Mangrove Atlas of Andhra Pradesh Province India PDF

ATLAS OF
MANGROVE WETLANDS
OF INDIA
Part 2 - Andhra Pradesh
T. Ravishankar
L. Gnanappazham
R. Ramasubramanian
D. Sridhar
M. Navamuniyammal
V. Selvam
M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Chennai, India
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

3rd Cross Street, Institutional Area,
Taramani, Chennai - 600 113, India.
Telephone
: + 91(44) 22541 229

+ 91(44) 22541 698
Fax
: + 91(44) 22351 319
E-mail
: [email protected]
[email protected]
MSSRF/MG/03/15
March 2004
Government of India, Copyright 2002

Based on Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India.
The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher.
The territorial waters of India extended into the sea up to a distance of 12 nautical miles
measured from the appropriate base line.
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, without permission.
This Atlas was prepared with the generous support of the India-Canada Environment Facility, New Delhi, through
the project Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove Conservation and Management.
Printed and Designed by

TTK Healthcare Limited - Printing Division
328, GST Road, Chromepet
Chennai - 600 044.
FOREWORD
The multi-functionality of mangrove ecosystems is now widely recognized. They serve
as barriers to coastal storms, conservers of soil, supporters of sustainable fisheries,
providers of medical products and fuel wood and fodder, habitats of wide range of flora
and fauna, sources of genes for sea water tolerance and above all as the flagship of natures
ecological security system in coastal estuaries. MSSRF with support from the India - Canada
Environment Facility, has been engaged in fostering the sustainable management of
mangrove wetlands in the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal
during the last 6 years. This project has yielded valuable results on the quantitative and qualitative aspects of mangrove
wetlands with particular reference to the impact of anthropogenic pressures on the ecosystem on the one hand, and the
benefits arising from ecorestoration and mangrove rehabilitation programmes on the other. The data have been compiled
in the form of GIS maps which have formed the basis for a series of Atlases. The first Atlas of Mangrove wetlands of
Tamil Nadu was published in 2002. The present Atlas gives detailed information on the mangrove wetlands of both
Godavari and Krishna river basins of Andhra Pradesh. The Atlases have been designed as tools for public policy and
public action. I hope this atlas will be used to not only conserve the unique mangrove wetlands of Andhra Pradesh but
also to enhance their coverage and beneficial social, spiritual, environmental and economic impact.
I am grateful to all listed in the acknowledgements for their invaluable help and advice, but for which this work could
not have been done. I also express my gratitude to Dr. T. Ravishankar, L. Gnanappazham, R. Ramasubramanian,
D. Sridhar, M. Navamuniyammal and Dr. V. Selvam for their hard and dedicated work, which has opened up a new era of
hope in the history of the conservation and sustainable and equitable use of the mangrove wetlands of Andhra Pradesh.
Chennai
December 2003
M. S. Swaminathan
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Forest Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh, for providing facilities for data collection
and ground truthing.
We would like to express our thanks to
Mr S. K. Das, I.F.S,. Principal Chief Conservator of Forests; Mr . K. Subba Rao, IFS; and Mr . S. D. Mukherjee
IFS, former Principal Chief Conservators of Forests;
Mr T. Ramakrishna, IFS; Mr. J. V. K. T. Prabakar Rao, IFS, Mr. Manoranjan Bhanja, IFS, Conservators of
Forests.
Mr. K. Ravi Kumar, IFS., Mr. K. Prakasha Rao and Mr. Thatha Rao Deputy Conservators of Forests.
Mr. C. V. Satyanarayana, Shri. M. V. V. Satyanarayana, and Mr. Mallikarjuna Rao, Forest Range Officers, and the
staff of Coringa and Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary
Dr. H M. Kasim and Dr. R. Narayanakumar, Scientists, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI)
Mr. Venkatesh Salagrama, Integrated Coastal Management, Kakinada for their help.
We are grateful to Prof. M.S.Swaminathan, Chairman, MSSRF, for his encouragement, guidance and support in the
preparation of this Atlas. We would like to thank Dr. M. Velayutham, Executive Director, MSSRF, for his guidance and
support, Prof P. C. Kesavan, Former Executive Director, MSSRF for his support in preparing this Atlas. Mr. S.
Krishnakumar and Mr. N. Veerabadrarao, MSSRF, for their valuable contributions in the preparation of maps. The
advice and encouragement by Dr. L. R. A. Narayan, Distinguished Fellow, MSSRF, is gratefully acknowledged.
Our thanks are due to Mr. Allen Ferguson and Mr. Bernard Boudreau, former Directors, of the India-Canada
Environment Facility (ICEF), New Delhi; Shri. Ujjwal Choudary, Director, ICEF, Dr. Jaya Chatterji, Senior Project
Officer, ICEF; and members of the Joint Project Steering Committee of ICEF, the Project Management Committee,
the State Guidance Committee and the Joint Working Groups of the Project for their encouragement and continued
support.
We are thankful to Dr. Shailash Nayak, Space Application Centre, Ahmadabad; Dr. C. B. S. Dutt, Scientist, National
Remote Sensing Agency; Dr. B. R. Subramaniam, Director, Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Programme,
Department of Ocean Development, Government of India.
We thank the fishers and farmers of eight village level institutions, Mandal officials, Village Sarpanchs of Krishna
and Godavari mangrove areas for their active participation.
CONTRIBUTORS
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation
Dr. T. Ravishankar
Ethnobotanist and Principal Scientist
Dr. R. Ramasubramanian
Mangrove Ecologist
Ms. L. Gnanappazham
GIS Specialist
Ms. M. Navamuniyammal
GIS Specialist
Dr. D. Sridhar
Mangrove Ecologist
Mr. Md. Najeebullah Shariff
Social Scientist
Mr. S. Sankaramurthy
Former Project Director
Prof. S. Chelliah
Former Project Director
Mr. K. Johnson
Former Project Officer
Mr. D. Ramakrishna
Former Hydrogeologist
Mr. M. M. Jeelani
Former Agronomist
Mr. N. Srinivasa Rao
Former Social Scientist
Dr. Md. Maqbool
Former Agronomist
Dr. R. Krishnamurthy
Former GIS Specialist
Andhra Pradesh Forest Department

Mr. A.V. Joseph
Conservator of Forests
Mr. Ramesh Kalghatghi
Mr. Hitesh Malhotra
Additional PCCF
Mr. H.C. Mishra
Mr. N. Varaprasada Rao
State Silviculurist
Mr. N. Bhujanga Rao
Forest Range Officer
vii
CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv
CONTRIBUTORS
1.
Introduction
1.1
Distribution of Mangroves
1.2
Mangroves of India
2.
Mangrove Wetlands of Andhra Pradesh
2.1.
Floristic diversity of Mangroves of Andhra Pradesh
2.2.
Rivers of Andhra Pradesh
2.3
Godavari River Basin
2.4
Krishna River Basin
12
Godavari Mangrove wetland
17
3.1.
Geomorphology
17
3.2.
Remote sensing imagery
17
3.3
Reserve Forests
20
3.4
Flora of the Mangrove Forest
21
3.5.
Mangrove Species Zonation
27
3.6.
Soil properties
30
3.7.
Hydrological conditions
30
3.8.
Wood and Fishery resources
39
3.9.
Socio-economic condition
43
3.10.
Live stock
53
3.11.
Land use around mangroves
56
3.12
Dependency
60
3.13.
Causes for degradation
67
3.14.
Present management practices
68
3.15.
Restoration and Redevelopment
69
ix
Page
3.16.
Changes in mangrove vegetation between 1975 and 1986
72
3.17.
74
3.18.
74
3.19.
Shoreline changes
77
4.
Krishna Mangrove Wetland
81
4.1.
Geomorphology
81
4.2.
Remote Sensing Imagery
81
4.3.
Reserve forests
84
4.4.
Mangrove Species Zonation
92
4.5.
Soil properties
92
4.6.
Hydrological conditions
92
4.7.
Wood and Fishery resources
98
4.8.
Socio-economic condition
100
4.9.
Land use
112
4.10.
Dependency
116
4.11
Causes of degradation
120
4.12.
Restoration and Redevelopment
122
4.13
Joint Mangrove Management
123
4.14.
125
4.15.
127
4.16
Shoreline changes
127
5.
Long Term Management
131
REFERENCES
136
MAPS
Page
Map 1.1
Distribution of mangroves in India
Map 2.1
Distribution of Mangroves in Andhra Pradesh
Map 2.2
Rivers flowing through Andhra Pradesh
Map 2.3
Godavari River Basin
10
Map 2.4
River Godavari
11
Map 2.5
Krishna River Basin
13
Map 2.6
River Krishna
14
Godavari Mangrove Wetland

Map 3.1
Geomorphology
16
Map 3.2
Landsat 5 TM Remote Sensing Imagery of Godavari delta - 1986
18
Map 3.3
IRS 1D LISS III Remote Sensing Imagery of Godavari delta - 2001
19
Map 3.4
Reserve Forest
23
Map 3.5a
Mangrove Species Zonation Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
28
Map 3.5b
Mangrove Species Zonation Non Sanctuary Area
29
Map 3.6
Soil Salinity
31
Map 3.7
Soil pH
32
Map 3.8
Soil Phosphorus
33
Map 3.9
Tidal Amplitude
34
Map 3.10
Water Salinity
35
Map 3.11
Water Temperature
36
Map 3.12
Water Temperature in Kakinada Bay
37
Map 3.13
Water Salinity in Kakinada Bay
38
Map 3.14
Fishery Resources - Coringa Wildlife Sancturary
40
Map 3.15
Mangrove User Villages
45
Map 3.16a
Population - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
46
Map 3.16b
Population - Non Sanctuary Area
47
Map 3.17a
Occupation - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
48
xi
Map 3.17b
Occupation - Non Sanctuary Area
49
Map 3.18
Infrastructure
51
Map 3.19
Income Range
52
Map 3.20a
Livestock - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
54
Map 3.20b
Livestock - Non Sanctuary Area
55
Map 3.21a
Landuse Map - 1986
57
Map 3.21b
Landuse Map - 1998
58
Map 3.21c
Landuse Map - 2001
59
Map 3.22a
Dependency - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
62
Map 3.22b
Dependency - Non Sanctuary Area
63
Map 3.22c
Dependency on Mangroves in JMM Villages
66
Map 3.23
Changes in vegetation between 1975 and 1986
73
Map 3.24
75
Map 3.25
76
Map 3.26
Shoreline changes
78
Map 3.27
Villages abutting Mangroves
79

Map 4.1
Geomorphology
80
Map 4.2
Landsat 5 TM Remote Sensing Imagery of Krishna delta - 1986
82
Map 4.3
IRS 1D LISS III Remote Sensing Imagery of Krishna delta - 2001
83
Map 4.4
Reserve Forest
86
Map 4.5a
Mangrove Species Zonation - Western Part
90
Map 4.5b
Mangrove Species Zonation - Eastern Part
91
Map 4.6
Soil pH
93
Map 4.7
Soil Phosphorous
94
Map 4.8
Tidal Amplitude
95
Map 4.9
Water Salinity
96
Map 4.10
Water Temperature
97
Map 4.11
102
xii
Map 4.12a
Population - Western Part
104
Map 4.12b
Population - Eastern Part
105
Map 4.13a
Occupation - Western Part
106
Map 4.13b
Occupation - Eastern Part
107
Map 4.14
Infrastructure
108
Map 4.15
Income Range in JMM Villages
109
Map 4.16a
Livestock - Western Part
110
Map 4.16b
Livestock - Eastern Part
111
Map 4.17a
Landuse Map - 1986
113
Map 4.17b
Landuse Map - 1996
114
Map 4.17c
Landuse Map - 2001
115
Map 4.18a
Dependency - Western Part
118
Map 4.18b
Dependency - Eastern Part
119
Map 4.19
Villages abutting Mangroves
124
Map 4.20
126
Map 4.21
128
Map 4.22
Shoreline changes
129
TABLES
Table 1
Estimates of mangrove areas given by various authors
Table 2
Area of Mangrove Vegetation in Coastal States of India
Table 3
Mangrove species found in Andhra Pradesh
Table 4
Reserve Forest areas in Godavari Wetland
20
Table 5
Particulars of Fishing Craft and Fish landing near Coringa Mangroves (2001-2002)
41
Table 6
Mangrove User Villages in Godavari
44
Table 7
Details of Restoration and Mangrove Management Units - Godavari
71
Table 8
Changes in Mangrove Area (in ha)
74
Table 9
Mangrove User Villages in Krishna
101
Table 10
Details of Restoration and Mangrove Management Units - Krishna
123
xiii
ABBREVIATION
EDC
Eco-Development Committee
RRA
Rapid Rural Appraisal
PRA
Participatory Rural Appraisal
MSSRF
M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation
MMU
Mangrove Management Unit
JMM
Joint Mangrove Management
JFM
Joint Forest Management
FD
Forest Department
VSS
Vana Samrakshana Samithi
RF
Reserve Forest
VLI
Village Level Institution
IRS
Indian Remote Sensing Satellite
LISS
Linear Image Self Scanning System
TM
Thematic Mapper
IUCN
International Union for the conservations of Nature and Natural resources
FSI
Forest Survey of India
xiv
ATLAS OF MANGROVE WETLANDS OF INDIA

Part 2 - Andhra Pradesh
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
angroves are plants that occur along the inter- tidal zones of tropical and subtropical areas between 32o N and
38o S, mostly on the eastern coast of continents. Mangrove forests cover the areas between low and high
water levels. The plant communities of the mangrove wetlands are able to survive in estuarine conditions and
adapt to the environment through unique characteristics stilt roots, viviparous seeds, salt glands, salt-excluding mechanism,
thick cuticles (wax coated leaf surfaces), leathery leaves and pneumatophores (roots for breathing).
They perform many protective, productive and economic functions. Mangrove forests near estuarine areas act as a
barrier against cyclones and mitigate their effects. They prevent storm water from entering the mainland and prevent soil
erosion along the coastal areas. Mangrove wetlands serve as spawning and nursery grounds for many economically
important estuarine/marine fishes and shellfishes; their impact on ecology is equally significant: they harbour many
resident and migratory birds.
Though the mangrove ecosystem is highly productive and has multiple uses, mangroves suffered serious neglect till
very recently. They are undergoing widespread degradation due to a combination of physical, biological, anthropogenic
and social factors. Human-induced stresses and factors - such as unscientific management practices, changes in water
quality, soil salinity, diversion of fresh water upstream, and conversion of mangrove wetlands for aquaculture, salt pans
and other land use practices have reduced mangrove vegetation. The reduction in fresh water flow into the mangrove
ecosystem has generated conditions of hypersalinity, and reduced the transportation of sediments that would create new
areas for mangrove extension. Species diversity is declining with the increase in salinity; this is manifest from the extinction
of many low saline tolerant mangrove species. Mangrove wetlands have also been degraded by indiscriminate destruction
of mangrove resources and clear-felling of mangrove forest. Recently, unsustainable collection of prawn seeds for
supply to aqua farms has affected prawn and fishery resources in mangrove wetlands. Result: fishery recruitment levels
have fallen, and the livelihoods of local fishermen have been affected.
1.1. Distribution of Mangroves

Globally, mangroves are distributed across tropical and subtropical forests; they are predominant in the tropical
region. Asia and Australia present the greatest diversity in mangrove species. Out of 18 million hectares of mangrove
forests, more than 40 % are found along Asian coasts. Large populations of mangroves are found in Indonesia and
Brazil and in the Sundarbans of India and Bangladesh. (Table 1 & 2).
The worlds mangroves can be divided into eastern and western groups. The eastern group covers the region from
the west and central Pacific to the southern end of Africa. The western group covers the American and African coasts
of the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico or the west coast of Africa and the coastal regions of
North and South America. The eastern group has five times more mangrove species than the western group.
Table 1 Estimates of mangrove areas given by various authors
Region
World Mangrove
Atlas 1997
IUCN (1983)
Fisher and
Spalding (1993)
South and Southeast Asia
75,173
51,766
76,226
Australasia
18,789
16,980
15,145
The Americas
49,096
67,446
51,286
West Africa
27,995
27,110
49,500
East Africa and Middle East
10,024
5,508
6,661
181,077
168,810
198,818
Total
1.2. Mangroves of India

Estimates of the area of Indias mangrove wetlands range from 5,00,000 ha. (Forest Survey of India, 1998) to
6,81,000 ha. (Sidhu, 1963). The major mangrove wetlands are located along the East Coast. On the west coast, they are
predominant in Gujarat. Along the east coast, the tidal amplitude as well as the volume and periodicity of fresh water
inflow decrease from Sundarbans in the north to Muthupet in the south. Correspondingly, the species diversity and area
of mangrove wetlands also decrease from north to south, indicating the influence of fresh water inflow and tidal
amplitude on the health and wealth of mangrove wetlands (Selvam, 2003) (Table 2). Mangrove wetlands of India can be
classified into a) tide-dominated (Sunderbans and Mahanadi mangroves), b) river dominated (Godavari, Krishna, Muthupet,
Pichavaram mangroves) and c) drowned river valley (Gujarat mangroves) (Selvam, 2003).
Table 2 Area of Mangrove Vegetation in Coastal States of India
Sl. No.
State
Place
1.
Tamil Nadu
Muthupet
12
2.
Tamil Nadu
Pichavaram
3.
Andhra Pradesh
Krishna
156
4.
Andhra Pradesh
Godavari
241
5.
Orissa
Devi mouth
10
6.
Orissa
Mahanadi & Bhitarkanika
205
7.
West Bengal
Sundarbans
8.
Gujarat
Gulf of Kutchch
994
9.
Gujarat
Gulf of Kambat
32
10.
Maharashtra
Mumbai
96
11.
Maharashtra
Ratnagiri
12
12.
Goa
Goa
13.
Karnataka
Karwar
14.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Nicobar
37
15.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Andaman
929
Total
Area in sq. km.

(FSI 1999)
2,125
4,866
Map 1.1 Distribution of Mangroves in India
CHAPTER 2
Mangrove Wetlands of Andhra Pradesh
ndhra Pradesh has a geographical area of 2,76,000 sq.km, of which 63,770 sq.km. or 23% is under forests.
Mangrove forests account for only 582 sq.km, representing only about 0.9% of the States total forest area. An
advantage Andhra Pradesh enjoys is that most of the east- flowing rivers in the heart of the state bring in
copious supplies to the coast from the Western and Eastern Ghats and the Deccan Plateau. Some 40 major, medium and
minor rivers flow through the State. Of these, the most important rivers are the Godavari, the Krishna, the Pennar and
the Vamsadhara. Mangroves are found in the estuaries of these rivers but extensive mangrove wetlands are present only
in the Godavari and Krishna deltaic regions. The Godavari mangroves are located in the Godavari estuary of East
Godavari district and the Krishna mangroves on the Krishna estuary of Krishna and Guntur districts. Apart from
these estuaries, mangroves are also found in small patches along the coasts of Vishakapatnam, West Godavari, Guntur
and Prakasam districts.
2.1. Floristic diversity of Mangroves of Andhra Pradesh

Floristically, the mangroves of Andhra Pradesh are moderately rich in diversity. Thirty five species of mangroves
occur in the Godavari and Krishna estuaries. Of these 16 are true mangroves which require both sea water and river
water. Nineteen associated species (plants that can survive both in terrestrial and estuarine conditions ) occur in these
wetlands, as Table 3 shows.
Table 3 Mangrove species found in Andhra Pradesh
S.No.
Plant species and Family
Telugu
Name
Habit
Status
True mangroves
1.
Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanto MYRSINACEAE
Guggilam
Tree
Abundant
2.
Avicennia alba Bl. AVICENNIACEAE
Elava mada
Tree
Common near the seaward side
3.
A. marina (Forsk.) Vierh. AVICENNIACEAE
Thella mada
Tree
Common
4.
A. officinalis L. AVICENNIACEAE
Nalla mada
Tree
Common
5.
Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Bl.

RHIZOPHORACEAE
Urudu
Tree
Common in the Gaderu

river mouth
6.
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Savigny RHIZOPHORACEAE
Kandriga
Tree
Less frequent
7.
Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou RHIZOPHORACEAE
Thogara
Tree
Common
8.
Excoecaria agallocha L. EUPHORBIACEAE
Thilla
Tree
Common in landward side
9.
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. COMBRETACEAE
Thanduga
Tree
S.No.
Plant species and Family
Telugu
Name
Habit
Status
10.
Rhizophora apiculata Bl. RHIZOPHORACEAE
Ponna
Tree
Abundant
11.
R. mucronata Lamk. RHIZOPHORACEAE
Ponna
Tree
Less common
12.
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn. f. RUBIACEAE
Narathanduga
Tree
Rare and Endemic
13.
Sonneratia alba J. Smith SONNERATIACEAE
Pedha Kalinga
Tree
Rare
14.
S. apetala Buch. Ham SONNERATIACEAE
Kalinga
Tree
Common
15.
Xylocarpus granatum Koen. MELIACEAE
Senuga
Tree
Rare Occurs only in

Krishna Mangroves
16.
X. moluccensis (Lamk.) M. Roem. MELIACEAE
Senuga
Tree
Rare
Allchi
Shrub
Common in less saline areas
Herb
Mangrove Associates
17.
Acanthus ilicifolius L. ACANTHACEAE
18.
Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin POACEAE
19.
Caesalpinia crista L. CAESALPINIACEAE
Rakkisi
Vine
20.
Clerodendrum inerme Gaertn. VERBANACEAE
Pisingi
Tree
Common
21.
Dalbergia spinosa Roxb. FABACEAE
Chillinga
Shrub
22.
Derris trifoliata Lour. FABACEAE
Nalla theega
Vine
23.
Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl. CYPERACEAE
Herb
Low saline areas near river banks
24.
Hibiscus tiliaceus L. MALVACEAE
Attaka nara
Tree
25.
Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) Sweet CONVOLVULACEAE
Vine
Common in sandy shores
26.
Ipomoea tuba L. CONVOLVULACEAE
Thellateega
Vine
27.
Myriostachya wightiana (Nees ex.Steud)

Hook. f. POACEAE
Dhabba gaddi
Herb
28.
Porteresia coarctata (Roxb.) Tateoka POACEAE
Yelugaddi
Herb
Along the river mouths and

accreted areas
29.
Salicornia brachiata Roxb. CHENOPODIACEAE
Herb
Common in degraded areas
30.
Sarcolobus carinatus Wall. ASCLEPIADACEAE
Balaboddi theega
theega
Vine
Common
31.
Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L. AIZOACEAE
Herb
Common in sandy areas
32.
Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort CHENOPODIACEAE
Elakura
Herb
33.
S. nudiflora (Willd.) Moq. CHENOPODIACEAE
Elakura
Herb
34.
Tamarix troupii Hole TAMARIACEAE
Palivelu
Tree
Only in Rathikalava RF
35.
Thespesia populneoides (Roxb.) Kostel
Ganguravi
Tree
MALVACEAE
Map 2.1 Distribution of Mangroves in Andhra Pradesh
2.2. Rivers of Andhra Pradesh

The Godavari
The Godavari is the second-largest river in India and the largest in South India, with a catchment area of 3,12,812
sq.km. The Godavari originates at Triambakam near Nasik in Maharashtra in the Western Ghats, 1,067 meters above sea
level and journeys 692 km. before entering Adilabad district in Andhra Pradesh. It then flows through the districts of
Nizamabad, Karimnagar, Warangal, Khammam, East Godavari and West Godavari. It is fed by number of tributaries,
notably the Pranahita, the Penganga, Wardha, Waiganga, Kinnerasani, Manjira, Sabari and Indravati. The Prahanita
contributes to 40% of the Godavari waters, the Indravati to 20%, the Sabari to 10% and the Manjira to 6%. Almost twothirds of the catchment of the Godavari flows into the Bay of Bengal after traversing 1465 km. 22.62% of the catchment
area lies in Andhra Pradesh.
The river flows through Eastern Ghats at Polavaram in West Godavari district. At Dowleswaram near Rajahmundry
in East Godavari district, Sir Arthur Cotton constructed a barrage; in the downstream the river divides into two branches,
the Gautami Godavari and Vasishta Godavari. The Vasishta Godavari again bifurcates into Vasishta and Vainateya
Godavari (Map 2.3) The Godavari delta is formed in between these rivers. The barrage water is used to irrigate some
4,10,000 hectares in both East and West Godavari Districts.
Within the mangrove area, the Gautami Godavari joins the Bay of Bengal at two places, near Bhairavapalem and near
Kothapalem. The Gautami Godavari is connected to the Kakinada Bay by two major canals - the Corangi canal at
Yanam, and the Gaderu canal, which has its origin at Bhairavapalem. Numerous other small canals such as the Chollangi
creek and the Matlapalem canal feed the mangrove areas and eventually flow into the Kakinada bay, which is very shallow
(0 - 4m depth). Vast areas of mudflats emerge during low tide in the Kakinada bay.
2.3. Godavari River Basin

The Godavari Basin extends over an area of 312,812 km2, which is nearly 9.5% of Indias geographical area. The
basin lies in the states of Maharashtra (152,199 km2), Andhra Pradesh (73,201 km2), Madhya Pradesh (65,255 km2),
Orissa (17,752 km2) and Karnataka (4,405 km2).
The Godavari basin consists of large undulating plains divided by low flat-topped hill ranges. The important soil
types found in the basins are black soils, red soils, lateritic soils, alluvial, mixed soils and saline and alkaline soils.
The average annual surface water potential assessed in this basin is 110.5 km3. Of this, 76.3 km3 is usable water. The
culturable area in the basin is about 18.9 million ha - 9.7% of the total culturable area in the country.
Surface water in the basin is used at present to the extent of 41.0 km3. Live storage capacity in the basin has increased
significantly since independence from just about 1.6 km3 in the pre-plan period, to 19.5 km3. It would increase by over
10.6 km3 on completing projects under construction, and by a further 8.2 km3 if certain new projects are taken up.
Map 2.2 Rivers flowing through Andhra Pradesh
Map 2.3 Godavari River Basin
11
Discharge of Godavari Water into the Mangroves
Data on water discharge at the Dowleswaram barrage, obtained for the period 1969-1998, revealed that there is no
significant variation in the discharge. However, monthly discharge data showed that the peak flow was during the
southwest monsoon, because most of the catchment area receives rain then. The discharge starts declining during the
northeast monsoon; in summer, the discharge is almost negligible.
Map 2.4 River Godavari
Source : National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad
12
The Krishna
The Krishna is the second largest river in Andhra Pradesh. It originates from the mouth of a cow-icon in the ancient
temple of Mahadev in Mahabaleshwar. From Mahableshwar into the Bay of Bengal is a 1,401 km journey. The river
flows 780 km in Maharashtra before entering Andhra Pradesh. Its main tributaries are Koyna, Bhima, Ghataprabha,
Mallaprabha, Tungabhadra, Yerla, Warna and Dudhganga. The river gets most of its water from the Western Ghats. The
catchment area of the river is 2,58,948 sq. km, of which 29.45% is in Andhra Pradesh. The river flows through the
districts of Satara, Sangli and Kohlapur in Maharashtra, Raichur and Gulbarga districts of Karnataka and Mahbubnagar,
Nalgonda, Krishna and Guntur districts of Andhra Pradesh. The Krishna delta isnt as big as the Godavari delta; it
bifurcates into the Nadimeru and Gollamattapaya very near the Krishnas mouth. As indicated in figure 1 average annual
discharge from Krishna river is declining gradually.
2.4. Krishna River Basin

The Krishna River rises in the Western Ghats at an elevation of about 1,337 m just north of Mahabaleshwar, about
64 km from the Arabian Sea, journeys about 1,400 km before joining the Bay of Bengal.
The Krishna basin extends over an area of 258,948 km2, nearly 8% of countrys total geographical area. The basin
lies in the states of Karnataka (113,271 km2), Andhra Pradesh (76,252 km2) and Maharashtra (69,425 km2).
The average annual surface water potential assessed for this basin is 78.1 km3. Of this, 58.0 km3 is utilizable water.
Culturable area in the basin is about 20.3 million ha which constitutes 10.4% of the total cultivable area in all of India.
Discharge (cusec)
Surface water in the basin used at present is 50.0 km3in volume. Live storage capacity in the basin has increased
significantly since independence. From just about 3.2 km3 in the pre-plan period, the total live storage capacity of the
completed projects has increased to 34.5 km3. Substantial additional storage of over 4.9 km3 would be created on
completion of projects under construction. A further 0.1 km3 of storage would become available when projects now
being considered are taken up and implemented. This has resulted in considerable decrease in fresh water flowing into
the mangroves. (Figure 1.)
Figure 1. Average annual discharge of Krishna river at Vijayawada
Map 2.5 Krishna River Basin
Map 2.6 River Krishna
15
The Pennar
The Pennar, also known as Uttara Pinakini, enters Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh after traversing 40 km from
the Nandidurg hills of Mysore. Confluence into the Bay of Bengal occurs 29 km north of Nellore. The important
tributaries of the Pennar are Jayamangali, Chitravati, Kunderu, Papagni, Sagileru, Cheyyuru, Boggeru and Biraperu.
The Vamsadhara
The Vamsadhara is the biggest of the river systems flowing from the Eastern Ghats into Bay of Bengal, and traverses
mostly through Srikakulam district. Originating in Orissa, it runs through the Pulbani and Rayagada districts of Orissa
and the Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh for 250 km. Its catchment area is 41,400 sq.km.
Rainfall
The rainfall in Andhra Pradesh is influenced by both the southwest and northeast monsoons. The southwest monsoon
(June-September) provides the bulk of rainfall (68.5%), while the northeast monsoon of October-December accounts
for 22.3%. The rest (9.2%) of the rainfall is received during winter and summer months. The influence of the southwest
monsoon (602.26 mm) is predominant in coastal Andhra Pradesh; the northeast monsoon here provides 316.8 mm of
rainfall. In the East Godavari district, the average total rainfall is about 1,160 mm (Figure 2). Average maximum and
minimum temperatures recorded in Kakinada are 32.36 C and 24.4 C respectively.
This region has a tropical humid climate with the monsoon season commencing in June and extending up to December.
The area receives a copious supply of freshwater during the southwest and northeast monsoons. Salinity during this
period is very low (~5 ppt). From January, the weather is mainly dry and there is a steady progression in heat till the
summer months (March to May).
Figure 2. Rainfall (mm) and the number of rainy days in Tallarevu mandal, East Godavari district, 1998 - 2002
Map 3.1 Geomorphology
1 - 9 Reserve Forests
CHAPTER 3
Godavari Mangrove Wetland

3.1 Geomorphology
The geomorphology of the Godavari estuarine area (Map 3.1) shows the following features: rivers and channels,
flood plain, natural levees, mangrove forest, tidal channels, tidal flats, lagoon, Kakinada Bay, sand spit, main land beach
and sand dunes and paleo sand ridges. Natural levees of Godavari delta is well developed, which is about 500 m in wide
and 2 m about the flood plain near Doweleswaram area. In the mangrove areas its width varies from 3 to 5 m and about
1 m in height. This prevents free flow of tidal water in some of the mangrove areas. The Kakinada Bay is another
important geomorphological features of Godavari region, which appears to be compound and consists of estuaries
adjoining lagoon. Sediments are brought into the bay are mostly silty clays and the finest and purest muds are deposited
in the protected and deeper parts of the Bay. Most of the fine turbid material that has been in suspension along the flood
tide is deposited on the tidal flats during the slack of high tide and these areas are suitable for colonization of new
mangroves. It has been observed that rapid deposition of sediments has been taking place at the confluences of the
distributaries of Godavari in general and of the Goutami in particular resulting in the formation of number of spits.
Among them, the sand spit of Kakinada Bay including Hope Island is very interesting. According to the British Admiralty
Chart the sand spit did not exist in 1857 but the 1878 chart shows the budding of this sand spit which has now grown
to length of about 17 km with a head of about 5 km and tail of 12 km (Mishra, 1999). It protects the mangroves from
ocean currents and forms a sheltered coastline. In the non-sanctuary area River water flow has decreased substantially in
the Kothapalem mouth and change in the direction of the flow has led to the formation of sand bars near the river
mouth.
3.2 Remote Sensing Imagery

Imagery from the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) 1 D Linear Image Self-Scanning System (LISS) III was used
to map the various land uses near the Godavari mangrove wetland.
The smooth bright red color indicates the dense mangrove forest of the delta. Density of mangrove cover is greater
in the sanctuary area than in the non-sanctuary area that lies to its south. The small creeks and drainage system of the
wetland can be clearly identified from remote sensing data. As we proceed toward the mainland beyond the Reserved
Forest (RF) boundary, regular square or rectangular blocks in bluish gray or dark blue seen are aquaculture farms (Map
3.3) which is not practiced during 1986 (Map 3.2). A very wide spread of agricultural area is identified in red color which
are identified as paddy fields and plantations. The shallow depth of the Kakinada bay is clearly seen as light blue darkens
to blue in the direction of the sea. The temporal remote sensing data of the Godavari delta is used to monitor changes
in the wetland. It enables the development of different thematic maps.
Map 3.2 Landsat 5 TM Remote Sensing Imagery of Godavari delta - 1986
Hope
Island
Kakinada
Kakinada
Bay
Mangroves
Agriculture
Godavari River
Bay of
Bengal
Map 3.3 IRS 1D LISS III Remote Sensing Imagery of Godavari delta 2001
Hope
Island
Kakinada
Kakinada
Bay
Mangroves
Agriculture
Aquaculture
Bay of
Bengal
Godavari River
20
Figure 3. Dense mangroves along Corangi river seen as bright red in Remote Sensing Imagery
3.3 Reserve Forests

The total area of the Godavari wetland, according to the Forest Department, is 316 sq.km, of which 235.7 sq. km is
under the Coringa wildlife sanctuary (Management Plan - Coringa wildlife sanctuary, 1993). This sanctuary has three
Reserved Forests (RF) Corangi, Corangi Extn. and Bhairavapalem. Most mangroves in the sanctuary are not directly
connected with the Bay of Bengal because of the 18 km long sand spit including the Hope Island. Tidal flushing of
mangroves of the Coringa wild life sanctuary takes place through the Matlapalem kalava (canal), the Corangi river and
the Gaderu river (the latter two rivers are distributaries of the Godavari). The other six reserve forests Rathikalava,
Masanitippa, Matlatippa, Balusutippa, Kothapalem and Kandikuppa are situated on the southern side of the Nilarevu
Godavari river (Table 4).
Table 4 Reserve forest areas in Godavari Wetland
Reserve Forest
Corangi
Sanctuary area (hectare)
Non sanctuary area (hectare)
4272
18808
1015
Rathikaluva
1762
Balusitippa
1300
Matlatippa
389
Masanitippa
546
Kottapalem
66
Kandikuppa
3984
Corangi extension
Bhairavapalem
21
Figure 4. Mangroves along Matlapalem canal
3.4 Flora of the mangrove forest

Vegetation in the Corangi RF indicates that Avicennia marina and Excoecaria agallocha are the dominant species. Along
the creeks of Corangi river near Ramannapalem and Matlapalem, Acanthus ilicifolius, Myriostachya wightiana are seen, along
with associated species like Thespesia populneoides, Hibiscus tiliaceus and Clerodendrum inerme. Suaeda maritima and S. nudiflora
are common in degraded and partially degraded areas. In elevated areas where the soil is highly saline, the presence of
Salicornia brachiata has been recorded, as also the presence of Acanthus ilicifolius and Dalbergia spinosa and climbers such as
Ipomoea tuba, Sarcolobus carinatus, Caesalpinia crista, and Derris trifoliata. Lumnitzera racemosa, Excoecaria agallocha and Avicennia
marina are found in the elevated areas. The mangrove species Rhizophora apiculata, Xylocarpus moluccensis, Bruguiera cylindrica,
Ceriops decandra and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza are rarely found.
Figure 5. Mangroves along Ratikalava canal
22
Figure 6. Dense mangroves near the Corangi river mouth

In Corangi Extension RF the areas along the Matlapalem creek and Gaderu creek are thick with vegetation. Excoecaria
agallocha is the dominant species while Avicennia marina ranks next. The average height of the mangroves is about 4.5m.
The zonation is not that conspicuous in the Gaderu riverside. On the eastern side of the Gaderu river, species such as
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. cylindrica, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata and Xylocarpus moluccensis have been recorded. These
species are either rare or absent in the Matlapalem canal side. Sonneratia alba has been recorded near the Gaderu river
mouth, whereas species such as Acanthus ilicifolius, Myriostachya wightiana, and Fimbristylis ferruginea have been recorded
along the creeks. Suaeda species and Salicornia brachiata have been found in degraded areas. Sesuvium portulacastrum is also
abundant in this RF along with Bruguiera cylindrica near the Gaderu river.
Almost all species except Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea have been recorded in Bhairavapalem RF. Excoecaria agallocha, Avicennia
marina, A. officinalis, Aegiceras corniculatum are the abundant species in this reserve forest. Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata,
Figure 7. Mangrove vegetation in Corangi RF
Map 3.4 Reserve Forest
RF : Reserve Forest
24
Xylocarpus moluccensis, Sonneratia apetala, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and B. cylindrica are seen along the creeks. Other species such
as - Derris trifoliata, Sarcolobus carinatus, Clerodendrum inerme and Dalbergia spinosa have also been recorded. The soil of this
RF is clayey near the Gaderu river, and sandy clay near the seaside. Suaeda spp. is noticed in degraded areas.
In Rathikalava RF Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Xylocarpus moluccensis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Avicennia marina, A.
officinalis and Excoecaria agallocha are the species that occur. Trees of Rhizophora and Bruguiera are seen along the creeks.
Rhizophora trees are about 4 - 6m in height. Large trees of Avicennia officinalis are found in the RF. Tamarix troupii, a
mangrove associate, is recorded in this RF along with Thespesia populneoides. Hibiscus tiliaceus, Clerodendrum inerme, Suaeda
spp. and Salicornia brachiata occur in degraded areas. Also observed in degraded areas is stunted growth of Excoecaria
agallocha and Lumnitzera racemosa and Prosopis invasion along the Saleru canal.
In Masanitippa RF tall trees about 5m in height of Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata are seen along the creeks.
Avicennia marina, Excoecaria agallocha are the dominant species in this RF. Sonneratia apetala, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops
decandra, Lumnitzera racemosa and Bruguiera cylindrica are also recorded in this RF. Large areas of mangroves are found to
occur outside the RF on the Bay of Bengal side, which faces severe erosion due to oceanic currents and tidal action.
Prosopis is also noticed in this area.
In Matlatippa RF fairly dense vegetation is found on the eastern side. The western side is elevated; further, there are
no creeks to supply tidal water. Hence a large area on this side is degraded. The Forest Department has restored these
areas. Species such as Sonneratia apetala, Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis,
Avicennia alba, Lumnitzera racemosa, Ceriops decandra and Xylocarpus moluccensis have been recorded in this RF. Also recorded
climbers like Derris trifoliata and Sarcolobus carinatus; grasses such as Porteresia coarctata and Myriostachya wightiana; and
shrubs like Dalbergia spinosa and Acanthus ilicifolius.
In Balusutippa RF large trees of Avicennia officinalis have been recorded. Some other species like Avicennia marina,
Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Xylocarpus moluccensis and Ceriops decandra have also been recorded.
The vegetation is fairly dense in Kothapalem RF. Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn. F (RUBIACEAE) a rare and endemic
Figure 8a. Aegiceras corniculatum
25
Figure 8b. Sonneratia apetala
Figure 8c. Excoecaria agallocha
26
Figure 8d. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

species, has been recorded in this RF. Plants of the species are about two metres tall. About a hundred of them have
been found near the Sacramento lighthouse. Along the entire East Coast it occurs only in this RF. Excoecaria agallocha,
Lumnitzera racemosa, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Xylocarpus moluccensis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Avicennia marina and A.
officinalis have also been recorded: they are about 4 - 5m in height. Climbers such as Derris trifoliata and Sarcolobus carinatus
have also been recorded, as also shrubs like Dalbergia spinosa, Clerodendrum inerme and herbs such as Suaeda and Salicornia.
In Kandikuppa RF mangroves are notable for their health and rich diversity. True mangroves such as Rhizophora
apiculata, R. mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops decandra, Xylocarpus moluccensis are found in the RF. Excoecaria
agallocha, Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis and Lumnitzera racemosa have also been recorded in this RF.
Figure 8e. Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea a rare mangrove
27
3.5 Mangrove species zonation

The vegetation near the mouth of the Corangi river and the Matlapalem kalava are distinct. Porteresia coarctata is found
along with natural seedlings of Avicennia alba and Sonneratia apetala in the newly accreted areas (Figure 10). Pure stands of
Avicennia alba are seen near the Kakinada Bay (Corangi river and Matlapalem kalava mouths). Next to this, towards
landward, is Sonneratia apetala. Here onwards, the vegetation is found mixed with small patches of pure stands of Excoecaria
agallocha, Aegiceras corniculatum, Lumnitzera racemosa and Avicennia marina (Map 3.5a and b). Suaeda maritima and S. nudiflora
are seen in the degraded areas. Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata are found along creeks in Rathikalava RF, creeks in
the Bhairavapalem RF and along creeks near the old light house in Corangi RF Extension.
Figure 9. Mangrove zonation in Corangi RF
Figure 10. Zonation near Kakinada bay shows newly accreted mud, mudflat occupied by Porteresia coarctata and Avicennia alba
Map 3.5a Mangrove Species Zonation - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
Aegiceras
Corniculatum
Map 3.5b Mangrove Species Zonation - Non Sanctuary Area
Aegiceras
Corniculatum
30
3.6 Soil Properties

Surface soil samples were collected from the mangroves and analysed for soil texture, nutrient status, soil salinity and
pH. Soil collected inside the mangroves are predominantly clayey, whereas samples collected from near the shore area
showed higher per-centage of sand and thus, can be classified as sandy-clay. The soil composition tests carried out by
Uma Maheswara Rao et al. (1988) during 1985 showed values ranging from 1 to18% sand, 7 to 63% silt and 15 to 90%
clay.
The pH of the soil is alkaline, between 8 and 8.8. Organic matter is low in degraded areas and in creeks. In dense
mangrove areas, the mean organic matter value is 2.71% (Uma Maheswara Rao et al., 1988). Similarly, in the study
conducted by MSSRF, the organic carbon varied from low in degraded areas to high in dense mangrove areas. The
phosphorus content is relatively low, while potassium levels are high.
3.7 Hydrological conditions

Tidal amplitude
Tidal variation in the Godavari mangroves was analyzed in two places, near Bhairavalanka and in Corangi river near
Ramanapalem, for both monsoon and summer months. Near Bhairalanka it showed a maximum value of 0.80 m during
the monsoon season and 0.50 cm during the summer period. In the interior mangroves, the tidal amplitude varied from
1.00 to 1.30 m during the summer and 0.20 m to 0.50 m during the monsoon season.
Salinity and Temperature
Variations in salinity and temperature were studied with an in situ salinity-temperature probe for over a period of 24
hours in the Saleru creek, near the Bhairavalanka during December, February and May. The salinity varied between 6
and 8 ppt (parts per thousand or grams per litre) during December, indicating the predominance of fresh water flow in
the creek. Salinity in February varied from 26 to 30.5 ppt and from 21 to 29 ppt in May.
Salinity variations in Kakinada Bay were studied during May and August. Salinity during August varied from 11.7 ppt
near the mangroves in the Kakinada Bay to 33.4 ppt near Hope Island. The salinity near the mouths of Corangi and
Gaderu rivers is considerably low, only 9.5 ppt and 11.7 ppt respectively. This clearly indicated that Matlapalem canal,
Corangi and Gaderu rivers discharge a considerable amount of fresh water into the Kakinada Bay. In the Matlapalem
canal, salinity was between 1 and 3 ppt. The salinity ranged from 17 to 31 ppt., indicating that the Matlapalem creek
receives fresh water even during during May. In Kakinada Bay the salinity varied between 19 and 31.3 ppt during May.
Temperature in December varied from 26 to 28oC in the creek and from 24 to 28.5 oC in February and in May,
temperature varied from 30 to 32.5 oC. Temperature variations in the bay was between 28 and 310 C. Salinity in summer
(May) varied from 19 ppt to 31.3 ppt. In Matlapalem creek, temperature during May varied from 27 to 36 oC. The wide
variations in salinity and temperature indicated mixing of fresh water with seawater near the Matlapalem kalava.
Map 3.6 Soil Salinity
Salinity (ppt)
Map 3.7 Soil pH
Map 3.8 Soil Phosphorus
Phosphorus
( g/gm)
Map 3.9 Tidal Amplitude
Tidal Amplitude (meters)
Map 3.10 Water Salinity
(in ppt)
Salinity (ppt)
Map 3.11 Water Temperature
Temperature (c)
Map 3.12 Water Temperature in Kakinada Bay
Temperature (c)
Map 3.13 Water Salinity in Kakinada Bay
Salinity (ppt)
39
3.8 Wood and Fishery Resources

Mangroves play an important role in coastal fisheries production. The fishermen community living in 39 villages use
mangrove resources of Godavari mangroves for artisanal fishing. The mangrove areas are rich in crustacean, mollusks
and finfish resources. Marine fisheries production in the East Godavarai district was 19,796 tons and 23,530 tons respectively
during 1998-99 and 1999-2000 (Source: Commissioner of Fisheries, Andhra Pradesh), accounting for 36% of the total
production of Andhra Pradesh. No data on fishery potential and landings from Godavarai mangroves are available.
The prawn seed and juvenile resources of the Godavari mangrove ecosystem profoundly influence the artisanal
fishery around Kakinada coast. But indiscriminate prawn seed collection in recent years has depleted fishery resources,
leading to a ban on prawn seed collection and fishing curbs during the breeding season.
Kakinada Bay is rich in bivalve resources like Anadara granosa, Placenta placenta and Meretrix meretrix and gastropods like
Telescopium spp. and Cerethidium species. Shells collected from the area are used for lime-making and are transported to
Tamil Nadu for ornament-making. Crustaceans like prawns and crabs constitute a higher percentage of trawl landings at
Kakinada (about 25% more) than in non-mangrove areas, where they account for between 9 and 15% (CMFRI). Five
fish landing centers adjoining Coringa wildlife sanctuary account for nearly 4,472.55 tons (Table 5) of fishery resources
per year (Department of Fisheries, Kakinada, 2001 - 2002) which includes catches from mangroves, Kakinada Bay and
open sea.
Local fishermen and the farming community depend on mangroves for firewood, fodder, fencing and timber for
house construction. The Porteresia coarctata grass is used as fodder and the Myriostachya wightiana is used as thatching
material. The bark of Ceriops decandra is used for coloring (dye) the fishing nets.
Figure 11. Myriostachya wightiana Thatching grass
Map 3.14 Fishery Resources - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
41
Table 5 Particulars of Fishing Craft and Fish landing near Coringa Mangroves (2001 2002)
Village
Fish landing centre
Pagadalapeta
Cholangi bridge
No of boats
Fish landing
in tonnes
582
1972.3
55
108.5
Uppulanka
Chollangipeta
Matlapalem
Kotturu
Ramanapalem
Ramanapalem
Pedda Boddu Venkatayapalem
Chinna Boddu Venkatayapalem
410
1024.15
Peddavalasala
350
370.5
Gadimoga
210
997.1
1607
4472.55

Chinnavalasala
Peddavalasala
Lakshmipathipuram
Gadimoga
Total
Figure 12. Collection of shells in Kakinada Bay
42
Figure 13. Fishing Activity
Figure 14. Fishery Resources of Mangrove Forest
43
Figure 15. Fishery Resources of Mangrove Forest
Figure 16. Lime making from shells
3.9 Socio-economic condition

Mangrove user villages
The Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) exercise was conducted in 46 villages/hamlets, (Table 6) of which 39 villages (Map
3.15) are dependent on mangroves for fishing, firewood, fodder and timber for house construction.
Population and Occupation
A population of about 79,400 living in 39 mangrove-abutting villages uses the mangrove resources. There are 10,261
households in user villages, most of which engage in fishing (Maps 3.16a, 3.16b, 3.17a and 3.17b). The men fish, the
women sell the fish. During the agriculture season, the fisherwomen serve as daily wage labourers in planting and
harvesting crops.
44
Table 6 Mangrove user villages in Godavari
Village Name
Bhairavalanka
Gogullanka
Kobbarichettupeta
Matlapalem
Ramannapalem
Pedda Boddu Venkatayapalem
Chinnavalasala
Pedavalasala
Gadimoga
Bhairavapalem
Dindu
Gopalapuram
Kothapalem
Uppulanka
Babanagar
Chakilitippa
Pandi
Pora
Pagadalapeta
Dariyalatippa
Gollakompalu
Polekurru
Savitrinagar (UTPond
Masanitippa
Balusitippa
Molletimogga
Chollangi
Gerampeta
Ragavendrapuram
Chollangipeta
Rayameraka
Mallavaram
Kotturu
Corangi
Laxmipathipuram
Surachirrayanam
Seetharampuram
Tallarevu
Total
Population
House
holds
Livestock
500
1500
2000
1500
1500
1500
1000
1500
1500
2500
4000
300
1000
1000
2000
1000
2000
1500
2000
2500
2000
1000
5000
1500
2500
2500
2000
3400
2000
750
2500
1000
4000
750
2700
1500
2000
2000
8000
65
250
280
185
200
195
150
150
165
350
325
50
150
150
300
160
250
300
250
350
290
150
325
280
300
310
275
400
300
165
380
136
300
150
450
300
250
225
1000
60
120
500
100
50
75
75
70
30
140
160
70
30
200
30
30
100
80
110
70
75
380
750
75
75
90
60
700
40
30
1200
400
700
40
300
40
110
300
1200
79400
10261
8665
Occupation
Fishing Agriculture
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Dependency
Fuel
House
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
High
High
High
High
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
None
None
Grazing
Medium
Medium
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Low
Medium
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
High
High
High
None
None
None
None
Medium
Medium
Map 3.15 Mangrove User Villages
Map 3.16a Population - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
Map 3.16b Population - Non Sanctuary Area
Map 3.17a Occupation - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
Map 3.17b Occupation- Non Sanctuary Area
50
Infrastructure
Most of the villages are well-connected by road. Almost all of them are equipped with cyclone shelters, primary
schools, and post offices. Corangi has a police station, Forest Department guest house and engineering college. A high
school, junior college, bank, primary health center and mandal (administrative office) are found in Tallarevu. Two
lighthouses one at Kakinada and another near Kothapalem are active, an abandoned lighthouse is found near Gaderu
river mouth. An FD guest house is located in the Kandikuppa Reserved Forest near Kothapalem lighthouse (Map 3.18).
Income
The RRA conducted in Mangrove user villages indicate in general, that incomes in the Godavari mangrove area range
from Rs. 6,000 to 18,000 per year. Incomes of entire families in Bhairavalanka village range from Rs.6,000 to Rs.12,000
per year. In Matlapalem, 14 families have incomes ranging between Rs.18,000 and Rs.24, 000; 18 families earn between
Rs 12,000 and Rs. 18,000 and other 18 Families earn below Rs. 12,000. In Dindu, 46 families earn between Rs.6,000 and
Rs.12,000 and four families between Rs.12,000 and Rs.18,000. In Kobbarichettupeta, 79 families earn between Rs.12,000
and Rs.18,000 (Map 3.19).
Figure 17. Boat Repairing Centre Dariyalthippa
Map 3.18 Infrastructure
Map 3.19 Income Range
53
3.10. Livestock
The farming community (Yadavas) in Chollangipeta, Ravimeraka, Polekurru, Mallavaram and Tallarevu use the
mangrove forest for cattle grazing. Nearly 2,000 feral cattle, which are semi-domesticated, remain in the forest for the
most part of the year (Map 3.20a and b). The people milk the cattle and bring in the milk once a day by boat. In summer
they take fresh water for the animals from outside. Chopping of mangrove twigs for stall-feeding cattle and goat grazing
are the other use of mangroves as fodder. Goats from nearby villages also graze in fringe areas. In the user villages nearly
8,665 livestock graze in agricultural fields in the fallow seasons and are stall-fed during the cropping seasons.
Figure 18. Semi domesticated feral cattle grazing in mangroves
Map 3.20a Livestock - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
Map 3.20b Livestock - Non Sanctuary Area
56
3. 11 Land Use around mangroves

Cropping, plantation and weeds
Coconut groves and paddy are synonymous with agriculture in this area. Canal-irrigated water from the Dowleswaram
barrage helps cultivate paddy. In most places, paddy is cultivated twice and a legume crop once, both with irrigation
support. The Forest Department of Andhra Pradesh planted casuarina under its shelterbelt program along the coast.
Plantations of casuarinas are seen in Hope Island along the shore near Masanitippa, and in Kandikuppa RF near Sacramento
lighthouse. The plantations are being raised by the Vana Samrakshana Samiti (VSS), a village level society formed under
Joint Forest Management programme of the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department in the non-sanctuary area. Revenue
from the plantations will be given to the village as per JFM guidelines. The high tidal mud flats along the Saleru creek
near Bhairavalanka, where inundation is rare, Prosopis trees have invaded. Prosopis invasion is also noticeable near the
river mouth of Gauthami Godavari.
Figure 19. Agricultural Landuse Paddy cultivation and Coconut plantation

Salt pan
Some of the areas around mangroves are under salt production. Salt pans are found near Balusutippa RF and in the
outskirts of Kakinada near Chollangi adjoining the mangroves, which are divided by the Kakinada-Yanam Road. The
Chollangi creek supplies water for the salt pans.
Figure 20. Saltpan near Mangrove vegetation
Map 3.21a Landuse Map - 1986
Dense Mangroves
Degraded Mangroves
Mudflat
Agriculture
Sand
Salt pan
Map 3.21b Landuse Map - 1998
Dense Mangroves
Degraded Mangroves
Mudflat
Agriculture
Sand
Casuarina
Aquaculture/Salt pan
Map 3.21c Landuse Map - 2001
Dense Mangroves
Degraded Mangroves
Mudflat
Agriculture
Sand
Casuarina
Aquaculture/Salt pan
60
Aquaculture
In Andhra Pradesh, the extent of aqua farms has increased from 6000 ha in 1990 to 84,629 ha in 1999. Near to
Godavari estuarine region alone, area of aqua farms has increased from 2006 ha in 1989 to 19239 ha in 1999 (Andhra
Pradesh Remote Sensing Centre, 1999). A recent survey by the aquaculture sector found that about 5% of the shrimp
farms in India have been constructed in former mangrove areas. (ADB/NACA, 1998). Mangrove conversion for prawn
farming has been taken both for small scale extensive system as well as for large scale semi-intensive method of farming.
In the Godavari delta, about 14% of the aquaculture farms have been constructed on mangrove lands located outside
the reserve forests. Most of the lands owned by private abutting the mangroves are being converted to shrimp ponds.
The rate of conversion of mangrove to shrimp ponds increased in the period 1997 to 1999. The increase in shrimp
farming area led to an increase in shrimp production from 30,000 tones during 1990 to 102,000 tones in 1999. Shrimp
farms are located very close to mangroves and revenue lands. Impact of discharge of effluents from aqua farms into
mangrove wetlands has not been studied systematically. The study by Rangarao et al (2003) indicate that pollutants
including effluents released from the aqua farms into mangrove canals are not flushed out completely due to existing
water circulation pattern and tend to accumulate in the southern part bay where mangroves are located.
Figure 21. Aquaculture farms adjacent to mangrove vegetation
3.12. Dependency
Grazing
The farming community in Chollangipeta, Ravimeraka, Polekurru, Mallavaram and Tallarevu depend on the mangrove
forests for feral cattle grazing. Apart from this, Porteresia grass and Avicennia twigs are used as fodder for stall-feeding the
livestock. Goats from the nearby villages graze along the fringes of mangroves (Map 3.22a and b).
61
Firewood
Almost all villages depend on mangroves for firewood. However, the degree of dependency is high in fishing hamlets
because of their close proximity to mangroves (Map 3.22a and b). Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis and Aegiceras
corniculatum are the species which villagers tap for firewood. The Forest Department has permitted the collection of dry
twigs and dead wood as firewood from the mangroves after the formation of village-level institutions such as EDC
(Eco-Development Committee formed in Sanctuary areas) and VSS (Vana Samrakshna Samiti formed in non-sanctuary
areas) under the Andhra Pradesh Forestry Project.
Figure 22. Women with headload of mangrove for firewood
Figure 23. Firewood transported by boats
Map 3.22a Dependency - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary
Map 3.22b Dependency - Non Sanctuary Area
64
House Construction
The mangrove wood of a few species such as Excoecaria agallocha, Bruguiera cylindrica, Avicennia marina and A. officinalis
is used for house construction. After the cyclone in 1996, tapping of mangrove wood for house construction has gone
down, because many fishermen families have managed to construct houses in concrete with the help of government and
other aid agencies. The project played a critical role in this development. Community wood lots have also been raised in
villages to meet demand for it.
Figure 24. House constructed using mangrove wood and Palm leaves
65
Fishing
Fishing is allowed in mangroves areas. But during the prawn breeding season, a ban on fishing has been imposed by
the Fisheries Department because of the indiscriminate collection of fish and prawn seeds for aquaculture. (Fishermen
collect prawn, fish and crab along with shells for their livelihood.) All fishing villages depend on mangroves for fishing;
on the other hand, the farming community, particularly from Bhairavalanka and Gogullanka, engages in prawn seed and
crab collection.
Figure 25. Fishing activity in the creek
Figure 26. Mangrove wood as fishing poles
Map 3.22c Dependency on Mangroves in JMM Villages
Percent
67
3.13. Causes of degradation

Before mangrove areas were constituted into forest blocks, most mangrove areas in East Godavari were under the
control of private estate owners till estate abolition came in force. After this, the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department
took over the management of mangrove and systematically felled mangrove trees under coupe felling system on a 25year rotation period from 1933 to early 1970s. This unscientific management practices triggered the chain of reaction
(Figure 27) leading to development of hypersaline condition, which is one of the main causes of degradation of Godavari
mangroves. Apart from the management practice of coupe felling, other major causes of mangrove degradation include
anthropogenic factors such as grazing by feral cattle, and collection of mangroves for firewood and fencing materials by
villagers. Yet another cause is that the banks of rivers and creeks are relatively elevated because of sediment deposit
along the banks whenever floods occur. Result: lack of tidal flushing in interior mangrove areas, leading to degradation,
with only the fringe areas supporting mangrove growth. Areas adjoining the reserve forests with mangroves have been
converted to aquaculture ponds.
Clear felling through

coupe system
Exposure of the mangrove
Evaporation of
soil water
Stagnation of tidal
water
Development of trough
shaped topography
Subsidence of
sediment
Development of
hyper saline
No Natural regeneration
Figure 27. Biophysical changes caused by coupe felling
Figure 28. Degraded area with artificial canal
68
Figure 29. Mangrove wood cleared for house construction and fishing poles
Figure 30. Degradation due to deposition of sand
3.14 Present management practices

After starting to implement the World Bank-funded Forestry Project, the Forest Department formed Eco-Development
Committees (EDC) and Vana Samrakshana Samithis (VSS) in mangrove areas. These local institutions have enabled
joint implementation of mangrove conservation by the Forest Department, MSSRF and the local community. The
entire Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary has been protected by 20 EDCs. Similarly, seven EDCs function in Krishna. These
village- level institutions have been allotted management areas to help implement mangrove protection and conservation.
Likewise, five village institutions (VLIs) in Godavari and three VLIs in Krishna are taking part in joint implementation,
helped by local-level training.
69
3.15. Restoration and Redevelopment

Mangrove restoration activity on the lines of the Pichavaram model was initiated in degraded areas of the Krishna
and the Godavari. The Andhra Pradesh Forest Department initiated restoration of mangroves in the Godavari in 1991
with a canal-digging exercise. The canals were dug perpendicular to the river, with side canals at right angles to the main
canal. An exposure visit to the Pichavaram mangrove restoration area was organized for Forest Department staff. After
this they started digging canals at 300 from the main canal. This method reduces the rate of siltation of canals and also
facilitates easy flow of tidal water. The restoration of the Kobbarichettupeta Mangrove Management Unit was done
jointly with the Forest Department. Canals in the plantations near Dindu raised by the Forest Department during 1995
have been reoriented for proper tidal flushing by the MSSRF.
Restoration of degraded mangroves was carried out in the Mangrove Management Units (MMU) of demonstration
villages. An area of 520 ha. has been restored using the canal construction method in the Godavari and Krishna mangroves.
The canals were designed in a trapezoidal shape with an angle of 450 to facilitate free flow of tidal water and fresh water.
This is to reduce siltation. Of the 520 ha., 165 ha. were restored in the Godavari mangroves (Table 7), the rest in the
Krishna mangroves. The restoration in Godavari was done by five village - level institutions (EDC and VSS) formed by
the project in collaboration with the Forest Department. Restoration was undertaken only in RF areas in order to ensure
sustainable maintenance by the Forest Department and Village Level Institutions. Such restoration not merely increases
healthy mangrove areas, it also arrested further degradation of pristine mangroves adjoining the degraded patches. Canal
construction in degraded areas expands the water body areas, and strengthens the resources of crab and other species.
Training for nursery raising, canal digging and planting was conducted for the demonstration villagers.
A community mangrove nursery was developed, and the saplings were used for planting in the restored area.
Replication of JMM model by NGOs trained in the project
Three NGOs Coastal Community Development Program (CCDP) of Machilipatnam; Sangamithra Service Society
of Vijayawada; and Sravanthi of Tallarevu trained by the MSSRF unit at Andhra Pradesh, adopted the Joint Mangrove
Management model and restored a mangrove area of 215 ha.
Figure 31. Topographical survey for restoration
70
Figure 32. Mangrove nursery for restoration
Figure 33. Digging of canals in the degraded area for tidal flushing
71
Figure 34. Planting of mangrove saplings along the canals

Table 7 Details of restoration and Mangrove Management Units - Godavari
Demonstration Village
Area Restored (ha)
Area under MMU (ha)
Matlapalem
502
Dindu
25
900
Kobbarichettupeta
35
3925
Gadimoga
25
900
Bhairavalanka
75
615
Total
165
6842
72
3.16 Changes in Mangrove vegetation between 1975 and 1986

A comparison of mangrove areas in the 1975 Survey of India toposheet and the Landsat 5 TM remote sensing data
of 1986 is revealing, what was indicated as core mangrove area in the Survey of India toposheet is found degraded in the
1986 Landsat 5 TM data. Chapter 3.13 discussed the reasons for such degradation. Mangrove vegetation found in the
periphery of the sanctuary (boundary) near villages, is degraded due to anthropogenic pressure. Mangroves on the
eastern side of the sanctuary along the Bay of Bengal are eroded due to tidal action. But at the same time, accretion in the
Kakinada Bay increased the area of mangroves by about 350 ha. The accretion is due to sedimentation of alluvial
deposits from the Corangi, Gaderu and Matlapalem river runoff.
Mangrove vegetation near the southern bank of Godavari river (Nilarevu river) in Rathikaluva RF has eroded because
of floods during the southwest monsoon. The course of the river has changed too, resulting in further mangrove
erosion. Two islands south of Gerampeta conspicuous for dense mangroves in the 1975 Survey of India map, look less
impressive in the 1986 Landsat 5 TM data: mangroves are now thinner in the eastern side; other mangrove areas are
changed to sandy.
But there are positive changes as well. In the northern side of the Kothapalem river mouth, the mudflats in 1975
show up as mangrove vegetation in 1986 with many patches of new mangroves. Similarly, along the Godavari river near
Balusutippa RF the mudflats in 1975 now glow green with dense mangroves in 1986 (Map 3.23).
Figure 35. Erosion along the Corangi RF Extension, Mangroves facing Bay of Bengal
Map 3.23 Changes in Vegetation between 1975 and 1986
Mangroves
Newly formed Mangroves
Degraded Mangroves
74

A comparison of 1986 Landsat 5 TM data and 1998 IRS 1D LISS III data revealed an increase of about 680 ha which
is mainly due to new mangrove growth in newly accredited mud flats. The 1998 data shows that about 450 ha of dense
mangroves found outside the RF boundary in 1986 were converted into aquaculture farms.
Accretion in the Kakinada Bay area increased mangrove area by 412 ha and erosion along the shore in the eastern side
of the sanctuary area reduced mangroves by 495 ha (Map 3.24). The erosion of mangroves along the southern bank of
Nilarevu river increased further; The river is wider in 1998 than 1986. Mangroves near the northern side of the Kothapalem
river mouth eroded on the seaward side and regenerated landward near Kothapalem village and in the lagoon near the
Kothapalem lighthouse.

Mangroves that showed up as degraded in 1986 and 1998 satellite data are now found thinly covered with mangrove
vegetation, by recently interpreted IRS LISS III data of 2001 (Map 3.25). The mangrove plantations (discussed in
Chapter 3.14) organized by the Forest Department and by MSSRF under the ICEF-supported project Coastal Wetland:
Mangrove Conservation and Management have helped to revive the degraded area. 2001 data has shown an increase in
erosion along the Bay of Bengal in the eastern side of the sanctuary, also an increase in accretion in the Kakinada Bay.
Mangroves in the accreted area near Uppulanka in the Kakinada Bay have increased (Table 8). The data shows an overall
increase of 367 ha between 1986 and 2001 and this was mainly due to the effort of the Forest Department under Andhra
Pradesh Forestry Project.
Table 8 Changes in Mangrove Area (in ha)
Description
Changes between
1986 and 2001
Restoration of
mangroves and
natural regeneration
in the degraded areas
3275 (+)
Natural Regeneration
in the accreted areas
223 (+)
Total increase
3498 (+)
Degradation due to
Aquaculture/ Saltpan
658 (-)
Erosion
806 (-)
Degradation due to
other causes coupe
felling, grazing and felling
1667 (-)
Total loss
3131 (-)
Net Increase
(-) Decrease in area (+) Increase in area
367
Mangroves
Newly formed Mangroves
Degraded Mangroves
77
3.19 Shoreline changes

As shorelines and coastal belts are dynamic, temporal changes in the mangrove wetlands were mapped on the basis
of the shoreline derived from the 1970 Survey of India toposheet and the remote sensing data of 1986 and 2001.
Appreciable changes are seen in both the sanctuary and non-sanctuary areas. Accretion in Kakinada Bay is due to
sediment deposit from the Gaderu and Corangi rivers (distributaries of Gauthami Godavari river). The deposit of
sediments up to 300 meters towards the bay was noticed by comparing the latest data from earlier data.
The southern part of Kakinada port is eroded, but Hope Island is enlarging, and is extending north and northwest.
The bay region has accretions from the north (near Uppulanka) to Gaderu river mouth in Corangi RF extension.
Erosion was noticed from the Gaderu river mouth onwards up to the sand bar of Hope Island; also from the end of
Hope Island up to the Nilarevu river mouth.
In the Nilarevu river mouth, the river course has changed a great deal from Yanam to the river mouth.
The sand bed in the middle of the river has shifted southeast and joined the mainland near Gogullanka.
The area under the Rathikaluva RF along the river has eroded to the extent of approximately 500 meters.
The spit formation in the southern part of the Nilarevu river mouth has got extended northward. The river mouth
has also shifted towards northeast from east.
Unlike the sanctuary area, the southern part of the delta has acquired more accretions along its shoreline (northeast
to Masanitippa). The non-reserve forest area south of the Masanitippa RF has eroded; the small mangroves found in
this area have disappeared. The eroded material must have been deposited north of this area near Masanitippa. Accretion
has also been noticed along the coastline southwest of the river mouth near Kothapalem village.
Coastline erosion has reduced both mangrove vegetation and beach sand. At the same time, accretion has led to an
increase in the mangrove area in the Kakinada Bay (Map 3.26).
Map 3.26 Shoreline Changes
Map 3.27 Villages abutting Mangroves
Map 4.1 Geomorphology
1 - 8 Reserve Forests
CHAPTER 4
he Krishna mangroves in Andhra Pradesh are located in the coastal plains of Krishna delta. According to the
Forest Department, the total area under mangroves is 5,000 ha. The Krishna mangroves lie between 15
42' N and 15 55' N in latitude and 80 42'- 81 01' E in longitude spread across Krishna and Guntur districts.
The Krishna wildlife sanctuary has been established in a part of the mangrove wetland the total area of this sanctuary
is 19,481 ha (194.81) sq.km.; it includes Sorlagondi Reserve Forest (RF), Nachugunta RF, Yelichetladibba RF, Kottapalem
RF, Molagunta RF, Adavuladivi RF and Lankivanidibba RF. They occupy the islands of the delta and the adjacent
mainlands of both districts. A part of the mangroves is located far from the main mangrove area; its near Machilipatnam
on its eastern side and Nakshatranagar on its western side.
Fishermen in surrounding areas use the mangrove resources for fishing, house construction and firewood and to
obtain fencing material for their houses. A devastating cyclone that hit the Machilipatnam coast during 1977 led to large
areas of the forest getting degraded.
4.1. Geomorphology
Mangrove areas near the river mouth joining the sea are slightly elevated because of sand casting. This inhibits the
entry of tidal water into the area, thereby affecting mangrove growth. This type of area can be seen near Nadimeru
and Gollamattapaya. The area is elevated along the edges of the delta, whereas the middle area is low-lying and swampy.
The delta can be clearly segregated from the mainland through the beach ridge running from east to west, north of
the delta.
4.2. Remote Sensing Imagery

Remote sensing imagery of the Krishna delta (2001), as acquired from IRS 1D LISS III data, shows a wide bright red
patch mangrove vegetation in the delta. Most of the wetland and terrestrial area adjacent to the mangroves (dark blue
to bluish gray) have been converted into aquaculture farms. Such farms also occupy some of the areas in Molagunta RF,
Kottapalem RF Bit No. 1 and 2, Adavuladivi RF and the northern part of the Lankivanidibba RF as seen in 2001 (Map
4.3) which in not in 1986 data (Map 4.2). The northern part of the delta consists of farm fields that show up as fallow
land in the imagery. Small mangrove islands (Lankivanidibba RF) are found on the western part of the deltas shoreline.
In Yelichetladibba RF, a bluish gray strand indicates water stagnation. Remote sensing data from various satellite
sensors of various years have been used in this atlas to prepare thematic maps of the wetland area and monitor
changes in the mangroves of the Krishna delta.
Map 4.2 Landsat 5 TM Remote Sensing Imagery of Krishna delta - 1986
Agriculture
Agriculture
Krishna River
Bay of
Bengal
Bay of
Bengal
Mangroves
Bay of
Bengal
Map 4.3. IRS 1D LISS III Remote Sensing Imagery of Krishna delta - 2001
Agriculture
Aquaculkture
Aquaculkture
Krishna River
Bay of
Bengal
Bay of
Bengal
Mangroves
Bay of
Bengal
84
4.3. Reserve forests

The vegetation in Sorlagondi RF is sparse (Map 4.4). The total area, as per the records of the Forest Department, is
5,199.40 ha. Of this, 1,292 ha. consists of dense mangroves. In the degraded area, the Forest Department and
MSSRF have both carried out restoration of mangroves. The vegetation near the lighthouse is dense. Avicennia officinalis,
A. marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Aegiceras corniculatum and Rhizophora apiculata have been recorded. Suaeda maritima and
S. nudiflora are common in the degraded areas; Excoecaria agallocha and Avicennia marina also occur, in stunted form.
Acanthus ilicifolius is seen along the sides of the creek and Clerodendrum inerme an associate species, has also been recorded.
Avicennia marina and Excoecaria agallocha are the dominant species here. Salicornia brachiata is present in highly saline areas.
Dense vegetation of Prosopis juliflora is seen in the uplands landward, and even near the Krishna river mouth. Nearly
500 ha of barren area near Gollalamoda has been utilized for aquaculture. The soil in this RF is clayey.
Figure 36. Avicennia marina in Sorlagondi RF
85
The total area of Nachugunta RF is 6,065 ha. of which healthy mangroves take up 2,873 ha. The species diversity
in this RF is greater than in many others. Dense vegetation (Rhizophora apiculata, Avicennia marina and Avicennia officinalis)
is seen along the canals. Prosopis invasion is conspicuous in some places along with mixed vegetation of Excoecaria
agallocha. The mean height of the trees in this area is 4-5 m. Large areas of degraded mangroves occur near Zinkapalem
village with stunted growth of Excoecaria agallocha, Suaeda maritima and Avicennia marina. The Forest Department and
MSSRF have restored these areas. The dominant species are Rhizophora apiculata and Avicennia marina. Species such as
Excoecaria agallocha, Aegiceras corniculatum, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Acanthus ilicifolius have been recorded. The soil is
clayey as one goes landward, and sandy clayey near the shore.
Figure 37. Rhizophora mucronata in Nachchugunta RF
Map 4.4 Reserve Forest
87
The total area of Yelichetladibba RF is 3,714 ha. Dense mangroves occupy 751 ha. of this area. Large areas along
the Nadimeru canal are under intensive aquaculture. The mangrove vegetation is sparse in the land area, but gets thicker
seaward. The degraded areas are found elevated along canals and creeks; tidal water that entered during the spring tide
and during floods stagnated and increased soil salinity, thus leading to degradation of mangroves. Avicennia marina is the
dominant species. Species such as Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Aegiceras corniculatum have also been
recorded. Acanthus ilicifolius is seen along the creeks. The soil is sandy towards the shore and sandy clay in the land area.
Suaeda maritima and S. nudiflora are noticed in degraded patches and creeks; terrestrial species such as Prosopis, Opuntia and
Asparagus have also been recorded.
Figure 38. Mangroves along the creeks of Yelichetladibba RF
88
Kottapalem RF is named after the village Kottapalem situated nearby. The total area of the RF is 1,554 ha, of which
healthy mangroves occupy only 285 ha. Large areas of degraded patches near Vasalsink kalava have been converted
into aquaculture farms.
Thick vegetation of Avicennia marina, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata and Bruguiera cylindrica, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza,
Xylocarpus granatum is seen along the canals. Suaeda maritima and Salicornia brachiata occur in abandoned aqua farms as well
as in the degraded areas. Species such as Ceriops decandra, Avicennia officinalis, Clerodendrum inerme, Sesuvium portulacastrum
and Salicornia brachiata have been recorded.
Figure 39. Avicennia officinalis
Figure 40. Rhizophora apiculata
89
The total area under Lankivanidibba RF is 5,382 ha. of which 1,974 ha. is covered with thick mangrove vegetation.
Species such as Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Xylocarpus granatum, Excoecaria agallocha, Ceriops decandra, Rhizophora apiculata
and Bruguiera cylindrica have been recorded. The vegetation is fairly thick. Large degraded areas are found in this RF.
Anthropological pressure is noticed from villages nearby such as Molagunta, Kottapalem, Patur, Nakshatranagar and
Lankivanidibba. The soil in this RF is clayey. Prosopis invasion is high in some areas.
Figure 41. Rhizophora mucronata found along the creeks of Lankivanidibba RF
Map 4.5a Mangrove Species Zonation - Western Part
Map 4.5b Mangrove Species Zonation - Eastern Part
92
4.4. Mangrove species zonation

Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata and Bruguiera cylindrica species are seen along the creeks of Sorlagondi RF (Map 4.6b)
near the light house. An Avicennia marina zone occupies the area near the creeks. Sueada species are found in degraded
areas. Likewise, in the Nachugunta RF, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and B. cylindrica are observed
along the creeks. Avicennia and Excoecaria zones stand in the adjoining area, while Suaeda and Prosopis are prominent in
degraded areas. In the Lankivanidibba RF, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, B. cylindrica and B. gymnorrhiza are noticed
along the creeks. Rhizophora are seen in large numbers along the seaward side (Map 4.5a).
4.5. Soil properties

The soil of the Krishna mangroves is clayey, and dominated by montmorillonite. The major riverbeds
Gollalamatapaya, Nadimeru and Krishna are found to be clayey rather than silt. The overall soil texture may be
classified as silty clay.
Soil samples were collected from both degraded and growth areas of the Krishna mangroves before taking up
restoration work. The samples were analysed for soil salinity, pH, electric conductivity and other parameters including
soil texture. The soil is mostly clayey inside mangrove areas, but sandy clayey in a few places. Soil salinity is greater in
summer than in winter or the rainy season, because of the high rate of evaporation during summer. Soil pH in the
areas studied ranges from 7 to 8.8, with an average of 8.0. The average is slightly higher in degraded areas. Organic
matter content is low in degraded areas and creeks and slightly high in dense areas. The phosphorous content is low
in general (Map 4.6 and 4.7).
4.6. Hydrological conditions

Tidal amplitude
In the Krishna mangroves tidal amplitude was observed in 7 stations, 5 in the mangrove areas and 2 in the upstream
(20 km from mangroves). In the upstream area tidal amplitude varied from 1.0 to 1.4 m and showed no conspicuous
variation between monsoon and summer months. In some of the mangrove areas such as near Sorlagundi mangroves
tidal amplitude was very less, ranging only from 0.15 m to 0.6 m. In some other mangrove areas such as Nadimeru and
Gollamata tidal amplitude was relatively high ranging from 0.8 and 2.3 m (Map 4.8).
Figure 40. Data collection for tidal amplitude
Map 4.6 Soil pH
Map 4.7 Soil Phosphorus
Map 4.8 Tidal Amplitude
Tidal Amplitude (meters)
Map 4.9 Water Salinity
Salinity (ppt)
Map 4.10 Water Temperature
Temperature (c)
98
Salinity and temperature
Salinity and temperature variations were studied during February and May in the creeks of Sorlagondi and
Nakshatranagar (Map 4.9 and 4.10). Salinity variations in the mouth of Sorlagondi in February range from 23 to 32 ppt.
The temperature ranges from 28 to 34C. In May the salinity varies from 27 to 32 ppt and the temperature from 27 to
33C. In Nakshatranagar, the salinity varies from 22 to 32 ppt regardless of the season. The temperature varies from 27
to 32 C in February and 29 to 34 C in May.
4.7. Wood and Fishery Resources

Dense Mangroves
Healthy dense mangroves can be seen near the light house in Sorlagondi RF, Nachugunta RF, Lankivanidibba RF,
and Kottapalem RF. Excoecaria agallocha, Avicennia marina and A. officinalis are observed on the land. The middle zone
is populated by Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Aegiceras corniculatum, Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata,
Bruguiera cylindrica, B. gymnorrhiza, Ceriops decandra and Xylocarpus granatum. Suaeda maritima, S. nudiflora and Excoecaria
agallocha can be noticed in mangrove areas of relatively low tidal inundation.
Mangroves are central to the lives of the artisanal fisher community that lives near these forests. The fisherfolk carry
out subsistence fishing in the mangrove waters and collect prawn seed. The mangroves are source of firewood, fishing
poles, timber for house construction, fencing materials for homes.
Figure 43. Status of restored mangroves in Sorlagondi

Casuarina Plantations
The Forest Department of Andhra Pradesh has planted casuarinas along the coast under its shelterbelt program.
These plantations can be seen in Sorlagondi R.F. near Nali village.
99
Prosopis Invasion
Invasion by Prosopis in the mangrove area is prominent and pervasive all along the three main distributaries of
Krishna River as well as in the interior of some of the mangrove forests. Dense Prosopis vegetation is observed along
the Gollamatapaya river up to the river mouths of the Krishna.
Figure 44. Invasion of Prosopis in mangroves

Fishes
Fish species such as catfish, mullets, snappers, milkfish, carps, tilapia and mudskipper are common in mangrove
areas. Snails, crabs, prawns and molluscs are also found. Prawn species such as Penaeus monodon and P.indicus are quite
common. Many varieties of edible crabs live in mangrove areas, and giant fresh water prawns in swampy areas.
Figure 45. Dry fish and prawn for marketing
100
Figure 46. Prawn seed collection and selling
Figure 47. Crab collection in mangrove forests
4.8. Socio-economic condition

Socio-economic detail on the user villages of Krishna mangroves was collected by conducting a Rapid Rural Appraisal
(RRA) and a baseline survey. The Baseline Survey was done in the villages of Dheenadayalapuram, Nakshatranagar,
with the co-operation of the Churches Auxiliary for Social Action (CASA) in Machilipatnam and the Gandhian
Organisation for Rural Development (GORD) in Repalle. Information was also obtained from the Mandal Revenue
Office.
101
The communities of 28 villages near the mangroves tap the resources (Map 4.11) of Krishna wetlands. The table
below provides details of population, occupation and dependency on mangroves, obtained through the PRA.
Table 9 Mangrove User Villages in Krishna

Major
Occupation
Village Name
Popu- Live Agri- Fishlation stock culing

ture
Yelichetladibba
Nachugunta
Zinkapalem
Gollamondha
Dheenadayalapuram
Sorlagondi
Nali
Sangameswaram
Pata Upakali
Lankivanidibba
Mollagunta
Tallatippa
Nakshatranagar
Sanjivinagar
Pattur
Mandudupalem
Varmapuram
Zulu
Edurumondi
Kottapalem
Kottur
Dakshinasaradanagar
Uttarasaradanagar
Muktheswarapuram
Kattava
Kallipalaem
Kumaripalem
1154
1500
493
2500
564
2500
1124
1201
700
3000
2500
300
809
550
350
400
630
2000
2000
2500
1400
400
650
370
450
500
520
200
200
75
200
150
400
150
400
400
100
200
40
50
200
25
75
65
80
250
150
100
65
30
65
150
70
40
Total
31065 3930
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Dependency
Houses
Fuel
Fencing
326
300
113
450
143
400
228
300
200
475
400
110
250
150
100
115
145
250
400
450
300
120
130
125
100
160
120
Medium
High
Medium
High
Low
High
Medium
Low
Low
Medium
High
Medium
High
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
High
High
High
Medium
Medium
High
Low
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
High
High
High
Medium
Medium
High
Low
Medium
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
House
construc- Grazing
tion
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
Low
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
High
High
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
None
Medium
Low
6360
Population and Occupation

Twenty eight villages with 6,360 houses and a total population of 31,605 abut the mangroves (Map 4.12a, b, 4.15a and
b). These villages depend for their livelihood on mangrove resources. Fishing is the major occupation, but the people
also work as agricultural labourers during the lean season. The literacy rate of men and women respectively is 87% and
66% in Dheenadayalapuram, 36% and 51% in Zinkapalem and 48% and 38% in Nali.
Map 4.11 Mangrove User Villages
103
Figure 48. Fishing A major occupation in Krishna Delta
Figure 49. Zinkaplem - one of the user villages near Nachchugunta RF

Infrastructure
Coastal villages in the interior of Krishna and Guntur districts are accessible by road. If a cyclone strikes, cyclone
shelters arent too far. The people can easily access the forest range office, the Primary Health Center, the police station,
the local high school, bank and Mandal office.
The facilities in coastal villages situated along the river bank are limited to cyclone shelters, a primary school and
Public Health Centers. A light house is situated in the Sorlagondi RF near Gollamattapaya river, and a guest house
owned by the Forest Department at Nagayalanka (Map 4.14).
Income range
The average annual income of the villages mentioned above ranges from Rs. 18,000 to Rs 24,000. 55% of the
families feel that their income is not sufficient, but 45% consider it sufficient (Map 4.15).
Livestock
There are 3,930 buffaloes and cows in all the villages. They depend partially on mangroves for fodder (Map 4.16a and b).
Map 4.12a Population - Western Part
Map 4.12b Population - Eastern Part
Map 4.13a Occupation - Western Part
Map 4.13b Occupation - Eastern Part
Map 4.14 Infrastructure
Map 4.15 Income range in JMM Villages
Map 4.16a Livestock - Western Part
Map 4.16b Livestock - Eastern Part
112
4.9. Land use

The wetland region covers mangrove vegetation, mudflat, and water bodies such as rivers, streams, canals, creeks and
sand; inland uses include aquaculture and agriculture farms with paddy as major crop. Some of the aquaculture farms set
up during the early 1990s were abandoned in recent years. Intermediate wetland and upland zones are covered with
Prosopis and sand spread along the river course.
Cropping pattern
Paddy is the major agricultural crop cultivated in coastal villages near mangrove areas. It is irrigated mainly by canals
of the river Krishna. The Forest Department has raised casuarina plantations under its shelterbelt programme along the
coast near Sangameswaram, Pata Upakali and Nali. The returns from these plantations are used to help the villages.
Salt pans
Some revenue areas are used as salt pans. This can be seen near Sorlagondi RF adjoining the reserved forest.
Aquaculture
Aquaculture is being practised both in revenue lands and forest areas. In some places, paddy fields have been converted
to prawn farms; in other areas the same farms have been reconverted to paddy fields. Its mostly tiger prawns that are
cultivated in the prawn farms.
Map 4.17a Landuse Map - 1986
Map 4.17b Landuse Map - 1996
Map 4.17c Landuse Map - 2001
116
4.10. Dependency
Grazing
Cattle-grazing in mangrove areas inhibits mangrove growth and the establishment of young seedlings. The cattle
gobble up young leaves of Avicennia marina, and this aborts or limits the growth of mangrove saplings in particular.
According to the local community, cattle graze in the mangrove forest nearby because fodder isnt available (Map 4.18a
and b).
Firewood
Coastal communities depend on mangroves for firewood, because of the proximity of the mangroves and the easy
access to them. Avicennia marina, A. officinalis and Aegiceras corniculatum are the major species used for firewood.
House construction
Mangroves are tapped for house construction. The main species used are Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Excoecaria
agallocha and Bruguiera cylindrica. Following the 1977 cyclone, the Rashtria Swayam Sevak Sang (RSS), TATA, and Red
Cross Society have constructed pucca houses in a few villages.
Figure 50. Mangrove wood used for fencing
117
Fishing
Fishing activities are noticed in all of the mangrove areas. Prawn seeds are collected for supply to aqua farms.
Inevitably, a large number of juvenile fishes and prawns are also collected in the process something that cannot but
affect future fish production. Fishermen collect and market crabs, different varieties of eel fish (known locally as
Guddipamulu, Komiraya pamu, Kulimipamu and Semberipamu) and shellfish.
Figure 51. Prawn seed collection using nets
Figure 52. Crab collection
Figure 53. Prawn seed collection
Map 4.18a Dependency - Western Part
Map 4.18b Dependency - Eastern Part
120
4.11. Causes of degradation

The main causes of degradation of the Krishna mangroves are as follows:
a)
Changes in microtopography due to coupe-felling : Extensive areas of healthy mangrove forest were coupe-felled in the
past. Wherever coupe-felling was done, drastic changes occurred to the micro-topography because of the
evaporation of soil water, the consequent stagnation of tidal water in the coupe-felled area, and the failure of
natural regeneration in mangrove species.
b)
Changes in the biophysical condition due to cyclones: The Krishna mangroves experienced two severe cyclonic storms
during 1977 and 1990. Though the magnitude of the destruction could not be assessed, the storms caused
extensive damage to mangroves through sand casting, making these areas unsuitable for mangrove vegetation.
Figure 54. Degraded area and coup felled area
121
c)
Progradation of shoreline: Progradation (flat areas gradually tapering into the sea) of the Krishna coast shoreline has
been rapid. Coupled with low tidal amplitude, this phenomenon hampers tidal flushing of the wetland in the
upper portion of the mangroves. Result: mangrove wetlands in these areas have gradually got converted into
terrestrial areas, no more suitable for mangrove plantation.
d)
As explained earlier, the local community living in coastal areas particularly fishers, use the mangroves for firewood,
fencing materials fodder, house construction and grazing.
e)
Conversion of mangrove wetlands into prawn farms: Prawn farms are coming up on a large scale in the Krishna mangrove
region. As mentioned earlier, even some part of the Reserve Forests has been converted into aquaculture farms.
f)
Reduction in fresh water flow: The quantity of fresh water reaching the Krishna mangroves has got progressively
reduced because of the diversion of fresh water in the upstream area. This also affects both the growth and the
quality of mangrove wetlands.
Figure 55. Canal construction in degraded mangroves
122
4.12. Restoration and Redevelopment

The mangrove forest area is diminishing gradually, because of the reasons cited above. The project took up canal
construction to restore degraded areas and expand the mangrove area. As much as 355 ha of degraded mangroves have
been restored in the Krishna in this manner (Table 10). This activity also gave the local community which provided
labour for constructing the canals and planting the seedlings much-needed income. Mangrove seedlings were raised
in nursery beds in co-operation with mangrove villagers as per standard measurements and methods. All mangrove
seedlings were raised to optimum height (to a pencil-thick 60 cms), then planted in the site when climatic and biophysical
conditions were favourable. Seed beds were prepared during November and December, and seedlings planted in December
and January. Training on nursery-raising and planting was imparted to members of the community and to village-level
institutions in the respective demonstration villages.
Figure 56. Nursery (top) and canal construction (bottom) in Sorlagondi RF
123
Table 10 Details of restoration and Mangrove Management Units - Krishna
Demonstration village
Area restored (ha.)
Area under MMU (ha.)
236
2000
Dheenadayalapuram
Nali
Zinkapalem
114
600
Total
355
2600
4.13. Joint Mangrove Management

Joint Mangrove Management restoration and conservation of mangrove wetlands by the local community through
village level institutions has been demonstrated in three villages. Table 10. shows the area restored and the area under
the protection and management of these villages.
The canal technique explained above has been followed for restoration. The villagers have been given alternatives to
mangroves for fuel and fencing materials, to reduce dependence on mangroves. For example, gas, kerosene and smokeless
stoves (which need less firewood than conventional stoves) have been distributed to women. Project staff have encouraged
the villagers to use Prosopis and coconut and borassus palm refuse in place of firewood. Trees have been planted to
provide fencing material for housing. Plantations of casuarina, bamboo, subabul and eucalyptus have been undertaken
to meet the communitys requirements for firewood and timber.
Figure 57. Restoration done in 1999
Map 4.19 Villages abutting Mangroves
125
4.14. Changes in mangrove vegetation between 1986 and 1996

The mangrove vegetation underwent changes between 1986 and 1996. Data from the Landsat 5 Thematic Map
(TM) and IRS 1C LISS III data were used to delineate the extent of mangroves in 1986 and 1996 respectively. Starting
from the east, in Sorlagondi RF, mangrove vegetation has increased around the periphery of the core mangrove up to
Lankivanidibba RF about 3,039 ha. But considerable degradation of mangrove has occurred in the Mulagunta,
Adavuladivi and Kottapalem RF Bit No.1. At the same time the shoreline has been found to be dynamic in the western
part of the delta. The spit size is increasing; thus natural regeneration of about 300 ha of mangroves has been noticed
on the sediments of the spit. The spit formation on the eastern part of the delta near Sorlagondi does not have much
impact on mangrove vegetation during this period (Map 4.20).
Figure 58. Degradation due to hyper salinity
Figure 59. Large patch of degraded area - a common feature in Krishna wetland
127
4.15. Changes in mangrove vegetation between 1996 and 2001

IRS 1D LISS III data of 2001 was used to delineate mangrove vegetation and associated wetland categories of the
Krishna wetland. The total area under mangroves has increased noticeably between 1996 and 2001, mainly in the Sorlagondi
RF and Yelichetladibba RF. The combined efforts of the Forest Department and MSSRF have improved mangrove
restoration in the degraded area identified in 1986. Natural regeneration too has occurred along the shoreline of the
western part of the delta. The new sediments of 1996 were seen in 2001 with naturally restored mangroves in the
Lankivanidibba RF coast. Total mangrove vegetation area went up from 7,890 ha in 1996 to 9,512 ha in 2001 (Map 4.21).
Figure 60. Natural regeneration of Avicennia marina
4.16. Shoreline changes

Like the Godavari coastline, the Krishna delta too has undergone many changes, starting from Sorlagondi in the east
end to Nakshatranagar in the west end of the delta. Both erosion and accretion are noticed in the west and east coast of
the delta, while considerable accretion has occurred in the southern part. The western part of the delta shows erosion
and accretion of both land and mangrove vegetation. The sedimentation in this part due mainly to discharge from
Uppurevu and its distributor canals has resulted in natural regeneration of mangrove vegetation. Sedimentation near
Sorlagondi due to discharge from canal network in the delta has led to the formation of dynamic sand spit and lagoon.
The coastline and its mangrove vegetation have eroded completely on account of wave action in the south-facing delta
portion in Lankivanidibba RF, Yelichetladibba RF, Nachugunta RF and Sorlagondi RF (Map 4.22).
Map 4.22 Shoreline Changes
CHAPTER 5
Long-term Management
he species diversity and population density of each species relate directly to the spatial and temporal discharge
of river water flow. It has been determined that the past management practice of clear felling by coupe contractors
(without realizing that mangroves are not coppicing by nature) has led to blank formations and inhibited natural
regeneration.
The dams constructed across the Godavari river at Dowleswaram and Alamatti Dam in Karnataka; as well as the
Prakasham barrage at Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh across the Krishna to increase cultivable areas have reduced river
water flow and consequently the nutrients that mangroves require. The natural regeneration of mangrove species and
the establishment of saplings have been inhibited. This has in fact led to the gradual disappearance of some mangrove
species. The loss of Sonneratia apetela from the mangroves of Pichavaram is an example. It happened because of the
reduced flow of river water from 1950 till date.
Chronological data on salinity and tidal amplitude show that past mangrove species need to be restored and reestablished through afforestation as a means of long-term management. The river mouths must be periodically cleared
and sand bars removed to ensure free flow of river water into the sea. This can improve nutrient supply not only to the
mangroves but also to the juveniles of fish that breed in the open sea and take shelter in the mangroves. Periodical
monitoring of sandbar formation in the river mouth, coupled with monitoring of rainfall and water discharge from
Dowleswaram and other barrages, could be very effective. These measures must be implemented with rigour. Dredging
of the river mouth can be organized in co-operation with port authorities and local fishermen, as both will benefit from
the resulting economic and ecological improvements.
Another important cause of degradation is the felling of mangroves by the poor to meet genuine basic needs.
A mangrove protection policy should offer these people viable alternatives to mangroves for firewood, fencing, fodder
and house construction. A sustainable method of mangrove harvesting should also be evolved. . Participatory patrolling
by members of EDC/ VSS and the staff of the Forest Department, and strict and systematic vigilance, are essential for
better mangrove management.
132
Figure 61. Awareness programme in Deenadayalpuram played by Mangrove club children
Figure 62. Awareness through wall paintings for mangrove conservation
133
Figure 63. PRA in Nali village
Figure 64. Preparation of LBA MicroplanBhairavalanka
Figure 65. Supply of drinking water - Solving the

village concerns through micro plan
134
Figure 66. Casuarina plantation as alternative for timber in Bhairavalanka
Figure 67. Training for alternative income through coir rope making
135
Figure 68. Alternatives for fencing - Jatropha being used as line fencing
Figure 69. Alternatives for timber - community plantation in Deenadayalpuram
136
REFERENCES
1.
ADB/NACA. 1998. Aquaculture sustainability and the environment, Report on a Regional Study and Workshop on
Aquaculture Sustainability and the Environment, Bangkok, Thailand, Asian Development Bank and Network of
Aquaculture Centres in Asia and the Pacific.
2.
Andhra Pradesh Remote Sensing Application Centre (APRSAC). 1999. Environmental management and monitoring of shrimp culture project, East Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh - land use/land cover, Hyderabad, India.
3.
Forest Survey of India. 1999. Status of Forest Report, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of
India, New Delhi.
4.
Blasco, F. and Aizpura, M. 2002. Mangroves along the coastal stratch of the Bay of Bengal: Present status,
Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, 9 20.
5.
Blasco F., Kerrest, R. and Marius, C. 1985. Considerations on some ecological factors influencing the biology
of Indian mangroves. In Bhosale. L. J. (ed.), The Mangroves, Shivaji University, Kolhapur. 135 146.
6.
Caratini, C. F., Blasco, F. and Thanikoimoni, G. 1973. Relations between the pollen spectra and the vegetation of a south Indian mangrove, Pollen et spores, 15: 281 292.
7.
Mishra, H. C. 1999. The dynamics of Hope Island A study using IRS 1B & 1C satellite data, GIS India, 8:
17 18.
8.
Mittal, R. 1993. Management plan for Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Forest Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh,
Hyderabad.
9.
Rangarao, V., Reddy, B. S. R., Raman, A. V. and Ramana Murthy, M. V. 2003. Oceanographic features of
the Bay Mangrove water ways of Coringa, East coast of India, Proceedings of AP Akademy Sci., 135-142.
10.
Reddy, B.S.R. and Prasad, K.V.S.R.1982. The sand spit near Kakinada Further studies, Indian J Ear Sci., 9:
167 173.
11.
Robertson, A.I. and Alongi, D.M. 1992. Tropical mangrove ecosystems: Coastal and Estuarine studies,
American Geophysical Union, Washington DC, 329.
12.
Selvam, V. 2003. Environmental classification of Mangrove wetlands of Inida, Current science, 84 (6): 757 765.
13.
Selvam, V., Gnanappazham, L., Navamuniyammal, M., Ravichandran, K. K. and Karunakaran,

V. M. 2002. Atlas of Mangrove Wetlands of India Part 1 Tamil Nadu, M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation,
Chennai, India.
14.
Selvam, V., Ravichandran, K., Gnanappazham, L., Navamuniyammal, M. 2003. Asessment of

community-based restoration of Pichavaram mangrove wetland using remote sensing data. Current science, 85:
794-98.
15.
Sidhu.S.S. 1963. Studies on the mangroves of India: East Godavari Region, Indian Forester, 89: 337-351.
16.
Uma Maheswara Rao, M. and Narasimha Rao, G.M. 1988. Mangrove populations of the Godavari delta
complex. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, 17:326-329.
17.
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ATLAS OF

Part 2 - Andhra Pradesh

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

: + 91(44) 22541 229

: + 91(44) 22351 319

Government of India, Copyright 2002

M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation.

Printed and Designed by

Ethnobotanist and Principal Scientist

Mr. Md. Najeebullah Shariff

Former Project Director

Former Project Director

Former Project Officer

Mr. N. Srinivasa Rao

Former Social Scientist

Dr. Md. Maqbool

Former GIS Specialist

Andhra Pradesh Forest Department

Mr. Ramesh Kalghatghi

Mr. Hitesh Malhotra

Mr. H.C. Mishra

Mr. N. Varaprasada Rao

Mr. N. Bhujanga Rao

Forest Range Officer

Mangrove Wetlands of Andhra Pradesh

Floristic diversity of Mangroves of Andhra Pradesh

Rivers of Andhra Pradesh

Godavari River Basin

Krishna River Basin

Godavari Mangrove wetland

Remote sensing imagery

Flora of the Mangrove Forest

Mangrove Species Zonation

Wood and Fishery resources

Land use around mangroves

Causes for degradation

Present management practices

Restoration and Redevelopment

Changes in mangrove vegetation between 1975 and 1986

Changes in mangrove vegetation between 1986 and 1998

Changes in mangrove vegetation between 1998 and 2001

Krishna Mangrove Wetland

Remote Sensing Imagery

Mangrove Species Zonation

Wood and Fishery resources

Restoration and Redevelopment

Joint Mangrove Management

Changes in mangrove vegetation between 1986 and 1996

Changes in mangrove vegetation between 1996 and 2001

Long Term Management

Distribution of mangroves in India

Distribution of Mangroves in Andhra Pradesh

Rivers flowing through Andhra Pradesh

Godavari River Basin

Krishna River Basin

Godavari Mangrove Wetland

Landsat 5 TM Remote Sensing Imagery of Godavari delta - 1986

IRS 1D LISS III Remote Sensing Imagery of Godavari delta - 2001