number of HHs with food are involved in the collection of wetland
sufficiency from their own farm production and products, especially fishes, wild edible plants
permanent sources of income. More than half and fruits to supplement the HHs dietary
of the HHs (56.5%) have food sufficiency for requirements.
Table 5.43: Households with food sufficiency from own farm production
Unit: % of HHs
SN Month
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Less than 3 month 16.9 31.3 14.7 20.3
2 3-6 month 8.1 6.3 13.2 9.4
3 6-9 month 7.4 6.3 11.0 8.3
4 9-11 month 5.1 5.4 5.9 5.5
5 Whole year 62.5 50.9 55.1 56.5

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5.12.2 Household income 71,841 in distant area to NRs 138,616 in

adjoining area. Non-farm income, such as
The contribution of wetland products remittances, wage earning, business, and
to HHs income is virtually non-existent. services contributed to nearly four-fifths
Table 5.44 presents average HHs income of the HHs income (79.4%) followed by
and sources of income. Average HHs agriculture (12.0%), livestock (4.7%) and
income is NRs 114,481, varying from NRs tourism (3.8%)
Table 5.44: Average HHs income and sources

SN Income adn sources
(n=136) (n=112) (n=136) (n=384)
1 Average Household income 138,616 136,952 71,841 114,481
Source of income (% of total income)
1 Non-Farm Income 73.9 91.5 70.9 79.4
2 Livestock Income 7.3 2.2 3.8 4.7
3 Wetlands product & service 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
4 Agriculture Income 12.6 4.1 23.1 12.0
5 Forest Income 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.1
6 Tourism Income 6.0 2.2 2.1 3.8
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
The gini coefficient is used to measure income, whose share reaches 15-20% among
inequality of income and wealth. A gini index of backward caste groups such as Tharu, Kewat,
0 represents perfect equality, while an index of Pasi, Kurmi, Malaha, Dalit, and Muslim.
1 implies perfect inequality. The gini coefficient
is 0.51, which reveals high income disparity Annual per capita HHs income is a ratio
among the people around the JRRS. of HHs income to family size. Table 5.45
presents distribution of the HHs based on
Focus group discussions and key informant annual per capita income. Nearly half of the
interview revealed that wetland products HHs (47.9%) have annual per capita income
contribute around 2-5% of the total HHs of less than NRs 30,000 per year.
Table 5.45: Distribution of HHs based on annual per-capita income

Unit: % of HHs
Annual per capita Adjoining area Nearby area Distant area Overall (n=384)
income (NRs) (n=136) (n=112) (n=136)
Less 30,000 42.6 38.4 61.0 47.9
30,000 - 50,000 25.7 19.6 25.0 23.7
50,000 - 1,00,000 19.1 20.5 10.3 16.4
More than 1,00,000 12.5 21.4 3.7 12.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

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5.12.3 Livelihoods diversification practices. As shown in Table 5.46, of the total

HHs surveyed, nearly half of the HHs (50.0%)
The respondents were further asked about are interested in livelihood diversification.
their interest in diversifying their livelihood
Table 5.46: Households willing to diversify their livelihoods
Yes No Total
SN Area
1 Adjoining area 80 58.8 56 41.2 136 100.0
2 Nearby area 46 41.1 66 58.9 112 100.0
3 Distant area 66 48.5 70 51.5 136 100.0
Total 192 50.0 192 50.0 384 100.0
As shown in Table 5.47 below, of those especially access to credits and grants
HHs that are interested in diversifying their for business initiation, followed by market
livelihood practices, more than two-thirds support (39.6%), skill development (30.7%)
of the HHs need financial support (71.9%), and equipment support (22.9%).
Table 5.47: Households willing to diversify their livelihoods

Unit: % of HHs
SN Support
(n=80) (n=46) (n=66) (n=192)
1 Skill development 35.0 30.4 25.8 30.7
2 Market support 46.3 30.4 37.9 39.6
3 Financial support 66.3 71.7 78.8 71.9
4 Equipment support 23.8 23.9 21.2 22.9
5 Technology 6.3 6.5 1.5 4.7
5.13 Wetland Value study used contingent valuation method

(CVM) to quantify non-use value of wetland
More than two-thirds of the HHs are resources. CVM directly elucidates people’s
willing to pay for wetland conservation. views to determine how much they might
The study estimated both use and non- be willing to pay for a resource or service.
use value of the wetlands. Market price Table 5.48 presents number of HHs willing
valuation techniques were used for wetland to pay for conservation and management of
products while Contingent Valuation the JRRS. Of the total HHs surveyed, nearly
Method (CVM) was used to quantify two third are willing to pay for services in the
indirect value of wetland resources. The JRRS.

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Table 5.48: HHs willing to pay for wetland conservation
Yes No Total
SN Area
1 Adjoining area 103 75.7 33 24.3 136 100.0
2 Nearby area 74 66.1 38 33.9 112 100.0
3 Distant area 75 55.1 61 44.9 136 100.0
Total 252 65.6 132 34.4 384 100.0
5.13.1 Purpose of payment to pay, most of them want to use their money
for reservoir protection and canal repair
Households are willing to pay for reservoir and maintenance (71.4% each) followed by
protection along with canal repair and bird conservation (11.5%) and community
maintenance. Table 5.49 presents purpose infrastructure (11.1%).
of the payment. Of those HHs who are willing
Table 5.49: Purpose of payment

SN Purpose
(n=103) (n=74) (n=75) (n=252)
1 Reservoir protection 68.0 86.5 61.3 71.4
2 Bird conservation 14.6 16.2 2.7 11.5
3 Canal repair and maintenance 70.9 63.5 80.0 71.4
4 Fishery 8.7 5.4 5.3 6.7
5 Community infrastructure 8.7 17.6 8.0 11.1
5.13.2 Payment interested to pay both in cash and kind. All

the HHs are willing to contribute free labor for
Almost all HHs are willing to pay in both protection of the reservoir, as well contribute
cash and kind. As shown in Table 5.50, of in cash.
those HHs who are willing to pay, they are
Table 5.50: Form of payment

Cash Labour Total
SN Area
No % No % No %
1 Adjoining area 100 97.1 103 100.0 103 100.0
2 Nearby area 73 98.6 74 100.0 74 100.0
3 Distant area 75 100.0 75 100.0 75 100.0
Total 248 98.4 252 100.0 252 100.0

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Each HHs is willing to contribute voluntary

labor of an average 5.9 days per year, along
with an average cash contribution of NRs
539. Table 5.51 below presents average HHs
willingness to pay in cash and kind for the
conservation and restoration of the reservoir.
On average, each HHs is willing to pay NRs
539 per year in cash. Likewise, HHs are, on
average, willing to provide voluntary labor of
5.9 days per year, or the equivalent of NRs
2597 per year, calculated by local wage rates.
Willingness to contribute in cash and as well
as in labor was high in adjoining area of the
reservoir while it was less in the distant area.
Table 5.51: Willingness to pay of HHs in cash and kind
Willingness to pay Labour contribution Total (NRs/

SN Area
in cash (NRs/HHs Days/HHs NRs/HHs HHs)
1 Adjoining area 757 7.4 3335 4092
2 Nearby area 589 5.8 2614 3202
3 Distant area 279 4.5 1844 2124
4 Total 539 5.9 2597 3135
5.13.3 Wetland value The total value would result to NRs 71.3
million, when simple extrapolation is made
The total value of JRRS is NRs 71.3 with number of HHs in the JRRS. The users
million, of which nearly one-fourth are required to pay around NRs one million
comes from use value. Table 5.52 presents per year if irrigation fee were collected
respondents’ estimation of the total wetland effectively; however, the study did not take
value of the JRRS, considering both use and account of this value, since the majority of
non-use value. The average value of JRRS the HHs are not paying the irrigation fee
per HHs is NRs 4101, where use value is to the water user association (see Table
NRs 966 and non-use value is NRs 3135. 5.39).
Table 5.52: Total value of JRRS
Value (NRs/HH) Total value

SN Area Total HHs
Use Non-use Total (Million NRs)
1 Adjoining area 6,250 1,640 4,092 5,732 35.8
2 Nearby area 5,130 713 3,202 3,915 20.1
3 Distant area 6,010 500 2,124 2,624 15.8
4 Total 17,390 966 3,135 4,101 71.3

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Chapter SIX
INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY ASSESSMENT

The study conducted an institutional involvement in wetland conservation. This
capacity assessment of selected institutions included the District Agriculture Development
working on wetlands or with direct or indirect Office, District Livestock Service Office,
influences on wetland management and District Forest Office, Divisional Irrigation
wise use of wetland resources, including: (a) Office and District Soil Conservation Office.
Jagadishpur Reservoir Management Multi- The assessment of these institutions focused
Stakeholder Forum (b) Government line on (a) awarness abut wetland conservation
agencies (c) Lcal bodies and (d) community (b) present efforts on wetland conservation,
institutions. Capacity building needs related including their plans, programmes and
to wetland conservation and promoting wise investment (c) Skills competence and human
use were assessed for each category of resources on wetland conservation (d)
organization, along with assessment of their capacity building needs for conservation and
plans and programmes related to wetland wise use of wetland resources.
conservation.
Local bodies: Local bodies included District
6.1 Methodology Development Committee, Municipality
and Village Development Committee.
The study conducted an institutional The study conducted an interaction with
assessment of the following institutions District Development Committee Officials,
based on their direct involvement on the Municipality officials and a few Village
management of the wetland resources or Development Committee officials to assess
their impact or influence on management of their capacity on wetland conservation. The
wetland resources. interaction especially focused on assessment
of all the parameters discussed above for
Jagadishpur reservoir management government institutions.
multi-stakeholder forum has been
formed under the leadership of the Community institutions consultations:
District Development Committee, with There are very few wetland specific groups
representation of private and public sector involved in conservation and management of
institutions. The institutional assessment of wetland resources. However, there are four
the forum focused on their existing capacity wetland Protection Groups, which are involved
to plan and monitor programmes related to in protection, conservation and management
wetland conservation, general knowledge of the Jagadishpur Reservoir, especially with
and skills of members on wetland regard to managing illegal fishing and bird
conservation along with inclusiveness hunting, as well as cleaning wetland borders.
in terms of representation and member Likewise, the Water Users Association is also
composition in the committee. involved in management of the reservoir,
especially for irrigation. Likewise, a few other
Government institutions: The study community institutions are directly or indirectly
consulted with all the government line dependent on wetland resources.
agencies that have direct or indirect

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The study first mapped all the community addressing the problems and challenges
institutions present in the JRRS. After associated with wetland management.
mapping, focus group discussions were
conducted with selected community institutions The forum is comprised of 17 members
that are directly or indirectly dependent on with representation from local bodies,
wetland resources in order to assess their government line agencies, non-government
capacity, focusing on organizational strength, organizations and community institutions. Of
human resource availability, linkages and the 17 members, two are from local bodies
coordination with other organizations, financial (DDC and VDCs), five are from government
management system, and management of agencies, three are from non-government
institution and participation, especially of organizations, and two are from networks
women and marginalized groups in decision- while rests are from community institutions
making process. Table 6.1 presents number such as cooperatives and community forest
of the institutions surveyed. user groups (CFUGs). The forum is chaired
by the Local Development Officer, District
Table 6.1 Number of community institutions
Development Committee while the District
surveyed Forest Officer is the member-secretary of
the forum. The composition of the forum is
Types of Institution Number
as follows:
Community Forest User Group 7
Collaborative Forest Management Establishing the forum is an innovative
1
Group approach taken by the district stakeholders
Public Land Management Groups 11 on managing wetland resources in the
Farmers Groups 24 JRSS. This forum has been successful in
Water Users Association 18 establishing linkages and coordination with
Cooperatives 8 other district line agencies and trying to work
together in JRRS through collective planning
Wetland Protection Group 2
and investment. However, it is less active
Total 71
and meetings are organized ocassionaly.
The forum doesn’t have budget and the
6.2 Jagadishpur Reservoir Management staff to support its day-to-day operations.
Multi-stakeholder Forum They are yet to have a regular programme
or activities on wetland conservation in a
The Jagadishpur Reservoir Management planned and systematic way. Many of the
Multi-stakeholder Forum (JRMMSF) was members are passive participants in the
established in 2011 under the leadership of meeting and are less aware of their own role
the District Development Committee, with and responsibilities, including how important
the goal of conserving wetland resources they are to conservation of the reservoir.
in a sustainable way and strengthen the
coordination, collaboration and communication 6.3 Government Line Agencies
regarding sustainable management of wetland
resources. The forum is also expected The study conducted a capacity
to provide guidelines and suggestions to assessment of the following five institutions
the district line agencies on sustainable on wetland conservation. The assessment
management of wetland resources, including reveals that conservation agencies

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Table 6.2: Composition of JRMMSF
SN Position Organization Role

1 Local Development Officer District Development Committee Chair
2 Chief District Agriculture Development Office Member
3 Chief District Livestock Service Office Member
4 Chief Divisional Irrigation Office Member
5 Representative District Administration Office Member
6 VDC secretory Niglihawa VDC Member
7 Representative Nigali Self Dependence Development Centre Member
Dynamic Jagadishpur Reservoir Conservation
8 Representative Member
Organization
Jagadishpur Reservoir and Niglihawa Tourism
Conservation Organization
10 Representative District Water User Association Member
Jagadishpur Reservoir Agriculture Cooperative
Organization
Bhirkuti Women Multipurpose Cooperative
Organization
13 Representative Sagrahawa CFUG Member
14 Representative Ramjanaki Agriculture Cooperative Organization Member
15 Representative TAL SANJAL Member
16 Representative District Journalist Federation Member
17 Chief District Forest Office Member secretary
such as District Forest Office (DFO) and 6.3.1 District Forest Office
District Soil Conservation Office (DSCO) District Forest Office (DFO), Kapilvastu, is
have some level of awareness about the working on the protection, management and
importance of wetland conservation, while utilization of forest resources and is also
the remaining institutions are less aware responsible for the conservation of wetland
of it. Likewise, none of the agencies have biodiversity, especially of the Ramsar sites.
plans and programmes related to wetland The District Forest Officials are aware of the
conservation and promoting wise use. The importance of wetland conservation and are
study further noted that there is no financial also the focal agency for the conservation
investment or budget allocation for the of wetland biodiversity. However, they don’t
management of the wetland resources. have regular programmes related to wetland
Nevertheless, DFO and DIO have allocated biodiversity conservation and promoting
some resources for conservation of the human resources. The investment of wetland
wetlands. All of the agencies have poor conservation is almost negligible. DFO
knowledge and competence with regard Kapilvastu designed a wetland conservation
to wetland management, even within the and management programme in 2013/14
conservation agencies like DFO and DSCO worth NRs. 200,000 for the conservation and
(table 6.3). management of the JRRS.

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Table 6.3 Assessment of government agencies capacity on wetland conservation
Understanding on Financial Knowledge

Institutions Plans & programmes
wetland issues investment & skills
None, surveillance &
Aware of importance of Inadequate
District Forest Office monitoring of wetland Limited
wetland conservation & Limited
birds
District Agriculture
Less aware None None Poor
Development Office
District Livestock
Less aware None None Poor
Service Office
Divisional Irrigation
Less aware None Limited Poor
Office
District Soil Aware of importance of None, but integrated Inadequate
Limited
Conservation Office wetland conservation watershed management & Limited
The DFO lacks personnel who have skills and development in the districts and is also
competence related to wetland management, responsible for conservation of local
especially bird inventory and wetland threat landraces and fishery development. DADO
assessments. The DFO is mostly confined has a fishery section and is supporting fish
to policing wetland resources, including the farming. Likewise, DADO is also supporting
surveillance and monitoring of illegal activities, the conservation of local landraces of rice,
especially with regard to bird hunting and especially kalanamak.
bringing people under the legal action in
collaboration with the district security forces. DADO officials are not very aware of
the importance of wetland conservation,
The major capacity building needs of the DFO including conservation of local fish species.
in relation to wetland management include: (a) They are less aware of the government’s
wetland inventory and prioritization (b) wetland obligations to several national and
threat assessment (c) bird identification international commitments on wetland
and inventory (d) wetland management, conservation. DADO officials are promoting
planning and monitoring (e) national and commercial fish farming in the JRRS, which
international policy on wetland conservation is posing direct threats to local fish species.
(f) management plan preparation and (g) Furthermore, agricultural commercialization
water quality monitoring. Likewise, the DFO and intensification around the JRRS is
further needs support on wetland database also posing threats to wetlands, especially
management and effective operation of the from high use of chemical fertilizers. The
multi-stakeholder forum. DADO is less aware of the impacts of
their interventions on wetland resources.
6.3.2 District Agriculture Development Furthermore, the DADO lacks programmes
Office as well as skilled human resources in
wetland conservation. However, they have
The District Agriculture Development Office trained personnel on fishery development,
(DADO), Kapilvastu is responsible for who may contribute or support sustainable
providing technical support on agricultural aquaculture promotion.

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DADO staff should be sensitized on different partnership with the Water Users Association.
national and international commitments The office is more involved in the repair and
related to wetland conservation. They rehabilitation of irrigation system, along with
should also be sensitized on wetland-friendly promoting sustainable management and
planning and the importance of conservation strengthening institutional capacity of the
of local fish species. Water Users Association. the DIO, too, is less
aware of wetland conservation issues and
6.3.3 District Livestock Service Office has no programme that directly addresses
the threats related to wetland conservation.
The District Livestock Service Office (DLSO) Likewise, DIO lacks staff that are trained
is responsible for livestock development in wetland conservation. However, their
in the districts, including supporting the programmes related to the repair and
treatment of livestock diseases. DLSO rehabilitation of irrigation system directly and
is equipped with a veterinarian, who has indirectly contribute to wetland conservation.
knowledge on the health issues of birds, Annually, the DIO has allocated NRs 2 million
fish and other wild animal species. Among for the repair and maintenance of the canal
11 sub-service centers, Taulihawa, Kopawa, head box and feeder; however, the DIO lacks
Banganga, Pipara, Parsohiya and Gothihawa a special budget for wetland conservation
are responsible for servicing the JRRS area. and management.
The DLSO also lacks specific programmes The DLSO staff should be sensitized on different
related to addressing threats to wetland national and international commitments
resources and does not have trained or skilled related to wetland conservation. They should
personnel on wetland management. Open also be sensitized on the importance of
grazing has been one of the major threats to wetlands and wetland friendly planning and
the wetland resources; however, there is no should be encouraged to maintain a minimum
specific programme to address this threat. level of water in the reservoir. Likewise,
Likewise, they have limited knowledge and they should also be supported to repair and
capacity on identification of bird diseases. rehabilitate the irrigation system so that the
reservoir can be managed without defeating
The DLSO staff should be sensitized its primary purpose.
on various national and international
commitments related to wetland conservation. 6.3.5 District Soil Conservation Office
They should also be sensitized on wetland
friendly planning and promotion of stall- District Soil Conservation Office (DSCO),
feeding practices around the JRRS. Likewise, Rupandehi, is responsible for planning,
they should be trained on bird disease implementing and monitoring a soil
identification and take preventive measures conservation and watershed conservation
to avoid the likely spread of diseases. program based on the principles of integrated
watershed management in Kapilvastu
6.3.4 Divisional Irrigation Office District. The DSCO does not have a specific
programme related to wetland conservation;
The Divisional Irrigation Office (DIO) is however land productivity conservation
responsible for overall management of the and community infrastructure protection
reservoir, including the irrigation system, in support wetland conservation. Furthermore,

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DSCO has prioritized its soil conservation do not have trained personnel or knowledge
programme in the Banganga watershed, and skills related to wetland conservation.
with an annual investment of NRs 800,000,
which might also contribute to the promotion The DDC staff should be sensitized on different
of sustainable land use practices in the up- national and international commitments
stream area. related to wetland conservation. They
should also be sensitized on importance
6.4 Local Bodies of wetlands, wetland conservation friendly
planning and encourage to ensure wetland
Table 6.4 below presents the capacity of friendly planning process and review of plan
local bodies on management of wetland and programmes from the lens of wetland
resources. As shown, local bodies have conservation. Likewise, they should also be
limited understanding of wetland issues and sensitized for making investment on wetland
also lack knowledge and capacity. They are conservation and promoting wise use.
yet to devise plans and programmes for
wetland conservation. 6.4.2 Village Development Committee
6.4.1 District Development Committee There are 10 Village Development Committee

(VDC) offices in the JRRS. They are
District Development Committee (DDC) responsible for local development, including
Kapilvastu is one of the major stakeholders in conservation and management of natural
general development and JRRS management. resources such as wetlands. The VDCs do
The DDC integrates development activities not have any specific programmes related
from all government and non-government to wetland conservation. Nevertheless,
line agencies and monitors their activities. Niglihawa VDC has allocated NRs 50000
The DDC has realized the importance of in fiscal year 2013/2014 for wetland
wetland conservation and has also formed a conservation.
stakeholder forum; however the DDC does not
have a regular programme on conservation VDC staff should be sensitized on various
of wetlands and promoting their wise use. national and international commitments
The DDC programme is mostly focused on related to wetland conservation. They should
infrastructure development. Though there is also be sensitized on the importance of
an environmental unit within the DDC, they too wetlands, wetland conservation friendly
Table 6.4 Assessment of local bodies capacity on wetland conservation
Understanding on Financial Knowledge

Institutions Plan & programme
wetland issues investment & skills
District
Aware of importance of None, coordinating the
Development Limited Insufficient
wetland conservation multi-stakeholder forum
Committee
Village
Limited, confined
Development Less aware None Poor
in few VDCs
Committee
Municipality Less aware None None Poor

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planning; they should also be encouraged to assessment focused on six areas, including
ensure wetland friendly planning processes (a) organizational capacity, (b) human
and review of plans and programmes from resources, (c) linkages and coordination,
the lens of wetland conservation. Likewise, (d) financial management, (e) organizational
they should also be sensitized for making management and (f) participation and
investments on wetland conservation and inclusion. Under each area, six indicators were
promoting wise use. identified and three verifiers for indicators
were proposed. Annex 6.1 presents criteria,
6.4.3 Municipality indicators and verifiers used for capacity
assessment of community institutions.
There are two municipalities within the JRRS.
Neither municipality has set programmes or • Organization: Indicators include
activities related to wetland conservation. decision-making processes, information
Likewise, they lack trained personnel on flow, record keeping and office set-up.
wetland conservation.
• Human resources: Indicators include
The municipal staff should be sensitized number staff, people skilled in enterprise,
on different national and international wetland management and tourism.
commitments related to wetland conservation.
They should also be sensitized on the • Participation: Indicators include:
importance of wetlands, wetland conservation participation in meetings, annual
friendly planning and should encouraged to plan preparation, representation and
ensure wetland friendly planning process. participation of women, poor, marginalized
Likewise, they should also on wetland and Dalit in decision making processes.
conservation and promoting wise use.
• Management: Indicators include:
6.5 Community Institutions recordings of minutes and follow up of
the decisions programmes on biodiversity
The study mapped all of the community conservation, community development,
institutions present in the JRRS, especially Income generation and skill enhancement,
those institutions that are directly or indirectly benefit/ resource sharing mechanism.
associated with natural resource conservation
in general and wetlands in particular. Table 6.5: Number of community institutions
Likewise, community institutions, related to
Types of Institution Number
livelihood promotion such as farmer groups
and cooperatives, were also included. The Forest User Groups 7
study found that 171 community institutions, Collaborative Forest Nanagement
1
including Water Users Association, Groups
Community Forest User Groups, Public Land Public Land Management groups 23
Management Group, Farmer Groups and Farmers Groups 38
Cooperatives, operate in the JRRS. Water User Associations 58
Cooperatives 39
Of the above institutions, the study randomly
Wetland Protection Groups 4
selected 171 community institutions for
the capacity assessment. The capacity Total 171

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• Financial Management: Indicators and then scores were averaged for each
include: resource generation, utilization of indicator by area. The maximum possible
funds, investment in wetland management, score was 18 and lowest was 6 for each
ienterprise development, tourism area. The table 6.6 below presents the
development and fund management capacity assessment for each category
of institution. The assessment reveals
• Coordination and linkages: Indicators that community institutions have relatively
include: coordination and linkages better capacity in organization, especially
with other groups, NGos/NGO, local conducting meetings regularly, accounting
government, government line agencies, and recording system and keeping minutes.
programme implemented in partnership Likewise, they are following an inclusive
with other agencies and extent of approach and ensuring representation
mobilization of external resources. of poor and marginalized communities in
community institutions. However, they have
The study conducted focus group discussions poor capacity on human resources and
and recorded scores between one and three financial management.
Table 6.6: Institutional capacity assessment of community institutions
Human Linkage and Financial

Sector/ Areas Organization Management Participation
Resources Coordination Management
Forestry 15.3 9.7 10.6 9.9 12.7 14.7
Agriculture 10.6 7.5 7.8 8.1 10.3 13.4
Public land 10.8 6.8 8.1 9.1 8.7 13.6
Water User
7.3 6.0 6.3 6.0 6.4 7.1
Association
Farmer Cooperative 15.2 10.6 12.3 11.8 11.0 15.2
Wetland Protection
13.6 8.7 9.3 6.0 8.6 11.4
Group
Average 12.1 8.2 9.1 8.5 9.6 12.6
Capacity of community institutions needs to • Awareness on wetland conservation,

be strengthen on following areas: • Programme planning and plan
preparation
• Skill enhancement on tourism, enterprise • Institutional development support such as
development, wetland management equipments, stationery and furniture
• Organization, operation and management • Saving and credit mobilization
training such as record keeping, • Awareness about functioning of
fund management and roles and government line agencies, including
responsibilities planning processes
• Gender and social inclusion, targeting/ • Advocacy and lobby skills on wetland
positive discrimination approaches and conservation
leadership development • Skill development training on farm and
non-farm enterprises

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Chapter SEVEN
TOURISM ASSESSMENT
The JRRS and surrounding area of Kapilvastu Tourism entrepreneur consultation:

is emerging as a popular tourism hub with the The study team interacted with tourism
expansion of Lumbini World Heritage Site- entrepreneurs such as hotel, resort, lodge
based tourism into the greater Lumbini area. and restaurant owners in and around of JRRS
The JRRS has huge potential to be developed area and explored potential destinations,
as a vibrant tourism hub particularly for problems and challenges in managing sites
Buddhist pilgrimages and archaeological along with the difficulties encountered by
heritage-based tourism as well as wetland- tourism entrepreneurs for promoting the
based eco-tourism activities, including bird tourism industry in the area.
watching. Considering this, the study intends
to identify existing tourism-related facilities Field observation: The study team observed
and services in the JRRS and recommend key touristic sites in and around JRRS. The
potential activities for tourism promotion. observed tourism-related attractions were
pilgrimage, spiritual, cultural, and natural.
7.1 Methodology
Consultations with the stakeholders:
A tourism assessment of the JRRS was carried The study team interacted with the District
out following participatory and consultative Development Committee Officials, Village
processes. The primary methods used for the Development Committee officials, Lumbini
assessment include: Tourism Board, Tourism Entrepreneurs,
Hotel, Resort, Lodge and Restaurant owners
Review of secondary sources of to explore the problems and prospects of
information: The existing data, reports tourism development in the JRRS.
and information on existing tourism facilities
and services were collected and reviewed.
Likewise, the District Development Plan,
Greater Lumbini Tourism Promotion Plan
(Draft) 2015 and other publications were also
reviewed.
Tourism product identification,

destination mapping and facility
assessment: The study identified various
tourism products, destinations and facilities
available in major sites as well as the number
of visitors through the consultations, review
and field visits. Tourism products and a
destination map were prepared in GIS
domain.

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7.2 Visitors Status especially to visit Buddhist archeological

sites and the Bhagirathi River.
JRRS and the surrounding area lack
sufficient tourist information and facilities 7.3 Tourism Attractions
at present. Likewise, there is no formal
recording system for visitors of JRRS. 7.3.1 Natural attraction
According to tourism entrepreneurs and
stakeholders, about 150 to 200 international JRRS contains abundant natural resources
and about 10,000 to 12,000 domestic for the development of eco-tourism in the
visitors make trip to Jagadishpur area each region. Major natural attractions in the area
year. Most of the domestic visitors are from include the Jagadishpur Reservior, Bhagirathi
nearby districts, especially from Rupandehi River (Banganga River), Sagarhawa Lake
and other neighboring districts such as (Lambu Sagar), Nigali Lake (Niglihawa).
Arghakhanchi, Dang, and Palpa. Some Other important natural sites of touristic
Indian visitors also travel to Jagadishpur importance, particularly for bird watching,
area particularly for religious purposes, located in the closer proximity of JRRS area
Map 7.1: Tourism Attractions

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includes Gaidahawa Lake (Rupandehi), • Banganga River (Bhagirathi River): A

Gajedi Lake (Rupandehi), Lumbini Crane perennial river originated from the Ban
Sanctuary (Lumbini Rupandehi), Dano ganga Lake (Thadalake) in Arghakhanchi
River (Rupandehi), Tellar River (Rupandehi) flows through Mahabharat and the Churia
and Churia hill forest in the northern part of range before it enters into Terai foot
Kapilvastu district. plains. In addition to feeding water to
the Jagadispur Reservoir and providing
• Jagadishpur Reservoir: The Jagadishpur residence for many migratory bird
Reservoir is the largest man-made species, fish and reptiles, this river also
reservoir in Nepal, constructed in the provides a platform for many recreational
late 1970s over the Jakhira Lake and and pilgrimage activities, particularly at
agricultural lands for irrigation purposes. the major Ghats such as Laxmanghat
It was added to the Ramsar list in 2003. It and Ramghat. Moreover, this river is also
covers 215 hectares, of which 157 hectares considered holy as it is also connected with
are wetland. This area is rich in floral and the life of Gautam Buddha and evolution
faunal diversity and provides shelter for an of Shakya Kingdom.
assemblage of rare, endangered species
of conservation importance. The river can be used for bird watching,
recreation, nature walks and other wildlife-
Jagadishpur Reservoir, including the based tourism activities. The eastern and
Lumbini Crane Sanctuary, is one most western banks of the Bhagirathi River,
important bird watching sites in Nepal. together with the Bageshwori Community
This reservoir is particularly important for Forest areas across the river, can be
observing many residence birds, including developed as ecotourism sites similar
the Indian sarus crane and other winter to that of Sauraha, Chitwan through
migratory birds. the development of seasonal boating,

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swimming, beach volleyball, beach cricket, Laxmanghat, Shiva Temple (Taulihawa

and jungle walking. 2 and 4), Hanuman Temple (Tilaurakot-
3), Durga Temple (Jahadi-2, Niglihawa-
7.3.2 Archaeological and religious 8), and Radhakrishna Temple (Kapilvastu
attractions Municipality-2).
The Jagadishpur wetland area is also blessed • Tilaurakot: Tilaurakot is considered to be

with the occurrence of many important the ancient capital of Shakya Kingdom
Buddhist heritage sites and other areas of where Prince Siddhartha spent the 29
religious importance, as well as archaeological years of worldly life as a prince and took
heritage sites. With more than 136 identified the great renunciation through the eastern
archaeological sites, more than 7 Buddhist gate of the palace (Mahabhiniskramana
heritage sites and many religious and historic Dwara) at the age of 29. Tilaurakot is
sites, Kapilvastu District is considered to be listed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site
an important cultural heritage area in the (WHS) Tentative List and, if successfully
greater Lumbini region. nominated, will attract more global
attention and visitation. This site along
Major iconic Buddhist heritage and with the nearby Kapilavastu Museum
archaeological heritage sites in the area has the potential to be developed as an
include Tilaurakot, Kudan, Sagarhawa, Archaeological Museum to exhibit the
Niglihawa, Arourakot, Gotihawa and 2000 years old Shakya Kingdom and the
Sishahaniya. Other sites include Twin Stupa, monastic lifestyle of that era as well as
Kanthaka Stupa, Bikulikot, Suelahawa, and subsequent developments. Major sites
Raksha Baba. Likewise, important religious include palace of Suddhodhan, forts,
sites located in the close proximity of JRRS moats and gates, central complex, reflect
include Tauleshwor Nath Temple, Ramghat, the architectural design of ancient period.

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Other territorial sites include Twin Stupa

of Dhammnihawa, Lohasaudia, Kanthaka
Stupa, and the Samay Mai Temple. As the
epicenter of all Buddhist/archaeological
heritage sites, Tilaurakot offers a wide
range of tourist activities including
pilgrimage (for both Buddhist and Hindu
pilgrims), spiritual, archaeological
research/studies, bird watching and
spiritual visits.
• Kudan: Also listed in the UNESCO

WHS Tentative List, Kudan, according
to some scholars, is identified with the
Nigrodharama (Banyan grove), the site
of the monastery built by Suddhodhana,
father of Lord Buddha. Here, Lord Gautam birds and village tour activities.
Buddha had lived in course of entry in
Kapilvastu after His Enlightenment. It • Sagrahawa: Sagarhawa was originally a
is called Lori Kudan. It is believed that forest with a lake known as Lumbusagar.
Lord Buddha was presented here with a Thousands of Shakyas were believed
Kashaya Vastra by Prajapati, his wife; later to be massacred by King Virudhaka.
Rahul, his son, became a monk at this The ruins of hundreds of stupas built to
place. The existence of the Shiva Linga remember those who were massacred
exposed by a 1962 excavation suggested are believed to be buried here. The
this original Buddhist site was occupied present day Sagarhawa is marked with
by Hindus in medieval times. There are a long and beautiful lake surrounded by
four excavated mounds, which reflect the mesmerizing landscape. Sagarhawa
an advanced architectural model. Kudan has great potential for the promotion of
has a very peaceful environment with a pilgrimage, spiritual, bird watching and
beautiful mango garden and small pond research/educational visits. The adjoining
and is also suitable for watching birds. Sagarhawa village is suitable for village
tour activities.
• Gotihawa: Gotihawa is known for the
birthplace of Krakuchhanda Buddha. • Niglihawa: Niglihawa is identified as
Emperor Ashoka visited the site in 249 the birthplace of Kanakmani Buddha.
BCE, erected a pillar, and built a large stupa Emperor Ashoka visited this site and also
to commemorate his visit. He expanded erected a pillar. He expanded the stupa
the stupa in the fourteenth year of his in the fourteenth year of his coronation
coronation and visited the site again in his and visited the site again in his 20th year
20th year to perform a special puja and to perform a special puja and erect the
erect a pillar. Connected with Tilaurakot pillar. Major sites and artifacts include
by an irrigation canal road and with Kudan fragments of the Ashoka pillar including
by the graveled road, Gotihawa is equally the Brahmi inscription in Pali language,
potential for watching farmland and canal Niglisagar (natural tank), and images of

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Ban Ganga and bring it back to Paryowa

Bolbom Dham Temple, Sainamaina.
This site also offers a suitable platform
for picnic, swimming, fishing and short
boating. Many resident wetland birds
can also be seen during the evening and
morning.
7.3.3 Cultural and art based heritage

assets
A mix of diverse communities, including

Shakya clans and Tharu, offers opportunities
for village tourism and home-stays promotion
Buddha. Besides pilgrimage, spiritual and providing different cultural experiences.
archaeological visits, this site is equally Colorful ethnic groups residing in the close
important for bird watching. The nearest vicinity of the wetland include indigenous
village, Nigali village, is also suitable for Tharu community, Muslim, Yadav, Lodh, Terai
village tours. Brahmin, Gupta, Pahadi Brahman/Chhetri,
hill ethnic groups (Magar, Gurung etc.) and
• Araurakot contains the ruins of a other groups of people.
rectangular fortified area that is believed to
be the natal town of Kanakamuni Buddha. Areas potential for village tour and home-
At present, this site is best for spiritual stays in JRRS include Nigali village, Jahadi
walking and open meditation. village, Jagadispur village, Bigulikot,
Sagarhawa village, Shivagadhi village, and
• Sishahaniya is another important Haraiya village. Villages in which hill ethnic
archaeological site of the Maurya-Kushan communities and Terai Tharu communities
era, believed to have an ancient Buddhist reside have particular importance for the
monastery and a fort. Major artifacts development of home-stay and offering
include mounds and pottery fragments. vibrant village tour packages. Some efforts
Besides offering archaeological value for have already been made to initiate home-stay
heritage researchers, this site has equal tourism in the nearby houses in Jagadispur
potential for village tour activities. village. A few villages offering home-stays
are already in operation but require additional
• Laxmanghat: Located on the eastern training and marketing.
bank of Bhagirathi River (Ban Ganga
River), Laxmanghat is an important spot Homestays are an effective approach for
for pilgrimage and recreational activities, attracting visitors to the Jagadishpur wetland
particularly for domestic and Indian and Buddhist heritage sites, while offering
visitors of neighboring states. Thousands visitors a unique cultural experience and
of devotees come to Laxmanghat during improving the income of locals by offering local
Bolbom Mela (during the month of August) traditional foods, selling crafts, performing
to pay homage to Shiva and Hanuman traditional musical/cultural programmes and
temples and to collect holy water from selling locally produced goods.

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7.4 Potential Tourism Activities JRRS. The area has high tourism potential,
however the number of visitors is limited and
Table 7.1 presents major potential tourism very few activities are being conducted.
activities and type of visitors around the
Table 7.1: Potential tourism activities and visitors
Tourist Activities Visitors
Adventures/Sports
Research/Study
Archaeological
Regional level
Bird watching
Nature walks
Tourism Attractions/Sites
Recreational
Village tours
International
Sightseeing
Pilgrimage
Local level
Business
Spiritual
Jagadispur Reservoir        
Laxman Ghat       
Sagarahawa (Lambusagar)           
Niglihawa (Ashokan Pillar)        
Tilaurakot          
Kudan         
Gotihawa        
Sisahaniya       
Araurakot       
Ramghat        
Bikulikot              
TauleheshowNath Temple              
Raksha Baba      
Suelahawa       
Kopahawa Lake     
Ban Ganga River         
Shiva Temple (Tilaurakot 2 & 4)    
Hanuman temple (Tilaurakot-3)   
Durga Temple (Jahadi-2)   
Durga Temple (Nihlihawa-8)   
Radhakrishna Temple (Kapilvastu   
Municipality-2)   
Durga Temple ( Niglihawa-1)   

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7.5 Tourism Infrastructure and Facilities suitable for international visitors, except one
hotel recently opened in Taulihawa. Existing
Table 7.2 shows the service and facilities tourist facilities and services are capable
along the tourism value chain in Jagadishpur enough only for serving the international
wetland and surrounding areas. The state of day visitors and domestic overnight visitors.
tourist facilities and services in JRRS area is Nevertheless, efforts have now made for
relatively poor in comparison with the other improving facilities and services along the
tourism hubs in the Lumbini region. Despite related value chain such as transportation,
having a stronger tourism product base, accommodation, excursion/tours and
JRRS and the surrounding area virtually entertainment.
less accommodation services and facilities
Table 7.2: Related services and facilities along tourism value chain in JRRS and surrounding areas
Major Products and Related Services Related Supply Chain Suppliers of Related
Value Chains
Activities and Facilities Products Services and Goods
• International/national
• Marketing, Airlines
• Vehicles, rickshaw,
• Tour packaging • Travel/Tour
Airlines, Buses, Taxi, bi/cycles and carts
Transportation • Ticketing, Operators,
Jeeps • Spare parts, fuels
• Transportation • Vehicle transport
operators
• Workshops
• Furniture and utensils,
• Lodging: Hotels,
• Agro based products:
Resorts, Home- • Booking, food & • Hotel operators
organic vegetables, fruits,
stays, Monasteries, beverage supplies, • Home-stay
food (rice, lintel etc.), fish,
Teahouses, Camp housekeeping, operators
Accommodations rice, juice (Mango, Bel,
sites • Laundry services • Monasteries
Saccharum, etc), meat
• Fooding: • Camping etc • Restaurants
products (Mutton, chicken,
Restaurants, Hotel/ • Teahouses
pork etc.), milk products,
Lodges, home-stays
medicinal herbs etc.
• Internet, Wi-Fi,
• Handicraft shops,
• Related amenities souvenir items,
• Handicrafts items communication
and services money exchange,
service providers
transportation etc.
• Handicrafts, local cultural
• Bird watching and
show, ethnic museum visits
ecological tours
• Booklets and souvenir
• Archaeological site • Travel/tour
items
tour • Ticketing, operators, Hotels/
• Souvenir items, incense
• Monasteries and packaging, Guides/ resorts, home-stay
stick, sacred flowers,
Excursion and temple visits porters/ vehicle operators,
Khadas, sweets etc.
tours • Village tours services, kitchen & • Tourist Vehicle
• Metal, textile, floral and soil
and home-stay camping services, Transportations,
based crafts/sculptures;
experience fooding, lodging • Trekking agencies
Tharu museum
• Educational and • Tour guides
• Educational booklets,
research tours
brochures, CDs, souvenir
items etc.

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Bird watching has been one of the most organized tours are being operated around
interesting tour packages for Lumbini region the reservoir. Only very limited information
as specialized bird watching travel companies on Buddhist heritage sites has been installed
have a range of bird watching packages for by the Lumbini Development Trust and
the visitors in Lumbini region including JRRS. local conservation committees, the Lumbini
Annex 7.1 presents bird watching packages. Region Tourism Promotion and Development
Only very few and specialized travel/tour Committee (particularly in the major Buddhist
companies offer bird watching packages. heritage sites). The state of tourist information
facilities in the Jagadishpur wetland area is
7.6 Emerging Issues and Challenges even poorer.
Despite the high potential for tourism Poor tourism infrastructure development:
development in the JRRS area, the tourism Tourism infrastructure, such as road facilities,
has been poorly developed. Key issues and is poor. Likewise, limited infrastructure is
challenges related to tourism promotion in being developed, particularly related to bird
the area include: watching, and picnic and recreation facilities.
Likewise, there is no visitor centre to
Poor destination marketing: Despite its provide information to tourists. Visitors have
close proximity to the Lumbini World Heritage open access to the reservoir and garbage
site, the destination is not known to national management facilities are poor; in addition,
and international visitors. Likewise, no there are very few or no tourist standard

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accommodation facilities and services nature guides who can also offer in-depth
in Kapilvastu District and Jagadishpur information on birds.
wetland sites. Lack of roadside amenities,
particularly restaurants and cafes in the site Limited private sector involvement in
and along the highway, is another constraint promoting tourism of the area: Most of
for gaining benefits from tourism and from the tour operators in the region offer very
day tour visitors and excursionists similar tour packages, including the one- to
two- day tour packages to Lumbini Mayadevi
Poor capacity of local people on visitor temple, while very few also offer day tour
management: There is a low level of package to Buddhist sites in Kapilavastu
awareness, knowledge and understanding including Tilaurakot. Very few tour operators
about the tourism business, including the have included and packaged the Kapilavastu
capacity of stakeholders. Local communities and Jagadishpur areas as a part of Greater
are less aware of do’s and don’ts in the Lumbini Area. There is no specialized tour
Ramsar site, including code of conduct for package for village tours and recreational
visitors. Likewise, there are limited skilled visits has been developed and offered by any
human resources for tourism development tour operators in this area. The capacity of
and tourism enterprises, especially related local tour operators in the region is very poor
to nature guiding, bird watching and other in terms of packaging, promoting and selling
recreational activities. There are limited tour packages.
Photo Courtesy: @Himalayan Nature

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Chapter EIGHT
WETLAND MONITORING
This section presents the key aspects for the in the JRRS. Given the nature and location
wetland’s monitoring along with presentation of JRRS, (small size, artificial, situated
of the baseline situation. Wetland’s health in the middle of the farm land), the study
and vitality should be monitored based on (a) recommended a wetland-dependent bird as
water quality (b) identification and monitoring an indicator species.
indicator species and wetlands threats.
These three approaches integrate the The indicator bird species was identified
local knowledge and citizen sciences while considering its status regarding the following:
designing, implementing and monitoring (a) permanent resident (b) fully wetland
wetlands. There is a need of the experts or dependent (b) high abundance (c) threatened
scientists while monitoring the water quality globally or nationally, or locally (d) easy and
while the indicators species and wetland’s cost effective to monitor, including involvement
threats could be monitored by mobilizing of semi-skilled local people to promote citizen
local community. science.
8.1 Indicator Species Four bird species were selected as potential

indicator species, namely lesser whistling
8.1.1 Species identification duck (Dendrocygna javanica), Asian open bill
(Anastomus oscitans), Cotton pygmy goose
JRRS is one of the Important Bird Areas (Nettapus coromandelianus) and sarus crane
of Nepal. Despite the declaration of the (Grus antigone). Table 8.1 presents major
JRRS as a Ramsar site in 2003, its integrity, characteristics of the proposed indicator
including bird diversity or population size, is species.
poorly monitored and not shared with local
communities. Hence, the study identified an Of the four species, the study selected the
indicator species to monitor wetland integrity lesser whistling duck as the indicator species
Table 8.1: Characteristics of proposed indicator species
Lesser Whistling Cotton Pigmy

Asian Open bill Sarus Crane
Duck Goose
Forested shallow More in wetland More in farmland
Habitat Wetland
lake than farmland than wetland
Population 1676 40 36*
IUCN Status Least Concern Least Concern Least Concern Vulnerable
Population trend Decreasing Stable Unknown Decreasing
Globally - - - Vulnerable
Nationally Vulnerable Vulnerable Endangered
Note *: Number of birds observed within a distance of 10 km from the Jagadishpur Reservoir

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due to its large population size, high incidence India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore,
of illegal hunting and illegal trade for meat Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam.
in nearby urban centers, especially in the The species make local movements in
hotels of Butwal, Bhairahawa and Taulihawa. response to weather and changes in water
Likewise, it is easy to identify and is a breeding availability. Currently, the duck is listed as
resident. The JRRS hosts around 10% of the Least Concern in the IUCN Red Data Book,
national Lesser Whistling Duck population. but its population is decreasing.
The second preference lies with the Asian
openbill (Anastomus oscitans), because it The Lesser Whistling Duck is found in
is more wetland dependent compared to freshwater wetlands with good vegetation
the sarus crane. This species is threatened cover. During the day, the species is found
nationally and has vulnerable status. In resting in the banks of the wetlands. Because
addition, the species is also resident, breeds of its ability to perch and nest in hollow tree
locally and is easy to monitor. cavities, it is also known as a tree-duck.
The duck mainly feeds at night and is often
8.1.2 Lesser Whistling-Duck found in flocks around lakes and wet paddy
fields. They feed mainly on water plants,
This duck belongs to the Dendrocygnidae small fish, frogs and invertebrates such as
family, breeding in the Indian Sub-continent molluscs and worms, as well as grains from
and Southeast Asia. The duck is found in cultivated rice.
Photo Courtesy: @Himalayan Nature

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Population: The population of lesser A large number of ducks are illegally killed
whistling duck was enumerated in April 2015. throughout the year. According to key
The survey was conducted two times a day informants, nearly one thousand ducks are
– in the morning and evening – for three illegally hunted every year, primarily for
consecutive days. The survey estimated recreation and social pride. They are also sold
a total population of 1676 individuals (with in the local market. In addition, leaching of
standard deviation 23.5), which ranges from chemicals and water level fluctuations in the
1650 to 1698 individuals in the JRRS. Bird reservoir are also affecting the duck population.
Conservation Nepal reported 1450 individuals Furthermore, people also kill ducks because
in 2014, which reached to 1500 in January they raid agricultural crops, especially paddy.
2015.
8.2 Wetland Biodiversity Threats
Population Trends
A Biodiversity Threats Assessment is a
2500
participatory monitoring tool that determine
2000 the degree to which a project has succeeded in
1500 reducing threats to biodiversity of a particular
No.
site. It also provides a low-cost means of

1000
acquiring useful information on measuring
500 project success. Likewise, the project team,
0 stakeholders and beneficiaries can actively
2008 2014 2015 participate in the processes and observe
changes within a short period of time.
The duck population is fluctuating. The 8.2.1 Threat assessment process

number has declined compared to the
2008, despite the fact that the species is Wetland biodiversity threats assessment
a prolific breeder. About 2000 ducks were follows participatory and consultative
recorded in 2008, which was further reduced processes. It generally includes (a) agreement
to 1450 individuals in 2014. However, the on target conditions, i.e. “safeguard wetland’s
recent survey shows a slight increment biodiversity”, (b) identification of the threats
in population, with 1676 individuals. (c) preparation of the threat indices and (d)
Improvement in population is mainly due to design of interventions to address threats.
strict surveillance and monitoring from local Local communities, especially wetland
communities. dependent communities, government
officials, community institution representatives
Threats: The main threats to the lesser and local government representatives were
whistling duck are poaching as well as habitat involved in threat assessment. The following
loss, degradation and alternation, and other sequential steps were followed:
anthropogenic disturbances. There is a high
incidence of sedimentation, as well as alien Step I – Identifying threats: Participants
and invasive species invasion on the reservoir, were asked to list direct and indirect threats
creating less space or suitable habitat. It may that have an impact on wetland biodiversity.
be also affected due to excessive use of agro- Direct threats are those that are caused by
chemicals in the farmlands. the community or stakeholders living or near

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the site such as grazing, illegal hunting, and • Intensity: refers to the magnitude or
overharvesting of forests products; indirect impact of the threat,
threats include social, political, economic and • Urgency: refers to importance of taking
institutional factors that induce changes such immediate action to counter the threat.
as poor coordination, poverty and hunger.
Step III – Prepare threats index
Step II – Scoring threats: After listing the preparation: The score of each threat
threats, participants were asked to score each based on criteria discussed above were
threat, considering area, intensity and urgency summed, ranked and disseminated among
separately. Hence, each threat was scored participants. After reaching a consensus on
thrice. A maximum of ten and minimum of one rank, interventions to reduce or minimize
score was assigned for each criterion. A higher threats area were identified. Furthermore,
score is correlated with greater impacts. project team also assessed relevancy of the
proposed intervention approaches and revise
• Area: refers to the proportion of area likely programme accordingly.
to be affected by a threat

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8.1.3 Threat index
Table 8.2 below presents direct and indirect

threats related to safeguarding wetland
biodiversity. Focus group discussions were
conducted separately in three sites, the
adjoining area (within 5 km of reservoir),
nearby area (from 5-10 km from reservoir)
and distant area (beyond 10 km) and the
threats index was prepared. Major threats
impacting wetland biodiversity include: illegal
fishing for commercial and subsistence
use; flooding/sedimentation and river
cutting; inadequate water supply/water
level locations/poor distribution; agriculture
commercialization and intensification; cattle
grazing; and inadequate investment/no
regular programme.
Table 8.2: Wetland biodiversity threats

Biodiversity Threats
SN Threats Rank
Area Intensity Urgency Score
1 Illegal fishing 9 8 8 25 I
2 Flooding/sedimentation &river cutting 8 7 8 23 II
Inadequate water supply/poor distribution
3 8 8 6 22 III
/water level fluctuations
Agriculture commercialization and
4 8 7 7 22 III
intensification/ Farming practice change
5 Cattle grazing 6 7 7 21 IV
Inadequate investment/No regular
6 7 5 7 20 V
programme
Poor coordination & collaboration/ Absence
7 6 7 7 19 VI
of joint planning
8 Illegal hunting 6 6 6 18 VII
8 Land use changes/Urbanization 6 5 7 17 VIII
10 Cultural/social beliefs & values/Attitudes 4 5 7 16 IX
11 Alien & invasive species invasion 4 4 5 13 X
12 Exploitation of natural resources 5 4 4 13
13 Poverty & low income 5 4 4 12
14 Depredation of crops by wildlife 3 5 4 11
Low conservation awareness/poor
15 3 2 2 8
motivation & commitments

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8.3 Water Quality Assessment parameters, namely (i) pH (ii) temperature

(iii) dissolved oxygen (DO) (iv) electrical
Water quality assessment of the Jagadispur conductivity (EC) (v) total dissolved solid (TDS)
reservoir was conducted focusing on (vi) nitrate (vii) phosphate (viii) bicarbonate (ix)
different physico chemical parameter such chemical oxygen demand (COD). From the
as (temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen six sites, three replicates of each parameters
(DO), electrical conductivity (EC), total (temperature, pH, DO, EC, TDS, bicarbonate,
dissolved solids (TDS), bicarbonate and phosphate, nitrate) were tested to make the
chemical oxygen demand) of the water in results statistically relevant.
the catchment of the reservoir and nutrients
contents (nitrate and phosphate). Likewise, Temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen,
study also examined likely implication of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids
the water quality on wetland’s biodiversity was analyzed at the Chemistry laboratory of
and thereby suggests corrective actions for Kathmandu University using the instrument
improving water quality. ‘Consort bvba’ (Parklaan 36, B-2300
Turnhout, Belgium). Specific electrodes were
8.3.1 Methodology chosen for various parameters intended to be
investigated. The electrodes were calibrated
Water samples were collected from six following standard protocol before the start
sampling stations, from four corners of the of the measurement. Bicarbonate, chemical
lake in addition to inlet and outlet. Sampling oxygen demand, nitrate, phosphate were
was done according to United States analyzed at ENPHO Lab (Kathmandu).
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
sample preservation guidelines. Samples 8.3.2 Water quality analysis
were collected in different plastic bottles and/
or glass bottles using different preservatives Different physicochemical and microbial
depending upon the parameter intended to parameters of water samples from six
be tested. The samples were analyzed at sampling stations of Jagadispur reservoir
Kathmandu. The focus of the analysis was to were analyzed. The investigated parameters
monitor various physicochemical and microbial and the results are depicted in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: Investigated parameters and water quality
Physicochemical Permissible National Results Mean

Unit WHO standard
parameters range standard ± S.D
pH Scale 6-9 8.5 7.58± 0.26
Temperature (°C) 23.99±0.30
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 5.8 to 6.8 6.09 ±0.43
Electrical conductivity (µS/cm) <600 <1500 288.11±41.86
Total dissolved solids (mg/L) <750 156.39 ±15.89
Nitrate (mg/L) <50 0.18± 0.11
Phosphate (mg/L) ≤ 0.025 P mg/L < not detectable
HCO3- (mg/L) 20-200 147.56 ±16.60
COD (mg/L) <250 19.97

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The water quality analysis reveals that minimum amount of DO that will support
pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, a large aquatic population is from 5.8 to
total dissolved solid, nitrate, phosphate, 6.8 mg/L. In the present study DO was
bicarbonate and chemical oxygen demand observed 6.09 ±0.43 mg/L varying from
are within the permissible range and indicate 5.25 to 6.94 mg/L in all sites indicating
that water exhibit acceptable properties. acceptable range.
Moreover, nitrate, phosphate is also below
the detection limit which suggests that there • Electrical conductivity. Conductivity is
is no agricultural run-off a measure of the ability of water to pass
an electrical current. Conductivity in water
• pH. It is a measure of the acidic or basic is affected by the presence of inorganic
(alkaline) nature of a solution. A pH range dissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate,
of 6.0 to 9.0 is considered suitable for the sulfate, sodium, magnesium, and so on.
life of fresh water fish and bottom dwelling It helps to figure out the quality of water
invertebrates. In our current study, pH and also helps to determine amounts of
varied from 7.13 to 8.07 with mean value chemical reagents or treatment methods
of (mean 7.58 ± 0.26) which is still below needed to purify the water. In the present
the limit of WHO and Nepal standard of study, conductivity is found 288.11±41.86
8.5. This shows that all the sites have pH µS/cm, which range from 219 to 340
values within the desirable and suitable µS/cm which is far below the acceptable
range. range of conductivity of Nepal standard
(up to 1500 µS/cm) and WHO standard
• Temperature. Temperature is one of (up to 600 µS/cm).
the most important factors in aquatic
environment. Water temperature regulates • Total dissolved solids. Dissolved solids
the metabolism of the aquatic ecosystem. are also important to aquatic life which
High water temperature reduces the ability keeps cell density balanced. It is the sum
of water to hold essential dissolved gases of all ion particles that are smaller than 2
like oxygen which in turn reduce available microns [5]. Effects of excess dissolved
oxygen in the water and ultimately results solids are primarily the elimination of
in killing of aquatic life. In the present desirable food plants and habitat-forming
study, the temperature recorded of the plant species. TDS was recorded 156.39
water samples are 23.99±0.30oC which ±15.89 mg/L varying from 130 to 179 mg/
range between 23.5-24.5oC. L which is far below the Nepal standard
(<750 mg/L).
• Dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen
analysis measures the amount of gaseous • Nitrate. Nitrate and Nitrite are naturally
oxygen (O2) dissolved in an aqueous occurring ions that are part of nitrogen
solution. Oxygen gets into water by cycle. In general, vegetables are the main
diffusion from the surrounding air, aeration source of nitrate intake. However, high
and as a waste product of photosynthesis. level of nitrate in water indicates excessive
Reduced DO levels in water indicate (i) use of agriculture fertilizers, decayed
the water is too warm (ii) presence of vegetable water, sewage disposal and
too many bacteria (iii) fertilizer run-off ultimately causes diseases. In this study
from farm fields. The generally accepted nitrate was detected only in S1 site (mean

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value 0.23 ± 0.058) which is far below • Chemical oxygen demand. The COD test
Nepal and WHO standard (50 mg/L). is commonly used to indirectly measure
Nitrate concentration to all other site was the amount of organic compounds in water.
below the detection limit (<0.2 mg/L). The amount of oxygen used to oxidize the
organic compounds is therefore a good
• Phosphate. Phosphorus is one of the key indicator of the amount of organic waste
elements necessary for growth of plants present. High COD levels decrease the
and animals and phosphate PO43- is amount of dissolved oxygen available
formed from this element. Phosphate for aquatic organisms and also cause
will stimulate the growth of plankton and adverse impact on human health. WHO
aquatic plants which provide food for fish. standard of COD for surface water 250 mg
However, if an excess of phosphate enters /L. In this study, COD of one sample (S2
the water way, algal and aquatic plants station) was found to be 19.97 mg/L which
will grow wildly, choke up the water way, also indicates acceptability of water. As
and use up large amounts of oxygen. This there was no proper acidification of other
condition is known as Eutrophication or samples, COD could not be replicated
over-fertilization of receiving waters. The well.
Total phosphate should be less than ≤
0.025 mg/L for reservoirs while the level at 8.3.3 Priority
which plant growth is stimulated is 0.1 mg/
L and maximum acceptable for avoidance The water exhibits acceptable properties
of rapid eutrophication is > 0.10. In this and suitable for the wetland’s biodiversity.
study, phosphate was not detected in any Likewise, there is no agricultural run-off
sites indicating the concentration below as nitrate and phosphate is also below the
the detection limit of the instrument (<0.05 detection limit. However, various factors
mg/L). could deteriorate the water quality in future.
Unplanned and haphazard anthropogenic
• Bicarbonate. Bicarbonate, carbonate activities could be the major source.
and hydroxide in water primarily cause Environmental pollution could increase
alkalinity. Alkalinity is used in the the concentration of heavy metals such
interpretations and control of water and as lead, iron in the area. Hence, study
waste water processes. Alkalinity helps suggested for.
to determine the buffering capacity of
water. Alkalinity values of 20-200 mg/L • Promote and sensitize the local people
are common in freshwater ecosystems. on water quality maintenance and/or
Alkalinity levels below 10 mg/L indicate improvement
poorly buffered streams meaning these • Conduct water quality analysis at-least
streams are the least capable of resisting for two seasons a year, pre-monsoon and
changes in pH and therefore are most post monsoon. In pre-monsoon season,
susceptible to problems which occur as the amount of water is low by which
a result of acidic pollutants. In this study, pollutants are more concentrated in the
bicarbonate was recorded in the range samples whereas in post-monsoon season
of 120 to172 mg/L which indicates the washing off of solid might take place and
acceptable quality of water. thus there will be dilution of organic and
inorganic pollutants.

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Chapter Nine
MANAGEMENT PRIORITY
9.1 Floral Management Soil and water conservation: Sedimentation
and siltation are causing changes in
Protection and in-situ conservation of vegetation composition in the wetlands, while
threatened, endangered and commercially the problems of erosion and flooding are
exploited plant species: Commercially affected forests resources. Soil and water
threatened plants such as Khair (Acacia conservation, including removal of built-up
catechu), endangered plants such as Dimal sediment along the canal and reservoir should
(Bombax ceiba) and Mushiikand (Curculigo be carried out, so that vegetation composition
orchioides) and vulnerable plants like palas of sites will be less affected.
(Butea monosperma) (Siwakoti 2006) should
be protected and in-situ conservation should be Promotion of commercial cultivation
promoted. Likewise, sustainable management of local landraces: Cultivation of local
of plant species that are exploited should landraces, such as aromatic rice (kala namak),
be promoted. The local people should local pointed gourd (kunru), cucumber (basi),
be sensitized on in-situ conservation and banana and mango, should be promoted, as
management of plant species. they have high potential to generate income
and employment opportunities for local
Control of alien and invasive species, communities. Furthermore, it will also create
including microphytes and eutrophication positive attitudes towards conservation and
in wetlands: Alien and invasive species use of local landraces. The community seed
such as Baya (Ipomea carnea), Jaal bank concept should be established with the
kumbi (Eichornia crassipes), Parthenium twin objectives of conservation of landraces
hysterophorus, lapetuwa (Xanthium and seed multiplication. Likewise, incentives
strumarium), lajvanti (Mimosa pudica) and should be provided for cultivation of local
kuro (Bidens pilosa) should be removed landraces, especially seeds and production
from the wetlands. Likewise, use of chemical inputs.
fertilizers around the wetlands should be
discouraged and organic farming should be
promoted to reduce eutrophication.
Reduction direct dependence on the plant

resources: The forest resource base should
be developed outside the natural forests,
especially plantation of fodder and fruit trees.
Likewise, integrated livestock management,
such as stall feeding, feeding trough and
grasses seeds distribution, should be
promoted to reduce the incidence of grazing
on forest and wetland edges. Furthermore,
the local community should be sensitized on
adverse effect of grazing on the plants.

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9.2 Faunal Management related programmes such as street

dramas, community radio programmes and
Indicator species monitoring: The Lesser celebration of environmental events. A Visitor
whistling duck has been identified as an Information Center should be established
indicator species, whose population should and strengthened to display local biodiversity
be monitored at least twice a year. The and culture related specimens/artifacts and
results should be disseminated to the local information related to them. Conservation
communities. Direct and indirect threats of awareness, especially related to snakes, and
population decline, such as illegal hunting and training, related to first aid against snakebites,
land use conversion, should be discouraged. should be provided to local villagers and
A conservation counsellor should be deployed medicine practitioners in order to save both
to advise communities involved in illegal snake and human lives.
hunting of the birds, along with protection
measures. The bird identification and survey Community based anti-poaching
capacity of local youths, especially students operation: Community based anti-poaching
from higher secondary school, should be operations should be strengthened by
strengthened. providing necessary equipment support.
Likewise, poor and marginalized communities,
Conservation awareness: School level eco- who are dependent on illegal hunting of
clubs should be established and mobilized the birds for their livelihoods, should be
on conservation awareness, with the view identified and supported in developing
of changing behaviour of students, parents livelihood improvement activities. Apart from
and local people. Local communities should this, culprits should be brought under legal
be sensitized on bird conservation through action in collaboration with the District Forest
mass media and other conservation- Office and District Police Office. Community

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mentors and local youths should be mobilized

for surveillance and monitoring of the wetland
resources.
Habitat improvement: The small islands that

already exist inside the reservoir should be
further developed as nesting habitat for birds
and turtles. Likewise, wetland rehabilitation,
especially removal of invasive species,
should be carried out. Stall-feeding practices
should be promoted around the reservoir.
Community based forest management, along
with access to forests resources, should be
promoted. The forest resource base should
be developed, especially through private Virtually no information is available on
and agro-forestry. Furthermore, alternative invertebrate fauna, especially insects and
energy technologies, such as biogas and mollusks. These animals are important
energy saving devices, e.g. improved cooking food sources for many animals, including
stoves, should be promoted. Plant species birds.
that can provide good nesting habitats for
birds should be identified and planted on the 9.3 Livelihoods Diversification
dyke/dam of the reservoir.
Prioritize project intervention sites: The
Fish farming: Community fish farming can be level of wetland dependence and threats
initiated in the existing public ponds, which will is relatively higher in the adjoining area,
also provide food for visiting birds. Likewise, followed by nearby and distant area. Thus,
public and private ponds/wetlands, which are the project should first prioritize interventions
in a degraded condition, should be renovated in the adjoining area, considering direct and
and fish farming should be promoted. indirect threats to wetland resources.
Sedimentation removal: The incoming Quick impact intervention: Quick return

suspended sediment and nutrients that are income generating activities should be
deposited in the reservoir mouth, should implemented in the nearby area, targeting
be removed to maintain water-holding poor and marginalized communities,
capacity. Likewise, integrated soil and water especially during off-farming season. Farm
conservation measures should be promoted and non-farm income and employment
in the upstream area, especially in Banganga generation activities should be identified and
River. implemented in partnership with the local
community groups.
Further research: There is a need for a
comprehensive long-term assessment Good aquaculture practices promotion:
of flora and fauna of the area. Available Fisherman, traders and local communities,
information on seasonal dynamics of birds who are involved in fish farming and trading
and species diversity of fish, herpetofauna, should be supported to promote good
birds and mammals are still inadequate. aquaculture practices and conserve local fish

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species. Local fisherman and traders should be promoted. The forests should be handed
be sensitized on the importance of native over to local community for management so
fishes. Likewise, they should also be trained that they are managed sustainably.
in aquaculture management, especially
pond management, sustainable harvesting 9.4 Institutional Capacity Building
practices and good aquaculture practices.
Wise use of local fish in nearby private and Strengthen Jagadishpur Reservoir
community ponds should be promoted. Management Multi-stakeholder Forum
(JRMMSF): Awareness within the forum
Irrigation system improvement: Irrigation should be enhanced related to planning and
Water User Associations and Divisional monitoring wetland related programmes at the
Irrigation Office should repair and maintain district level in general and JRRS in particular.
the irrigation system in collaboration with There is a need to establish a secretariat of
other stakeholders. Likewise, removal the forum with adequate budget and human
of sedimentation and siltation should be resources such that meetings can be held at
carried out at regular intervals. In addition, a least twice a year. The District Forest Office
mechanism to collect the water use fee in a should be designated as the secretariat, as it
timely manner should be developed, and the is the focal agency on wetland conservation.
water use fee should be raised. The committee members, especially of
non-government organizations, community
Forests resource base development: The institutions and networks, need to be
forest resources base, especially plantation of sensitized on their roles and responsibilities
grasses and fodder trees, should be promoted with regard to wetland conservation, including
to reduce direct dependence on forest on advocacy skills such that they can lobby
resources. Likewise, integrated livestock and pressure the government agencies to
management practices should be promoted to plan and implement programmes related
provide incentives to farmers for stall-feeding. to wetland conservation and wise use. A
Biogas and improved cooking stove should mechanism should be developed for the
effective operation of the forum, especially to
strengthen coordination, linkages and build
partnership on wetland conservation.
Mainstreaming wetland conservation in

government line agencies’ programme:
Level of understanding about wetland
issues and their threats vary by government
line agencies. The staff of these agencies
should be capacitated on wetland friendly
plan and programme preparation along with
addressing drivers of wetland degradation
such as grazing and balanced use of chemical
fertilizers. Likewise, they should also be
oriented on obligations and commitments of
the country in relation to the Ramsar Site.

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Capacity building of the District Forest

Officials: The District Forest Officials have
limited knowledge and skills on wetland
management. Their capacity with regard
to wetland inventory, bird identification and
periodic monitoring, water sample collections,
wetland plant inventory, alien and invasive
management, wetland threat assessment,
integrated planning and management of
wetland resources should be enhanced.
Likewise, their capacity on surveillance
and monitoring of the wetland resources,
especially on community mobilization should
be further enhanced.
Capacity building of community

institutions: The capacity of community
institutions should be strengthened on record
keeping, good governance practices, positive
discriminations and also on entrepreneurship
skill development. Furthermore, institutional
development support such as stationery, including the establishment of wetland-
minutes and office equipment should related enterprises needs to be strengthened.
be provided for smooth operation of the Furthermore, a ticketing system for those
community institutions. The advocacy skills visiting the reservoir needs to be introduced
of these institutions should also be enhanced and tourism facilities around the reservoir will
for wetland friendly development and also be developed.
to access resources from government line
agencies. Destination marketing for attracting
visitors and tourism entrepreneurs: A
9.5 Tourism Development tourism development strategy/plan for the
JRRS should be prepared to promote tourism
Sustainable tourism development along in the area while addressing the needs of
with enhancing visitor's satisfaction: different segments of society. Likewise,
Sustainable tourism shall be promoted, promotional materials per the strategy, such
focusing on ecologically sensitive, as maps, information kit for tour operators,
economically viable and socially inclusive information booklets and web sites will be
approach. Visitor satisfaction from the area published. Likewise, local communities shall
should be enhanced through the adoption be encouraged to participate in different
of responsible tourism practices along with market promotional events nationally
maintenance of environmental cleanliness, and internationally to publicize JRRS.
sanitation and hygiene around the reservoir. Furthermore, networking with the different
A tourism code of conduct for the visitors and private entrepreneurs and the Nepal Tourism
tourism entrepreneurs should be developed Board shall be carried for promoting tourism
and enforced. The use of local products, in the JRRS.

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reservoir. Likewise, a visitor information center

shall be established to provide information to
visitors. Information about the sites (signage,
location board) about facilities and services
available with detailed description of the
attraction/products including special features
will be installed in appropriate locations.
Capacity building of local communities

on tourism business operations: Nature/
culture interpretation training shall be
organized for local youths (both men and
women) with a focus on major landscapes,
culture and cultural heritage, biodiversity and
basic local conservation rules and regulations.
Likewise, local communities shall be involved
on management of different tourism related
Partnership with tourism entrepreneurs on facilities and services and support will be
tourism product development and marketing: provided for operation, establishment and
Tourism products in Jagadishpur wetland improvement of traditional products and
area shall be enhanced so as to make it a handicrafts, especially wood products,
world-class bird watching and eco-tourism bamboo products and small gifts.
center. Pro-poor eco-tourism (such as village
tourism, community based tourism, culture Ethnic cultural home-stays and village tour
based tourism, agriculture based tourism) packages development and promotion:
will be developed. Community and private Villages tourism shall be promoted in
sector partnerships shall be strengthened Jagadishpur village, Sagarhawa village, Nigali
for the development of tourism products village, Jahadi village, Harnampur village, and
and marketing. Different tourism products Shivgadhi village for cultural home stay and
such as bird watching, reservoir walk, and village tour packages. Likewise, use of local
archeological site visits will be developed in food cuisine will be identified and use of local
partnership with the tourism entrepreneurs. food products will be promoted. Jagadishpur
Tharu village will be developed as a model
Tourism facilities improvement: Tourism homestay in the Jagadishpur area. A site plan
facilities around the JRRS will be improved, for Jagadishpur homestay with the selected
especially (a) construction of pedestrian and houses for home-stay, visitor welcoming
cycle paths along the reservoir (b) installation center, village walking trail, cultural center,
of range seating and resting areas (c) waste bins and waste collection center, visitor
construction of utility buildings (offering cold information boards, nature walking trails, Wi-
drinks, coffee, chock lets, toilet/restrooms, Fi/internet facilities, and community fishing
etc.) and operation on a concession basis (e) sites will be developed. Likewise, Harnampur
establishment of Wooden Machans to best village shall be developed and promoted
observe the bird life and reservoir landscape as a culture, craft and art village with the
and (f) development of picnic spots with basic promotion of cultural/music programmes and
facilities in the southern-west corner of the Dhakai related handicrafts.

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References
Bajracharya M.B. 1979. Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants Corbet G.B. and Hill J.E. 1992. The Mammals of the
and General Treatments.Jore Ganesh Press Pvt. Ltd., Indo-Malayan Region. A systematic Review. Oxford
Kathmandu. University Press, Oxford. P 488.
Baral H.S. and Chaudhary B. 2003. A list of birds DNPWC and IUCN 2003. Information sheet on Ramsar
recorded at Jagdishpur. wetlands: Jagdishpur Reservoir. Unpublished report
submitted to the Ramsar Convention Bureau.
Baral H.S. and Inskipp C. 2005. Important Bird Areas
in Nepal: key sites for conservation. Bird Conservation Gibbons D.W., Hill D. and Sutherland W.J. 1996. Birds
Nepal and Birdlife International, Kathmandu and in Ecological Census Techniques: A Hand Book. J.
Cambridge. William and Sutherland eds. Cambridge University
Press, UK. P 336
Baral H.S., Regmi U.R., Poudyal L.P. and Acharya R. 2012.
Status and Conservation of Birds in Nepal. In Biodiversity Giri D. 2008. Largest breeding colony of Asian Openbill
Conservation in Nepal : A Success Story.K.P. Acharya Anastomusoscitans outside protected areas of Nepal.
and M. Dhakal, eds. Department of National Parks and Danphe 17(1): 7.
Wildlife Conservation, Babar Mahal, Kathmandu.
Grimmett R., Inskipp C. and Inskipp T. 2012. Birds of
Baral H.S. and Shah K.B. 2008. Wild Mammals of the Indian Subcontinent.Helm Field Guide.
Nepal. Himalayan Nature, Kathmandu. p.188.
Grimmett R., Inskipp C., Inskipp T. and Baral H.S. 2003.
Baral H.S. 2008. Birds of Jagdishpur Reservoir Nepal. Birds of Nepal.Helms Field Guide. (Nepali Version)
Forktail 24.
Grimmett R., Inskipp C., Inskipp T. and Baral H.S.
Biodiversity Profiles Project 1995. Biodiversity 2009. Birds of Nepal.Helms Field Guide.
Assessment of Terai Wetlands.In Biodiversity Profiles
Project. W.J.M. Verheugt, ed. Technical Publication Grimmett R., Inskipp C., Inskipp T and Baral H.S. 2003.
No. 1. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Nepal ka Charaharu. London, UK. Christopher Helm.
Conservation, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation. P. 288.
Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.
Inskipp C. 2004. Some good news on bird conservation
CNSP 2000. California Native Plant Society Releve in Nepal.Danphe 13 (3/4): 1-4.
Protocol CNSP Vegetation Committee.
IUCN Nepal 2004. A review of the status and threats to
Choudhary H. and Giri D. 2006. A list of birds recorded wetlands in Nepal. IUCN Nepal, Kathmandu.
in Lumbini, Jagdishpur Reservoir and Khaddar Phanta.
Unpublished. DNPWC 2011.The Status of Nepal Mammals: The
National Red List Series. S.R. Jnawali, H.S. Baral,
Conservation and Sustainable Use of Wetlands in S. Lee, K.P. Acharya, G.P. Upadhyay, M. Pande, R.
Nepal 2011. Monitoring Protocol for Indicator Species of Shrestha, D. Joshi, B.R. Laminchhane, J. Griffiths,
KTWR & GLA.Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, A.P. Khatiwada, N. Subedi and R. Amin, eds, DNPWC,
Nepal.8 p. 28. Kathmandu, Nepal.p. 266.

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Joshi S.G. 2006. Medicinal Plants. Oxford & IBH Sale J. B. and Berkmuller K. 1988. Manual of Wildlife
Publishing, New Delhi Techniques for India.Establishment of the Wildlife
Institute of India.Food and Agriculture Organization of
Kafle G and Savillo I.T. 2009. Present Status of Ramsar the United Nations, Dehra Dun, India.pp 243.
Sites in Nepal.International Journal of Biodiversity and
Conservation.1(5): 146-150. IUCN Nepal, Kathmandu. Shah J.P. 1997. KoshiTappu Wetland: Ramsar Site.
IUCN Nepal.
Kunwar R.M., Uprety Y., Burlakoti C., Chowdhary
C.L. and Bussmann R.W. 2009. Indigenous Use and Shah K.B. and Tiwari S. 2004.Herpetofauna of
Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal Plants in Far-wet Nepal: A Conservation Companion.IUCN - The World
Nepal.Ethnobotany Research and Applications.7: 005- Conservation Union, Nepal.8. p 237.
028.
Shah K.B., Baral H.S. and Shah P.J. 2010.
Megha Publication and Research Centre. 2013. Village Herpetofauna and Mammal Survey in the Jagadishpur
Development Committee and Demographic Profile of Reservoir (Ramsar Site) and the Farmlands of Lumbini
Nepal 2013. A Socio-Economic Development Database (Important Bird Area).Zoo-Journal.A journal of Zoology
of Nepal. Megha Publication and Research Centre and Environment. 1(1): 1- 12.
Kathmandu, Nepal.
Sharma J. and Varma R. 2011. A Review on
MFSC 2014. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Endangered plant of Mallotus philippensis (Lam. )
Plan, 2014. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, M.Arg. Pharmacologyonline. 3: 1256-1265.
Kathmandu, Nepal
Siwakoti M. 2006. An Overview of Floral Diversity in
Prater S.H. 1971. The Book of Indian Animals.3rd Wetlands of Terai Region of Nepal.Our Nature. 4: 83-
revised version .Bombay Natural History Society ed. 90.
Oxford University Press, India.p. 324.
Sutherland W.J. 1996. Mammals, in Ecological Census
Press J. R., Shrestha K. K. and Sutton D.A. 2000. Techniques, A Hand Book.William. J. Sutherland ed.
Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. Cambridge University Press, UK. p. 336.
The Natural History Museum, London.
Thapa J.B. and Saund T.B. 2012.Water Quality
Rajbhandary T. K., M. S. Bista and V. L. Gurung 1994. Parameters and Bird Diversity in Jagdishpur Reservoir,
Enumeration of the vascular plants of west Nepal. Nepal.Nepal Journal of Science and Technology.
HMG/N, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, 13(1): 143-155.
Department of Plant Resources, Nepal, Thapathali.
Tiwari S., Siwakoti M. Adhikari B. and Subedi K. 2005.
An Inventory and Assessment of Invasive Alien Plant
species of Nepal. IUCN, Nepal, Kathmandu.

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Annexes

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98
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Annex 3.1: Forests area in the JRRS
Orchards
VDCs/Municipality Forests (ha)
no ha
Basantapur - 2.0 0.7
Bedauli - 10.0 4.6
Gauri - 2.0 1.0
Gotihawa (Kapilvastu N.P.) - 2.0 1.6
Jahadi - 9.0 7.1
Kapilbastu N.P. - 22.0 18.7
Kopawa (Badganga N.P.) 73.5 1.0 0.7
Nigalihawa 452.1 6.0 5.6
Sauraha - 17.0 13.6
Singhkhor 3.0 22.0 11.4
Somdiha - 33.0 16.4
Tilaurakot (Kapilvastu N.P.) - 9.0 3.7
Total 528.63 135.0 85.1

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Annex 3.2: List of plant species recorded in the JRRS according to their origin, conservation status and uses
100
Alien/
IUCN_Book_205.indd 00
invasive Conservation status Uses
Origin species
Local (Native,
SN Botanical Name Type Protected
Name exotic, Level of
endemic) IUCN CITES under
(Yes/no) Purposes use (High,
Red list Appendix forests
medium, low
Act, 1995
1 Khair Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd Tree Native No yes medicinal high
2 Dativan Achyranthes aspera L. Herb Native No cultural low
religious, cultural,
3 Bel Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa Tree Native No high
medicinal
4 Banmasa Ageratina adenophora Shrub Native No

5 Barleria cristata L. Herb Native No

timber, medicinal
6 Simal Bombax ceiba L. Tree Native No yes high
and food
7 Buddleja asiatica Lour. Tree Native No low
8 Palas Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze Tree Native No timber, medicinal high
9 Seto aank Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. Shrub Native No Medicinal low
10 Raj Briksha Cassia fistula L. Tree Native No Medicinal medium
11 Cassia occidentalis L. Shrub Exotic Yes
12 Cassia tora L. Shrub Exotic Yes
13 Banmasa Chromalena odoraticema Shrub Exotic Yes
14 Batulpaate Cissampelos pareira L. Herb Native No medicinal medium
15 Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. Shrub Native No low
16 Mushiikand Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Herb Native No medicinal high
17 Dubo Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Herb Native No livestock high
18 Mothe Cyperus rotundus L. Herb Native No livestock low
religious, thach
19 Kush Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf Herb Native No medium
grass
9/24/205 0:6:47 AM
Alien/
Origin species
Local (Native,
medium, low
Act, 1995
Bidi paat,
20 Diospyros tomentosa Roxb. Tree Native No food, cigarette high
Tejuwa
21 Dudhe Euphorbia hirta L. Herb Native No food low
Flemingia chappar Buch.-Ham. ex
22 Kusoraute Shrub Native No livestock medium
Benth.
23 Phulungo Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr. Shrub Native No livestock medium
24 Buke phul Gnaphalium polycaulon Pers. Herb Native No cultural low
Grewia oppositifolia Buch.-Ham. ex
25 Saaj Tree Native No livestock medium
D. Don
Garam
26 Grewia sp. Shrub Native No timber, livestock medium
ghans
27 Lahare Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br. Herb Native No livestock low
28 Siru Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. Herb Native No livestock medium
29 Kutmero Litsea monopetala (Roxb,) Pers. Tree Native No livestock high
30 Unnu Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sm. Herb Native No livestock high
Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) cultural, meddicinal,
31 Mauwa Tree Native No high
Macbride food
Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-
32 Rohini Shrub Native No medicinal high
Arg
33 Bakaino Melia azaderach L. Tree Native No livestock medium
34 Boxi Kanda Mimosa rubicaulis Lam. Shrub Native No cosmetics, food
35 Ban Karela Momordica charatia L. Herb Native No food high

36 Bannebiya Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Shrub Native No food medium
37 Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack Shrub Native No food medium
101
38 Chari amilo Oxalis latifolia Shrub Native No
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Alien/
102
Origin species
Local (Native,
medium, low
Act, 1995
39 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Herb Exotic Yes
Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm.
40 Rudilo Shrub Native No medicinal medium
f.) Hassk.
41 Pidar Randia uliginosa Shrub Native No food medium
thatch, HHs and
42 Munj Saccharum munja Roxb. Herb Native No medium
handicraft items
HHs and handicraft

43 Kans Saccharum spontaneum L. Herb Native No high
items

food, medicine and
44 Kusum Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken Tree Native No low
cosmetics
45 Bhalayo Semecarpus anacardium L.f. Tree Native No medicinal high
livestock, cosmetics
46 Sal Shorea robusta Gaertn. Tree Native No yes high
and construction
47 Kanthakari Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. Herb Native No medicinal high
food, livestock,
48 Jamun Syzygium cumini (l.) Skeels Tree Native No medicine and high
timber
49 Tukiphul Taraxacum officinale Wigg. Herb Native No cultural high
50 Barro Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Tree Native No medicinal high
Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalzell &
51 Bankapas Shrub Native No livestock medium
Gibson
52 Unidentified P14 A11 Herb No
53 Bariyara Urena lobata L. Herb Native No broom low
54 Veronica sp. Herb Native No
55 Boksi bayar Zizyphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. Shrub Native No food and medicine medium
9/24/205 0:6:48 AM
Annex 3.3: Ethno-botanical uses of the plants found in JRRS
Ethno botanical uses
Local
SN Botanical Name Type Culture/ Aesthetics/ Edible Other Use
Name Medicinal
Religious Cosmetics Food uses
Acacia catechu (L.f.) traded for “Kattha (catechu), an extract of its
1 Khair Tree Yes
Willd heartwood
nodes are ritually chewed during the
2 Dativan Achyranthes aspera L. Herb Yes
Panchami of 'teej' by the women
fruit and bark antipyretic, antidiabetic and
Aegle marmelos (L.)
3 Bel Tree Yes Yes anti-dysenteric whereas leaf is used for
Correa
worshiping Lord Shiva
bark is used for toothach and gum bleeding,
6 Simal Bombax ceiba L. Tree Yes Yes Yes fruit is edible and cotton is used make pillow
and mattresses, timber for construction
7 Buddleja asiatica Lour. Tree firewood
Butea monosperma
8 Palas Tree Yes Timber
(Lam.) Kuntze
Calotropis procera latex is used to cure skin disease, boils and to
9 Seto aank Shrub Yes
(Aiton) Dryand. remove thorns (Kuwar et al. 2009
Raj
10 Cassia fistula L. Tree Yes fruit laxative
Briksha
Root juice treats headache and stomachache
14 Batulpaate Cissampelos pareira L. Herb Yes
and urinary problem in livestock
Colebrookea
15 Shrub Yes firewood
oppositifolia Sm.
Rhizome is diuretic, tonic, aphrodisiac,
Curculigo orchioides antidiarrheal, and is used in liver problems,
16 Mushiikand Herb Yes
Gaertn. piles, asthma and gonorrhea (Bajracharya
1979, Joshi 2006).

cultural use for preparing garland for the bride
Cynodon dactylon (L.)
17 Dubo Herb Yes Yes and bridegroom, offered to Lord Ganesh and
Pers.
also is a good fodder
103
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104
Local
Name Medicinal
18 Mothe Cyperus rotundus L. Herb Yes Fodder
Desmostachya believed as one of the holy plant and form of
19 Kush Herb Yes
bipinnata (L.) Stapf Lord Bishnu
Bidi Paat, Diospyros tomentosa
20 Shrub Yes leaf as cigarette and fruit edible
Tejuwa Roxb.
21 Dudhe Euphorbia hirta L. Herb Yes tender shoot as vegetable
Flemingia chappar
22 Kusoraute Shrub Yes shoot as broom, fodder and hedge
Buch.-Ham. ex Benth.
Flemingia macrophylla
23 Phulungo Shrub Yes shoot as broom, fodder and hedge
(Willd.) Merr.
Gnaphalium polycaulon
24 Buke phul Herb Yes Worshiping
Pers.

Grewia oppositifolia
25 Saaj Tree Yes timber and fodder
Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Garam
26 Grewia sp. Shrub Yes fodder
ghans
Ichnocarpus frutescens
27 Lahare Herb Yes Fodder
(L.) R.Br.
Imperata cylindrica (L.)
28 Siru Herb Yes thatching roof
P. Beauv.
Litsea monopetala
29 Kutmero Tree Yes Fodder
(Roxb,) Pers.
Lygodium flexuosum
30 Unnu Herb Yes Fodder
(L.) Sm.
fruit and flower for skin diseases, cultural
Madhuca longifolia
31 Mauwa Tree Yes Yes Yes and fruit is used to prepare local wine and
(Koenig) Macbride
chappati
Mallotus philippensis fruit is use as antihelmenthic to cure maate
32 Rohini Shrub Yes Yes
(Lam.) Muell.-Arg disease in goat and as dye for Ox
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Local
Name Medicinal
33 Bakaino Melia azaderach L. Tree Fodder
Boxi Mimosa rubicaulis fodder, tender parts for pickle and pod for
34 Shrub Yes
Kanda Lam. preparing soap
35 Ban Karela Momordica charatia L. Herb Yes fruit vegetable
Murraya koenigii (L.)
36 Bannebiya Shrub Yes leaves as spice
Spreng.
Murraya paniculata (L.)
37 Shrub Yes fruit edible
Jack
Pogostemon
40 Rudilo benghalensis (Burm.f.) Shrub Yes leaf Insect repellent
Hassk.
41 Pidar Randia uliginosa Shrub Yes fruit as vegetable and to prepare pickle
Saccharum munja
42 Munj Herb Yes thatch, HHs and handicraft items
Roxb.
Saccharum
43 Kans Herb Yes HHs and handicraft items
spontaneum L.
Schleichera oleosa
44 Kusum Tree fruit edible
(Lour.) Oken
Semecarpus A mixture of its fruit and cow dung solution
45 Bhalayo Tree Yes
anacardium L.f. repels snakes and ants (Kunwar et al.2009)
timber, fodder, seeds for cosmetics and
46 Sal Shorea robusta Gaertn. Tree Yes Yes leaves made plates are considered sacred in
any rituals activities
Solanum
47 Kanthakari Herb Yes fruit is used leech-repellant
aculeatissimum Jacq.
fruit edible and bark used for dye, diarrhea,
Syzygium cumini (l.)
48 Jamun Tree Yes Yes dysentery and diabetes, timber for
Skeels

construction, leaf as fodder
Taraxacum officinale
49 Tukiphul Herb Yes Worshiping
105
Wigg.
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106
Local
Name Medicinal
Terminalia bellirica
50 Barro Tree Yes universal panacea in the Ayurveda Medicine
(Gaertn.) Roxb.
Thespesia lampas
51 Bankapas Shrub Yes Fodder
(Cav.) Dalzell & Gibson
53 Bariyara Urena lobata L. Herb broom to clean rubbish
Boksi Zizyphus oenoplia (L.)
55 Shrub Yes Yes leaf paste in skin disease and fruit edible
bayar Mill.
9/24/205 0:6:48 AM
Annex 3.4: Number of pond and area by VDCs
VDC No of ponds Area (ha)

Basantapur 17 4.3
Bedauli 27 5.4
Gauri 16 4.6
Gotihawa (Kapilvastu N.P.) 25 7.8
Jahadi 10 5.8
Kapilbastu N.P. 87 29.3
Kopawa (Badganga N.P.) 6 2.7
Nigalihawa 5 3.6
Parsohiya 15 4.8
Rangapur 12 6.7
Sauraha 3 0.7
Singhkhor 10 1.9
Somdiha 9 2.9
Tilaurakot (Kapilvastu N.P.) 19 7.2
Total 261 87.5

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Annex 3.5: List of plant species found in the wetlands of JRRS
108
SN Botanical Name Type Family Tree/Shrub/Herb Local Name
1 Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd Terrestial Fabaceae Tree Khair
2 Achyranthes aspera L. Terrestial Amaranthaceae Herb Datiwan
3 Acorus calamus L. Emergent Araceae Herb Bojho
4 Ageratum conyzoides Terrestial Asteraceae Herb Gandhe
5 Azadirachta indica A. Juss Terrestial Meliaceae Tree Nim
6 Azolla imbricata (Roxb.) Nakai Free floating Salvinaceae Herb

7 Bambusa sp. Terrestial Poaceae Herb Baas
8 Bidens pilosa L. Terrestial Asteraceae Herb Kuro
9 Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. Terrestial Asclepiadaceae Shrub Seto aank

10 Cannabis sativa L. Terrestial Cannabaceae Herb Ganja

11 Capparis spinosa L. Terrestial Capparaceae Shrub Junge lahara
12 Centella asiatica (L.) Urban. Terrestial Apiaceae Herb Ghodtapre
13 Ceratophyllum demersum L. Submerged Ceratophyllaceae Herb
14 Chara sp Submerged Characeae Herb
15 Citrus aurantifolia (Christ.) Swingle Terrestial Rutaceae Shrub Kagati
16 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Emergent Araceae Herb Karkalo
17 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Terrestial Poaceae Herb Dubo
18 Cyperus sp. Emergent Cyperaceae Herb
19 Delbergia sissoo Roxb. Terrestial Fabaceae Tree Sissoo
20 Eclipta prostrata L. Emergent Asteraceae Herb Bhringaraj
21 Eichornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms. Emergent Pontederiaceae Herb Jaal kumbi
22 Equisetum sp. Terrestial Equisetaceae Herb
23 Euphorbia hirta Terrestial Euphorbiaceae Herb Dudhe
24 Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Submerged Hydrocharitaceae Herb
25 Hydrocharis dubia (Blume) Backer Rooted floating Hydrocharitaceae Herb
26 Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees ex Wight & Arn. Rooted floating Poaceae Herb Jangali dhan
9/24/205 0:6:48 AM
27 Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Terrestial Lamiaceae Herb Babari
28 Ipomea aqaticus Forssk. Emergent Convolvulaceae Shrub Kerungo saag
29 Ipomea carnea ssp. Fistulosa Emergent Convolvulaceae Herb Baya
30 Juncus bufonius L. Terrestial Juncaceae Herb
31 Leersia hexandra Roated floating Poaceae Herb
32 Lemna minor L. Free floating Lemnceae Herb Hansko chiura
33 Lemna perpusilla Torrey Free floating Lemnceae Herb
34 Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Macbride Terrestial Sapotaceae Tree Mauwa
35 Mimosa pudica L. Terrestial Mimosaceae Herb Lajjawati
36 Naja minor Submerged
37 Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Rooted floating Nymphaeaceae Herb Kamal
38 Nymphaea stellata Willd. Rooted floating Nymphaeaceae Herb
39 Nymphoides hydrophyllum (Lour.) O. Kuntze Rooted floating Menynthaceae Herb Koka
40 Nymphoides indica (L.) Kuntze Rooted floating Menynthaceae Herb Koka
41 Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw. Terrestial Cactaceae Shrub
42 Oryza rufipogon Griff. Emergent Poaceae Herb Jangali dhan
43 Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. Rooted floating Hydrocharitaceae Herb
44 Oxalis acetosella L.. Terrestial Oxlidaceae Herb
45 Parthenium hysterophorus Terrestial Asteraceae Herb
46 Paspalum distichum L. Emergent Poaceae Herb Banso
47 Persicaria barbata var. barbata (L.) H. Hara Emergent Polygonaceae Herb
48 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. Ex Steudel Terrestial Poaceae Herb Narkat
49 Polygonum hydropiper (L.) Spaeck Emergent Polygonaceae Herb Bishnair
50 Polygonum plebeium R. Br. Emergent Polygonaceae Herb
51 Potamogeton crispus L. Rooted floating Potamogetonaceae Herb
52 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Terrestial Polygonaceae Herb Halhale

53 Saccharum munja Roxb.L Terrestial Poaceae Herb Munja
54 Saccharum spontaneum L Terrestial Poaceae Herb Kans
109
9/24/205 0:6:48 AM
110
55 Sagittaria guyanensis subsp. lappula (D. Don) Bogin Emergent Alismataceae Herb
56 Taraxacum officinale Wigg. Terrestial Asteraceae Herb Tukiphul
57 Trapa natans var. bispinosa (Roxb.) Makino Free floating Trapaceae Herb Singara
58 Trewia nudiflora L. Terrestial Euphorbiaceae Tree Gurel
59 Typha angustifolia L. Emergent Typhaceae Herb Pater/ Gonn
60 Typha elephantine Emergent Typhaceae Herb Pater/ Gonn
61 Unidentified Emergent Poaceae Herb

62 Unidentified Terrestial Meliaceae Shrub Sighghor
63 unidentified climber Terrestial Comaceae Herb
64 Unidentified monocot Emergent Poaceae Herb Nagarwaat
65 Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash Emergent Poaceae Herb Katari jhar

66 Wolffia globosa (Roxb.) den Hartog & Plas Free floating Lemnceae Herb

67 Xanthium strumarium L. Terrestial Asteraceae Herb Lapetuwa
68 Zizyphus rugosa Lam. Terrestial Rhamnaceae Shrub Bayer
9/24/205 0:6:48 AM
Annex 3.6: Conservation status of plants found in the wetlands of JRRS
IUCN_Book_205.indd
Conservation status Uses
Origin Alien/
(Native, invasive
SN Local Name Botanical Name Type Level
exotic, species Protected
endemic) (Yes/no) of use
IUCN CITES under
Purposes (High,
medium,
Act, 1995
low
1 Khair Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd Terrestial Native No yes medicinal High
2 Datiwan Achyranthes aspera L. Terrestial Native No cultural Low
3 Bojho Acorus calamus L. Emergent Native No medicine Low
4 Gandhe Ageratum conyzoides Terrestial Native
5 Nim Azadirachta indica A. Juss Terrestial Native No medicine Low
6 Azolla imbricata (Roxb.) Nakai Free floating Native No
food, culture and
7 Baas Bambusa sp. Terrestial Native No High
construction
8 Kuro Bidens pilosa L. Terrestial Native Yes
9 Seto aank Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. Terrestial Native No medicine low
10 Ganja Cannabis sativa L. Terrestial Native No medicine low
11 Junge lahara Capparis spinosa L. Terrestial Native No food low
12 Ghodtapre Centella asiatica (L.) Urban. Terrestial Native No medicine low
13 Ceratophyllum demersum L. Submerged Exotic No
14 Chara sp Submerged Native No
15 Kagati Citrus aurantifolia (Christ.) Swingle Terrestial Native No food high
16 Karkalo Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Emergent Native No food medium
17 Dubo Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Terrestial Native No domestic medium

18 Cyperus sp. Emergent Native No
19 Sissoo Delbergia sissoo Roxb. Terrestial Native No timber high
111
9/24/205 0:6:48 AM
112
Origin Alien/
(Native, invasive
IUCN CITES under
Purposes (High,
medium,
Act, 1995
low
20 Bhringaraj Eclipta prostrata L. Emergent Native No
21 Jaal kumbi Eichornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms. Emergent Exotic Yes

22 Equisetum Terrestial Native No
23 Dudhe Euphorbia hirta Terrestial Native No No food low
24 Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Submerged Native No

Rooted

25 Hydrocharis dubia (Blume) Backer Native No
floating
Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees ex Rooted
26 Jangali dhan Native No
Wight & Arn. floating
27 Babari Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Terrestial Native No
Kerungo
28 Ipomoea aqaticus Forssk. Emergent Native No food medium
saag
29 Baya Ipomoea carnea ssp. Fistulosa Emergent Exotic Yes
30 Juncus bufonius L. Terrestial Native No
31 Leersia hexandra Free floating Native No
Hansko
32 Lemna minor L. Free floating Native No domestic low
chiura
33 Lemna perpusilla Torrey Free floating Native No
Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) cultural, meddicinal,
34 Mauwa Terrestial Native No high
Macbride food
35 Lajjawati Mimosa pudica L. Terrestial Exotic Yes
36 Naja minor Submerged Native No
Rooted cultural,medicinal
37 Kamal Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Native No medium
floating and food
9/24/205 0:6:48 AM
Origin Alien/
(Native, invasive
IUCN CITES under
Purposes (High,
medium,
Act, 1995
low
Rooted
38 Nymphaea stellata Willd. Native No
floating
Nymphoides hydrophyllum (Lour.) Rooted
39 Koka Native No
O. Kuntze floating
Rooted
40 Koka Nymphoides indica (L.) Kuntze Native No
floating
41 Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw. Terrestial Exotic No
Jangali
42 Oryza rufipogon Griff. Emergent Native No
dhan
Rooted
43 Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. Native No
floating
44 Chari amilo Oxalis acetosella L. Terrestial Native No
45 Parthenium hysterophorus Terrestial Exotic Yes
49 Banso Paspalum distichum L. Emergent Native No
Persicaria barbata var. barbata (L.)
46 Emergent Native No
H. Hara
Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. Ex
47 Narkat Terrestial Native No purifier medium
Steudel
48 Bishnair Polygonum hydropiper (L.) Spaeck Emergent Native No
50 Polygonum plebeium R. Br. Emergent Native No
Rooted
51 Potamogeton crispus L. Native No

floating
52 Halhale Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Terrestial Native No
113
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114
Origin Alien/
(Native, invasive
IUCN CITES under
Purposes (High,
medium,
Act, 1995
low
53 Munja Saccharum munja Roxb.L Terrestial Native No domestic high
54 Kans Saccharum spontaneum L Terrestial Native No domestic high

Sagittaria guyanensis subsp.
55 Emergent Native No
lappula (D. Don) Bogin
56 Tukiphul Taraxacum officinale Wigg. Terrestial Native No cultural low

Trapa natans var. bispinosa
57 Singara Free floating Native No food high

(Roxb.) Makino
58 Gurel Trewia nudiflora L. Terrestial Native No food high
59 Pater/ Gonn Typha angustifolia L. Emergent Native No domestic high
60 Pater Typha elephantine Emergent Native No domestic high
61 Unidentified Emergent
62 Sighghor Unidentified Terrestial medicine medium
63 unidentified climber Terrestial
cultural, domestic
64 Nagarwaat Unidentified monocot Emergent Native No high
use
68 Katari jhar Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash Emergent Native No domestic
Wolffia globosa (Roxb.) den Hartog
65 Free floating Native No
& Plas
66 Lapetuwa Xanthium strumarium L. Terrestial Exotic Yes
67 Bayer Zizyphus rugosa Lam. Terrestial Native No food high
9/24/205 0:6:48 AM
Annex 3.7: Ethno-botanical uses of wetland plants
Local
Name Medicinal
traded for an extract of its heartwood
1 Khair Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd Terrestial yes yes
'Kattha' catechu
nodes are ritually chewed during the
2 Datiwan Achyranthes aspera L. Terrestial yes
panchami of 'teej' by the womens
rhizome is used for cough, toothache
3 Bojho Acorus calamus L. Emergent yes
and fever
4 Gandhe Ageratum conyzoides Terrestial
leaf juice for skin diseases, high
5 Nim Azadirachta indica A. Juss Terrestial yes blood pressure, diabetes, pesticides
and insecticides
6 Azolla imbricata (Roxb.) Nakai Free floating
tender shoots (tama) is used to
prepare pickle and curry, the mature
7 Baas Bambusa sp. Terrestial yes yes yes
culm for construction and culturally
important to carry the dead body
8 Kuro Bidens pilosa L. Terrestial
latex is used to cure skin disease,
Calotropis procera (Aiton)
9 Seto aank Terrestial yes boils and to remove thorns (Kuwar
Dryand.
et al. 2009
Leaf juice is used for control
10 Ganja Cannabis sativa L. Terrestial yes bleeding, wound healing and
stomachache.
Junge
11 Capparis spinosa L. Terrestial yes curry is prepared from the fruits
lahara
leaf paste in cuts, wounds, fever and
12 Ghodtapre Centella asiatica (L.) Urban. Terrestial yes

stomach problems
13 Ceratophyllum demersum L. Submerged
115
14 Chara sp Submerged
9/24/205 0:6:48 AM
116
Local
Name Medicinal
Citrus aurantifolia (Christ.)
15 Kagati Terrestial yes Edible
Swingle
16 Karkalo Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Emergent yes leaf are used as vegetable
17 Dubo Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Terrestial yes Fodder
18 Cyperus sp. Emergent
19 Sissoo Delbergia sissoo Roxb. Terrestial yes firewood and furniture

20 Bhringaraj Eclipta prostrata L. Emergent
Eichornia crassipes (Mart.)
21 Jaal kumbi Emergent
Solms.
22 Equisetum sp Terrestial
23 Dudhe Euphorbia hirta Terrestial yes tender shoot as vegetable

24 Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Submerged
Hydrocharis dubia (Blume) Rooted
25
Backer floating
Jangali Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees Rooted
26
dhan ex Wight & Arn. floating
27 Babari Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Terrestial
Kerungo
28 Ipomoea aqaticus Forssk. Emergent yes tender parts as vegetable
saag
29 Baya Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa Emergent
30 Juncus bufonius L. Terrestial
31 Leersia hexandra Free floating
Hansko
32 Lemna minor L. Free floating yes whole plant used to feed ducks
chiura
33 Lemna perpusilla Torrey Free floating
fruit and flower for skin diseases,
Madhuca longifolia (Koenig)
34 Mauwa Terrestial yes yes yes cultural and fruit is used to prepare
Macbride
local wine and chappati
9/24/205 0:6:49 AM
Local
Name Medicinal
35 Lajjawati Mimosa pudica L. Terrestial
36 Naja minor Submerged
whole plant edible, leaf is used to
offer food during marriages and
Rooted
37 Kamal Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. yes yes yes festivals, flower is considered as
floating
sacred and is antidiabetic and
antidepressant
Rooted
38 Nymphaea stellata Willd.
floating
Nymphoides hydrophyllum Rooted
39 Koka
(Lour.) O. Kuntze floating
Rooted
40 Koka Nymphoides indica (L.) Kuntze
floating
Opuntia monacantha (Willd.)
41 Terrestial
Haw.
Jangali
42 Oryza rufipogon Griff. Emergent
dhan
Rooted
43 Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers.
floating
Chari
44 Oxalis acetosella L. Terrestial
amilo
45 Parthenium hysterophorus Terrestial
46 Banso Paspalum distichum L. Emergent
Persicaria barbata var. barbata
47 Emergent
(L.) H. Hara
Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin.
48 Narkat Terrestial yes root as water purifier
Ex Steudel

Polygonum hydropiper (L.)
49 Bishnair Emergent
Spaeck
117
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118
Local
Name Medicinal
50 Polygonum plebeium R. Br. Emergent
Rooted
51 Potamogeton crispus L.
floating
52 Halhale Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Terrestial
thatching and weaving local baskets
53 Munja Saccharum munja Roxb.L Terrestial yes
and ropes
54 Kans Saccharum spontaneum L Terrestial yes Thatch

Sagittaria guyanensis subsp.
55 Emergent
lappula (D. Don) Bogin
56 Tukiphul Taraxacum officinale Wigg. Terrestial yes for worshiping

Trapa natans var. bispinosa
57 Singara Free floating yes fruit is edible

(Roxb.) Makino
58 Gurel Trewia nudiflora L. Terrestial yes fruit is edible
Pater/
59 Typha angustifolia L. Emergent yes mat weaving
Gonn
60 Pater Typha elephantine Emergent
61 unidentified Emergent
62 Sighghor Unidentified Terrestial yes twig to clean teeth
63 unidentified climber Terrestial
weaving mat and paste of rhizome
64 Nagarwaat Unidentified monocot Emergent yes yes yes as pack (bukuwa) for face and body
during marriages
65 Katari jhar Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash Emergent yes root used to extract essential oil
Wolffia globosa (Roxb.) den
66 Free floating
Hartog & Plas
67 Lapetuwa Xanthium strumarium L. Terrestial
68 Bayer Zizyphus rugosa Lam. Terrestial Yes fruit edible
9/24/205 0:6:49 AM
Annex 4.1: Fishes recorded from the JRRS
SN Scientific Name Common Name Nepali/Local Names Remarks

1 Acanthocobotis botia Baghe
2 Amblypharyngodon mola Mola carplet Mada
3 Aspidoparia morar Karangi
4 Badis badis Baadis Pasari
5 Barilius barila Barred barila Faketa
6 Barilius barna Barna baril Titerkane faketa
7 Clarias batrachus Magur Mungri
8 Barilius bendelisis Hamilton’s barila Chiple faketa
9 Channa striatus Banded snakehead Hile
10 Channa punctatus Spotted snakehead Garal
11 Channa orientalis Asiatic snakehead Bhoti
12 Chanda nama Elongate glass-perchlet Chanerbijuwa (Lamcho)
13 Gara gotyla gotyla Gotyla Buduna
14 Gara annandalei Annandale gara Lahare buduna
15 Colisa faciatus Giant gourami Kotori
16 Colisa lalius Dwarf gourami Kotori New record
17 Danio devario Devario danio Bhitti
18 Esomus danricus Flying barb Dedhawa
19 Glossogobius giuris Tank goby Vulvule
20 Heteropneustes fossilis Stinging catfish Singhi
21 Lepidocephalus guntea Guntea loach Sim gadera
22 Schistura sp. NA Gadelo
23 Macrognathus pancalus NA Bami,Kathgainchi
24 Macrognathus aral NA Bami, Gainchi New record
25 Mastacembelus armatus Spiny eel Chuche bam
26 Mystus bleekeri Day’s mystus Tenger
27 Mystus vittatus Striped dwarf catfish Tenger kanti
28 Nandus nandus Mottled nandus Dhoke
29 Notopterus notopterus Grey featherback Lepsi
30 Chitala chitala Humped featherback Vuna, Mai patara
31 Securicula gora Gora-chela Chilwa
32 Salmostoma bacaila Large razorbelly minnow Chilwa, Galphulni
33 Salmostoma acinaces Silver razorbelly minnow Chilwa New record
34 Pseudambassis ranga Glassy fish Chanerbijuwa (Dallo)
35 Pseudambassis baculis Himalayan glassy perchlet Chanari New record
36 Puntius chola Swamp barb Sidre, Pothiya

119
IUCN_Book_205.indd 9 9/24/205 0:6:49 AM

SN Scientific Name Common Name Nepali/Local Names Remarks

37 Puntius conchonius Rosy/Red barb Sidre, Pothi
38 Pontius sophore Spotfin swamp barb Pate sidre
39 Puntius sp. NA Sidre
40 Puntius terio One spot barb Pothi
41 Puntius ticto Firefin barb Tite pothi
42 Parluciosoma daniconius Blackline rasbora Dedhaura
43 Xenentodon cancila Freshwater garfish Kauwa, Kabali

120
IUCN_Book_205.indd 20 9/24/205 0:6:49 AM

Annex.4.2: Herpetofauna from the JRRS
SN Scientific Names Common Names Means of verification

Herpetofauna
Amphibians
1 Bufo melanosticus Black-spined Toad Observation
2 Bufo stomaticus Marbled Toad Observation
3 Microhyla ornata Ornate Narrow-mouthed Frog Literature
4 Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis Skittering Frog Observation
5 Hoplobatrachus crassus Jerdon's Bull Frog Literature
6 Hoplobatrachus tigerinus Indian Bull Frog, Tiger Frog Literature
7 Limnonectes pierrei Pierre's Cricket Frog Observation
8 Limnonectes teraiensis Nepalese Terai Frog Observation
9 Polypedates maculatus Common Indian Tree Frog Literature
10 Sphaerotheca maskeyi Maskey's Burrowing Frog Literature
Reptiles
11 Crocodylus palustris Mugger Crocodile, Marsh Mugger Literature
12 Aspideretes gangeticus Indian Softshell Turtle Observation
13 Indotestudo elongata Elongated Tortoise Literature/Inverview
14 Melanochelys tricarinata Tricarinate Hill Turtle Literature/Inverview
Melanochelys trijuga
15 Eastern Black Turtle Literature/Inverview
indopeninsularis
16 Pangshura tectum Indian Roofted Turtle Literature/Int.
17 Lissemys punctata North Indian Flapshell Turtle Observation
18 Calotes versicolor versicolor Common Garden Lizard Observation
19 Sitana sivalensis Nepalese Fan-throated Lizard Literature
20 Hemidactylus brookii brookii Brook's Hosue Gecko Observation
21 Hemidactylus flaviviridis Yellow-bellied House Gecko Observation
22 Hemidactylus frenatus Bridled House Gecko Observation
23 Asymblepharus sikimmensis Sikkim Skink Observation
24 Lygosoma punctatum Dotted Garden Skink Literature
25 Mabuya carinata Brahminy Skink Observation
26 Mabuya dissimilis Striped Grass Skink Observation
27 Mabuya macularia macularia Bronze Grass Skink Observation
28 Sphenomorphus maculatus Spotty Skink Observation
29 Varanus bengalensis Bengal Monitor Literature/Inverview
30 Varanus flavescens Yellow Monitor Literature/Inverview
31 Rhamphotyphlops braminus Common Blind Snake Literature
32 Python molurus bivittatus Burmese Rock Python Literature/Inverview

121
IUCN_Book_205.indd 2 9/24/205 0:6:49 AM

SN Scientific Names Common Names Means of verification

33 Ahaetulla nasuta Common Vine Snake Literature/Inverview
34 Amphiesma stolatum Buff-striped Keelback Literature
35 Boiga forsteni Forsten's Cat Snake Literature/Inverview
36 Boiga trigonata trigonata Common Cat Snake Literature
37 Chrysopelea ornata ornata Golden Tree Snake Literature/Inverview
38 Dendrelaphis tristis Common Bronzeback Tree Snake Literature/Inverview
39 Enhydris enhydris Common Smooth Water snake Literature/Inverview
40 Enhydris sieboldii Siebold's Smooth Water Snake Literature/Inverview
41 Eryx conica Common Sand Boa Literature/Inverview
42 Eryx johnii johnii John's Sand Boa Literature/Inverview
43 Lycodon aulicus Common Wolf Snake Observation
44 Ptyas mucosa mucosa Asiatic Rat Snake Literature/Inverview
45 Sibynophis sagittaria Cantor's Black-headed Snake Literature/Inverview
46 Xenochrophis cerasogaster Dark-bellied Marsh Snake Literature/Inverview
Xenochrophis flavipuntatus
47 Yellow Spotted Keelback Literature/Inverview
schnurrenbergeri
Chequered Keelback Water
48 Xenochrophis piscator Observation
Snake
49 Bungarus caeruleus Common Krait Observation
50 Bungarus fasciatus Banded Krait Literature/Inverview
51 Naja kaouthia Monocled Cobra Literature/Inverview
52 Naja naja Spectacled Cobra Literature/Inverview
53 Daboia russelii ruselii Russell's Viper Literature/Inverview

122
IUCN_Book_205.indd 22 9/24/205 0:6:49 AM

Annex 4.3: Birds found in the JRRS
Status at
Nepali IUCN Threat Population CITES National
SN English name Scientific Name Habitat Jagdishpur Remark
Name Status trend (Appendix) status
Area
Galliformes
Phasianidae
1 Black Francolin Francolilinus francolinus sfnf] ltqf 1 R Least Concern Stable 1
2 Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus n'OFr] 1 R Least Concern Decreasing Vulnerable 1
3 Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus d'h'/ 1 R Least Concern Stable 1
Anseriformes
Dendrocygnidae
4 Lesser Whistling-duck Dendrocygna javanica l;nl;n] 3 R least Concern Decreasing 3
Anatidae
5 Ruddy Shelduck Tadorna ferruginea rv]jfrv]jL 3 W Least Concern unknown 1
6 Gadwall Anas strepera v8v8] xfF; 3 W Least Concern unknown 5
Near
7 Falcated Duck Anas falcata km's{] xfF; 3 W Decreasing 10
Threatened
8 Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope l;Gb'/] xfF; 3 W Least Concern Decreasing 3
9 Mallard Anas platyrhynchos xl/of]6fps] 3 W Least Concern Decreasing 3
10 Cotton Pigmy-goose Nettapus coromandelianus xl/xfF; 3 R Least Concern Stable Vulnerable 3
11 Common Teal Anas crecca ljh'nfu}/L 3 W Least Concern unknown 5
12 Garganey Anas querquedula Zj]tfFvLef}+ 3 W Least Concern Decreasing 5
13 Northern Pintail Anas acuta ;'O{/f]k'R5]{ 3 W Least Concern Decreasing 5
a]Nrf7'F8]
14 Northern Shoveler Anas clypeata 3 W Least Concern Decreasing 5
xf;F
15 Red-crested Pochard Rhodonessa rufina ;'gh'/] xf;F 3 W Least Concern unknown 5

s}nf]6fps]
16 Common Pochard Aythya ferina 3 W Least Concern Decreasing 5
xfF;
123
9/24/205 0:6:49 AM
Status at
124
Area
Near
17 Ferruginous Pochard Aythya nyroca dfns xfF; 3 W Decreasing Vulnerable 5
Threatened
18 Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula sfnLh'/]xfF; 3 W Least Concern Stable 3
:j0f{gog
19 Goosander Mergus merganser 3 W Least Concern Increasing 1
xfF;
Piciformes
Picidae
tLgcf}+n]
20 Himalayan Goldenback Dinopium shorii 1 R Least Concern Decreasing 1
nfxfFr]
ub{yf]Kn]
21 Greater Goldenback Chrysocolaptes lucidus 1 R Least Concern Decreasing 1

nfxfFr]
Bucerotiformes

Buceriotiodae
22 Indian Grey Hornbill Ocyceros birostris ;fgf] wg]z 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 1
Upupiformes
Upupidae
23 Common Hoopoe upupa epops kmfk|] r/f 1,2 S Least Concern Decreasing 4
Coraciformes
Coraciidae
24 Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis 7]pjf 1,2 R Least Concern Increasing 5
Meropidae
25 Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis d'/nL r/f 1,2 R Least Concern Increasing 4
gLnk'R5|\]
26 Blue-tailed Bee-eater Merops philippinus 1,2 S Least Concern Stable 4
d'/nLr/f
Alcedinidae
9/24/205 0:6:49 AM
Status at
Area
;fgf]
27 Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis 2,3 R Least Concern Unknown 5
df6Lsf]/
Dacelonidae
;]tf]s07]
28 White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis 2,3 R Least Concern Increasing 3
df6Lsf]/]
Cerylidae
l5/la/]
29 Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis 2,3 R Least Concern Unknown 3
df6Lsf]/]
Cuculiformes
Cuculidae
30 Common Hawk Cuckoo Hierococcyx varius aLp s'lxof] 1 S Least Concern Stable 1
sfkmn
31 Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus 1 S Least Concern Stable 3
kfSof]
32 Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopacea sf]OnL 1,2 S Least Concern Stable 1
Centropodidae
33 Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis 9f]8] uf]s'n 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 3
Psittaciformes
Psittacidae
34 Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri s07] ;'uf 1,2 R Least Concern Increasing 4
35 Plum-headed Parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala 6'OF;L ;'uf 1,2 R Least Concern Decreasing 1
Strigiformes
Strigidae
36 Jungle Owlet Glaucidium radiatum 8'G8'n 1 R Least Concern Stable 1
sf]rnufF8]
37 Spotted Owlet Athene brama 1,2 R Least Concern Stable II 3
nf6f]sf];]/f]

Caprimulgiformes
Caprimuligidae
125
9/24/205 0:6:49 AM
Status at
126
Area
nfdk'R5|]
38 Large-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus macrurus 1 R Least Concern Stable 1
r}t]r/f
Columbiformes
Columbidae
39 Common Pigeon Columba livia dn]jf 2 R Least Concern Decreasing 1
40 Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis s'n{]9's'/ 1,2 R Least Concern Increasing 3
41 Eurasian Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto s07] 9's'/ 1,2 R Least Concern Increasing 4
Gruiformes
Gruidae
Vulnerable
42 Sarus Crane Grus antigone ;f/; 2,3 R A2cde +3cde Decreasing II Endangered 3

+4cde
43 Common Crane Grus grus nId0f ;f/; 2,3 W Least Concern Unknown 1
Rallidae
WjfF;]
44 Brown Crake Amaurornis akool 3 R Least Concern Unknown 5
l;ds'v'/f
45 White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus l;ds'v'/f 2,3 R Least Concern Unknown 1
46 Baillion's crake Porzana pusilla lemnL 3 W Least Concern Unknown 6
47 Watercock Gallicrex cinerea hns'v'/f 3 S Least Concern Decreasing 2
48 Purple Swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio s'df{ 3 R Least Concern Unknown 3
aufn]
49 Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus 3 W Least Concern Stable 3
l;ds'v'/f
50 Common Coot Fulica atra d?n 3 W Least Concern Decreasing 5
Ciconiformes 9
Scolopacidae
9/24/205 0:6:49 AM
Status at
Area
51 Pintail Snipe ef/s rfxf 2,3 W Unknown

Gallinago stenura Least Concern
52 Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia l6dl6df 3 W Least Concern Stable 3

?v
53 Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus 3 W Least Concern Stable 5
;'8\;'l8of
Jacanidae
54 Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus hncK;/f 3 R Least Concern Decreasing Endangered 3
55 Bronzed-winged Jacana Metopidius indicus nfdfcf}+n] 3 R Least Concern Unknown 3
Charadridae
n3'
56 Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius 3 W Least Concern Stable 2
/fhk'lqsf
vf]n] Near
57 River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii 3 R Unknown 1
x'l66\ofpF Threatened
58 Grey-headed Lapwing Vanellus cinereus /fhx'l66\ofpF 2,3 W Least Concern Decreasing 5
59 Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus x'l66\ofpF 1,2 R Least Concern Unknown 3
Laridae
/fhf
60 Pallas's Gull Larus ichthyaetus 3 PM Least Concern Decreasing 6
u+ufrLn
sfnf]6fps]
61 Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus 3 W Least Concern Decreasing 1
u+ufrLn
jfo' km\ofn\km\
62 Common Tern sterna hirundo 3 W Least Concern Decreasing 1
ofn]
Endangered
pTqmf]zL
63 Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda 3 R? A2cde +3cde Decreasing 11
km\ofn\km\ofn]
+4cde
l7dfxf

64 Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus 3 PM Least Concern Stable 6
km\ofnkm\ofn]
Accipitridae
127
9/24/205 0:6:49 AM
Status at
128
Area
65 Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus d';] rLn 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 4
66 Black Kite Milvus migrans sfnf] rLn 1,2 W Least Concern Unknown II 3
Endangered
67 Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus ;]tf] lu4 1,2 W A2bcde Decreasing II Vulnerable 3
+3bcde +4bcde
Critically
68 White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis 8+u/ lu4 1,2 R Decreasing II Critical 5

Endangered
;fgf] v}/f] Critically
69 Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris 1,2 R Decreasing II Critical 5
lu4 Endangered
70 Himlayan Vulture Gyps himalayensis lxdfnL lu4 1,2 W - - II Vulnerable 5
71 Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus v}/f] lu4 1,2 W Least Concern Increasing II 5
72 Short-toed Snake Eagle Circaetus gallicus ;k{xf/L rLn 1 W Least Concern Stable II 5

73 Crested Serpent Eagle Spilornis cheela sfsfs'n 1 R Least Concern Stable 1
74 Eurasian Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus l;d eOFrLn 3 W Least Concern Increasing 2
cfa\nfs
75 Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos k]6fxf 1,2 W Least Concern Decreasing II Vulnerable 5
e'OFrLn
76 Crested Goshawk Accipiter trivirgatus sNsL a];/f 1 R Least Concern Decreasing 1
77 Shikra Accipiter badius lzqmf 1,2 R Least Concern Stable II 3
78 Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata n3' dxfrLn 1,2 R Vulnerable Decreasing 11
hLjfxf/ Vulnerable
79 Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga 1,2 W Decreasing II Endangered 5
dxfrLn C2a (ii
80 Changeable Hawk Eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus zbn rLn 1 R Least Concern Decreasing 1
Falconidae
81 Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus af}F}8fO 1,2 W Least Concern Decreasing II 5
82 Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus zfxL afh 1,2 W Least Concern Stable I 5
Podicipedidae
83 Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis 8'a'NsLr/f 3 R Least Concern Decreasing 3
9/24/205 0:6:49 AM
Status at
Area
l;p/]
84 Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus 3 W Least Concern Unknown 3
8'a'NsLr/f
Anhingidae
Near
85 Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster ;'O/f]7'F8] 3 R Decreasing Vulnerable 3
Threatened
Phalacrocoracidae
86 Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger ;fgf hn]jf 3 R Least Concern Unknown 3
87 Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo hn]jf 3 W Least Concern Decreasing 5
Ardeidae
;fgf] ;]tf]
88 Little Egret Egretta garzetta 2,3 R Least Concern Increasing 3
as'Nnf
7"nf] ;]tf]
89 Great Egret Casmerodius albus 2,3 R Least Concern Unknown 5
as'Nnf
demf}nf
90 Intermediate Egret Mesophoyx intermedia 2,3 R Least Concern Decreasing 3
;]tf]as'Nnf
91 Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis j:t' as'Nnf 2,3 R Least Concern Increasing 3
92 Grey Heron Ardea cinerea km';|f] as'Nnf 3 W Least Concern Unknown 5
WofgL
93 Purple Heron Ardea purpurea 3 R Least Concern Decreasing 3
as'Nnf
cf;sf]6
94 Indian Pond Heron Ardeola grayii 2,3 R Least Concern Unknown 3
as'Nnf
5f]6fv'6\6]
95 Little Heron Butorides striatus 3 R? Least Concern Unknown 2
as'Nnf
kx]+nf]
96 Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis 3 S,R? Least Concern Unknown 7
h"gas'Nnf
/ftf]
97 Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus 3 S,R? Least Concern Stable 7

h"gas'Nnf
Threskiornithidae
129
9/24/205 0:6:49 AM
Status at
130
Area
Near
98 Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus ;]tf] ;fFj/L 2,3 W Decreasing 8
Threatened
99 Red-naped Ibis Pseudibis papillosa s/f{ ;fFj/L 2,3 R Least Concern Decreasing 3
Ciconiidae
100 Asian Openbill Anastomus oscitans 3'FuLkmf]/ u?8 2,3 R Least Concern Unknown Vulnerable 3
Vulnerable
nf]eLkfkL
101 Asian Woolyneck Ciconia episcopus 2,3 R A2cd +3cd Decreasing 2
u?8
+4cd
102 White Stork Ciconia ciconia ;]tf]u?8 2,3 PM Least Concern Increasing Vulnerable 9
103 Black Stork Ciconia nigra sfnf] u?8 3 W Least Concern Unknown 1
Vulnerable
104 Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus e'F8Lkmf]/ u?8 2,3 R A2cd +3cd Decreasing Vulnerable 3

+4cd
Passeriformes
Laniidae
105 Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus v}/f] eAfO{ 1,2 W Least Concern Decreasing 2
106 Bay-backed Shrike Lanius vittatus lrqs eAfO{ 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 1
107 Long-tailed Shrike Lanius schach eAfO{ 1,2 R Least Concern Unkmnown 3
Corvidae
108 Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda sfsn] 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 4
109 House Crow Corvus splendens 3/ sfu 2 R Least Concern Stable 3
110 Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorhynchos sfnf] sfu 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 3
ufhn]
111 Eurasian Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus 1,2 S Least Concern Stable 1
;'gr/L
sfnf]6fps]
112 Black-hooded Oriole Oriolus xanthornus 1,2 R Least Concern Unknown 4
;'gr/L
113 Small Minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus ;fgf] /fgLr/L 1 R Least Concern Stable 1
114 Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus sfnf] lra] 1,2 R Least Concern Unknown 4
9/24/205 0:6:50 AM
Status at
Area
115 White-bellied Drongo Dicrurus caerulescens ;]tf]k]6] lra] 1 R Least Concern Unknown 1
116 Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus ;fgf] lra] 1 R Least Concern Unknown 1
Greater Racket-tailed
117 Dicrurus paradiseus eLd/fh lra] 1 R Least Concern Decreasing 1
Drongo
118 Common Iora Aegithina tiphia ;';]nLr/L 1 R Least Concern Unknown 1
119 Large Cuckooshrike Tephrodornis gularis 7'nf] 6]Gyf 1 R Least Concern Stable 2
120 Common Woodshrike Tephrodornis pondicerianus 6]Gyf 1 R Least Concern Stable 1
Muscicapidae
nfns07]
121 Red-throated Flycatcher Ficedula parva 1,2 W Least Concern Stable 3
ch'{gs
l6sl6s]
122 Slaty-blue Flycatcher Ficedula tricolor 1 W Least Concern Stable 1
ch'{gs
gf}gLs07]
123 Pale-chinned Flycatcher Cyornis poliogenys 1 R Least Concern Decreasing 1
ch'{gs
e'ldr/
124 Bluethroat Luscinia svecica 1 W Least Concern Stable 5
gLns07
125 Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata b]jL Zofdf 1 R Least Concern Stable 1
WofKrL
126 Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros 1 W Least Concern Increasing 4
vGh/L
em]sem]s
127 Common Stonechat Saxicola torquata 1,2 W Least Concern Stable 4
em\ofK;L
sfF;]
128 White-tailed Stonechat Saxicola leucura 1,2 W Least Concern Stable 2
em\ofK;L
sfn]
129 Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata R Least Concern Stable 4
em\ofK;L 1,2
Sturnidae

130 Brahminy Starling Sturnus pagodarum h'/] ;f/f}F 1,2 R Least Concern Unknown 1
131 Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra 8fGu|] ;f/f}F 1,2 R Least Concern Increasing 4
131
9/24/205 0:6:50 AM
Status at
132
Area
132 Common Myna Acridotheres tristis 8fGu|] ?kL 1,2 R Least Concern Increasing 3
133 Bank Myna Acridotheres ginginianus eL7 ?kL 1,2 R Least Concern Increasing 1
Hirundinidae
;]tf]s07]
134 Pale Martin Riparia diluta 2,3 W Least Concern Unknown 2
eLQ]uf}+ynL
135 Plain Martin Riparia paludicola eLQ] uf}+ynL 2,3 W Least Concern Decreasing 4
136 Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica 3/ uf}+ynL 2 W Least Concern Decreasing 4

u]?s6L
137 Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica 2 W Least Concern Stable 2
uf}+ynL
Pycononotidae
Zj]tjIf
138 Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 1

h'/]nL
139 Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer h'/]nL 1,2 R Least Concern Increasing 1
Cisticolidae
emfFqmL
140 Plain Prinia Prinia inornata R Least Concern Stable 3
3fF;]lkm:6f] 1,2
6'06's\
141 Ashy Prinia Prinia socialis 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 3
3fF;]lkm:6f]
142 Zitting Cisticola Cisticola juncidis lkm/]lkm/] 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 4
Sylviidae
kftl;pg]
143 Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 1
lkm:6f]
df]6f]7"F8]
144 Thick-billed Warbler Acrocephalus aedon 1,2 W Least Concern Decreasing 2
6\ofs6\ofs]]
145 Blyth's Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum 6\ofs6\ofs] 1,2 W Least Concern Increasing 2
lrk\lrk]
146 Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita 1,2 W Least Concern Increasing 2
lkm:6f]
147 Smoky Warbler Phylloscopus fuligiventer Wjf;] lkm:6f] 1 W Least Concern Stable 3
9/24/205 0:6:50 AM
Status at
Area
uf]w'nL
148 Dusky Warbler Phyllosscopus fuscatus 1,2 W Least Concern Stable 1
lkm:6f]
rGrn]
149 Hume's Warbler Phylloscopus humei 1,2 W Least Concern Stable 5
lkm:6f]
150 Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides hLjn lkm:6f] 1,2 W Least Concern Increasing 3
sfnf]lrpF8f]
151 Black-chinned Babbler Stachyris pyrrhops 1 R Least Concern Stable 1
jgEofs'/
152 Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus aufn] Eofs''/ 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 1
Alaudidae
153 Rufous-winged Lark Mirafra assamica ef/4fh 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 2
Ashy-crowned Sparrow rZd]
154 Eremopterix grisea 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 3
Lark ef/4fh
Nectariniidae
sfnf]
155 Purple Sunbird Nectarinia asiatica 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 1
a'Gu]r/f
Passeridae
156 House Sparrow Passer domesticus 3/ eFu]/f 2 R Least Concern Decreasing 1
Chestnut-shouldered kLts07]
157 Petronia xanthocollis 1 R Least Concern Stable 1
Petronia eFu/f
158 White Wagtail Motacilla alba ;]tf] l6sl6s] 2,3 W Least Concern Stable 2
vf]n]
159 White-browed Wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis 2,3 W Least Concern Stable 1
l6sl6s]
a];f/]
160 Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola 2,3 W Least Concern Stable 2
l6sl6s]
km';|f]
161 Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea 2,3 W Least Concern Stable 2
l6sl6s]

162 Paddyfield Pipit Anthus rufulus cfnL r'OofF 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 3
133
9/24/205 0:6:50 AM
Status at
134
Area
w'lnsf
163 Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris W Least Concern Stable 5
r'OofF 1,2
164 Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni ?v r'OofF 1,2 W Least Concern Stable 5
5ftLsfn]
165 Black-breasted Weaver Ploceus benghalensis 1 R Least Concern Stable Vulnerable 5
tf]kr/f
166 Baya Weaver Ploceus Philippinus aof tf]]kr/f 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 1
167 Red Avadavat Amandava amandava /ftf] d'lgofF 1,2 R Least Concern Stable 5
sfnf]6fps]]
168 Black-headed Munia Lonchura malacca 1,2 R Least Concern Stable Vulnerable 2
d'lgofF
Status. R: resident, W: winter visitor, S: summer visitor, PM: passage migrant, ?: status
uncertain
Source. (1) Observed, (2) Baral,2008 , (3) Observed, Thapa & Saund ;2012, Baral;2008 , (4)

Observed , Baral ,2008, (5) Thapa & Saunud;2012 , Baral; 2008 , (6) Baral & Chaudhary ;2006,
(7) Observed , DNPWC & IUCN;2003, (8) Observed , IBA, (9) Cox; 1978 ,(10) Chaudhary &
Giri; 2006, (11) DNPWC & IUCN ;2003)
IUCN Red List Status & CITES Appendix follows Birdlife International.
Habitat : (1) Forest/Grassland & Secondary Growth(2) Farmland/Urban Area (3) Wetland
9/24/205 0:6:50 AM
Annex 4.4: Mammals recorded from the JRRS
SN Scientific name Common Name Means of verification

1 Lepus nigricollis Indian Hare Literature./Interview
2 Funambulus pennantii Five Striped Palm Squirrel Observation
3 Petaurista petaurista Red giant flying squirrel Interview
4 Rattus norvegicus Brown Rat Literature./Interview
5 Rattus rattus House Rat Literature/Interview
6 Hystrix indica Indian Crested Porcupine Literature/Interview
7 Paguma larvata Masked palm civet Literature/Interview
8 Viverra zibetha Large Indian civet Literature/Interview
9 Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Asian palm civet Literature/Interview
10 Felis chaus Jungle cat Interview
11 Felis bengalensis Leopard cat Interview
12 Neofelis nebulosa Clouded leopard Interview
13 Panthera pardus Common Leopard Literature./Interview
14 Prionailurus viverrinus Fishing cat Literature./Interview
15 Prionailurus bengalensis Leopard cat Literature./Interview
16 Herpestes edwardsii Indian Grey Mongoose Observation
17 Herpestes urva Crab-eating Mongoose Literature/Interview
18 Vulpes bengalensis Bengal Fox Signs/Interview
19 Canis aureus Asiatic Golden Jackal Signs/Interview
20 Canis lupus Grey wolf Interview
21 Melursus ursinus Sloth bear Literature/Intv
22 Lutrogale perspicillata Smooth-coated Otter Signs/Interview
23 Martes flavigula Yellow-throated Marten Literature/Interview
24 Shrew sp. Shrew Interview
25 Rhinolophus sps. Horshoeshoe Bat Literature/Interview
26 Bat spp. Bats Literature/Interview
27 Semnopithecus schistaceus Terai Langur Literature/Interview
28 Macaca mulatta Rhesus Macaque Literature/Interview
29 Sus scrofa Wild Boar Signs/Interview
30 Muntiacus vaginalis Barking Deer Literature/Interview
31 Axis axis Chital Signs/Interview
32 Boselaphus tragocamelus Blue bull Signs/Interview

135
IUCN_Book_205.indd 35 9/24/205 0:6:50 AM

Annex 5.1: Indicators for livelihoods assessment
SN Areas of Enquiry Indicators

• Caste and ethnicity
1 Demographic
• Population characteristics Literacy
• Average land holding size
2 Land distribution
• Land tenancy
3 Livestock population • Number of cow, buffalo, goat, sheep etc.
• Occupation
4 Economic activities • Household in enterprises
• Household in tourism related activities
• Number of months of food sufficiency from
5 Food sufficiency agriculture and permanent source of income
• Coping strategies
• Consumption of firewood and sources of
consumption
6 Forest resource use
• Main source of energy for cooking
• Plantation of forestry crops
• Dependence with wetlands products and
services
7 Wetland products and services
• Value of wetland products consumed
• Value of wetland products harvested
• Human death/injury
7 Human wildlife conflicts • Cattle loss/injury
• Crop raiding etc
• Drinking water
• Toilet
8 Access to infrastructures, services and facilities • Irrigation
• Electricity/Financial institutions
• Agriculture/livestock services
• Farm
• Non-farm
9 Income
• Wetland related income
• Forest related income
Annex 5.2: Proportion of HHs with toilets by caste group
No of % of HHs with
Caste group
respondents No toilet Pit toilet Modern toilet Flush)
Hill Brahman/Chhetri 77 5.2 2.6 92.2
Hill Dalit 30 26.7 16.7 56.7
Hill Janajati 43 9.3 7.0 83.7
Muslim 55 38.2 7.3 54.5
Terai Dalit 76 53.9 9.2 36.8
Terai Others 61 59.0 11.5 29.5
Terai Brahman/Chhetri 42 23.8 7.1 69.0

136
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Annex 6.1: Criteria for capacity assessment of community institutions

Areas Indicators Variables Score
No meeting within last one year 1
Meeting are irregular 2
1. Meeting of the organization
Meeting are organized as required/regularly and
3
participation is high (More than 50%)
No decision are made 1
2. Decision making process Decisions are made through majority 2
Decision are made through consensus 3
No information flow, less contact with the users 1
Irregular and interpersonal communication, more than half
2
3. Information flow (50%) of the people are not aware of what is happening
Frequent interaction between the members and group, all
3
aware of what is happening in the group
Organization No constitutions 1
Constitution by laws prepared, office bearer are not aware
2
4. Group constitutions of it
Constitution by laws prepared but majority of people are
3
aware of it
Documents are unmanaged 1
Some of the files maintained but weak management 2
5. Record keeping system
All the official documents including constitutions are in right
3
placed and well managed way
In adequate office set-up for routine work 1
6. Office set-up Limited infrastructure for office work 2
Have own building 3
Maximum score 18
No 1
1. Technical staff Few but they are part time 2
Support from DFO/DADO 3
Few 1
2. Managerial Staff Sufficient but not qualified 2
Qualified and well trained 3
Human Resource
Few 1
3. Training and development
Sufficient but not qualified 2
activities
Qualified volunteer from I/NGO, College / foreign 3
No 1
4. Enterprise Few 2
Sufficient 3

137
IUCN_Book_205.indd 37 9/24/205 0:6:50 AM


No 1
5. Wetland management Few but not interested for services 2
Few with basic knowledge 3
Human Resource No 1
6. Tourism Few with basic knowledge 2
Sufficient for tourism promotion 3
Maximum score 18
Meeting are not held according to constitutions and less
1
than 50% of members participate
Meeting are not held according to constitutions and more
1. Participation in meeting 2
50% of members participate
Meeting are held according to constitutions and more 50%
3
of members participate
No annual plan prepared 1
2. Annual plan preparation Committee proposes and decide themselves 2
and implementation Plan prepared following participatory processes and
3
consensus
No special provision are made for increasing
1
representation of DAGs
3. Representation of
Special provision are made for representation of DAGs, but
disadvantage group in 2
not implemented
executive committee
Special provision are made for increasing representation
3
Participation DAGs, and represents in key position
No special provision are made for representation of women 1
Special provision are made for representation Women, but
4. Representation of women 2
not implemented
in executive committee
Special provision are made for increasing representation of
3
women, represents in key position
Women don’t speak and also don’t try to speak 1
Women try to speak but they are not heard 2
5. Participation of women in
decision making processes Environment is created for women to speak out and priority
is given for women, and decision are made listening their 3
voice
SDG don’t speak and also don’t try to speak 1
6. Participation of SDG (Poor,
SDG try to speak but they are not heard 2
WDC and Dalit) in decision
making processes Environment is created for SDG to speak out and priority is
3
given for SDG, and decision are made listening their voice
Maximum score 18

138
IUCN_Book_205.indd 38 9/24/205 0:6:50 AM


1. Recordings the minutes
and follow up of the decisions Minutes are not kept and no actions carried out 1
of minutes
Minutes are kept, but decisions are not implemented or
2
monitored
Minutes are kept, decisions are partially implemented or
3
monitored
No programmes planned 1
2. Biodiversity conservation Programmes planned and partially implemented 2
Programmes planned, fully implemented 3
No programmes planned 1
3. Community development Programmes planned and partially implemented 2
Programmes planned, fully implemented 3
Management No programmes planned 1
4. Income generation and skill
Programmes planned and partially implemented 2
enhancement
Programmes planned, fully implemented, 3
Equal for all, not targeted 1
Some programmes are conducted in planned way targeting
2
5. Benefit/ Resource sharing them
Special provision have been made for ensuring equitable
3
distribution
No leaders, not functioning 1
Majority of the leaders (50%) are not aware of roles and
2
responsibilities
6. Leadership quality
Majority of the leaders are not aware of roles and
3
responsibilities, and decision are made in participatory way
Maximum score 18
No resources/revenue of the group 1
Resources generated through enterprise and tourism
2
1. Resource generation activities
Resources are generated through other regular sources
3
(support of other agencies)
Not utilized 1
2. Utilization of fund Less utilized (less than 50% of resource) 2
Financial management Fully utilized (More than 75%) 3
No prioritization of programmes/activities 1
3. Prioritization in wetland
Programmes is conducted without prioritisation 2
management
Programmes are conducted with prioritisation 3
4. Prioritization in enterprise
development

139
IUCN_Book_205.indd 39 9/24/205 0:6:50 AM


5. Prioritization in tourism
development
Financial management Records of the funds are not systematically 1
6. Fund management Records are managed but not audited 2
Records of funds are systematically, audited, endorsed 3
Maximum score 18
1. Coordination and linkages None 1

with other community Occasionally information sharing 2
development groups Programme implemented in partnership 3
None 1
2. Coordination and linkages
Occasionally information sharing 2
with I/NGO
Programme implemented in partnership 3
None 1
3. Coordination and linkages Regular information sharing, inviting or participating in
2
local government each other activities
None 1
Linkages and 4. Coordination and linkages Regular information sharing, inviting or participating in
2
Coordination with DFO each other activities
None 1
5. Programme implemented
Regular information sharing, inviting or participating in
in partnership with other 2
each other activities
agencies
None 1
Rarely, getting support from implementation of programme
6. Extent of generation and
from other agencies (Less than 20 percent of total 2
mobilization of external
programme budget from external support)
resources
Getting support from other agencies (More than 50% of
3
total programme activity from external sources)
Maximum score 18

140
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Annex 7.1: Bird watching tour packages
Packages Activities and places

Observing birds at Lumbini Crane Santuary and adjoining areas of Lumbini and
visiting the Buddha’s birthplace. Or,
1 day package
Observing birds at Jagadispur wetland and adjoining areas and also visiting
Buddha’s birthplace and Tilaurakot palace.
Day -1: Observing birds at LCS and visiting Mayadevi Temple (Buddha’s
2 days package birthplace).
Day-2: Observing birds at Jagadispur Reservoir and visiting Tilaurakot.
birthplace).
3 days package Day-2: Observing birds at Jagadispur Reservoir and visiting Tilaurakot.
Day 3: Observing birds at Gaidahawa Lake (In Bishnupura, Rupandehi), Tellar
River and Dano River
birthplace).
Day-2: Observing birds at Jagadispur Reservoir and visiting Tilaurakot.
Day 3: Observing birds at Gaidahawa Lake (In Bishnupura, Rupandehi), Tellar
4 to 6 days package River and Dano River
Day 4, 5 & 6: Observing birds at Tinau River, farmlands of Lumbini, lakes in
the surrounding villages and visiting other Buddhist heritage sites and cultural
villages. Or, spending 2 or more days in the same location such as Jagadispur
wetland, LCS etc.

141
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142
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INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR
CONSERVATION OF NATURE
Nepal Country Office
Kupondole, Lalitpur
P.O.Box 3923, Kathmandu, Nepal
INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE
Tel: +977 1 5528781 Nepal Country Office
Fax: +977 1 5536786
I
Email: [email protected]
www.iucn.org/nepal
Norad Convention
on Wetlands
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Biodiversity and Livelihood Assessment in Jagadishpur Reservoir Ramsar Site

Book · July 2015

Gyanendra Dhakal Rajendra Khanal

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Sony Baral Bijendra Basnyat

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Valuation of ecosystem services in Siwalik Mountain View project

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"WETLANDS FOR THE FUTURE"

Biodiversity and Livelihoods Assessment in

International Union for Conservation of Nature

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Biodiversity and Livelihoods Assessment in

Published by: IUCN Nepal, Kupondole, Lalitpur, Nepal

ISBN No: 978-9937-8467-1-4

International Union for Conservation of Nature

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IUCN would like to thank B&B Research IUCN Nepal

International Union for Conservation of Nature

International Union for Conservation of Nature

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Abbreviations & Acronyms

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International Union for Conservation of Nature

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2 Jagadishpur reservoir ramsar site 5

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Unit Previous checklist Present checklist

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 Majority of the population (74.1%) is literate

International Union for Conservation of Nature

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 Jagadishpur Reservoir Management Multi-stakeholder Forum has been formed under

International Union for Conservation of Nature

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International Union for Conservation of Nature

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International Union for Conservation of Nature

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International Union for Conservation of Nature

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Map 1.1: Project VDCs/municipalities

International Union for Conservation of Nature

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This study serves as a benchmark study of command area, which is considered as

The Jagadishpur Reservoir Ramsar

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JAGADISHPUR RESERVOIR RAMSAR SITE

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