Mangrroves of Andhra Pradesh

Mang
es
es
toration
Mangrr o v e For
Fores
estt R
Res
estoration
in Andhra Pradesh, India
R. Ramasubramanian
and
T. Ravishankar
M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Chennai, India
MSSRF/MA/04/13
3rd Cross Street, Institutional Area
Taramani, Chennai 600 113
INDIA.
Tele: 91 44 22541229; 22541698
Fax: 91 44 22541319
www.mssrf.org
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
August 2004
This publication was prepared with the generous support of

India Canada Environment Facility (ICEF), New Delhi
ii
Foreword
I am glad that a manual on Mangrove Forest
Restoration in Andhra Pradesh has been
prepared by R. Ramasubramanian and
T. Ravishankar. The manual contains practical
suggestions which can help to foster
community conservation and restoration efforts
in mangrove wetlands. The multiple benefits
conferred by mangrove forests are now being
recognized widely. What is now important is
for local communities to undertake propagation
of planting material and restoration of degraded
mangrove areas. I hope the manual will
stimulate a programme on the lines of the social
forestry movement. Unless restoration of
degraded mangrove forests becomes a
community movement, we will lose precious
mangrove areas, leading to enhanced
vulnerability to coastal storms and cyclones and
loss of opportunities for sustainable livelihoods.
I therefore hope that the manual will be widely
read and used.
M.S. Swaminathan
iii
A c kno
wledgment
knowledgment
We are grateful to Prof. M.S. Swaminathan, Chairman,
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation for his encouragement and
guidance. We thank Dr. M. Velayuthum, Executive Director, MSSRF,
for his guidance and Dr. V. Selvam, Programme Director, MSSRF
for his critical comments and suggestions.
We are thankful to Shri. S. K. Das, IFS, Principal Chief
Conservator of Forests, Shri. K. Subba Rao, IFS and
Shri. S. D. Mukherjee IFS, former Principal Chief Conservators of
Forests, Shri. T. Ramakrishna, IFS, Shri. Hitesh Malhotra, IFS,
Additional Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Shri. A.V. Joseph,
IFS, Chief Conservator of Forests, Shri. Ramesh Kalghatgi, IFS,
Shri. J.V.K.T. Prabakar Rao, IFS, Shri. Manoranjan Bhanja, IFS,
Conservators of Forests, Andhra Pradesh for their support in
implementing the project. We thank Shri. N. Varaprasada Rao,
Shri. Thatha Rao, Shri. K. Ravi Kumar, Shri. K. Prakasha Rao, Deputy
Conservators of Forests, Shri. N. Bhujanga Rao, Shri. C.V.V.
Satyanarayana, Shri. M. V. Satyanarayana Murthy, Shri. Mallikarjuna
Rao, Forest Range officers and the staff of Coringa and Krishna
Wildlife Sanctuaries, Andhra Pradesh for their help during the
mangrove restoration work from 1996 to 2003.
We acknowledge the contributions of Dr. D. Sridhar and
Shri. D. Ramakrishna in the restoration and hydrological studies
respectively.
We thank Dr. Ujwal Chaudary and Dr. Jaya Chatterji of India
Canada Environment Facility (ICEF), New Delhi, for their support
in making this work possible.
We extend our thanks to the members of the EDC and VSS
committees of Godavari and Krishna mangroves for their
participation and involvement in the restoration. We thank
Shri. R. Satyanarayana, AFBO and Mr. D. Srinu, for their help and
assistance in the fieldwork and the boat drivers Shri. Satyam and
M. Srinu.
iv
Contents
1.
Mangrove forests - an overview
2.
Mangrove forests in Andhra Pradesh
2.1 Riverine systems in Andhra Pradesh
Causes of degradation
3.1. Past management practices
3.2. Hydrological and geomorphological causes
3.3. Anthropogenic causes
Restoration methods
10
4.1. Restoration of degraded mangroves in the past
10
11
4.2.1. Geomorphology and hydrology in

mangrove restoration
13
4.2.2. Hydrological studies in Godavari
15
4.2.3. Hydrological studies in Krishna
16
4.2.4. Dimensions of canals
17
4.2.5. Selection of species and planting
18
4.2.6. Desilting of canals and casualty replacement
19
4.3. Mangrove area restored
19
20
22
3.
4.
4.2. Methodology for restoration of degraded

mangroves at present
5. Impact of mangrove restoration

5.1. Cost of the restoration activity and long-term
benefits
5.2. How the restoration work has improved the

socio-economic condition of Bhairavalanka village in
Godavari mangroves
- 24
References
- 25
v
Lis
cr
on
yms
Listt of A
Acr
cron
onyms
APFD
Andhra Pradesh Forest Department
EDC
Eco-Development Committee
GIS
Geographic Information System
GPS
Global Positioning System
ha
Hectare
MMU
Mangrove Management Unit
MSSRF
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation
NGO
Non-Government Organization
ppt
Parts per thousand
PRA
Participatory Rural Appraisal
RF
Reserved Forest
Sq km
Square kilometres
VLI
Village level institution
VSS
Vana Samrakshana Samithi
vi
Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, India
Mangrove Forest Restoration in

Andhra Pradesh, India
1. Mangrove forests - an overview
Mangroves are the plant communities occurring in inter-tidal
zones along the coasts of tropical and sub-tropical countries. They
are one of the most productive ecosystems. Mangroves represent a
rich and diverse living resource and are valuable to both the economy
and protection of coastal environments. Mangrove plants belong
to several families but possess marked similarity in their physiological
characteristics and structural adaptations to similar habitat
preferences. Mangroves have been variously described as coastal
woodland and inter-tidal forest. The term mangrove is loosely
used to describe a wide variety of often-unrelated tropical and
subtropical trees and shrubs, which share common characteristics.
The total mangrove area of the world has been assessed to be
approximately 18.15 million hectares. India's mangrove wetlands
range from 6,81,000 ha (Sidhu, 1963) to 5,00,000 ha (FSI, 1998).
Mangrove forests perform multiple ecological functions such as

production of woody trees; provision of habitat, food, and spawning
grounds for fin-fish and shellfish; provision of habitat for birds
and other valuable fauna; protection of coastlines and accretion of
sediment to form new land. Mangrove areas have high biological
productivity, associated with heavy leaf production, leaf fall and rapid
decomposition to form detritus. The mangrove ecosystem is dynamic,
changing in both location and composition, and has great resilience
with the ability to restore itself after heavy damage, as long as seed
sources and water flow are maintained. There are also many economic
benefits from mangrove resources; like as a source of firewood, selfreplenishing areas of fishery resources, for collecting honey and for
tourism.
Despite the benefits that they offer, mangrove forests are
increasingly under threat and are getting degraded, due to pressures
from growing populations, which lead to changes in land use and
over-utilization of the resources. The depletion of mangroves is a
cause of serious environmental and economic concern to many
developing countries.
Until recently, tropical forests have been used as a renewable
resource. With the burgeoning human population, urban areas
expanded and more land area for agriculture was needed. As a result,
forest areas started declining at an alarming rate. Efforts were taken
up by the Forest Departments and other agencies to restore, develop
and conserve forest resources for sustainable use and management.
Nevertheless, these conservation programs were concentrated in the
upland forests and not undertaken in mangroves. The Andhra
Pradesh Forest Department started restoration activities from 1994
onwards.
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) started its
activities of mangrove restoration and management in Andhra
Pradesh from 1997 and restored 520 ha of degraded mangroves and
facilitated community participated mangrove management in
9,442 ha.
2
This publication reflects the process and results of restoration

activities carried out over seven years by the project Coastal Wetlands:
Mangrove Conservation and Management, implemented in
Godavari and Krishna wetlands by MSSRF with its field centre at
Kakinada. Hence it will be necessary to make modifications as per
the site conditions, mangrove ecosystem, tidal amplitude and
topography of the area chosen for restoration. This publication is
meant for foresters, field technicians, researchers and others
interested in restoration of degraded mangroves.
2. Mangrove forests in Andhra Pradesh

The mangrove forests in Andhra Pradesh are located in the
estuaries of the Godavari and the Krishna rivers. The Godavari
mangroves are located in Godavari estuary of East Godavari district
and the Krishna mangroves in Krishna estuary of Krishna and Guntur
districts. Apart from these estuaries, mangroves are also found in
small patches along the coast of Visakhapatnam, West Godavari,
Guntur and Prakasam districts. The total area under Godavari and
Krishna mangrove wetlands are 58,263 ha of which 33,263.32 ha
are under Godavari and 24,999.47 ha are in Krishna. However, the
dense mangroves in Godavari and Krishna are only 17,000 ha and
7,347 ha respectively. The rest are distributed between mudflats, water
bodies, sand bodies and casuarina plantations. The Coringa Wildlife
Sanctuary has three Reserve Forests, namely Corangi RF, Corangi
Extn. RF and Bhairavapalem RF. Most of the mangroves in the
Sanctuary are not directly connected with the Bay of Bengal. The
mangroves of Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary receives tidal flushing
through Matlapalem canal, Corangi river and Gaderu river. The
Gaderu and Corangi rivers are the distributaries of the River Godavari.
The other six Reserve Forests namely Rathikalava RF, Masanitippa
RF, Matlatippa RF, Balusutippa RF, Kothapalem RF and Kandikuppa
RF are situated on the southern side of Nilarevu River and fall under
non-sanctuary area -Map 1.
Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary is 19,481 ha, which includes
Sorlagondi RF, Nachugunta RF, Yelichetladibba RF, Lankivanidibba
3
Map 1. Location of Godavari Mangroves
Map 2. Location of Krishna Mangroves

4
RF, Molagunta RF, Kottapalem RF Bit-1, Kottapalem RF Bit-2 and

Adavuladivi RF (Map 2).
2.1. Riverine systems in Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh has a geographical area of 2,76,000 sq km, of
which 63,770 sq km are under forests. Mangrove forests account
for only 582 sq km, representing only about 0.9% of the States
total forest area. An advantage Andhra Pradesh enjoys is that most
of the east-flowing rivers pass through the heart of the State and
bring in copious sediments from the Western and Eastern Ghats
and the Deccan Plateau. 40 major, medium and minor rivers flow
through the State. Of these, the most important rivers are the
Godavari, the Krishna, the Pennar and the Vamsadhara. Mangroves
are found in the estuaries of these rivers but extensive mangrove
wetlands are present only in the Godavari and Krishna deltaic
regions.
The Godavari river originates in Maharashtra near Nasik and
flows towards east into the sea. The Godavari river branches into
the Vasishta and the Gautami near Dowleswaram (Map 3) which is
considered the head of the delta. The Gautami Godavari river joins
the Bay of Bengal at two places one near Bhairavapalem and the
other near Kothapalem. The Gautami-Godavari river is connected
to the Kakinada Bay by two distributaries, namely the Corangi river
which rises at Yanam and Gaderu river which has its origin at
Bhairavapalem. There are numerous tidal channels and creeks which
feed the mangrove areas and eventually flow into the Kakinada Bay.
An important feature determining the health of the Godavari
mangroves is the Kakinada Bay, which is very shallow.
The Godavari deltaic region falls under the category of tropical
humid climate. The monsoon season commences from June and
extends up to December. This area receives fresh water during
monsoon season, during which period the salinity is low. From
January onwards, the weather is mainly dry and progresses gradually
to the hot summer months of April and May.
5
Map 3. Distributaries of River Godavari
The Krishna river has its origin in the Western Ghats at an altitude
of 1,337 metres, north of Mahabaleshwar, about 64 kilometres from
the Arabian Sea. It flows across three states, namely Maharashtra,
Karnataka and eventually into Andhra Pradesh, before emptying into
the sea. The Hamsaladeevi distributary is the first to branch out, 60
km downstream from Vijayawada, near Avanigadda and flows
northward into the sea near Machilipatnam. Mangroves have been
reported to be less abundant here. The Gollamattapaya and Nadimeru
distributaries branch out 25 km downstream from Avanigadda and
6
flow northward to join the sea. The main Krishna canal flows
southward to join the sea near False Divi point. Mangroves are mainly
prevalent around tidal creeks, channels, lagoons, tidal flats and
mudflats of the three distributaries namely Gollamattapaya, Nadimeru
and main Krishna canal. The area has a warm, humid and tropical
climate with an annual rainfall of around 110 cm.
3. Causes of degradation
The mangroves of Andhra Pradesh are being degraded due to a
variety of causes, some of which are similar to those in other
mangrove areas in India. As in other places, vast areas of land
adjoining the mangroves have been converted to aquaculture ponds.
Apart from these general causes, some site-specific reasons also
contribute to mangrove loss. The causes of mangrove degradation
are described below:
3.1. Past management practices

The mangrove forests were coup felled by the Government
agencies for revenue generation till 1972. Some of the clear felled
areas could not be regenerated due to topographic changes. Moreover
all mangrove species are not of the coppicing type. Chart 1 shows
how a chain reaction triggered by coupe felling - caused degradation.
Clear felling through
coupe system
Exposure of the
mangroves
Stagnation of the
tidal water
Development of trough
shaped topography
Development of
hyper saline
No natural
regeneration
Evaporation of
soil water
Subsidence of sediment
Chart 1. Changes in the biophysical condition of the coupe

felled area leading to degradation of mangroves
7
3.2. Hydrological and geomorphological causes

Reduction in fresh water flow
The Krishna river is one of the highly utilized rivers in peninsular
India, for a variety of purposes. As a result, there has been a reduction
in fresh water flow over a period of time, which has had a telling
impact on the growth and regeneration of mangroves.
Decrease in sediment load into the mangroves

The decrease of sediment load has also had an impact on the ecosystem
by way of reduction in sediment supply, due to which the nutrients which
are needed for the health of the mangroves have also been reduced.
Cyclones and storm surges

The Krishna mangroves have borne the brunt of two severe
cyclonic storms in 1977 and 1990. Though the destruction of
mangroves due to these cyclonic storms have not been properly
documented, the surges associated with these storms have caused
extensive sand casting resulting in the area becoming unsuitable for
growth and survival of many mangrove species. It has also resulted
in the siltation of many drainage channels that were feeding both
fresh and tidal water, as a result of which the mangroves have
become degraded.
Geomorphological changes
The sand spit in the Kakinada Bay has undergone changes in its
morphology with a rapid rate of growth. The spit which had just
shown up in the year 1851 has now extended to about 18 km in
length. In addition to this, the Kakinada Bay has been undergoing
rapid siltation, as evidenced by the hydrographic study. With
increased developmental activities and the setting up of fertiliser units,
some effluents are being discharged into the Kakinada Bay. The bay
waters are now characterized by high amounts of ammonium and
nitrate which may contribute to degradation. As the present depth
of the Bay is very low, there is hardly any lateral mixing of waters, as
8
a result of this, there is lot of stagnation of bay waters which may

also contribute to degradation. The movement of pollutants in the
bay is still not properly studied.
Geomorphologically, the Gautami River has undergone some
changes, after the construction of the Cotton Barrage at Dowleswaram
in 1852. In 1893, Kothapalem mouth had deepened and widened
considerably and hence the major flow of fresh water was taking
place through the Kothapalem mouth. By 1985, the Kothapalem
mouth had gradually silted up and after 1986, the major outflow of
fresh water started taking place through the Bhairavapalem mouth
and only very little flow now takes place through the Kothapalem
mouth. Due to the change in flow pattern, mangroves occurring in
the Kothapalem RF, Masanithippa RF and Balusithippa RF have
been affected.
Formation of topographically elevated areas

The land has become relatively elevated at a few places along the
river banks and creeks due to silt deposition during floods in the
monsoon period. Once the land becomes elevated, the area is unable
to have any tidal flushing, as a consequence of which only the fringe
areas support mangroves, while the interior areas are devoid of
mangrove vegetation.
3.3. Anthropogenic causes

Increase in population, coupled with activities related to economic
9
growth, lead to the use of mangrove lands for various purposes such
as construction of roads, ports, harbours and industries.
Alternative uses of
mangrove lands, especially
conversion of mangrove
forests to aquaculture ponds
has been increasing. Since
1980, large tracts of
mangroves in India are being
converted to aquaculture
ponds which bring in higher monetary returns within a short period.
At the same time, conversion of mangrove forests for salt pans and
paddy fields have increased.
Effluents discharged from
factories, direct dumping of
municipal wastes into the rivers
and pesticide run-off from
agricultural fields eventually
result in the accumulation of
heavy metals in the mangrove
wetlands, affecting the health of
the mangrove ecosystem. Oil pollution is increasing in mangrove
areas from shipyards, ship breakers, offshore oil wells, spillage form
oil tankers due to accidents and from cleaning of cargo vessels.
Coastal villagers utilize mangroves for their genuine basic needs
such as firewood, fodder, fencing, house construction, thatching
and fishing poles.
4. Restoration methods
4.1. Restoration of degraded mangroves in the past
Restoration of degraded mangroves was being carried out in the
tropical and subtropical estuaries throughout the world (Field, 1996;
Qureshi, 1996; Snedaker and Biber, 1996; Soemodihardjo et al., 1996;
10
Untawale, 1996). Restoration of mangroves started in Indonesia in

the early 1960s (Soemodihardjo et al., 1996) and an area of about
38,923 ha of mangroves were restored till 1992. Macnae, (1968)
planted Rhizophora apiculata in the newly accreted soils in Sri Lanka
for better stabilization of the area and to facilitate the trapping of
sediments. Goforth and Thomas (1979) have reported the planting
of mangroves in Florida for reducing the erosive action of the sea.
In Andhra Pradesh, the Forest Department initiated restoration
of mangroves in Godavari by canal digging during 1991. The canals
were dug perpendicular to the river and the side canals were at right
angles to the main canal. The staff of the Forest Department were
taken on an exposure visit to the Pichavaram mangroves where
restoration was done by MSSRF. After observing the restoration at
Pichavaram, the FD started digging canals at 300 from the main
canal from 1999 onwards. This reduces the rate of siltation of canals
and also facilitates easy flow of tidal water. Till now an area of 2,000
ha have been restored by the Forest Department in Godavari and
Krishna Mangroves.
4.2. Methodology for restoration of degraded mangroves

at present
A survey of the entire Godavari and Krishna mangroves was
carried out to identify the degraded areas. Floristic studies and
vegetation survey were undertaken in nine Reserve Forests in Godavari
mangroves and eight Reserve Forests in Krishna mangroves using
remote sensing FCC images. The floristic study helped in determining
the nature of degraded areas and the species composition to include
species for genetic composition while planting seedlings in the
degraded areas. In this process, degraded patches of mangroves have
been identified to an extent of 4,195 ha in Godavari and 12,629 in
Krishna. These degraded patches have been plotted with GPS and a
GIS database has been developed.
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) was also conducted for
identifying the degraded areas through various methods, namely
11
transact walk, resource mapping and historical analysis. Microplans

were prepared in the respective villages for the restoration of these
degraded mangroves. Hydrological and geomorphological reasons
for degradation were discussed with the community to enhance the
scientific awareness of the community on mangrove restoration. The
Mangrove Management Units (MMU), which include both degraded
area for restoration and the pristine mangroves for management
were identified for each Village Level Institution (VLI). The restoration
activity was carried out with the VLI, namely Eco-Development
Committee (EDC) and Vana Samrakshana Samiti (VSS). The VLIs
were trained in nursery raising and digging canals. The topography
survey was carried out using theodolite instrument. Contour levels
were collected at an interval of 25 m (25x25 m) and the contour
map was prepared for 5 cm level, using a computer aided package.
The main canals were dug at an angle of 450 to the natural creek.
The side canals were dug at an angle of 300 to the main canal. Pegs
and chalk powder were used for marking the canals.
12
Canals were designed like fishbone in order to facilitate easy

inflow and outflow of tidal water. The design for the canal for
mangrove restoration is given in Fig.1. The canal dimensions were
Fig. 1. Aerial view of fishbone type of canal
determined as per the contour levels and the tidal amplitude of the
degraded area chosen for restoration - Fig.2. The canals were dug in
a trapezoidal shape in order to plant the saplings at the mid level of
the canal. This is to ensure that the plants receive tidal water, but at
the same time they are not submerged.
4.2.1. Geomorphology and hydrology in mangrove

restoration
Based on the contour survey and hydrology study, the canal
depths and dimensions are fixed, corresponding to the topography
and tidal amplitude of the selected restoration site. The topography
study revealed that the areas lying close to the bunds of creeks /
rivers are elevated (levee) compared to the areas inside. The levees
13
3.0 m.
0.60-0.75m.
1.25 m.
2.0 m.
2.0 m.
0.4 m.
0.4 m.
12.5 m
0.45-0.6m.
0.2-2.5m.
0.2-2.5m.
Distance between two side canals

Planted mangrove sapling
Fig. 2. Cross section of canals with dimensions
are formed due to the deposition of silt during floods. Secondly, as

shown in chart-1, the soil subsided in the clear felled area due to
changes in bulk density, making the topography saucer-shaped. As a
result, tidal water entering in during the highest of the high tides
stagnates in the saucer shaped area due to the elevation of the edges.
The temperature and the salinity of the stagnant water increases and
shoots up to 114 ppt during summer. This phenomenon prevents
natural regeneration of the mangroves and thus enhances the process
of degradation. The area gets flooded only during the monsoon period
and cyclones and storms-Figs. 3 and 4.
Restoration of the mangroves can be done only when the salinity
of the degraded area is brought down. In order to reduce the salinity,
fishbone type canals were dug and tidal flushing and draining of
stagnant water was facilitated. This has resulted in brining the salinity
levels to 60 ppt in summer to fresh water level during monsoon
seasons. After a buffer period of three months, the nursery-raised
mangrove saplings were planted along the trapezoid shaped canals
in the degraded areas.
14
Fig. 3. Tides
Fig. 4. Spring and neap tide
4.2.2. Hydrological studies in Godavari

Hydrodynamic processes in the mangrove creeks were studied by
deploying self recording tide guage in the creeks. Tidal data were
collected during the south-west monsoon and fair weather seasons
in the Saveru creek in Rathikalava RF and in the sanctuary area. The
variations in salinity and temperature were also studied with the
help of an in situ salinitytemperature probe over a day in the Saveru
creek in Rathikalava RF, during the south-west monsoon and fair
weather seasons. In the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary area, salinitytemperature variation was studied in the Matlapalem canal, during
fair weather and pre-monsoon seasons.
In the Saveru creek of Rathikalava RF, in Godavari mangroves
the maximum tidal range was 0.6 m during the south-west monsoon.
During the pre-monsoon season the minimum tidal range recorded
was 0.1 to 0.2 m with the maximum range being 0.6 to 0.65 m. In
the Sanctuary area, the maximum tidal range was 0.5 m during the
south-west monsoon and 1.3 m during the pre-monsoon season.
15
Salinity variation in the Saveru creek, Rathikalava RF, varies from

6 ppt during the south-west monsoon to 31 ppt during fair weather
season. In the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary area, at Matlapalem canal,
salinity showed a variation from 4.6 ppt during the south-west
monsoon to 30 ppt during fair weather season.
Based on the hydrological studies, the depth of canals for
restoration was decided to be 0.65 m with reference to mean sea
level so as to have adequate tidal flushing (Fig. 5).
Over burden
0.3 to 0.5 m.
Depth
of
Main
canal
LAND
MSL
0.3 m.
0.3 m.
MSL = Mean Sea Level
Fig. 5. Topography of a canal bund in non-sanctuary
area of Godavari mangroves
4.2.3. Hydrological studies in Krishna

In the Krishna estuary, water level and current data were recorded
in the estuary and in the creek at Sorlagundi RF and Nakshatra Nagar
during the monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons respectively. One
day tidal and current measurements were carried out during the fair
weather season at six locations along the three channels of the
Krishna river. Measurement of cross sections was carried out using
echo sounder. Position fixing was done using GARMIN GPS.
Measurement of in situ salinity and temperature was carried out along
the axis of the three channels of Gollamattapaya, Nadimeru and
main Krishna river during monsoon and fair weather seasons at
selected stations.
16
The tidal range along the three main channels of the Krishna
varies from 0.7 to 1 metre. Current velocity shows a variation from
0.13 to 0.72m/s which was the maximum velocity that was recorded
at Avulaganta. In the creeks adjoining the mangroves, the tidal range
was 0.15 to 0.6m at Deenadayalpuram during monsoon. In the creek
at Nakshtranagar in Kottapalem RF, the tidal range had a maximum
value of 0.25m during pre-monsoon.
During the monsoon season, salinity varied from 8.5 ppt to a
maximum of 35ppt near the mouth. During fair weather, the salinity
varied from 17 ppt to 36 ppt. Temperature showed a variation from
27 to 30oC along the three channels of the river during the monsoon
season, while during fair weather season it varied from 28 to 31oC.
Based on the hydrological studies in Sorlagondi RF, the depth of canals
for mangrove restoration was decided to be 0.6m for the main canal. In
other RFs adjoining the three channels of Krishna river, namely, Nachugunta
RF, Yelichetladibba RF and Lankavanidibba RF, the depth of the main
canals was decided to be at least 0.7m .
4.2.4. Dimensions of canals

The dimensions of the canals were determined based on the
contour levels and tidal amplitude. The canals were constructed with
a depth of 0.7 m to 1.0 m near the bunds of the creeks or the rivers
and 0.45 m inside. The depth of the main canal varied from 0.45 to
1.0 m and the side canals from 0.6 to 0.45 m as per the contour. The
top width of the main canal was between 3.5 m and 2 m and the
respective bottom width was between 1 m and 0.4 m The dimensions
of the side canals were 2 m top width, 0.4 m bottom width and 0.45
m depth. The distance between the two side canals was 12.5 m during
the first year of plantation. The planting of mangrove saplings was
done 2 m apart along the canals at about 20 cm down the slope.
In the subsequent years, distance between side canals was reduced
to 8 m in order to ensure dense canopy. As the canals were dug
closely the dimension of the side canals was reduced accordingly to
1.25 m top width, 0.2 m bottom width and 0.4 m deep.
17
4.2.5. Selection of species and planting

Based on the salinity levels of soil, mangrove species namely
Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis and Excoecaria agallocha were
selected for planting in the degraded areas. Reason being that these
species could tolerate wide range of salinity. Normally the soil salinity
of the degraded area is about 140 ppt during summer. To reduce the
high soil salinity, tidal flushing was facilitated by constructing canals
as described in the previous pages. Due to this, the soil salts are
slowly leached out and the soil salinity is reduced gradually. The
reduction in salinity improved the survival percentage and also
reduced the saline stress to the young seedlings. The planting was
done during October and November, after the southwest monsoon.
During that period the rainwater reduces the salinity further. The
salinity of the creek water is also low (about 10-15 ppt).
Mangroves namely
Aegiceras corniculatum,
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza,
Rhizophora apiculata,
Rhizophora mucronata
and
Xylocarpus
moluccensis were also
planted to ensure genetic diversity. Eight-month-old mangrove
saplings raised in the nursery were used for planting. The mangrove
saplings were planted along the slopes (20-25 cm from the top) of
the canals with a gap of 2 m.
18
4.2.6. De-silting of canals and casualty replacement

The bunds formed by the deposition of the excavated soil during
canal digging will silt the canals during the monsoon seasons. The
silted canals have to be de-silted before the onset of summer, because
during summer the tidal amplitude is generally low. Tidal flushing
is very important during summer because the soil salinity will shoot
up due to high temperature and cause damage to the roots of the
seedlings. Such seedlings will be replanted in the following monsoon
season. The survival percentage is measured in the initial period for
better monitoring. Initially the growth rate was slow and after 2 to 3
years the seedling growth rate was faster. The natural regeneration
of the seedlings also occurs simultaneously. After four years, the
planted saplings start bearing fruits, which will regenerate, and the
density of the area will increase.
4.3. Mangrove area restored

A total area of 520 ha of degraded mangroves was restored in the
Godavari and Krishna mangroves. Restoration was carried out in
the
Mangrove
Management
Units (MMU) of
Matlapalem,
D i n d u ,
Bhairavalanka,
Gadimoga and
Kobbarichettupeta
in Godavari and
Dheenadayalapuram,
Zinkapalem and
Nali in Krishna Mangroves. An area of 9,442 ha is under the
management of eight village level institutions. The area restored by
each VLI and the management area allotted to respective
demonstration village for mangrove protection and management is
given in Table 1.
19
Table 1. Details of area restored and the area under MMU

S.No
Demonstration village
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Matlapalem
Dindu
Kobbarichettupeta
Gadimoga
Bhairavalanka
Dheenadayalapuram
Zinkapalem
8.
Nali
Total
Area Restored (ha.)
Area under MMU (ha.)
5
25
35
25
75
236
114
502
900
3,925
900
615
2,000
600
----
520
9,442
1999
2004
2004
5. Impact of mangrove restoration

Degraded mangroves are being restored to increase the mangrove
cover all over the world. In Andhra Pradesh, MSSRF, jointly with
eight village level institutions (namely Sri Vigneswara EDC,
Matlapalem, Sri Nookalamma EDC, Dindu, Sri Devi EDC,
Kobbarichettupeta, Sri Kanakadurga EDC, Gadimoga and Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar VSS, Bhairavalanka, Dheenadayaljee EDC,
20
Godavari Mangroves
1986
2001
Krishna Mangroves
Dheenadayalapuram, Zinkapalem EDC, Zinkapalem and Sri Sita

Rama Lakshmana EDC, Nali) and Andhra Pradesh Forest
Department, has restored 520 ha Restoration of mangroves has
arrested further degradation of mangroves adjoining the degraded
patches and also increased the fishery resources. The bio-diversity of
the area has improved. The crab population in the restored areas has
21
increased due to the increased water regime. Since the work involves intensive
labor, the members of the village level institutions were benefitted by getting
employment opportunities. NGOs, namely Sravanthi and Action in
Godavari area and Sangamithra Service Society and Coastal Community
Development Program in Krishna, were trained in restoration techniques
and in participatory approaches in community mobilization and mangrove
management. These NGOs have restored 215 ha of degraded mangroves.
5.1. Cost of the restoration activity and long-term benefits

Restoration cost for canal construction and planting of seedlings
per unit depends on
z
extent of area
nature of the soil and
distance between the village and the restoration site
The number of main canals needed for a larger degraded area is

less when compared to smaller areas. For example, if the extent of
the area is 30 ha it needs only 2 or 3 main canals. The number of
main canals needed will be the same even if the area is smaller, that
is between 5 and 6 ha.
In the Krishna mangroves, the restoration site near Zinkapalem
is very close to the village and the soil is sandy clay. Hence the cost
for canal digging was only Rs. 12,000/- per ha. However, in Godavari,
the restoration sites are far away from the village and the soil of the
degraded area is clayey (hard). Therefore, the cost for canal digging
for one ha was Rs. 18,000/- including transport of labour through
boats to the restoration sites.
The participatory methods of community mobilization and
organization, planning and implementation have to be undertaken
before the restoration work is started. The Group formation, PRA,
Socio-economic benchmark survey and Microplan apart from
awareness generation and entry point activities, have to be
undertaken. These exercises involve a cost of Rs. 50,000/-.
22
A further budget requirement for the socio-economic

development of the communities would cost an amount of Rs.
1,00,000 to 2,00,000/-, which has to be leveraged from developmental
schemes of the government and the constitution development fund
of the peoples representatives and also from the Panchayat Raj
schemes. Therefore, the cost of restoration of degraded mangroves
in an area of 10 ha which includes survey, nursery raising, advance
work in canal construction and planting would require
Rs. 2,00,000/- and for desilting in the first three years, it will cost
Rs. 1,00,000/-. Hence, Rs. 3,50,000/- will be the total cost for
restoration of 10 ha of degraded mangroves through community
participation.
Even though as an initial investment the cost appears high, the
ecological and socio-economic benefits to the local community will
be rewarding in the long run. This is evident from the fact that due
to the established water regime, the population of edible crabs has
increased in the restored areas,which is a livelihood benefit to the
local communities. There is a good growth of fodder grass which
has helped the local community in feeding their livestock.
As the biodiversity has come back and the denuded patches have
been covered with mangrove restoration, populations of larger
animals like otters have increased substantially. In addition to this,
the bird population has also increased.
As the water regime has been established, the further degradation
of mangroves has stopped. This has resulted in the natural
regeneration of mangroves. In addition to this, the canopy cover
has become denser which is evident from the remote sensing images.
Hence, as far as restoration of mangroves is concerned even
though the initial investment appears high, the delivery cost has to
be calculated from the angle of long-term economic benefits that
accrue to the local communities and the ecological goods and services
that are enhanced due to restoration.
23
5.2. How the restoration work has improved the socioeconomic condition of Bhairavalanka village in Godavari
mangroves
The villagers of Bhairavalanka started canal digging during 1999, but
due to lack of practice of digging canals, they could not undertake the task.
The work was done with the help of Chollangipeta villagers who have been
doing canal construction for a long time for the Forest Department. The
wages were given to them at a small function, in the form of demand draft
after the completion of the work. One of the village elders, who is also a
traditional leader, gave the Demand Draft to them and said that if his
people had done the work, this money would have come to their village. It
was a huge sum, which they were very much in need of, because of the
failure in agriculture and aquaculture sectors. This made them think and
come forward for the field training in the following year. They were trained
by the experienced labour from Chollangipeta. They procured similar types
of spades and crowbars and started digging the canals. The timing of work
also changed. Earlier they used to work between 9.00 a.m. and 3.30 p.m.
But after seeing the nearby villagers go to work at 4.30 a.m. they also
changed their timings, which helped them to avoid work under the scorching
sun. After this, they have completed nearly 65 ha of mangrove restoration
and the money got from the wages was used for house construction, which
was started with the help of ARTIC - NGO with the support of OXFAM
and State Housing Corporation. Most of the houses were unfinished due
to financial problems, which they have to contribute as beneficiary
contribution. After this they also got similar type of work from the Forest
Department and from Sravanthi an NGO. In the Food for Work Program
they could execute tasks like pond renovation, laying roads in the village
and earned a large quantity of rice. The district administration has appreciated
this work and the change the project has brought.
They also undertook restoration work for the forest department
and other NGOs which has fetched them more money. The Forest
Department also provided 15 ha of Casuarina plantation for the
VSS. The revenue form this plantation is being shared by the
community through the Village Development Fund.
24
References
Field, C.D. (Ed.), 1996. Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems,
International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan.
Forest survey of India 1999. Status of Forest Report, Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi
Goforth, H.W and J.R. Thomas 1979. Planting of Red mangrove
Rhizophora mangle L. for stabilization of marsh shoreline in Florida
Keys. In: D.P.Cole (ed.) Proceedings of the 6th Annual Conference
on Restoration and Creation of Wetlands. Hillsborough
Community College, Tampa, Florida, pp 207 242.
Mittal, R. 1993. Management Plan for Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary,
Forest Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.
Qureshi, M. T. 1996. Restoration of Mangroves in Pakistan. In:
Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems C.D. Field, (ed.)
International society for mangrove ecosystem, Okinawa, Japan,
pp 126 142.
Ramasubramanian, R., Ravishankar, T. and Sridhar, D. 2003.
Mangroves of Andhra Pradesh Identification and Conservation
manual, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai pp
67 (MSSRF/MA/03/06).
Ramakrishna, D., Ravishankar, T. Sridhar, D. and
Ramasubramanian, R. 2003. Guidelines for restoration of degraded
mangrove areas in Godavari and Krishna mangrove wetlands In:
Discussion papers for National workshop on Restoration and
conservation of mangroves through Participatory Mangrove
Management 12 - 14, February 2002 organized by M.S.
Swaminathan Research Foundation, Rajahmundry.
Rangarao, V., Reddy, B.S.R., Raman, A.V. and Ramana Murthy, M.V.
2003. Oceanographic features of the Bay Mangrove waterways
of Coringa, East coast of India, Proceedings of AP Akademy Science.,
135-142.
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Ravishankar, T., Gnanappazham, L., Ramasubramanian, R., Sridhar,

D., Navamuniyammal, M. and Selvam, V. 2004. Atlas of Mangrove
Wetlands of India Part 2- Andhra Pradesh, M.S. Swaminathan
Research Foundation, Chennai pp 136 (MSSRF/MG/03/15).
Ravishankar, T., Ramasubramanian, R. and Sreenivasa Rao, N, 2004.
Intersectoral linkages for conservation and Management of forest
resources a case study on Mangroves of India In: The proceedings
of the Asia Regional workshop on Mainstreaming Biodiversity
and Climate change 6-11 April 2003, Dehradun, India.
Selvam, V. 2003. Environmental classification of Mangrove Wetlands
of India Current Science, 84 (6): 757-765.
Sidhu.S.S. 1963. Studies on the mangroves of India: East Godavari
Region, Indian Forester, 89: 337-351.
Snedaker, S.C. and P.D. Biber 1996. Restoration of Mangroves in the
United States of America: A case study in Florida. In: Restoration of
Mangrove Ecosystems C.D. Field, (Ed.) International Society for
Mangrove Ecosystem, Okinawa, Japan, pp 170 188.
Soemodihardjo, S., P. Waroatmodgo, F. Mulia and M.K. Harahap
1996 Restoration of Mangroves in Indonesia: A case study of
Tembilaham, Sumatra. In: Restoration of Mangrove Eco systems
C.D. Field, (Ed.) International society for mangrove ecosystem,
Okinawa, Japan, pp 97-110.
Untawale, A.G. 1996. Restoration of Mangroves along the Central West
Coasts of India. In: Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems C.D.
Field, (Ed.) International society for mangrove ecosystem,
Okinawa, Japan, pp 111 125.
26

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M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

This publication was prepared with the generous support of

Mangrove forests - an overview

Mangrove forests in Andhra Pradesh

2.1 Riverine systems in Andhra Pradesh

3.1. Past management practices

3.2. Hydrological and geomorphological causes

3.3. Anthropogenic causes

4.1. Restoration of degraded mangroves in the past

4.2.1. Geomorphology and hydrology in

4.2.2. Hydrological studies in Godavari

4.2.3. Hydrological studies in Krishna

4.2.4. Dimensions of canals

4.2.5. Selection of species and planting

4.2.6. Desilting of canals and casualty replacement

4.3. Mangrove area restored

4.2. Methodology for restoration of degraded

5. Impact of mangrove restoration

5.2. How the restoration work has improved the

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Andhra Pradesh Forest Department

Geographic Information System

Global Positioning System

Mangrove Management Unit

M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Parts per thousand

Participatory Rural Appraisal

Village level institution

Vana Samrakshana Samithi

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, India

Mangrove Forest Restoration in

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Mangrove forests perform multiple ecological functions such as

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, India

This publication reflects the process and results of restoration

2. Mangrove forests in Andhra Pradesh

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Map 1. Location of Godavari Mangroves

Map 2. Location of Krishna Mangroves

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, India

RF, Molagunta RF, Kottapalem RF Bit-1, Kottapalem RF Bit-2 and

2.1. Riverine systems in Andhra Pradesh

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Map 3. Distributaries of River Godavari

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, India

3.1. Past management practices

Chart 1. Changes in the biophysical condition of the coupe

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

3.2. Hydrological and geomorphological causes

Decrease in sediment load into the mangroves

Cyclones and storm surges

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, India

a result of this, there is lot of stagnation of bay waters which may

Formation of topographically elevated areas

3.3. Anthropogenic causes

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Mangrove Forest Restoration in Andhra Pradesh, India

Untawale, 1996). Restoration of mangroves started in Indonesia in