SITR Vol5 Fullset Web

Satoyama Initiative
Thematic Review
vol. 5
2019
Understanding the Multiple Values
associated with Sustainable Use in
Socio-ecological Production Landscapes
and Seascapes (SEPLS)
Satoyama Initiative
Thematic Review
vol. 5
Understanding the multiple values associated with

sustainable use in socio-ecological production
landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS)
Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 i

Citation
UNU-IAS and IGES (eds.) 2019, Understanding the multiple values associated with sustainable use in socio-ecological
production landscapes and seascapes (Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5), United Nations University Institute for
the Advanced Study of Sustainability, Tokyo.
© United Nations University

ISBN (Print): 978-92-808-4645-4
ISBN (E-version): 978-92-808-4596-9
Editors
Suneetha M. Subramanian
Evonne Yiu
Rajarshi Dasgupta
Yasuo Takahashi
Editorial support
Hideyuki Kubo
Maiko Nishi
Raffaela Kozar
William Dunbar
Kanako Yoshino
English proofreading
Susan Yoshimura
Design/Printing
Xpress Print Pte Ltd
Cover photo credits

(From top to bottom): Fundación Semillas de Vida, Armin Hirche, Siddharth Edake, Noreen Dianne S. Alazada, Vision Way
Communication Co., Ltd
Satoyama Initiative
The Satoyama Initiative is a global effort, first proposed jointly by the United Nations University and the Ministry of the
Environment of Japan (MOEJ), to realize “societies in harmony with nature” and contribute to biodiversity conservation
through the revitalization and sustainable management of “socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes” (SEPLS).
The United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS) serves as the Secretariat of the
International Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative (IPSI). The activities of the IPSI Secretariat are made possible through
the financial contribution of the Ministry of the Environment, Japan.
UNU-IAS
The United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS) is a leading research and teaching
institute based in Tokyo, Japan. Its mission is to advance efforts towards a more sustainable future, through policy-relevant
research and capacity development focused on sustainability and its social, economic and environmental dimensions.
UNU-IAS serves the international community, making valuable and innovative contributions to high-level policymaking
and debates within the UN system. The activities of the institute are in three thematic areas: sustainable societies, natural
capital and biodiversity, and global change and resilience.
IGES
The Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) was established in March 1998 under an initiative of the Japanese
government and with the support of Kanagawa Prefecture. The aim of the Institute is to achieve a new paradigm for
civilization and conduct innovative policy development and strategic research for environmental measures, reflecting the
results of research into political decisions for realising sustainable development both in the Asia-Pacific region and globally.
The Institute will tackle fundamental challenges to human society, and to redefine the values and value systems of our
present societies that have resulted in the global environmental crisis, in order to create new ways of conducting activities
and a new paradigm for civilization.
ii Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Table of contents
Foreword iv
Preface vi
Chapter 1. How multiple values influence decisions on sustainable use in socio-ecological production landscapes
and seascapes (SEPLS)
Suneetha M. Subramanian, Evonne Yiu, Rajarshi Dasgupta, Yasuo Takahashi 1
Chapter 2. Recognising the local values of coastal wetland biodiversity for sustainable economic and
livelihood development at Résidences La Chaux ‘Barachois’, Mauritius
Estelle Déja, Devon Dublin, Yoji Natori, Yasuo Takahashi 16
Chapter 3. Framing cultural ecosystem services in the Andes: Utawallu as sentinels of values for biocultural
heritage conservation
Fausto O. Sarmiento, César Cotacachi 31
Chapter 4. Empowering communities for natural resource management: the case of Community Resource
Management Areas (CREMA) in Western Ghana
Yaw Osei-Owusu, Abigail Frimpong 47
Chapter 5. The San Antonio Forest Key Biodiversity Area Governance Scheme: collective construction based
on differences
Andrés Quintero-Ángel, Sebastian Orjuela-Salazar, Sara Catalina Rodríguez-Díaz,
Martha Liliana Silva, Luz Amparo Rivas–Arroyo, Álvaro Castro, Mauricio Quintero-Ángel 57
Chapter 6. Landrace maize diversity in milpa: a socio-ecological production landscape in Soteapan, Santa Marta
Mountains, Veracruz, Mexico
Adelita San Vicente Tello, Malin Jönsson 73
Chapter 7. Enhancing communication and co-learning in socio-ecological landscape management through

elicitation of local communities’ visions and values
Emilio R. Díaz-Varela, César A. Blanco-Arias, Beatriz Rodríguez-Morales, Ramón A. Díaz-Varela 85
Chapter 8. “The Sundarbans is our mind”: An exploration into multiple values of nature in conversation
with traditional resource users
Rashed Al Mahmud Titumir, Md. Shah Paran, Mostafa Walid Pasha 97
Chapter 9. Towards an integrated multi-stakeholder landscape approach to reconciling values and enhancing
synergies: a case study in Taiwan
Kuang-Chung Lee, Polina G. Karimova, Shao-Yu Yan 118
Chapter 10. Direct use values and nutritional potential of selected wild edible plants from Teso-Karamoja
Region, Uganda
Samuel Ojelel, James Kalema, Esther Katuura, Esezah K. Kakudidi, Mary Namaganda,
Patrick Mucunguzi 136
Chapter 11. Re(Connecting) with the Ifugao Rice Terraces as a socio-ecological production landscape through youth
capacity building and exchange programs: A conservation and sustainable development approach
Joane V. Serrano, Aurora V. Lacaste, Janele Ann C. Belegal, Consuelo dL. Habito,
Mark Anthony F. Rabena, Francis Mark Dioscoro R. Fellizar, Sherry B. Marasigan, Inocencio E. Buot, Jr.,
Noreen Dianne S. Alazada, Thaddeus P. Lawas, Marissa P. Bulong, Eulalie D. Dulnuan,
Martina B. Labhat, Elpidio Basilio, Jr., Romeo A. Gomez, Jr., Melanie Subilla, Von Kevin B. Alag 149
Chapter 12. Mainstreaming Community-Conserved Areas (CCAs) for biodiversity conservation in SEPLS -
A case study from Nagaland, India
Siddharth Edake, Pia Sethi, Yatish Lele 169
List of Authors 180
Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 iii

Foreword
Research led by UNU-IAS has been contributing to the understanding of sustainable use of biodiversity for many years, in
particular related to resource-management approaches at the landscape level. In all of our work, we have tried to better
understand and communicate the value of biodiversity, both in terms of monetary value and other, less tangible, kinds of
value. Our work has consistently shown that these multiple values can be derived from conservation and sustainable use
of biodiversity through the concept of “socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes” (SEPLS), with both social
and ecological components contributing to sustainable ecosystems and human livelihoods.
UNU-IAS has worked closely with the Ministry of the Environment of Japan in the development of the Satoyama
Initiative, a global effort to realize “societies in harmony with nature,” focusing on the revitalization and sustainable
management of landscapes and seascapes towards well-managed SEPLS. We have hosted the Secretariat of the
International Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative (IPSI) since its establishment at the Tenth Meeting of the
Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD COP 10) in Aichi, Nagoya, Japan in 2010.
In this role we coordinate the efforts of partners across the globe toward biodiversity conservation through
integrated and holistic landscape and seascape management approaches, with mutual benefits for biodiversity and
livelihoods. As IPSI’s membership has grown to 258 organizations, it has accumulated a wide range of knowledge
and experience, and many members are now working collaboratively for better management of SEPLS in various
settings around the world.
The case studies presented in this fifth volume of the Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review highlight how the concept
of SEPLS, implemented in different spatial, cultural, and administrative contexts, can contribute to understanding of the
multiple values of nature, and thereby improve biodiversity conservation through sustainable use. The objective will
allow synthesizing knowledge relevant to a wide set of audiences including the ''Methodological assessment regarding
the diverse conceptualization of multiple values of nature and its contributions including biodiversity and ecosystem
functions and services'' currently being prepared by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity
and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). I am confident that this volume will provide inspiration and useful knowledge for
practitioners, policymakers, and scientists, and that the activities described will make broader contributions to the
knowledge base of IPBES, as well as conservation efforts including the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and other ongoing policy processes.
Prof. Kazuhiko Takemoto

Director, United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability
iv Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Foreword
People value nature in many different ways, and the continued degradation of landscapes and seascapes have negatively
impacted many key contributions of nature to people’s quality of life. A key challenge for effective and sustainable man-
agement of socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes is how to best account for the multiple values of nature
in management decisions. People’s values underpin political and economic decisions. However, power relations imply that
some values are given prominence in decision, while others remain obscure and even marginalized. This often leads to en-
trenched power imbalances and social conflicts over the environment. We strongly believe that accounting for the multiple
values of nature in decision making is necessary (albeit not sufficient) to achieve a more sustainable and fair use of nature
in terrestrial, coastal and marine socio-ecological production systems.
The Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review Volume 5 provides an interesting and unique account of the multiple values of
nature associated with Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes and Seascape. The report presents a series of in-depth
case studies from across the Global South, including: countries from Latin America (Ecuador, Colombia, and Mexico), Africa
(Mauritius, Ghana, and Uganda), Asia (Bangladesh, Taiwan, and the Philippines) and Europe (Spain). All of the case studies
highlight the dilemmas between conservation and development, as well as discuss the development and monitoring of
community based projects. The case studies also explore how different values of nature influence the decisions and actions
of different stakeholders and how this affects the use and distribution of nature’s contributions to people. Thus, the report
provides an assessment of the role of multiple values of nature in the design, operationalization and impact of the different
sustainable use initiatives. The final synthesis chapter also provides important cross-cutting insights and guidelines that link
values, decisions and outcomes based on a social-ecological system framing.
The exploration of the role of multiple values of nature towards more sustainable landscapes and seascapes found in this
volume is particularly relevant to fill an important knowledge gap by providing high quality evidence on the diversity of
values at play in decision making with emphasis on the Global South. This is warmly welcomed. The insights from this The-
matic Review will enhance the body of knowledge of relevance to the ongoing IPBES Values Assessment (to be published in
2022), and other assessments and products.
We are sure that this volume will have a broad readership and will become an important source of information for decision
makers associated with each of the study cases within the Satoyama Initiative network, and beyond. We also believe this
volume is an example of how different types of initiatives across the world can benefit from and nourish the joint scientific
and normative endeavour.
Patricia Balvanera1, Mike Christie2, Unai Pascual3 and Brigette Baptiste4
1
rofessor at the Institute for Ecosystems and Sustainability Research, National Autonomous University of Mexico
P
2
Director of Research at the Institute of Business and Law, Aberystwyth University’s Business School
3
Professor at the Basque Center for Climate Change (BC3) and Associate Senior Research Scientist at the Center for Development and Environment
4
Chancellor, EAN University, Colombia
Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 v

Preface
Preface
The Satoyama Initiative

The Satoyama Initiative is
is “a
”a global
global effort
effort to
to realise
realise societies
societies in
in harmony
harmony withwith nature”,
nature”, started
started through
through aa joint
joint collaboration
collaboration
between
between the United Nations University (UNU) and the Ministry of the Environment of Japan. The initiative focuses
the United Nations University (UNU) and the Ministry of the Environment of Japan. The initiative focuses on
on the
the
revitalisation and sustainable
revitalisation and sustainable management
management of of “socio-ecological
”socio-ecological production
production landscapes
landscapes and
and seascapes”
seascapes” (SEPLS),
(SEPLS), areas
areas where
where
production activities help
production activities help maintain
maintain biodiversity
biodiversity andand ecosystem
ecosystem services
services inin various
various forms
forms while
while sustainably supporting
sustainably supporting
the livelihoods and well-being of local communities. In 2010, the International Partnership for the
the livelihoods and well-being of local communities. In 2010, the International Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative Satoyama Initiative
(IPSI) was established to implement the concept of the Satoyama Initiative and promote various activities
(IPSI) was established to implement the concept of the Satoyama Initiative and promote various activities by enhancing by enhancing
awareness
awareness and and creating
creating synergies
synergies among
among thosethose working
working with
with SEPLS.
SEPLS. IPSI
IPSI provides
provides aa unique
unique platform
platform forfor organisations
organisations toto
exchange views and experiences and to find partners for collaboration. At the time of writing, 258
exchange views and experiences and to find partners for collaboration. At the time of writing, 230 members have joined members have joined
the
the partnership,
partnership, including
including governmental,
governmental, intergovernmental,
intergovernmental, nongovernmental,
nongovernmental, private-sector,
private-sector, academic
academic andand indigenous
indigenous
peoples’ organisations.
peoples’ organisations.
The
The Satoyama
Satoyama Initiative
Initiative promotes
promotes thethe concept
concept of of SEPLS
SEPLS through
through aa three-fold approach that
three-fold approach that argues
argues for
for connection
connection of of land-
land-
and seascapes holistically for management of SEPLS (see Fig.1). This often means involvement of several
and seascapes holistically for management of SEPLS (see Fig.1). This often means involvement of several sectors at sectors at the
the
landscape scale, under which it seeks to: 1. consolidate wisdom in securing diverse ecosystem service and values, 2.
landscape scale, under which it seeks to: 1. consolidate wisdom in securing diverse ecosystem service and values, 2. integrate integrate
traditional ecosystem knowledge
traditional ecosystem knowledge and and modern
modern science
science and
and 3.
3. explore
explore new
new forms
forms of
of co-management
co-management systems. Furthermore,
systems. Furthermore,
activities for SEPLS conservation cover multiple dimensions, such as equity, addressing poverty and deforestation,
activities for SEPLS conservation cover multiple dimensions, such as equity, addressing poverty and deforestation, and and
incorporation of traditional knowledge for sustainable management practices in primary production
incorporation of traditional knowledge for sustainable management practices in primary production processes such as processes such as
agriculture, fisheries and forestry (UNU-IAS & IGES
agriculture, fisheries and forestry (UNU-IAS & IGES 2015). 2015).
Vision:
Societies in harmony
with nature
Three-fold Approach:
1. Consolidate wisdom on securing
diverse ecosystem services and values
2. Integrate traditional ecological
Resource knowledge and modern science
use within the Improved
carrying capacity 3. Explore new forms of co-management community
of the systems resilience
environment
Cyclic use of Contributions
natural Multi- to sustainable
Recognition stakeholder
resources of local socio-
participation economies
traditions and and
culture collaboration
Figure 1. The conceptual framework of the Satoyama Initiative
vi Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 4 v
As one of its core functions, IPSI serves as a knowledge-sharing platform through the collection and sharing of information
and experiences on SEPLS, providing a place for discussion among members and beyond. More than 180 case studies have
been collected and are shared on the IPSI website, providing a wide range of knowledge covering diverse issues related
to SEPLS. Discussions have also been held to further strengthen IPSI’s knowledge-facilitation functions, with members
suggesting that efforts should be made to produce knowledge on specific issues in SEPLS in order to make more targeted
contributions to decision-makers and on-the-ground practitioners.
It is in this context that a project to create a publication series titled the “Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review” was initiated
in 2015 as a joint collaboration between UNU’s Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS), which hosts
the IPSI Secretariat, and the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), an IPSI partner and research institute based
in Japan. The Thematic Review was developed as a compilation of case studies providing useful knowledge and lessons
focusing on a specific theme that is important for SEPLS. The overall aim of the Thematic Review is to collect experiences
and relevant knowledge, especially from practitioners working on the ground, considering their usefulness in providing
concrete and practical knowledge and information as well as their potential to contribute to policy recommendations. Each
volume is also accompanied by a synthesis chapter which extracts lessons learned through the case studies, presenting them
for policy-relevant academic discussions. This series also contributes to efforts being made by researchers to strengthen the
evidence base on socio-ecological dynamics and resilience, including those under the Intergovernmental Science-Policy
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
The first volume of the Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review was published in 2015 with the theme “Enhancing knowledge
for better management of SEPLS”, focusing on ways to identify, collect, document, maintain, exchange, refine, augment, and
make use of information and knowledge for better management of SEPLS. The second volume’s theme was “Mainstreaming
concepts and approaches of SEPLS into policy and decision-making”, covering topics including advocacy, multi-stakeholder
engagement, facilitation and coordination of institutions, concrete tools and information useful for policymakers and
stakeholders. The third volume, titled “Sustainable livelihoods in SEPLS” identified drivers linked to sustainable livelihoods
in SEPLS that are crucial to meet needs for human well-being and to foster sustainable use of natural resources. The fourth
volume, “Sustainable use of biodiversity in SEPLS and its contribution to effective area-based conservation” looked at how
effective management of SEPLS, which can include areas inside and outside of designated protected areas, can achieve
benefits for both biodiversity conservation and human livelihoods through sustainable use of biodiversity.
Purpose of the Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review Volume 5 (SITR-5)
In recent years, the relationship between biodiversity conservation and human livelihoods, survival, and well-being has
gained a great deal of attention. However, understanding of the value of biodiversity has tended to focus on tangible benefits
that can be measured in monetary terms, while in fact the concept of “value” has interrelated but distinct dimensions and
can be interpreted differently by actors with different interests, and thus requires an inter-disciplinary approach including
biophysical sciences, social sciences and economics, and indigenous and local knowledge in order to understand and
comprehensively capture its diverse meanings and contexts.
In this volume, we seek to contribute to the understanding of how different kinds of values, which have been called “multiple
values of nature” (we will use the initialism “MVN” for the purposes of this volume), are provided and maintained through
sustainable use of biodiversity in SEPLS management. Included here are case studies that demonstrate how integrated
and holistic approaches to SEPLS management can provide intrinsic, instrumental, and relational values to bring about
economic, social/cultural and ecological sustainability for both biodiversity and people. The volume contributes to the pool
of knowledge that will be relevant for IPBES' ongoing 'Methodological assessment regarding the diverse conceptualization
of multiple values of nature and its contributions, including biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services' hereinafter
referred to as the 'Values Assessment'. The Values Assessment, based on the decision approved by IPBES plenary in March
2018, is a three-year global critical evaluation of the state of knowledge regarding the multiple values of nature by
independent global experts interacting with government representatives and other stakeholders.
Like previous volumes, this publication was developed through a multi-stage process including both peer review and
discussion among the authors at a workshop. Authors had several opportunities to get feedback, which helped them to
make their manuscripts more useful and easy to understand for readers. First, each manuscript received comments from the
editorial team relating primarily to their contributions to the theme of the volume. Peer review was then conducted by the
Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 vii

authors of other chapters, with each author receiving feedback from two other authors who were requested to comment on
whether the manuscript was easy to understand and informative, provided useful lessons, and so on. The aforementioned
workshop was then held to enable the exchange of feedback between authors. Here, the authors presented their case
studies and received comments both from the two designated reviewers and from the other workshop participants. The
basic ideas contained in the synthesis chapter were developed from the presentations and discussions during the workshop,
and the chapter was made available for review by authors and selected experts before finalisation.
Our experience producing these volumes leads us to believe that the above process offers an opportunity for authors from
both academic and non-academic organisations to contribute to generating knowledge in an accessible and interactive
way, as well as to provide high-quality papers written in simple language for academics and a broader audience alike.
It is our hope that this publication will be useful in providing information and insights to practitioners, researchers, and
policymakers on the importance of long-term management of SEPLS for delivering MVN, and on the potential of MVN
to mobilize a wide range of stakeholders and integrate disciplines for sustainable use of biodiversity. This, we hope, will
prompt policymaking that strengthens such integrated and holistic management approaches.
We would like to thank all of the authors who contributed their case studies and the other participants in the case study
workshop. We also greatly appreciate the efforts of IGES for their continued collaboration in the publication process of this
volume. Our grateful thanks are also due to the Ministry of the Environment, Japan for supporting the activities of IPSI and
its secretariat hosted by UNU-IAS.
Suneetha M. Subramanian1, Evonne Yiu2, Rajarshi Dasgupta3, Yasuo Takahashi4
Participating authors, editorial team at the authors’ workshop, held from 28 to 30 May 2019 at the United Nations University
Headquarters in Tokyo, Japan
1
NU-IAS and IGES
U
2
UNU-IAS
3
IGES
4
IGES
viii Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Chapter 1
How multiple values influence decisions

on sustainable use in socio-ecological
production landscapes and seascapes
(SEPLS)
Lead authors:
Suneetha M. Subramanian 1,2*
, Evonne Yiu1**, Rajarshi Dasgupta2***, Yasuo Takahashi2****
Contributing authors:
Estelle Deja3, Devon Dublin4, Yoji Natori4, Fausto O. Sarmiento5, Yaw Osei-Owusu6,
Andrés Quintero-Ángel7, Adelita San Vicente Tello8, Emilio Díaz-Varela9, Ramón A. Díaz-Varela9,
Rashed Al Mahmud Titumir10, Polina G. Karimova11, Kuang-Chung Lee11, Samuel Ojelel12,
Aurora V. Lacaste13, Janele Ann C. Belegal13, Siddharth Edake14, Louise Guibrunet15, Hideyuki Kubo2,
Maiko Nishi1 and Raffaela Kozar1
1
United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS), Japan
2
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Japan
3
Environmental Protection & Conservation Organisation (EPCO), Mauritius Island
4
Conservation International, Japan
5
Neotropical Montology Collaboratory, The University of Georgia (UGA), USA
6
Conservation Alliance International, Ghana
7
Corporacion Ambiental y Forestal del Pacifico (CORFOPAL), Colombia
8
Semillas de Vida, Mexico
9
University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain
10
University of Dhaka, Bangladesh
11
National Dong Hwa University, Chinese Taipei
12
Save A seed for the Future, Uganda
13
University of the Philippines Open University (UPOU), Philippines
14
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), India
15
Institute for Ecosystems and Sustainability Research, National Autonomous University of Mexico
Corresponding authors:
*[email protected]; **[email protected]; ***[email protected]; ****[email protected]
Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 1

Chapter 1: How multiple values influence decisions on sustainable use in SEPLS
1. Introduction of monoculture plantations or widespread high chemical

input agricultural practices (Cannell 1999, Shiva 2016).
Changes in land and sea uses are the major drivers of
global biodiversity loss (IPBES 2019). To halt biodiversity Therefore, integrating or accounting for multiple values
loss caused by impacts from unsustainable land/sea related to nature and its uses while incorporating concepts
use practices, it is first necessary to recognise that there of well-being, brings to the fore both areas that are contested
are multiple actors who influence the way landscapes or and those where consensus is possible, and makes the
seascapes are used, managed and governed. The priorities reasons for particular policy and implementation designs
of these multiple actors are often diverse, with interactions visible to larger audiences. The benefits of incorporating
between differing priorities leading to varied management multiple values of nature (hereinafter referred as “MVN”)
outcomes. These could be conflicting when the priorities are more easily viewed and are relevant in the contexts of
of certain actors dominate during interactions, or when socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes
the priorities of some actors are altogether ignored, but (SEPLS) that are characterized by multiple actors and where
surface due to the impacts of decisions on them. The management decisions are influenced by the different
outcomes could also result in cooperation when trade-offs actions of respective actors.
between priorities are identified, negotiated and solutions
based on compromise found. Through presenting the experiences of selected IPSI partner
case studies in this volume, our focus is to highlight the
The outcomes—whether conflicting or cooperative—of various ways that multiple actors in SEPLS value nature, how
socio-ecological interactions between different actors have contributions from nature are perceived by these actors,
implications for both the sustainable use of resources and and how this translates to governance of SEPLS, in particular
human well-being. Not all cooperative outcomes necessarily to sustainable use of natural resources, sustenance of
result in sustainable use and improved human well-being, biodiversity and ensuring the well-being of different
as the subscription to a particular vision/principle by stakeholders in the landscape or seascape. Table 1 gives
all relevant actors may result in decisions with negative an overview of the case studies, and Figure 1 illustrates the
consequences. Some stark examples include the promotion locations of the landscapes and seascapes covered.
Table 1. Overview of the case studies

Chapter (country) Title (author) SEPLS and related values Decision-making context
Chapter 2 Recognising the local Coastal wetlands with traditional Abandonment of barachois and
(Mauritius) values of coastal wetland barachois coastal lagoons established increase of waste dumping in
biodiversity for sustainable for fish rearing and segregated from the lagoons, wetland restoration vis-à-vis
economic and livelihood ocean by permeable stone walls. Highly natural feed aquaculture enterprise,
development at Résidences valued for food and feed, mitigation fragmented governance across
La Chaux ‘Barachois’, of natural hazards, medicinal value of ministries and limited government
Mauritius (Déja et al.) coastal vegetation, source of ornament support to on-site management.
crafts, and recreation purposes.
Chapter 3 Framing cultural ecosystem The Imbakucha Basin and its watershed Constructing the narrative for a
(Ecuador) services in the Andes: include the largest Andean lake in biocultural approach to conservation
Utawallu as sentinels of Ecuador and mountain landscapes of protected areas around the
values for biocultural maintained by ancestral practices Imbakucha Basin indigenous territory
heritage conservation of indigenous communities whose in response to the indigenous
(Sarmiento and Cotacachi) livelihoods are associated with their people’s plea to conserve their sacred
spiritual beliefs and cultural perceptions sites.
of nature.
Chapter 4 Empowering communities Community resource management Understanding the communities’
(Ghana) for natural resource Areas (CREMA) established in high forest perception of the socio-ecological
management: the case zones with mosaics of diverse forest value of CREMA to better
of Community Resource types and agriculture land of mainly communicate these associated
Management Areas cocoa. A Community Biodiversity Value values within the communities
(CREMA) in Western Typology (CBVT) is used to measure and for designing a more robust
Ghana (Osei-Owusu and multiple values of CREMA relating to management system.
Frimpong) consumption, production, naturalistic,
aesthetic symbolic, moralistic,
educational and training, and ecosystem
services.
2 Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Chapter 5 The San Antonio Forest A productive and biodiverse forest Protected area corridor, issues in
(Colombia) Key Biodiversity Area landscape with a mosaic of ecosystems law enforcement, land-use conflicts,
Governance Scheme: and land uses, including villages, crops, habitat loss and water pollution,
collective construction forests, pastures and private properties yet lack of useful information on
based on differences containing luxury country houses and threats. Thus, need to construct a
(Quintero-Ángel et al.) small farms. Stakeholder surveys found participatory governance scheme
nature is perceived as governed spaces that represents the different visions
for ecological conservation; or as sources of nature.
of ecosystem services, income sources,
life, refuge from city life and well-being.
Chapter 6 Landrace maize diversity Conserving landrace native maize Expansion of hybrid maize cultivation
(Mexico) in milpa: a socio-ecological diversity through cultivation by replacing native varieties, adaptation
production landscape in indigenous people in milpa, a of native varieties to changing
Soteapan, Santa Marta polyculture system practiced on climatic conditions and the need for
Mountains, Veracruz, mountainous tropical zones with high understanding of MVN perceived by
Mexico (San Vicente Tello humidity, which is representative of the farmers of the milpa production.
and Jönsson) Mexican indigenous people’s worldviews
of nature being important landscapes
that encapsulate MVN.
Chapter 7 Enhancing communication Mid-range mountainous area with European Nature 2000 Network
(Spain) and co-learning in socio- priority habitats including raised site, communal forest land (MVMC)
ecological landscape bogs, blanket bogs and Atlantic wet governed by the MVMC Community
management through heathlands, which are developed for Assemblies. Conversational approach
elicitation of local traditional use as livestock grazing needed to resolve conflicts from
communities’ visions and pastures, resulting in cultural landscapes differing visions, restore common
values (Díaz-Varela et al.) rich in habitats and endemic species. A trust and provide a common
difference in perceptions of MVN found language.
conservation agencies more for intrinsic
value of ecosystems and local people
for instrumental and relational values
related to their livelihoods.
Chapter 8 “The Sundarbans is our The world’s largest single-tract Sundarbans mangroves declared
(Bangladesh) mind”: An exploration mangrove ecosystem combined with as an Ecologically Critical Area
into multiple values of forest, coastal and wetland, enriched (ECA), which neglects the rights of
nature in conversation with with high biodiversity of uniquely inhabitants and is not effectively
traditional resource users adapted aquatic and terrestrial flora and enforced.
(Titumir, Paran and Pasha) fauna. Direct and indirect use values
drawn from indigenous knowledge
of traditional resource users (TRUs)
whose livelihoods are mainly fishing or
collecting wood, honey, shells and crabs.
Chapter 9 Towards an integrated Two indigenous settlements located on Reconciling socio-ecological value
(Chinese Taipei) multi-stakeholder the east coast of Taiwan along a tropical perceptions of multi-interest
landscape approach to forest watershed, with the terrestrial stakeholders to develop a new cross-
reconciling values and Amis community cultivating farmlands border and cross-sector institutional
enhancing synergies: a in the middle reaches of the watershed, capacity.
case study in Taiwan (Lee, and the rice-cultivating coastal Kavalan
Karimova and Yan) community located in the lower reaches
of the watershed down to the Pacific
Ocean. Both communities shared the
same priority for the relational value
of nature but lacked a cross-border
communication, while supporting local
authorities prioritized either intrinsic,
instrumental or relational values of
nature mainly based on their sectoral
goals and lacked a cross-sectoral
coherence.

Chapter 10 Direct use values and Dryland landscape comprised of mainly Need to conserve wild edible
(Uganda) nutritional potential of woodlands, grasslands and shrublands plants which are disappearing from
selected wild edible plants in eight forest reserves and home to landscapes and for documentation
from Teso-Karamoja Region, 99 wild edible plants. The direct use of their associated indigenous
Uganda (Ojelel et al.) values of these plants and the nutritional traditional knowledge.
potential of five commonly used species
is presented.
Chapter 11 Re(Connecting) with the A UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site Although designated as a UNESCO
(Philippines) Ifugao Rice Terraces as a and FAO Globally Important Agricultural World Heritage site and FAO GIAHS,
socio-ecological production Heritage System (GIAHS), the Ifugao the rice terraces are facing pressures
landscape through youth Rice Terraces are located on landlocked of insufficient management due to
capacity building and and generally mountainous landscape abandonment, unregulated tourism
exchange programs: characterized by thick forests, creeks activities and out-migration of youth.
A conservation and and streams that are tributaries to Thus, there is an urgent need to
sustainable development major rivers. Transferring of associated document, educate and disseminate
approach (Serrano et al.) economic, cultural and ecological the landscape’s associated values
values derived from rice terraces to so as to build human capacity for
youth is priority to ensure sustainable management and create sustainable
management. livelihoods.
Chapter 12 Mainstreaming Community- Located at the heart of Nagaland at The Nagaland state, where the
(India) Conserved Areas (CCAs) for an altitude of 1,900 m, the area is majority of natural habitats are placed
biodiversity conservation in characterized by the Tizu River and under private or communal lands
SEPLS - A case study from sub-tropical wet hill forest primarily overseen by village councils, is facing
Nagaland, India (Edake, overlapping with the sub-tropical pine challenges of unregulated resource
Sethi and Lele) forest that harbors many endangered and overexploitation including excessive
threatened species of the Indo-Burma wildlife hunting. Need to link the
hotspot. Villages of the Sema tribe, whose CCAs, revive traditional conservation
livelihoods are mainly shifting cultivation practices, develop community-based
of timber, medicinal plants and non- ecotourism initiatives and formalize
timber forests products, also practice and mainstream a network of CCAs.
farming for subsistence and wildlife
hunting. Traditional intimate relationship
with nature exists based on spiritual
foundation of the interconnectedness of
God, people and nature.
Spain
Bangladesh
India
Chinese Taipei
Mexico
Philippines
Uganda
Colombia
Ghana
Ecuador
Mauritius
Figure 1. Locations of the case studies presented in the Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review Volume 5 (green: landscape; red: mixture of landscape
and seascape) – 4 in Asia, 3 in Africa, 1 in Europe, 3 in Central and South America.

1.1 Multiple Values of Nature (MVN) economic terms (e.g. economic value of timber) (Pascual et
al. 2017, see Fig. 2). ). Often there is a policy tendency for
Recently, there has been a growing acknowledgment this measurement to be translated to monetary terms, and
of the need to bring in the perspectives of all possible the economic value manifested by the market dynamics of
stakeholders and actors who impact (and conversely global trade or payments for ecosystem services (PES).
are impacted by) socio-ecological systems, resulting in
different outcomes (IPBES 2016; Pascual et al. 2017). The 1.1.2 Types of ‘values’
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform for Biodiversity
and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is currently undertaking Values are of different types:
an assessment (“Methodological assessment regarding
the diverse conceptualization of multiple values of nature • Values can be non-anthropocentric, such as intrinsic
and its contributions, including biodiversity and ecosystem values, which are independent of any human
functions and services”) to explore ways to incorporate experience and evaluation. An intrinsic value is viewed
multiple values in valuation methods and approaches for as an inherent property of the entity (e.g. an organism)
decision-making vis-à-vis nature and nature’s contributions and not ascribed or generated by external valuing
to people (NCP). The NCP concept is an extension of the agents, such as human beings.
ecosystem services concept whereby nature is seen as not • They can also be anthropocentric, such as instrumental
just commodified services for human consumption, whether values, which often relate to nature’s contributions to
provisioning, regulating or others, but also as providing people and refer to the value attributed to something
benefits that could overlap or fall between these categories. as a means to achieve a particular end.
Therefore, a pluralistic valuation and assessment of these • Another type of anthropocentric value can be relational
benefits is called for (Pascual et al. 2017). Such a nuanced values, which reflect symbolic relationships with
approach to integrating multiple conceptualizations of natural entities. They reveal elements of cultural
nature requires a new narrative accounting for the diverse identity, social cohesion, social responsibility and moral
benefits that humans derive from nature. Towards this, the responsibility towards nature.
IPBES has clarified a few basic concepts that are highlighted
below: It should be noted, however, that one same entity can be
the object of different values. For instance, maize that is
1.1.1 Dimensions of ‘values’ grown for human consumption can have an intrinsic value,
because it contributes to genetic biodiversity. It also has an
The word “value” has interrelated but distinct dimensions instrumental value to those consuming it, as it provides them
and is understood and analyzed differently in the biophysical nutrition. Consuming and producing maize may also be the
sciences, social sciences, economics, and from indigenous source of a relational value for people, due to the crucial role
and local knowledge perspectives. Moreover, the word of maize in some cultures (Chapter 6). Furthermore, maize
“value” has different meanings. It could be a principle or core could also become part of the agrobiodiversity related with
belief associated with a general worldview or local cultural ritual and spiritual observance (Chapter 3).
context (e.g. living in harmony with nature vis-à-vis nature
as a provider of inputs required for a good quality of life) 1.1.3 Types of valuation methods
or a preference, which is a choice of a particular state over
others (e.g. monocrop plantations to mosaic landscape use). Taking into account the plurality of worldviews and
It could be considered the importance of something for itself the diversity of values, valuation methods should
or others, now or in the future, regardless of proximity (e.g. be multidimensional and multifaceted, integrating
sacred value of a species in a landscape), or be understood methodologies where necessary, drawing from multiple
as a measure where nature’s contributions to people (NCP) data sources over time to provide more comprehensive
can be directly quantified and monitored in biophysical or assessments and contextual explanations for how and why
Figure 2: Dimensions of ‘values’ (IPBES) (Pascual et al. 2017)

values are perceived, formed and changed. A comprehensive This then translates into improved well-being outcomes,
valuation could include a combination of unidimensional such as access to food security, health and energy security
methods of valuation and/or adopt integrated approaches and cultural needs. It therefore follows that in order to
in capturing plural values. Unidimensional methods of better understand the integrity of a socio-ecological system
valuation have specific foci and elicit specific values such as: with multi-functional uses such as a SEPLS, a more plural
and inclusive approach that accounts for the well-being
• Socio-cultural – eliciting values of nature held by social priorities of different constituents of the system is needed.
groups and focusing on the role of nature in culture and
social reproduction 2.1 Multiple values in SEPLS
• Economic – eliciting values held by individuals through
evaluating the price of given aspects of NCP To highlight the diversity of values that may be contained
• Health – valuation focusing on the effects of NCP on and further prioritized in a SEPLS, we mapped the prominent
human health values identified across the 11 different case studies in
• Indigenous and local knowledge/Holistic valuation this volume (SITR vol. 5). During the case study workshop,
systems – emphasising relationships and dynamics authors of the respective chapters were requested to
established among people and nature regarding the identify three types of core values from their respective
regeneration or reproduction of the systems of life of SEPLS, i.e. intrinsic, instrumental and relational values. These
Mother Earth for living well; these include indigenous values were further segregated into (1) Principles (e.g. core
valuation approaches beliefs), (2) Importance (3) Preferences and (4) Measures,
• Biophysical – usually a numerical amount denoted by a broadly outlining the dichotomy between use and non-use
magnitude, quantity, or number determining allegedly values. To recognize these multiple, plural values–though
objective measurements of the ecological value of NCP there is overlapping to certain extent—we adopted the
above approach where authors provided case-specific
Plural valuation methods, on the other hand, an integrate examples and narratives under each column, classifying
various foci, through identifying the different types of most commonly identified values under 12 segments.
values present in a given context. This is the task that has Thereafter, an attempt was made to quantify the diversity
been achieved in the empirical chapters presented in this of values from SEPLS, simply by counting the frequencies of
review. narratives identified under each component (see Fig. 3).
As such, and quite expectedly, instrumental values,

2. SEPLS and Multiple Values especially in the categories of importance and measures,
were found to be strongly recognized within the SEPLS.
SEPLS are areas with “dynamic mosaics of habitats and These were enriched by diverse stakeholders’ perceptions
land and sea uses where the harmonious interaction and multiple uses of production landscapes, where
between people and nature maintains biodiversity while landscape productivity and functions (e.g. fish production,
providing humans with the goods and services needed for rice cultivation, water retention) are directly linked with
their livelihoods, survival and well-being in a sustainable human well-being and sustenance. Moreover, instrumental
manner” (IPSI Secretariat 2015). Six key perspectives values within NCP are often quantified through monetary
have been identified as necessary to the promotion of indicators of consumption, which contribute to local
SEPLS: (1) resource capacity within the carrying capacity livelihood and support income generation, and thereby,
of the environment; (2) cyclic use of natural resources; are easily recognized. The appreciation of relational values,
(3) recognition of the value and importance of local in particular, principles, or core beliefs that underline the
traditions and cultures; (4) multi-stakeholder participation traditional and customary relationship between humans
and collaboration; (5) contributions to socio-economies; and nature, followed as the next most recognized. A
and (6) enhancing community resilience. Based on these number of case studies reported sacred sites, religious
characteristics, SEPLS’ vision of multiple functions of beliefs, customary rituals, indigenous/local knowledge and
a landscape or seascape and its use is determined in practices which contributed to the sustainable management
alignment with these functions through promoting an of SEPLS (Chapters 3, 6, 12) with non-consumptive uses.
integrated approach of multi-stakeholder co-management While these values cannot be quantified in economic terms,
and benefit-sharing arrangements. Even while equity is their recognition is vital. As argued by Christie et al. (2019),
not guaranteed across SEPLS, they certainly provide the both instrumental and relational values directly contribute
opportunity for different stakeholders to pursue and sustain to quality of life, which possibly explains the overwhelming
fulfilling livelihoods that are pegged to the sustained recognition of these values. Contrarily, intrinsic values,
availability of resources and various ecosystem functions. which are inherent in nature and independent of human

Distribution of multiple values in SITR-5 case studies

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Principles Importance Preferences Measures
Intrinsic Instrumental Relational
Figure 3: Tentative distribution of different values identified during the case study workshop
experience and evaluation, found lesser mention. One uses of nature and nature’s contributions. This, in other
possible reason is the broadness of the concept, which, words, refers to the human use of natural resources –
at times, is difficult to conceive at the scale of a SEPLS. including flora, fauna, water, and soil, to the benefit of the
Nevertheless, authors provided several important narratives communities within the SEPLS. Almost all the case studies
about intrinsic values of SEPLS, including perspectives on recognized the values of different productive landscapes,
dimensions of planetary awareness and related worldviews including forests, agricultural and coastal areas, either under
(e.g. perceiving conservation in terms of global carbon importance or preferences. Examples include provisioning of
storage or biodiversity conservation) and cultural context food (Chapters 6, 7, 10, 11, 12), fuelwood, water (Chapters
(iconic values, heritage areas which are inherent values of 3, 5, 7), fisheries (Chapters 2, 9), wild food and medicines,
SEPLS and not necessarily dependent upon local community education and tourism (Chapters 9, 12). In general, there
experiences and uses). Furthermore, since SEPLS are is strong overlap between importance and preferences;
primarily utilitarian spaces, relational and instrumental however, authors argue that some of these NCP, e.g. locally
values tend to have primacy over inherent values. grown organic food (Chapter 3) and locally produced honey
(Chapter 7), are favored over market or farm-based supplies.
As argued by Pascual et al. (2017), NCP are associated with Similarly, some studies further mention the preference of
a wide range of values. Some of these values, nonetheless, particular production landscapes, e.g. rice terraces (which
depend on individual and/or collective experiences and produce food and tourism revenue) over forests (Chapter
the way people interpret nature and its contributions. 11). Importantly, most of these values are easily quantifiable,
Within the case studies, the representation of MVN are either in economic or biophysical terms, and therefore also
captured through analyzing different narratives provided find mention under measures. Examples include quantity
by the authors during the case study workshop. In brief, of fish catch, food production, water quality and quantity,
these narratives range from general appreciation for nature and species richness, which also determine the productive
and nature’s biophysical and economic contributions, to functions of SEPLS.
symbolic associations, traditional practices and dependence
on nature for goods and services. To understand the diversity 2.1.2 Relational values of SEPLS
of values, we summarize the key narratives from different
case studies in Figure 4 and in the following paragraphs. Relational values with nature are dependent on cultural,
community, or personal identities. Therefore, these values
2.1.1 Instrumental values of SEPLS are unique and place-specific, unlike instrumental values.
Authors identified a number of relational values across the
The SITR case studies identified a large number of case studies, often citing different community experiences,
instrumental values of SEPLS, which can be roughly customary practices and symbolic/iconic values of nature.
characterized as consumptive and non-consumptive Within the identified relational values, those related to

principles account for a large portion, including forest These include, but are not limited to, transfer of traditional
rights and the right to self-determination of indigenous knowledge (Chapter 11), number of tourists visiting SEPLS
communities (Chapters 3, 12), sense of place/place- (Chapter 3), and number of young people returning to the
attachment (e.g. ancestral land, heritage, Chapters 3, 5, SEPLS (Chapter 9).
7, 11), and sacred landscapes and religious significance
(Chapters 11, 12). At the same time, authors reported on 2.1.3 Intrinsic values of SEPLS
the importance of relational values in spiritual well-being
(Chapters 3, 11), quality-of-life and way of life (Chapters 2, Intrinsic values of SEPLS are values that are inherent to a
3), place-attachment (or place rootedness) and traditional particular landscape, or a combination of mosaic landscapes,
knowledge (Chapters 5, 6), all of which are highly valued that are not related to any human values involved in the
by local communities. With regards to preferences, studies landscape. These values are often articulated by people
mentioned the aesthetic qualities of SEPLS, including however to accommodate several planetary concerns,
opportunities for recreation (e.g. Chapters 2, 7), spiritual worldviews and general perceptions. For example, healthy
satisfaction (Chapters 11, 12) and sense of heritage forests have a inherent value, but are considered by
(Chapter 3), as important values that are preferred by the stakeholders to contribute to biodiversity conservation and
communities, in contrast to an altered state. It is, however, maintain the global climate. Within the case studies, we
difficult to quantify relational values through an appropriate observed a general and homogeneous mention of intrinsic
non-economic measure. Authors, nonetheless, identified values. For instance, biodiversity conservation was referred
some indirect ways (proxy) to measure relational values. to by several authors as an intrinsic value of their respective
benefits
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Figure 4: Diversity of Values in SEPLS captured through case studies of SITR Volume 5

SEPLS, which falls under principles, measures as well as 2.2 Sustainable use and multiple values in SEPLS
importance (Chapters 3, 6, 8, 9, 11). An example provided
in Chapter 8, identifies the protection of Sundarban Sustainable use of resources in SEPLS is typically influenced
mangroves in Bangladesh as facilitating conservation of the by the actions of different stakeholder groups that operate
tiger, which is both a national icon and globally threatened or exert influence in the area; the types of decisions that
species. Similarly, in Chapter 11, authors mention the legacy are made on use and management of the landscape or
of rice terraces and their positive impacts on culture and seascape; the presence of formal and informal institutions
life, which are certainly not limited to the SEPLS, but also that enable inclusive governance and bridging between
contribute to the larger bio-cultural diversity of the region divergent perspectives and identify least harmful trade-offs;
and the country. The identified intrinsic values, however, and the socio-political contexts wherein the stakeholders
tend to be instrumental and relational values of SEPLS. operate, including legal frameworks and power dynamics of
Nevertheless, this value identification exercise shed light political ecology at various levels of governance. A schematic
on how the understanding of multiple values of nature representation of this interplay of factors is illustrated below
can directly contribute to decision-making and sustainable in Figure 5.
management of SEPLS.
Figure 5: Schematic representation of process that could be adapted to ensure the integration of multiple of values in
decision-making related to SEPLS

The figure highlights that within a socio-ecological context, 3.1 Decision making process
and within particular socio-political environments, several
interest holders are present, some being direct stakeholders, The process of decision-making, however, is not a neatly
while others have an influence on decisions made within the boxed process and is often iterative and influenced by
system. These actors interact in various ways and express their several dynamic factors that change over time. Decisions
priorities to use and manage resources and the landscape, may be made for different time scales that reflect visions
leading to consensus-based outcomes or conflicts. In either for well-being and occur within particular social, political
case, resolution towards a cooperative outcome is desired and legal contexts – this implies that if the law decrees
and requires active involvement of dominant decision- a particular form of cultivation, or if there is a situation of
making bodies (from customary bodies to local governments political unrest, the choice of production methods would be
to higher levels of governance). The case study experiences in line with these contexts, rather than aligned to ecological
point out that in order to ensure desirable outcomes for both principles or social preferences of the local community.
biodiversity and people, it is essential that these decision- Unlike climate factors that are changing at planetary scale,
making bodies represent multiple interests and ensure the political, religious or economic climates are changing
the full and effective participation of all relevant interest sporadically or ephemerally (Sarmiento 2017) which affects
holders in the consensus-building process. Acknowledging the micro-economic dynamics on the local markets. This
that this is not common practice, it is clear that appropriate reaffirms the need to ensure context specific planning
methodologies to capture multiple values of nature are (whether economic or landscape planning) with sufficient
required, and the capacities of those involved in negotiations focus on bio-cultural specificities. On the positive side, social
and decision-making processes need to be built to undertake preferences have resulted in diversity and specialization in
such plural approaches to decision-making on use of SEPLS. produce and products from SEPLS (Gu & Subramanian,
Affinities and congruences are needed also with the decision- 2012; SITR Vol. 3, UNU-IAS & IGES 2017; SITR Vol. 5 case
taking bodies at the local level, who have to strongly back the studies). At the local level, decision-making is influenced
making of decisions in faraway legislative contexts and adapt by cultural factors and by concerns of income and various
them to situated actions. development needs (SITR Vol. 4, UNU-IAS & IGES 2018;
SITR Vol. 5 case studies). When government policies, social
preferences and the priorities of local populations are in
3 Stakeholders and Decision-Making accordance, evidence shows that the likelihood of achieving
Contexts In SEPLS sustainability-related goals of economic prosperity, social
equity and conservation of natural resources is higher.
Decisions relating to use and management of SEPLS
are made as a result of different interactions between 3.1.1 Decision-making contexts
stakeholders – either hierarchical when dominant actors
prevail, or deliberative where more inclusive interactions The decision-making contexts identified from the case
result in decisions reflecting the concerns from several studies include:
actors. In the SEPLS context, decisions are made across
different levels – administrative, geographical and cultural – 1. Formal or informal decision-making processes
by stakeholders who share interests and concerns on either Decisions are often made through formal or informal
governance, biophysical or social issues (see Fig. 6). institutional processes, involving local/ traditional
Administrative Geographical Cultural
• Global (every country) • Watershed • Ethnicity

• International (combination of • Landscape • Tribal
some countries) • Seascape • Historical
• Regional (countries located in
same geographical region)
• National
• Sub-national /Provincial /
Prefectural
• Local – household, clan/tribes
Figure 6. Levels of decision-making in SEPLS management: Decision-making contexts and stakeholder typology

Table 2: Stakeholders and interest holders in management of SEPLS
Governance Economic Actors Ownership and rights holders Thought leaders Influencers
• Regional • Producers / • Local communities • Chiefs and elders • Media

governments (e.g. Farmers, Forestry, • Indigenous peoples (traditional leaders) • Women’s groups
EU) Fishers • Religious and
• Landowners • Youth
• National • Consumers spiritual groups
• Local schools/ Children • Culinary chefs
governments • Urban residents • NGOs (Food culture)
• Sub-national / • Business sector/ • Research • Cultural Sector –
Local governments Corporations institutions/ Artists, Musicians,
• Politicians • Tourism sector Universities Fashion
• International Designers,
Organizations Dancers
leadership and/ or governments. Depending on the as follows (not in any order of importance, nor exhaustive,
strength of institutions and the spatial scale in which Table 2):
they operate, the process may be top-down (led by
national or sub-national policy bodies) or bottom- 3.2 How to bring multiple values to decision-making:
up (led by local institutions), and sometimes involve Reconciling mismatches in values
a mix of legal and customary measures to ensure
compliance (Chapters 4, 7, 9, 12). We identified guiding principles in six mutually-reinforcing
tiers that could help bring MVN to decision-making
2. Long-term or short-term focused concerning SEPLS, drawing on an analysis of the contents
Decisions are being made to meet short term of the eleven case studies, as well as the discussions among
objectives, that often focuses on economic interests the authors and experts during the case study workshop
but less on socio-ecological resilience. Decisions are (see Fig. 8). Firstly, it is vital to identify the values of nature
also being made with a view to ensure long term that stakeholders share as a common principle (tier 1),
sustainability of activities and resources. The latter which provides the foundation for subsequent actions.
is usually the case where both human wellbeing Concurrently, and especially when knowledge on MVN is
and natural resource use and management are limited, MVN need to be comprehensively documented
considered together in planning and management (tier 2) and shared with key stakeholders (tier 3). Then,
with outcomes that target both conservation and stakeholders are able to strengthen collaboration, building
development priorities. It focuses on proactive on a collective understanding of their common or conflicting
engagement of the communities and various actors interests pertaining to MVN (tier 4). Decision-makers could
in the upkeep of the landscape. As a consequence, better understand MVN (tier 5) if they have information on
there is considerable reflection and investment on MVN (tier 3) that is specifically and effectively targeted at
capacity development for youth and various actors in them, or if they are involved in a collaborative mechanism
appropriate contexts that are sensitive to stakeholder (tier 4). Landscape institutions (tier 6) that embrace the first
realities (Chapters 3, 8, 11). five tiers can encourage decision-making that takes fuller
account of MVN. Below we describe how these principles
3. Identifying leverage points to promote action and corresponding tools and measures were reportedly
In some cases, monitoring of the outcomes of decisions useful to address mismatches in the recognition of MVN in
as a continuous process is considered an important decision-making under different contexts (see Fig. 7 and
aspect of ensuring a dynamic and flexible approach Table 3).
to landscape management. Some approaches include
identifying key performance indicators/ goals; Tier 1. Center on nature’s values as a common principle:
ensuring constantly that the interests of various actors Communications centering on the values of nature that
are balanced; that local priorities and international indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLCs), decision-
goals are coherent and further, investing in advocacy makers and other stakeholders share as a common principle
activities to garner support to implement decisions reinforce the subsequent five tiers. The rights of ‘Mother
(Chapters 2, 5, 6, 10). Nature’ codified in constitution in Ecuador and Bolivia
enabled policy coordination across ministries. Likewise,
3.1.2 Stakeholders and interest holders in SEPLS the recognition of the notion of ‘Mother Earth’ embedded
in the worldview of IPLCs enables conservation actions that
Stakeholders and interest holders in the SEPLS from the resonate with their own values. In a more practical sense,
case studies of this volume are identified and summarized formal institutions that recognize IPLCs’ traditional norms,

Tier 6. Set up landscape institutions

Embraced
Tier 5. Get
decision makers
Tier 4. Collaborate understand MVN
with stakeholders
Tier 3. Inform, across sectors and
empower and scales
Tier 2. Document involve key
MVN stakeholders
Enable
Tier 1. Centre on the value of nature as a common principle
Figure 7. Guiding principles for bringing MVN to decision-making
taboos and customary practices contributing to sustainable document traditional knowledge on species or lands, and
land and resource management can encourage IPLCs to thereby to provide communities with an opportunity to
become leading actors. rediscover the intangible values of nature. Community-
based ecotourism enterprises turn intangible values of
Tier 2. Document MVN: Where information on MVN is not nature into tangible ones for local communities through
readily available, or the values of one or a few stakeholder tourists’ payments. Often youth involvement is a key issue for
groups disproportionally dominate over others in decision- the sustainability of SEPLS, as youth are increasingly leaving
making on SEPLS, it is vital to document MVN as perceived SEPLS, mostly in rural settings, for higher education and
by multiple stakeholders as the basis for informed income in cities (Chapter 11). Tablet-based virtual modules
actions. Often cultural values are vital for IPLCs, but also on indigenous people’s life and knowledge, combined with
are implicit and thus tend to be overlooked by decision- real exchange visits between indigenous and urban youths,
makers. Ethnographic or social surveys, as well as ‘people’s are effective to transfer indigenous knowledge and values
biodiversity registers’ (Chapters 4, 10) that record traditional of nature across generations and spaces.
knowledge concerning biodiversity are effective and
powerful tools to better understand cultural values. Science Tier 4. Collaborate with stakeholders across sectors
and technologies, including economic valuation and and levels: Focused efforts to inform, empower and
laboratory analysis of food nutrition, or multiple evidence- involve stakeholders (tier 3) can lead to their mutually
based approaches, can help make such implicit values more reinforcing relationships. Strategic interventions, such
explicit and transmissible across stakeholders. The SEPLS as participatory project appraisals and communication
Indicators of Resilience are employed to identify multiple strategies to build mutual trust, are likely to yield
values of different landscape components that underpin enhanced collaboration among stakeholders across
landscape resilience (Chapter 5). sectors and scales (Chapters 2, 4, 5, 9).
Tier 3. Inform, empower and involve key stakeholders: Tier 5. Get decision-makers to understand MVN: One way
Participatory and iterative processes to document MVN to convince decision-makers on MVN is to involve them in
(tier 2) can effectively inform, empower and involve a collaborative scheme (tier 4). It also was found effective
key stakeholders. Such a process starts with knowing to target specific policies or decision-making bodies to
relevant stakeholders, e.g. through stakeholder mapping influence. Such approaches include continuous dialogue
or institutional capacity assessment. On that basis, multi- with the government authority that holds the highest
stakeholder value elicitation exercises that involve key stake, e.g. fisheries department for seascape management,
stakeholders in documenting MVN help them build collective and providing an evidence base for formulating a results
understanding on their common and conflicting interests payment policy. Comprehensive reports on MVN, such as
in nature’s values (Chapter 3). Participatory biodiversity the case studies provided in this volume, can also be useful
assessment involving local communities is a useful tool to to make decision-makers understand MVN.

Table 3. Tools and measures that were found helpful to follow the six tiers and the key mismatches addressed, drawing on the cases reported in
this volume
TOOLS AND MEASURES KEY MISMATCHES ADDRESSED
Tier 1. Center on nature’s values as a common principle
• Rights of ‘Mother Nature’ codified in constitution (C-3) • Encourage policy coordination across ministries
• The notion of ‘Mother Earth’ embedded in indigenous people’s • Connect the principles held by local actors with conservation
world view (C-3, 5, 6) efforts
• Reinvigorate traditional norms, taboos and customary
practices (C-4, 8, 12)
Tier 2. Document MVN
• Ethnographic/ethnobotanical/social surveys (C-3, 6, 7, 11); • Understand different value perceptions and priorities among
people’s biodiversity register (C-12) stakeholders; increase understanding of cultural values that
• Laboratory analysis of wild edible plants (C-10) encompass traditional knowledge and indigenous people’s
• Multiple evidence-based approach (C-8) worldview
• Resilience assessment (C-5, 12) • Provide scientific evidence on the nutritional value of
traditional food from the wild
• Integrate scientific and traditional knowledge to demonstrate
value plurality
• Understand the functions and values of different landscape
components that underpin landscape resilience
Tier 3. Inform, empower and involve key stakeholders
• Stakeholder mapping (C-7); institutional capacity assessment • Identify relevant stakeholders and their capacities and
(C-9) relationships
• Multi-stakeholder value elicitation exercise (C-3, 4, 9); • Build collective understanding on
participatory biodiversity assessment (C-4) common and conflicting value
• Community-based ecotourism enterprise (C-12) perception that provides the basis
• Contextualized tablet-based module (C-11) for collective action; document and
• Indigenous and urban youth exchange programme (C-11) revive traditional knowledge
• Provide an alternative livelihood and raise awareness of
instrumental value of nature
• Make indigenous youth better
aware of the value of their
traditional knowledge and
distinctive culture; familiarize
urban youth with indigenous
culture
Tier 4. Collaborate with stakeholders across sectors and scales
• Participatory project appraisal and governance (C-2, 4, 5) • Reconcile conflicting interests and draw on capacities of
• Build mutual trust and communication strategy (C-7) various stakeholders
• Address communication gaps among stakeholders
Tier 5. Get decision-makers to understand MVN
• Involve decision-makers in collaborative scheme (C-4) • Encourage decision-making backed by better knowledge on
• Targeted lobbying (C-2) MVN
• Identify policy to influence, e.g. results payment (C-7)
• Present case study paper to the government authorities and • Provide evidence base for a financial mechanism
other stakeholders • Enhance understanding on different value priorities and
interests among stakeholders
Tier 6. Setup landscape institutions
• Multipurpose cooperative (C-2), CREMA (C-4), participatory • Effective landscape management–encourage autonomous
governance scheme (C-5); CCA (C-12) action and complement government’s limited capacity
• Category V protection complying with IUCN guidelines (C-3) • Integrate cultural aspects into conservation efforts
• Multi-stakeholder platform that engage stakeholders across • Encourage coherent policies and actions across sectors and
borders and sectors, landscape action plan (C-9) borders

Tier 6. Set up landscape institutions: Institutional Experiences from the cases show that the efforts for
arrangements for sustainably managing SEPLS are found recognising and incorporating multiple values in decision-
across the world. These can take various forms, such as the making build vital enabling conditions for the sustainable
community resource management areas (CREMA) in Ghana management of SEPLS. This is because such efforts engage
(Chapter 4), the community conservation areas (CCAs) and compel multiple stakeholders, at and/or across local,
in India (Chapter 12) and the participatory governance national, and global levels, to promote better understanding
scheme proposed in Colombia (Chapter 5). Such landscape- of and take into consideration each other’s perspectives
level institutions that embrace the first five tiers can ensure and interests towards use and management of resources
decision-making that takes fuller account of MVN. Along in the landscape and towards well-being priorities. This
this line, some practical tools were identified such as the increases the likelihood of obtaining more equitable
IUCN Category V protected areas proposed in Colombia and outcomes. It also helps to identify what resources are
the multi-stakeholder platform that engages stakeholders required to achieve different parameters of a good quality
across sectors and community borders in Taiwan. of life for the population, especially if those are indigenous
peoples rooted in ancient ritualized traditions of landscape
stewardship.
4 Challenges and Gaps in Incorporation and
Conclusions At the policy level, such approaches help harness local
perspectives and inform high level policy-making that is
The major challenges identified in the case study experiences sensitive and better aligned to local contexts. They help
that continue to impede efforts in taking up pluralistic refocus benefits of production and conservation activities
approaches to managing SEPLS include : from merely economic gains to economic-plus benefits,
including intangible ones such as sense of place and
1. Insufficient attention to capture MVN livelihood security. Such plural approaches to capturing
Efforts and methodologies to capture and build on benefits from landscapes also bring to attention the
MVN for the management of SEPLS are still not widely multifunctional nature of SEPLS that have nurtured human-
deployed. The case studies presented in this volume nature co-existence over time. These approaches enhance
illustrate a wide variety of means to capture MVN. synergistic planning and implementation by various policy
However, they mostly are still progressing to involve a agencies, enabling policy coherence and inter-sectoral
more comprehensive set of stakeholders and to embed cooperation, forming the basis of the move towards
MVN in policies and actions. The frameworks and transformative change that is being envisaged globally
process need continuous improvement to encourage (IPBES 2019).
the participation of a wider range of stakeholders,
to accommodate their diverse perspectives, and to Transformative changes are seen as a necessity to shift
present such information to decision makers in a away from the status quo and proactively adopt at multiple
concise manner. More participatory and inclusive levels, measures and approaches that embrace integrated
approaches that involves co-learning methods need to planning and implementation and are respectful of the
be encouraged to ensure more effective and equitable rights, responsibilities and equity of all stakeholders.
management of SEPLS. Applying SEPLS approaches for integrated and holistic
management could provide the opportunity and platform
2. Asymmetric capacities of different stakeholders for different stakeholders and interest holders to understand
This relates to differences in the knowledge and MVN, thereby spurring them to bring about transformative
understanding of MVN and further indicating a need change for biodiversity conservation, thus improving
to develop appropriate communication strategies resilience of their landscapes and seascapes, and ultimately
and awareness among stakeholders on the benefit progress towards the global target of a society in harmony
of inclusive planning and management, methods to with nature.
negotiate between conflicting values and importantly,
identify expertise and resources to undertake such
comprehensive approaches to capacity building.
3. Incoherence in policy and governance framework

Policies are often sector oriented and governance
framework is diverse and fragmented resulting in loss
of opportunities to synergize and achieve inter-related
objectives. This calls for urgent policy action to ensure
policy coherence across multiple levels of governance.

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Chapter 2
Recognising the local values of coastal

wetland biodiversity for sustainable
economic and livelihood development at
Résidences La Chaux ‘Barachois’, Mauritius
Lead authors:
Estelle Déja , Devon Dublin2, Yoji Natori2, Yasuo Takahashi3
1*
1
Environmental Protection & Conservation Organisation (EPCO), Mahebourg, Grand Port, Mauritius
2
Conservation International Japan, 6-7-1-507 Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-0022 Japan
3
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), 2108-11 Kamiyamaguchi, Hayama,
Kanagawa, 240-0115 Japan
Corresponding author:
*[email protected]
Abstract
Barachois features Mauritian historical seascape, which is composed of brackish water lagoons enclosed by stone walls
traditionally used for fish raring under French rule before 1800, as well as patches of mangroves and coastal woodlands
surrounding the lagoons. They, however, are now mostly abandoned and turned into waste dumping ground. The
Environmental Protection & Conservation Organisation (EPCO) initiated a community-based project to pilot the
restoration of the barachois seascape that enhances its socio-economic, cultural, aesthetic and environmental values and
thus to improve local people’s livelihoods and promote biodiversity conservation. As a part of the project appraisal and
implementation process, the project investigated multiple values that stakeholders in the target community associate with
the barachois seascape by household surveys and focus-group discussions. All stakeholder groups that we investigated,
i.e., fishers, tourist boat skippers, women, youth and elders unanimously noted the importance of the two major functions
of the barachois seascape. These were shelter against coastal hazards such as cyclones and storms; and fish reproduction.
Barachois also produces crabs, which were mainly harvested by youth for household consumption. Some value aspects were
perceived differently among stakeholder groups. Tourist boat skippers appreciated the value of the barachois waterbody
and endemic birds as tourist attractions. Women and elders tended to appreciate the beauty of the seascape and animals.
Women emphasized the importance of barachois for children to learn swimming and to understand natural environment.
The recognition of the values that barachois seascape entails for the local community enabled the project to draw stronger
commitment of a wide range of stakeholders to the restoration of barachois and sustainable resource management in it,
resulting in the establishment of a local cooperative. This process has improved local decision-making capacity and will
contribute to the harmonization of legislation in the future.
Keywords: Barachois; Local Values; Wetland Biodiversity; Restoration; Mauritius

Chapter 2: Recognising the local values of coastal wetland biodiversity of Barachois
Country Republic of Mauritius

District Grand Port
Size of geographical area1 Approximately 70 hectares
Number of indirect beneficiaries2 2,140 persons (Local community)
Dominant ethnicity Creole
Size of case study/project area1 70 hectares
Number of direct beneficiaries 2
115 persons (number of residents who gain additional
income by conducting on-the-ground project activities)
Geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) 20°25’01.6”S 57°42’52.7”E
Dominant ethnicity Creole
Figure 1. Map of the country and case study region

Figure 2. Land/sea use and cover map of case study site

1. Introduction
Although threatened, wetlands constitute some of the most

important ecosystems on earth for biological, hydrological,
socio-economic, cultural and aesthetic reasons (Terer,
Ndiritu & Gichuki 2004). Fish, clay, fibre, water supply
and purification, nutrient retention, coastal protection,
climate and flood regulation, recreational opportunities
and tourism attractions are wetland ecosystem services
that enhance human well-being and livelihoods (Gayatri
2000; Oglethorpe & Miliadou 2000). Wetland ecosystem
goods and services are essential for sustaining livelihoods
(Costanza et al. 1997), particularly in developing countries
where local communities are highly dependent on natural
resources. Figure 3. Aerial view of Mahebourg barachois (Photo by John Olsen)
However, it is estimated that more than 50 percent of

wetlands worldwide have been degraded or lost in the carried out by governmental agencies and experts without
past 150 years (O’Connell 2003) due to anthropogenic community participation, had led to ineffectiveness and
factors primarily resulting from a lack of awareness of their unsustainability.
ecological and socio-economic value (De Groot, Wilson &
Boumans 2002; Terer, Gichuki & Ndiritu 2005). Environmental There are 33 barachois along the coastline of Mauritius,
degradation occurs worldwide and tends to create severe located in estuaries or nearby groundwater outlets where
economic and social impacts resulting in ecological complex brackish water ecosystems are formed (Coche
conflicts (Armiero & Sedrez 2014; Martinez-Alier, Temper & 1982). To halt the degradation of these critical ecosystems,
Demaria 2016). Conflicts are the consequences of differing and in response to depleting inshore fish stocks, attention is
perceptions of value by different groups of stakeholders. increasing being paid to the rehabilitation and enrichment
Reaching consensus among all stakeholders on multiple of barachois for boosting aquaculture production and
values is often neglected in the decision-making process diversifying the livelihoods of local fishing communities
(Iniesta-Arandia et al. 2014; Phelan & Jacobs 2016; Villegas- (Rawson 1988).
Palacio et al. 2016). It is thus critical for decision-makers to
recognize and integrate the values perceived differently by
all stakeholders to ensure effective and sustainable wetland 2. The barachois project
conservation and management planning.
The Environmental Protection & Conservation Organisation
In Mauritius, barachois are marine coastal wetlands and refer (EPCO) developed a pilot project aiming to implement a
to parts of coastal lagoons established for fish rearing and sustainable and collaborative barachois management model.
segregated from the ocean by permeable stone walls, mostly To make degraded barachois seascapes productive and
constructed before 1800 under French rule (Paul & Balkema appealing again, the project started with an investigation
1987). Barachois are Mauritian coastal socio-ecological into the vital role of the seascape in biodiversity, local
systems, with rich biodiversity and productivity characterized livelihoods and well-being. In this vein, the project also
by complex brackish water ecosystems. They have become aimed to alleviate poverty in the fishing community, which
increasingly abandoned mainly due to management was critically important to decrease fishing pressure in the
difficulties and have been turned into waste dumping lagoon. The project consists of six major components:
sites. In 1965, the Ministry of Fisheries took the barachois of
Mahebourg and started aquaculture experiments using fish, 1. Restore and conserve natural resources of the marine
crabs, prawns and oysters (see Fig. 3). Only for experimental coastal wetland;
purposes, the effort did not provide any benefits to adjacent 2. Develop community-based aquaculture in the
communities. Subsequently, there were frequent incidents barachois and adjacent mangrove ponds;
of poaching by local people, regardless of fences and 3. Build local capacity for management, conservation
patrols by security guards and dogs. The experiment was and sustainable use of natural resources and equip the
terminated in 1985 when someone poisoned the barachois community with the necessary skills and knowledge
waters. This case clearly revealed that the decision-making in enterprise development;
process of the barachois restoration planning, which was

4. Develop community-based recreational and tourism ha), and the adjacent coastal community (18ha) and extends
activities promoting natural, cultural and historical to an islet and coral reef lagoon (app. 10 ha, see Fig. 2).
value;
5. Facilitate partnerships between all stakeholders and The barachois area had been abandoned for more than 30
establish a collaborative management system for the years. At the start of the project, the permeable stone walls
targeted wetland; had collapsed due to waves. The degradation continued
6. Strengthen awareness at local, national and global with an increasing volume of solid waste being dumped
levels of the link between biodiversity conservation there by the local people. Portions of mangroves had
and the well-being of local communities. been damaged or cut down. Although some endemic and
native plant species were observed, such as the portia tree
In order to ensure the effectiveness and sustainability (Thespesiapopulnea), beach cabbage (Scaevolataccada),
of the restoration interventions, gaining the positive pemphis (Pemphisacidula) and the critically endangered
perception and attitude of the local people was crucial, endemic Polysciasmaraisiana, a widespread invasive alien
especially fishers who are the main resource users living in plant scrub was noticed in the surrounding coastal lands
the vicinity of these wetlands. Although often neglected (Atkinson 2017).
by the national government, integrating local values into
restoration design and planning is critical to ensure success. Approximately 2,140 local people, including 607 children,
This study addresses this gap and presents an overview inhabit the coastal community of Résidences La Chaux,
of the approaches that aimed to examine the multiple where 551 households live in 356 houses (Déja 2017).
values perceived differently within and among different Disadvantaged by their Creole origin and past migrant history
stakeholder groups. It also explains how an understanding (i.e. under French rule from 1715 to 1810 and British from
of multiple local values was integrated into the planning 1810 to 1968) (Hollup 2000), the coastal fishing community
and design phase of the project, leading to improved has limited access to decent job opportunities, financing
community participation, support and engagement. and government support. The predominant livelihoods for
men are artisanal fishing and construction labour. Livelihood
opportunities are even less diverse for women, as 46 percent
3. Methods are housewives, 10 percent multifunctional maids and 6
percent cleaners. Low education level and a lack of skills and
3.1 Study site qualifications are additional reasons resulting in this low
job diversity. Finally, about 30 percent of the workforce is
The study site is located on the south-eastern coastline engaged in the fisheries and tourism sectors, which directly
nearby Mahebourg, within the district of Grand Port, utilize natural capital in the Mahebourg coastal ecosystems
on Mauritius Island (see Fig. 1). It includes the barachois (Déja 2017, see Fig. 4).
waterbody (24ha), mangrove and dry scrub forests (13 and 6
Social workers Drivers

Health sector 2% 2% Masonry/
2% construction
Carpenters Other
22%
3% 8%
Cleaning Ladies 5%
Company workers Fishers

5% 12%
Shopkeepers
5%
Hotel/restaurants
10%
Multifunctional
maids Skippers
Manual work (tour guides)
8%
8% 8%
Figure 4. Major occupations of Résidences La Chaux community members (Déja 2017)

The coral lagoon outside the barachois harbors economically 80 percent of all fishers in the target community. The survey
important marine vertebrate and invertebrate species asked both closed and open-ended questions, falling under
(Appendix 1), and is used as the main fishing ground by local eight question groups: (1) socio-economic attributes; (2)
artisanal fishers. However, the abundance of lagoon corals income from fishing; (3) income from other activities; (4)
and fishes has been in continuous decline as recorded since location of fishing; (5) fishing gear type; (6) state and trend
1970 (Fagoonee 1990). The causes of fish catch decline and of fish catch; (7) interactions with other stakeholders; and (8)
degrading lagoon ecosystems include: overfishing; past perception of and expectation for the project (Déja 2016).
use of explosives for fishing; coral collection for ornaments
and construction; water pollution by outflows from massive We also conducted a household survey from June
sugar cane fields, and sugar factory and domestic water to December 2016. In this survey, we interviewed 76
discharges, among others (Rawson 1988; Fagoonee 1990; households, which represent 14 percent of all households
Hollup 2000). Declining fish catch has further exacerbated in the target community. The survey asked closed and
the struggling economy of the fishing community. Moreover, open-ended questions falling under seven sections: (1)
the government sets the bar high for new fisher licensing, socio-economic attributes; (2) income; (3) education and
making it virtually impossible for youths to operate as “legal skills; (4) perception of and willingness to participate in the
fishers”. project; (5) perception of own community and surrounding
environment; (6) use of coastal resources; and (7) views on
3.2 Data collection the management of the barachois seascape (Déja 2017).
In this context, to achieve restoration and conservation, Alongside, we held regular consultations with the local
the project’s targets and activities needed to be valued and community between February 2016 and March 2019. These
approved by all groups of the community. Ensuring positive meetings covered various topics, including feedback on
local perception and attitude toward the project was survey results and focus-group discussions. As needed, we
considered to be critical before starting any on-the-ground employed participatory appraisal methods, such as transect
restoration interventions. We employed multiple methods walks and boat trips. The utmost effort was made to involve
to comprehensively understand the value that local people as many community members as possible using various
associate with the barachois seascape. For baseline data communication methods, such as direct letters, information
gathering and building trust in the local community, we panels at gathering places, distribution of calendars and by
carried out surveys and a series of community consultations. word of mouth.
For value elicitation, we used focus-group interviews.
Furthermore, we conducted key-informant interviews with 3.2.2 Value elicitation
government institutions that have a stake in the Mahebourg
barachois to gather data on the governance scheme. The We conducted focus-group interviews to elicit the
scope of our analysis included the three major ecosystem values that different stakeholder groups associate with
domains that constitute the seascape, i.e., the barachois the barachois seascape. We identified five stakeholder
waterbody inside the stone walls; the lagoon outside the groups to represent the community, i.e., fishers, skippers,
barachois and within the coral reef margins; and a mosaic women, youth and elders (see Table 1), referring to the
of mangrove and coastal dry scrub vegetation patches household survey results. In each focus group interview,
along the barachois water fringes. Prior to the on-site data we developed an exhaustive list of values that the
collections described above, we also conducted an online participants associate with the barachois seascape based
survey to inform the development of the field methodology. on the nature’s contributions to people (NCP) framework
(Díaz et al. 2018). We then asked participants to rank the
3.2.1 Surveys and community consultations importance of each value item using a ten-point scale, i.e.,
1 (unnecessary) to 10 (indispensable). The NCP framework
Throughout the project, we conducted a series of surveys evolved from the ecosystem service categories used in
and community consultations to accumulate baseline data the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), but more
and to accommodate the reality, needs and aspirations of the explicitly captures the non-materialistic values that
local community in the project design and implementation people perceive through their interactions with nature.
process. These included a household survey, fishers’ survey Hence, the NCP framework is suitable for understanding
and community feedback sessions. how people in the target communities perceive the value
of nature through their day-to-day interactions with the
A questionnaire survey was conducted for fishers from March surrounding barachois seascape.
to July 2016. A total of 49 fishers participated, representing

Table 1. Stakeholder groups and their attributes

Groups # participants Attributes
Fishers 8 Aged between 33 to 66, all male
Aged between 15 and 60, all male, mainly engaged in taking tourists to islets and off-
Skippers 12
shore tourist spots
Aged between 15 and 60, occupations varied, including maids, social workers, housewives
Women 8
and an EPCO employee
Aged between 15 and 25, 12 males and 2 females. Occupations varied, including fishers,
Youth 14
skippers, construction workers, hotel workers, housewives and students.
Elders 7 Aged between 55 and beyond 61, four males and three females
Total 49 Aged between 15 and 66, 36 males and 13 females
3.2.3 Governance 4. Results
To collect information on the institutional setting and 4.1 Multiple values of the barachois seascape
policies relating to barachois, we conducted key-informant
interviews with the public authorities that have a stake in Through key-informant interviews, we identified multiple
the barachois seascape. These included the Ministry of values that local people attribute to the barachois seascape
Social Security, National Solidarity and Environment and and species present in the study area, as well as their
Sustainable Development (MSSNSESD); Ministry of Agro- linkages with different components within the study area
industry and Food Security (MAIFS); Ministry of Ocean and the NCP categories (Figure 5). Results highlight that
Economy, Marine Resources, Fisheries and Shipping food and feed (NCP 12) was the value commonly derived
(MOEMRFS); and the Mahebourg Fisheries Post. from all ecosystem domains. Other values included
Figure 5. Connection between ecosystem domains, species and ecosystem services (NCP). The top-right arcs show the area of different ecosystems
in proportions; the bottom arcs, the species present in these ecosystems that were recognized as important either for biodiversity conservation or
for local people (connected to their habitat ecosystem domains by thin lines); and the top-left arcs, the value of these ecosystems and species for
local people per the NCP categories (connected to the ecosystem domains and species from which these values are derived).

mitigation of storm and cyclone hazards (NCP 9) and Focus-group interviews revealed the differences in the
medicinal ingredients from mangrove tree roots (NCP values that the five stakeholder groups attribute to the
14), derived from the mangrove ecosystem. Likewise, sea three ecosystem domains: coastal ecotone, near shore sea,
urchins and shells for ornament crafts (NCP 13) from the and urban or settlement (see Table 2; Fig. 6). All five groups
lagoon, and recreation for local people and tourists (NCP pointed to the importance of mangroves as nursing grounds
16) was linked to the barachois and lagoon. We also found for fish, through the provision of nesting sites, shade and
that commodities brought in from outside the seascape and protection from predators. The fishers’ group stressed the
opportunities for recreation available within the town were undiscovered value of barachois, as they are still learning
also important for the local community. how to wisely utilize the site.
Table 2. Description of the values that five community groups associated with three ecosystem domains in the barachois seascape
Ecosystem Species NCP category NCP description Beneficiaries
Mangrove 01.Habitat creation and Nursery for juvenile fish, crabs and shrimps Fishers
maintenance -mangroves protect them from predators and
provide shade to keep water temperature
stable. Bird nests in mangroves. Important
for maintaining all elements people obtain
in coastal sea (maintain coastal ecosystem
functioning)
07.Regulation of Filtration of water
freshwater and coastal
water quality
08.Formation, protection Prevents erosion Whole community
and decontamination of
soils and sediments
09.Regulation of hazards Barrier against cyclone/storm waves, surge Fishers and skippers
and extreme events and wind
15.Learning and Parents teach their children not to cut
inspiration mangrove trees
16.Physical and Beautiful scenery -tourists visit to take Tourists
psychological experiences pictures
17.Supporting identities Beauty (seascape) Whole community
Mangrovetree 14.Medicinal, biochemical Mangrove roots used as medicinal ingredient Whole community
(Bruguieragymnorrhiza; and genetic resources for diabetes treatment
Rhizophoramucronata)
Crabs 12.Food and feed Supplemental food for local people (Kids Whole community
collect crabs at night and sell them for pocket
money)
Fish, shrimp, worms, 12.Food and feed Baits for fishing (fish, shrimp, worms, etc.) Fishers
small crams/snails,
algae, crabs
Barachois 09.Regulation of hazards Safe place to keep and repair boats. Boats Fishers, skippers
and extreme events owned by hotels are kept in the barachois and boat owners
when cyclones come
12.Food and feed Worms used for fishing bait Local community
15.Learning and Kids learn swimming and fishing Local community

inspiration (mostly kids)
16.Physical and Relaxation and recreation, e.g. safe place for Local community
psychological experiences elders and kids to swim, picnics, recreational
fishing
16.Physical and Tourist destination, e.g. kayaking Skippers
psychological experiences

Ecosystem Species NCP category NCP description Beneficiaries

18.Maintenance of People are still learning to use barachois Whole community
options more effectively with undiscovered values
anticipated by some
Crabs, fish 12.Food and feed Mollusks (tektek, bigorno), sea urchins, Whole community
fish, crabs, eels, and shrimps are harvested
and collected by local people, especially
for coping with temporary periods of
unemployment. Kids collect crabs and sell for
pocket money.
Gazon pic fesse 08.Formation, protection Prevents coastal erosion Whole community
and decontamination of
soils and sediments
Migratory birds 16.Physical and Some local people are curious about the birds Whole community
psychological experiences that are only seen during limited periods
(summer) of the year
Lagoon 16.Physical and Tourist destinations (coral reefs, lagoons and Tourism sector (e.g.
psychological experiences islands) and activities, e.g. diving and sailing. skippers)
Not only used as tourist destinations, but also
used by locals for boat trips and fishing for
leisure. Beautiful seascape.
13.Materials and Sea urchins and shells harvested for Tourists, local
assistance manufacturing ornaments. Used for room beach hawkers and
decorations and for presents craftspeople
Fish, octopus 12.Food and feed Fish, lobsters, squids, octopus and other Local fishers /whole
seafood species community
Dolphins 16.Physical and Tourist attraction (tourists pay tips to skippers Tourists, skippers
psychological experiences when skippers successfully locate and show
dolphins to them)
N/a Mauritius fody (EN) 16.Physical and Tourist attraction Skippers
psychological experiences
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
8 8
8 8 9 8 Nursery for fish, crabs and shrimps
Water filtration
9 8 Prevent erosi on
8 8 9Barri er against
8 cyclone/storm wave, surge and wind
Mangrove
8 5 5 8 Baits for fishing (fish, shrimp, worm, etc.)

8 Food (crabs)
8 tree roots used for diabetes medicine
Mangrove
8 Kids learn mangrove protection
8 8 9 8 Tourists tak ing pictures
8 8 9 8 Beautiful
Safe pl ace to keep and repair boats
Fish, 8molluscs, crabs, shrimps
9 -cope with job insecurity /children's pocket money
7 8 8 7 Baits for fishing (worm)
Baracho is
7 8 8 Kids learn swimming and fishing

5
Swimming (mainly kids and elders), fishing, etc.
10 Tourist kayak ing
10 8 9 8 Learni ng to use more effectively
0 8 7 5 Fish, lobsters, squids, octpus, etc.
7 5 8
Lagoon
Recreation and t ourism

Seashells for ornaments -for tourists /for decorati on and presents
1 5 5
Gazon pic fesse (Barachois) prevents coastal erosion
(Animals &
Migratory birds (Barachois) are curious, seen only in summar

plants)
3
Dolphins (lagoon) for tourists attraction
Mauritius Fody (ns) for tourists attraction
3
3 1
Skippers Fishermen Wo men Youth Elders
Figure 6. Aggregate of the ecosystem value scores by five focus groups (The highest value score by individual group is 10. Thus, the highest
aggregate score is 50.)

4.2 Governance and knowledge of the barachois employed or under the aegis of a middleman upon whom
seascape they depend for cash advance, gear, boats, fuel, finance
and marketing (FAO 2006). Others operate in fishery
Key-informant interviews with the government authorities cooperatives. Artisanal fishery in and around the project
clarified their respective jurisdiction relating to the area encompasses multi-species fishing, comprising
barachois. MAIFS chairs the National Ramsar Committee, mainly emperor fish (locally known as capitaine, dame
and thus oversees the administrative procedures regarding berri, battadet, caya), parrotfish (cateau species), spinefoot
the barachois, as barachois are recognized as wetlands (cordonnier), wrasse (madame tombee, colombine and lalo),
under national land use classification. MSSNSESD takes goatfish (rouget species), grouper (vieille rouge, grise and
responsibility for administrative procedures including voleur), unicornfish (corne species) and trevally (carangue),
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) and other permits. as well as shrimps, lobsters and octopus which are fished to
MOEMRFS takes charge of all seawaters, including those a lesser extent (Déja 2016). Traditional means and methods
in the barachois and lagoon. It regulates fishing activities of fishing are used. Hooks and lines, basket traps, large
by licensing, gear restrictions, seasonal restrictions and nets and gill nets are the most commonly used methods
surveillance. The Fisheries and Marine Resources Act in the region. Artisanal fishers have traditional boats,
1998 (FMRA) provides the legal framework for fisheries locally known as pirogue, in wood or fiberglass, powered
and marine living resources management. The Fisheries by outboard motors of 8 to 16 horsepower (Déja 2016). All
Protection Service (FPS) and the National Coast Guard (NCG) registered fishers are legally obligated to take their catches
under the aegis of the MOEMRFS and the National Police to the prescribed fish landing stations, where officers of the
Force respectively, enforce fishing regulations in lagoon FPS constantly record their attendance and information
and off lagoon. Officers of the FPS operate in a number of related to catch characteristics, fishing grounds and fishing
fisheries posts including the Mahebourg Fisheries Post, efforts (FAO 2006). In 2016, 148 and 26 professional artisanal
which controls fishing activities in the Mahebourg district fishers operated from the landing stations of Mahebourg
(FAO 2006). and Pointe d’Esny (i.e. Résidences La Chaux), respectively.
In 2014, the national government of Mauritius adopted

a resolution that encourages aquaculture development 5. Discussion
in the state-owned barachois. Under the resolution,
private proponents can lease state-owned barachois Overall the five stakeholder groups agreed on the highest
under a concession agreement with the government of importance of two major functions of the coastal landscape.
Mauritius. Under this scheme, EPCO obtained a concession One is the mangroves’ function to provide shelter against
for managing the Mahebourg barachois. As EPCO’s cyclones/storm waves, surges and wind. The other relates
involvement is time-bound, the project established a local to fish reproduction and harvesting, where the functioning
cooperative for barachois management that would take of the three ecosystem domains are slightly different but
over the management after the project end. In an interview inseparably linked. Mangroves have a critical role in fish
on 27 June 2017, MOEMRFS implied the enactment of reproduction through the provision of spawning and nursing
new national legislation on fisheries co-management grounds, and produce crabs which are mainly harvested by
was implied. Once this takes place, the legislation is likely youth for household consumption. The barachois provides
to support the cooperative and the management of the a wider variety of marine vertebrates and invertebrates,
barachois based on a collaborative approach. such as molluscs, crabs, eels and shrimp, which community
members harvest mainly for household consumption. This
Our survey also indicated a limited body of traditional or harvesting holds high importance, helping households to
local ecological knowledge regarding the management cope during periods of unemployment. The lagoon is the
of the barachois seascape. Individuals, particularly elders, main fishing ground for professional artisanal fishers, and
held knowledge on uses, e.g. mangrove roots for diabetes thus is the main source of cash income to the community.
medicine, location of fishing grounds and fishing techniques
such as the construction of crab cages. However, all focus The value scores across the five focus groups differed in
groups unanimously agreed that they had not inherited several aspects of the seascape. Fishers stressed that they are
any knowledge for proactively managing the seascapes still learning to utilize the barachois wisely, and thus placed
from their ancestors. Instead, they claimed to have started a high value on it. They also pointed out the importance
learning and accumulating knowledge with the project. of live bait for fishing that they collect in mangroves and
the barachois. Skippers appreciated the value of endemic
The coastal artisanal fishers in Mauritius exploit the lagoon birds and the barachois waterbody as a tourist attraction
and outer lagoon coastal fisheries. Fishers are either self- – an aspect that was entirely absent in the fishers’ group.

The women’s and elders’ groups tended to appreciate such as this. Further, to convince the fishers, we issued
the beauty of the seascape and animals. The women’s official letters that stipulated a mutual agreement between
group emphasized the importance of mangroves and the the project and the fishers, ensuring fishers’ access to and
barachois for children to learn swimming, and to enhance use of the barachois water. Knowledge gained on multiple
environmental awareness. It is important to be inclusive of values also helped project organizers to deliver messages
the views of all stakeholder groups in order to recognize the that effectively gained the positive attitudes and proactive
full value of the coastal ecosystem (Natori et al. 2018). involvement of the fishers in aquaculture development.
The understanding of multiple values that the local We confirmed that fishers have localized, or even
community associate with the biodiversity in barachois personalized, knowledge on resources, including the
seascape, which differ across different groups in the location of fishing grounds, fish migration patterns, seasonal
community, was useful during the first phase of the project. abundance of economically important species, as well as
This understanding helped and guided the project team fish reproduction and feeding behaviours. We, however,
to effectively determine the two main objectives of the were not able to identify knowledge for proactively
project’s design and planning: (1) developing the project managing the barachois seascape and for sustainable
strategic plan in a collaborative manner to ensure that resource use. We attributed this to the relatively short
the project’s targets and activities fulfil local wants, needs, history of the community. The community was established
opinions and vision, and (2) increasing local awareness, around 1960 when people from Pointe Canon migrated
participation, support and engagement in the project. to the current area after Cyclone Carol ravaged areas
throughout Mauritius. Neither institutional arrangements
Indeed, understanding the multiple values held by various by the government, nor spontaneous initiatives by the
stakeholder groups guided the project organizers to use local community, have been made since for sustaining the
messages that appealed more effectively to all community coastal resources. During the project, the five focus-group
groups and also to better understand the totality of the discussions significantly increased local awareness of the
value of the seascape. For instance, organizers of the multiplicity of values perceived by different stakeholders.
project initially assumed that conserving the barachois and Indeed, by sharing perceptions of value, the voice of
developing aquaculture were important only for fishers. each participant increased overall understanding and
However, it turned out that the restoration and conservation knowledge of the socio-economic and ecological value of
of barachois were also important for women, for a clean the ecosystem domains and species, and consequently has
and safer environment, and even for maintaining the site’s positively influenced the community’s desire to conserve
beauty, as well as for a place for learning and recreation for them to enhance associated benefits. The result was strong
children. local engagement and willingness to act collectively for the
restoration and conservation of the marine coastal wetland.
A comprehensive understanding of the multiple values This also allowed the establishment of a local cooperative
of this SEPLS also allowed project organizers to foresee that represents all major community groups, and enhanced
potential conflicts among community groups that could their ownership of the enterprise in and the management of
arise as a result of the project activities. For instance, the the barachois.
household survey highlighted that the local people do not
rely on the resources in barachois for their livelihoods. Only a Finally, considering local needs and wants in the restoration
few people were harvesting crabs, collecting bait and fishing, interventions and the predictable provision of benefits
while fishers depended only on lagoon and sea fishing. This ensured local interest in the success of the intervention
implied relatively low socio-economic impact on the local and increased recognition given to the management
community by restoring and conserving the barachois, team. A relationship based on trust and mutual support
which may require limiting access to its resources. On the developed between the local people and the project team.
contrary, the local people might be supportive of restoring The collaboration was consolidated based on the increased
and conserving the barachois, considering its recreational support and participation of the local people. Indeed, 96
uses by the local community, which had been diminished adults carried out activities on a voluntary basis, a testimony
due to deteriorating conditions. Similarly, when designing to the value they attach to the site. Moreover, 336 residents
aquaculture activities in the barachois area, we carefully participated in community consultations, equivalent to 15
considered the fact that many fishers use the barachois percent of total residents of the targeted community, and
waters to park their vessels, particularly when they face 115 in field work. Moreover, integrating these values into
coastal hazards such as cyclones. This knowledge helped restoration planning provided a sense of ownership in the
the project team to design aquaculture activities that do local community, which ensured the project’s sustainability.
not to inhibit the use of the same water for other purposes

In this context, the planning and design phase of the project to note that few local residents were found to have strong
led to a strong consensus between the scientists and local expertise related to wetland restoration and biodiversity
people on the multiple values elicited by the community conservation.
groups. Although a time-consuming phase, significant effort
in carrying out the surveys and community consultations The present project framework places the local community
was necessary to effectively develop the project strategic in a central position to make decisions on planning and
plan. The value assessment approaches were considered implementing the restoration and conservation activities
as critical baselines, which provided information on how (see Fig. 8). Indeed, the first phase of the project started
people view and value their natural environment, as with collaboration between the local community, NGO and
well as their priorities and preferences for development. scientists to elaborate on the project design and planning,
Indeed, the starting point of the project was to develop a with subsequent cooperation of other stakeholders
clear understanding of local needs, priorities, perceptions, including the government and the private sector, built
knowledge and values. The project strategic plan, designed on previous analysis of local values. The fact that the
based on close collaboration between the NGO, the foundation of project implementation was initially based
scientists and the local community in a collective decision- on local views has built trust between the local community
making process, is a key output that is likely to guarantee the and other stakeholders. This trust is considered to be critical
social acceptability of future restoration and management for ensuring effective dialogue and collaboration during
interventions within the context of sustainability. (see Fig. 7) the implementation phase. Moreover, multi-stakeholder
engagement was decisive in the enhancement of barachois
This plan now serves as the foundation for the management, where restoration and conservation priority-
implementation phase and for future dialogue and setting will reflect a wider cross-section of society. This
collaboration between policymakers, scientists, the private will generate a constructive and effective seascape co-
sector and the local cooperative. The implementation management alliance based on mutual support, as well
phase will be undertaken by recognizing and building as mutual sharing of knowledge and expertise, thereby
on what local people value, need and expect. The local enhancing the project’s success in the long term. Mutual
cooperative will work with project’s stakeholder groups information-sharing between stakeholders will need to
through the Collaborative Management Barachois be carried out on an ongoing basis, through consultation
Committee, whose members consist of representatives and awareness-raising activities. This will build capacity
of governmental agencies, NGOs, local associations, the and raise awareness among all stakeholders towards
private sector, and the general public, as well as experts improved wetland biodiversity and the development of
and scientists, to implement project activities effectively. an environmentally, economically and socially sustainable
These representatives will participate in frequent meetings seascape. The perceived values of the seascape, and
to effectively determine and coordinate project activities consequently attitudes, will change over time and need to
in a collaborative manner. Although the local cooperative be monitored over the long term to gauge the seascape’s
is expected to be the implementing entity for on-the- management impacts on the local community. Similar
ground activities, the committee, the direct beneficiaries of approaches to assessing value will need to be repeatedly
the initiative, will be critical to ensure that all requirements, replicated to ensure long-term monitoring within the
including trainings, permits, funding, labor and expertise, context of adaptive management.
are available to the local people. It is however important
Figure 7. Focus-group interview with local women and youth (also fishers, elders and skippers on other occasions) to elicit values associated to the
barachois seascape.

Figure 8. Proposed project development flowchart
The local cooperative developed and utilized in the design of a project strategic plan which addressed community
and planning phase can be used in the implementation wants, needs, vision and opinions. This plan was developed
phase to monitor the impacts of the project’s interventions considering the value of the SEPLS as perceived by both
and changes in the perception of value held among scientists and local people. The next steps will be to present
stakeholders over time. The local cooperative will be the the plan to the two remaining key actors in the process of
generator of the shared understanding and holistic benefits. wetland restoration, i.e. governmental agencies and the
The success of the cooperative will be measured based private sector. Once all the perceived aspects of value from
on biophysical (measuring the ecosystem health of the the four key actors are integrated and merged into the plan,
barachois), and socio-economic (measuring livelihood and the implementation phase of the project can begin. In so
well-being enhancement of the local community) factors, as doing, the implementation phase of the project is likely to
well as governance indicators. be effective and sustainable. As part of a multi-stakeholder
platform, the local cooperative is expected to drive the
project to deliver impacts that benefit the entire community.
6. Conclusion
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Iniesta-Arandia, I, García-Llorente, M, Aguilera, PA, Montes, Villegas-Palacio, C, Berrouet, L, Lopez, C, Ruiz, A & Upegui,
C & Martín-López, B 2014, ‘Socio-cultural valuation of A 2016, ‘Lessons from integrated valuation of ecosystem
ecosystem services: uncovering the links between values, services in a developing country: three case studies
drivers of change, and human well-being’, Ecological on ecological, socio-cultural and economic valuation’,
Economics, vol. 108, pp. 36–48. Ecosystem Services, vol. 22(B), pp. 297-308.

Appendix 1. Description of ecosystems that constitute Mahebourg barachois seascape

Ecosystem type Area (ha) Fauna & flora Sources
Near shore sea approx. 10 <Fish species>

(lagoon)
For sales: emperor (capitaine, dame berri, battadet, caya), parrotfish Déja 2016
(cateau species), spinefoot (cordonnier), wrasse (madame tombee,
colombine and lalo), goatfish (rouget species), grouper (vieille rouge,
grise and voleur), unicornfish (corne species) and trevally (carangue)
For household consumption: cordonnier, come, vieille, ourite, rouget,
kato, capitaine, mougate
Near shore sea 24 <Fish species>

(barachois)
Siganussp. (cordonnier), Upeneussp. (rouget), Valencienneasp.(cabot), Nazurally &
Mugilcephalus (mullet), Siganussutor (rabbit fish), Nasounicornis (corne) Bhoyroo 2016
and Acanthurussp. (surgeon fish)
<Coral species>
Porites lutea, Cyphastreamicrophthalma, Porites rus and
Montiporacalcarea.
<Algal species>Gracillariasp (red algae)
<Sponge species>Tethyarobusta, AxinyssatopsentiandClathriafrondifera.
<Crustaceans species>Pilumnusverspertilio (spider crab) and
Ucaannulipes, Aiptasiasp.(sea anemones) and Cassiopea sp. (jellyfish)
<Mollusc species>Annulus and Planaxissultanus
Coastal ecotone 13 <Flora> Atkinson 2017

(mangrove)
loop-root mangrove (Rhizophoramucronata) (LC);
Coastal ecotone <Flora>love-vine (Cassythafilformis) (LC); grey nicker Atkinson 2017

(coastal scrub) (Caesalpiniabonduc) (LC); poorlandflatsedge (Cyperuscompressus) (LC);
Dendrolobiumumbellatum (N/A); sticky hopbush (Dodonaeaviscosa)
(LC); sea hibiscus (Hibiscustiliaceus) (LC); Hilsenbergiapetiolaris (LC);
beach morning (Ipomeapescaprae subst. brasiliensis) (LC); seashore
paspalum (Paspalumvaginatum) (LC); pemphis (Phemphisacidula)
(LC); common purslane (Portulacaoleracea) (LC); beach cabbage
(Scaevolataccada) (LC); spotted heart(Strictocardiatilifolia) (LC); bay
cedar (Surianamaritima) (LC); Tarennaborbonica (endemic); portia tree
(Thespesiapopulne) (LC); Mascarene grass (Zoysiatenuifolia) (LC);
Settlement/urban 18
IUCN threatened <Flora>

species found in
False olive (Cassineorientalis) (VU); Mauritian baobab
adjacent areas (e.g.
(Cyphostemmamappia) (EN); Diospyrosegrettarum(CR); bois
Ile aux Aigrettes)
bete (Dombeyaacutangula) (CR); Dracaneaconcinna (EN); Erica
brachyphylla (EN); Eugenia sp. (VU); stinkwood (Foetidiamauritiana)
(EN); Gagnebinapterocarpa (VU); mandrinette (Hibiscus fragilis/
genevii) (CR); bottle palm (Hyphorbelaggenicaulis) (CR); Maytenuspyria
(VU); screw pine (Pandanussp.) (EN); Protiumobtusifolium (VU);
baumebush (Psiadiaargute) (VU); Terminaliabentzoesp. Bentzoe (EN);
Turraeathouarsiana (VU);

Chapter 3
Framing cultural ecosystem services in the

Andes: Utawallu as sentinels of values for
biocultural heritage conservation
Lead authors:
Fausto O. Sarmiento1* and César Cotacachi2
Neotropical Montology Collaboratory. Geography Department. University of Georgia. USA.

1
Ethnostek. Calles Atahualpa y Obrajes, esquina. Comunidad de Peguche, Otavalo-Ecuador.

2
*[email protected]
Abstract
We describe the qualities of a cultural landscape kept within modernity by the local people of the Utawallu valley in Imbabura
province of Northern Ecuador. Conservation efforts to incorporate cultural diversity alongside the biological diversity of
the significant protected area in Western Ecuador are needed in order to improve protection of the traditional ancestral
farmscape of the Imbakucha Basin. The different characteristics of the socio-ecological production landscape present in the
site should lead to a successful initiation of a new wave of conservation in which Andean cultures are prioritized and cultural
ecosystem services (re)valued.
A plea is presented to invigorate the conservation of sacred sites as a necessary step towards the Imbakucha watershed
being declared the first candidate in a list of several prospective category V sites in Ecuador. UNESCO has recognized the
area as a sacred site and there is a move from within the community to enlist it as a GeoPark, due to the impressive geological
and morphological features of the watershed and the waves of tourists seeking adventure tourism, and not only recreation,
but also ethnotourism from the indigenous market place. We grapple with the dilemma of conservation and sustainable
development within a syncretic mountainscape where European practices and indigenous traditions have melded,
producing a uniquely Ecuadorian trademark attraction signalling a syncretic mountainscape. We confronted the dilemma
of conservation and development with the question: How can we measure the cultural value of the services provided by
the Imbakucha mountainscape, and how would the perception of climate change make ethnotourism practices enhance
nature conservation from an indigenous perspective?
We developed ethnographic research around the most important sacred sites identified by the community members and
made a photographic survey of the biocultural elements that are part of the heritage of the Utawallu runakuna. For the
first time, a map of the historic sites of religious significance was produced and an inventory of the major biodiversity
components was prepared. Along with forest-páramo dynamics, we identified boundary layers for cultural ecosystem
services and rectified criteria to consider the Benefits from Nature to People offered with cultural values in this biocultural
heritage area. We will use the momentum and the Satoyama publication as a means to energize the declaration of Imbakucha
watershed as National Intangible Cultural Heritage and specific areas as sacred biocultural heritage sites.

Chapter 3: Framing cultural ecosystem services in the Andes
NOTE: Kichwa is the phonetic writing of ‘Quechua’ (in Peru) or ‘Quichua’ (in Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina), which
is the trade language (runa shimipi) of the Andean people. We avoid hegemony of Spanishized words, as we support
the recovery of local identity and the invigoration of vernacular culture, including the use of the non-written language
of the Inka. In this text, we use italics to highlight the phonetic Kichwa alphabet, while Spanish terms appear inside
single quotation marks for emphasis.
Keywords: Reification; syncretic landscape; Imbakucha; Otavalo; Andes; Ecuador
Country Ecuador
Province Imbabura
District Otavalo and Cotacachi
Size of geographical area 1 38,700 hectares
Number of indirect beneficiaries 2 99,666 persons
Dominant ethnicity Utawallu

Size of case study/project area 1 38,700 hectares

Number of direct beneficiaries 2 99,666 persons
Geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) 0°12’35’’ N 78°18’35’’ W
Dominant ethnicity Kichwa Utawallu
Figure 2. Land cover map of case study site. A map of the Imbakucha watershed’s main sacred sites and features, contained between the telluric
guardians of Tayta Imbabura and mama Kutakachi volcanoes, with Imbakucha lake at the center of this epic mountainscape. Adapted from Google
Earth and Cotacahi 2002).
1. Introduction ecosystem services to become the new guiding principle of

new payment for environmental services (PES) policies; yet,
The Utawallu are the most visible indigenous nation emphasis goes to provisioning, and regulating functions. We
of Ecuador. Known worldwide by the Spanish name of argue that cultural ecosystem services (CES) are often less
Otavalo, their fame in handcrafts, textile making, traditional served by current conservation and development strategies,
medicine, music, sculpture, culinary and other forms of despite the fact that in many facets, Utawallu are cultural
artistic representations have made them the most successful icons of local and indigenous knowledge. Not only the garb
entrepreneurial indigenous nationality during the last they proudly exhibit, but also the deeply ethical connection
decades, not only in Ecuador, but also in the whole of South with Mother Earth, or Pachamama, and the establishment
America (Borsdorf & Stadel 2016). The Otavalo market, of sacred natural sites such as waterfalls, lakes, trees,
for example, draws thousands of tourists each year to the caves, rocks, and others, have made them the stalwarts of
area, having become the largest indigenous market on the biocultural heritage (Oviedo, Jeanrenaud & Otegui 2005). In
continent. Within this vibrant influence of local culture and some cases, bringing back ancient practices, in other cases
the pressure of globalization, nature conservation has been developing fusion alternatives within the prevailing Western
challenged by the need for production of staple foods as culture, ‘Otavaleños’ are being empowered by environmental
well as other labour options, and policies have favoured leadership and indigenous revival momentum. In a dynamic
wilderness preservation instead of cultural landscape values socio-ecological production landscape (SEPL) that seeks
(Sarmiento 2015). Curiously, the Otavalo have no translation to maintain biocultural heritage as way to conserve
for “wilderness”, and their cosmological vision includes a biodiversity, Otavalo is leading in offering ethnotourism and
nature-culture hybrid of respect and reciprocity, typical ethnomedicinal services of cultural value (Sarmiento 2016a).
of Andean communities and a conundrum for mountain Cultural benefits from the Imbakucha watershed have
research literature (Resler & Sarmiento 2016). However, in imprinted the Otavalo people with intangibles that define
Ecuador, the commodification of nature has allowed for their identity markers, traditions and rites, sacred sites,

food and music that strengthen the Andean identity of the the inhabitants of Imbabura province, with a growth trend
community, making those cultural values a very important of ca. 4% in the last census period (see Fig.1 and 2). About
factor in conservation planning and sustainability. 70% reside in rural areas around the town of Otavalo with a
young populace, with 48% of inhabitants under 20 years of
Our study aims to highlight the contribution of the age (INEC 2011).
original people’s cultural values in prioritizing biodiversity
conservation amidst the pressures of modernity, in what Likewise occurring to many original peoples worldwide, the
is known as ‘syncretic’ landscapes with hybrid cultural ‘Otavaleño’ identity has been threatened in recent decades
manifestations of the indigenous and the greater Western by 1) increasing Western influences challenging indigenous
tradition. Our main objective is to support the narrative values; 2) global marketing trends weakening their ancestral
of biocultural heritage conservation as an option of customs; and 3) the destruction of unique landscape
sustainable development in socio-ecological production features linked to traditional livelihoods (Whitten 2003).
mountainscapes. We consider this shift of conservation We should be aware of these people’s ethnicity amidst the
paradigm (from nature pristine to nature-culture hierarchies of modernity (Appadurai 1988, Knapp 2018) and
manufacture) of significance if we were to curve the in light of the ever-growing homogenization of material
tendency of biodiversity loss due to both deforestation as monetary values and market-oriented societies (De la Torre
well as acculturation. 2006). The Kichwa Utawallu have received more attention
from linguists and anthropologists at the national (e.g.
Data on cultural assets and information on environmental Instituto Otavaleño de Antropología) and the international
perceptions were gathered in several surveys on farmscape level (e.g. UNESCO, FAO and UNDP) than any other ethnic
transformation, as well as Master’s thesis research group in Ecuador, because they are regarded as an exemplar
(Cotacachi 2002, Catholic University of Ecuador, Ibarra), and of the “image” of indigenous groups from the Equatorial
an honors thesis CURO research (Carter 2008, University of Andes that can be exhibited to the world. Foreign assistance
Georgia). This multimethod research used expert interviews, and governmental plans for boosting tourism in Imbabura
ethnographic research trails, focus groups, photo-elicitation, province have catapulted the Utawallu to the forefront of
critical discourse analysis, archival search and personal entrepreneurship, and they have become known as the
observation to generate the body of information to identify ‘weavers of South America’. The Utawallu, thus, accept the
and classify areas of importance for biocultural heritage, consequences of the westernized models that have had
particularly sacred natural sites, traditional foodstuff and such negative effects on the environment in the Imbakucha
agrobiodiversity practices. A geographic information Basin, with the iconic ‘San Pablo’ lake (Imbakucha). This lake
system GIS of the sacred sites was generated to highlight the and its surrounding bucolic landscape have been known
importance of a watershed-based approach for the entire since antiquity as the ‘Valley of Dawn’ and are the birthplace
Imbakucha region, with a map of the suggested itinerary/ of the last Sapa Inka emperor, Utawallpa (sometimes
distribution and complemented with a photographic known as Atawalipa or ‘Atahualpa’); today, nonetheless,
registry of every-day activities. this site strives to maintain its identity amidst increasing
modernization (MAE 2012).
1.1 Utawallu biocultural framework
Modernity in Imbakucha must recognize the essence of
On the equator in the northern Andes (hereafter referred place shared by groups of similar ethnic backgrounds that
to as the Equatorial Andes or Tropandean landscapes) of remain hidden behind political boundaries and accesses
South America, lives a unique nation of people strongly (Whitten 2003); this is the case of the Utawallu (in the
linked to ancestral ways, but fervently immersed in the northwestern zone), the Kayampi (southeastern zone), the
contemporary market economy. This original people or Kutakachi (western zone by Lake Tsuikucha or ‘Cuicocha’)
‘pueblo originario’ identifies its ethnicity with a shared and the surrounding villages near Otavalo, such as the
history of resistance, similar environmental quality, and an Imbala, Atuntaki, Illumani and Karanki (Rosales 2003). It is
indigenous communitarian livelihood that is characteristic because of this rich mixture of cultures, still holding onto
of Andean cultures after the Inka Empire (Seligman & their traditional livelihoods, that efforts to turn the ‘Valley of
Fine-Dare 2019). Populating the inter-Andean valley just Dawn’ into the ‘Switzerland of Ecuador’ have succeeded and
north of the equator, some 50 thousand Kichwa Utawallu led to a boom in ethnotourism, agritourism and ecotourism
(known in Spanish as ‘Otavalo’) make their living in the in the Imbabura province. A mere 110 km north of Quito,
syncretic reality between tradition and modernity in the the capital of Ecuador, connected by the reshaped and
Ecuadorian highlands (Sarmiento 2012). Despite a lack of improved Pan-American Highway, visitors are surprised to
confirmed data from population censuses in rural areas, it find lakes, mountains, farmlands, and small Andean villages,
is thought that these people represent almost one third of interspersed within a matrix of different shades of green.

Weekend tourism is very high, with some 50,000 potential Many elders, including Mario Conejo, the original mayor
buyers flocking to the Saturday market—considered as the of Otavalo, emphasize that the trading and traditional
largest outdoor market in South America—and actually tourism practices of this market have been the foundation
doubling the town’s population in a matter of hours (see Fig. of their local identity since antiquity. The Utawallu have
3). Here, the 90 concrete parasols designed in 1973 by female always produced and sold valuable handicrafts throughout
Dutch architect Tonny Zwollo are converted into a colorful the Andes through relocated, sedentary or expatriated
showcase of punchu (‘poncho’) and other handicrafts. This members of the Kichwa Kayampi (mitima) ethnic group and
open area—or ‘Ponchos’ Plaza’—is considered by many traveling entrepreneur merchants of the Kichwa Utawallu
travelers as ‘the mother of all markets’, since the colorful (mindala) ethnic group. Even today, it is not uncommon to
market stalls have spilled over into the streets of the central find ‘Otavaleños’ traveling to faraway countries, becoming
district of the city of Otavalo; however, not only monetary today one of the most recognizable original people on the
transactions occur here, but also seed swaps, animal/goods global scene, with established stores in New York, Tokyo
exchanges and bartering are also frequent (Meisch 2002). and London and street-vending in plazas from Amsterdam
The area of Otavalo, including lake Imbakucha, receives to Zagreb. Often mixing their selling of art and crafts with
many tourists from all over the world. Nevertheless, the Andean musical performances in streets and squares, the
Otavalo market is not the only tourist attraction in the area: ‘Otavaleño’ traveling merchants of today are ambassadors
many young people, who make up 26.7% of the total visitors for Andean culture abroad, and the reason why tourists
by age (MINTUR 2018), use ethnotourism operators to get come to this corner of the world.
to know ethnic group perspectives regarding conservation
and development scenarios, along with the opportunities of A dozen years ago, the most represented American countries
adventure tourism or ecotourism that require a rather active of origin were USA (241,018 visitors), Colombia (203,326),
lifestyle (see Fig.3). Peru (150,436) and Chile (21,674), while the most represented
European countries were Spain (46,358), United Kingdom
(27,014), Germany (23,302) and France (16,856). These are
figures from a census in 2007 (MINTUR 2018). At present,
Chinese and Brazilian visitors have increased more than
112% and become more prominent. The largest increase
in 2018 is reported as Venezuelan (956,067), USA (351,709),
and Colombian (323,345) tourists. Also, a Cuban presence
is noticeable more commonly than a decade ago, yet this
country is distinctively underrepresented in the statistics.
In fact, Otavalo is one of the top three tourist destinations
in Ecuador (including the Galapagos islands); in 2018 some
2,428,536 tourists visited Ecuador, a 38.68% increase over
the same period in 2007. It is calculated that about one third
of these visitors went to Otavalo (MINTUR 2018). To manage
this increasing trend, each county of the Imbabura province
has a tourism office where operators can obtain licenses,
permits, promotional materials and advice. The private
sector is also very active. Most tourism companies catering
to foreign visitors to Ecuador have subsidiaries specializing
in tours to Otavalo. However, a new trend for cheaper
accommodation, such as hostels or family apartments,
has appeared of late. This so-called ‘ethnotourism’ involves
several original families who provide experiences “from
the indigenous point of view”. It is this segment of the
market that emphasizes the sacred sites as a destination
with educational potential and cultural significance (eds.
Sarmiento & Hitchner 2017). Some of the most popular
tourism operators of the area are Runa Tupari Native Travel,
Diceny Viajes, All About Ecuador and Ecomontes. Smaller
Figure 3. The Otavalo Market side streets show the vibrancy of the tour groups are managed by Zulaytur, Leyton’s Tours and
exchanges, including bartering, of many different type of goods
and services, including manufactured items but also swapping Urkutours. There are homesteads that have converted their
seeds, animals and farm products (Photo: Cesar Cotacachi). traditional houses and herb gardens into ecomuseums,

or living samples of ‘Otavaleño’ culture, complete with slopes and also on the western flank of the Kutakachi
food and drink service and the production of hand-made volcano, where the entire biota explodes with the influence
textile souvenirs. Nearby, the town of Cotacachi, where of the Chocoan biodiversity hotspot.
mining activities and other extractive and contaminating
industries have been closed down, has been declared the The Utawallu not only analyze the practices employed
most ecologically oriented county in Ecuador. The town of for conserving natural resources, but also incorporate
Cotacachi has won several international awards for activities environmental conservation and protection into their lives,
relating to good practices in public participation, peace, since environmental and religious practices are seen to be
conservation, public budgeting and on-line resources, and it indistinguishable. Conservation practices in this area are
is no surprise that it has become a tourism mecca by staying maintained through the observance of ancestral whispers
high on the list of favored destinations for many amenity (Berkes 2012) that reveal the ecological soul, spiritual
migrants that have transformed the social fabric with an sympathy, and energy emanating from the Imbakucha Basin,
imprint of expats and retirees. all of which provide a basis for their cosmological worldview.
This also explains the following that traditional medicine has
1.2 Biocultural heritage and the spiritual dimension and the number of yacha, shamans or medicine men and
women, concentrated in the town of Iluman, who have been
Instilled in their lifestyle and spirituality, the Utawallu have recognized by the government and certified as alternative
close links with the natural environment: work on the land, medicine providers. Furthermore, adults work the land
respect for their sacred sites, and spirituality shared by every day, tending gardens, livestock, and farms and passing
the members of the communities that live in the valley, concerns and care for the environment on to their children,
are important components of their lives (Cotacachi 2002) along with the notion of respect for natural resources and
(see Fig.4) . There is a plethora of bird species to watch on reverence for the sacred natural sites (eds. Sarmiento &
private reserves in the basin, such as the Hacienda Cusín, Hitchner 2017) that make them uniquely Utawallu. This
listed within the Important Bird Diversity areas, with spots education, transferred from one generation to another
for birdwatching enthusiasts with record numbers of well into adolescence, is an important intergenerational
hummingbirds and many passerines. As an example, Table legacy of these original people and a way of conserving the
1 shows a list prepared by BirdLife International for the Imbakucha Basin. The majority of ‘Otavaleños’ (Utawallukuna)
surrounding areas. There are also small in-situ conservation and ‘Cotacacheños’ (Kutakachikuna) are either Roman
initiatives, such as a condor (Vultur gryphues) rewilding Catholics or Evangelical Christians due to the colonization
camp, several hatcheries with local fish species and nurseries of the area in the early 1500s by the Kingdom of Castile, the
for Camelidae, particularly llamas (Lama glama). Locals are subsequent colonial alignment with Spain and the Vatican,
often referring to the mystical Andean bear (Tremarctos and the presence in recent years of quite active missionaries
ornatus) or ukumari, as a frequent visitor to the borders from the United States of other Christian denominations.
of cloud forest areas and cultivation fronts, particularly Nevertheless, religious affiliation has generally remained
of maize, their favorite pillaged food. The flagship cougar separate from spirituality in the local people. This important
(Puma concolor) has been registered within the Imbabura feature of Andean culture has been described as syncretism
and allows both Western and original beliefs to coexist in the
area (Rodríguez 1999; Sarmiento, Rodríguez & Argumedo
2005), providing a trope of ecocritical narratives in what
are now known as syncretic landscapes (Sarmiento 2017),
a reflection of the dynamic fusion of Western and native
practices of this SEPL functioning within the tenets of the
Satoyama Initiative (see Fig. 5).
These fusion landscapes abound in the tropical Andes,

where a mixture of exotic species (e.g. Australian blue gum
tree –Eucalyptus globulus, Monterrey pine –Pinus radiata,
African kikuyu grass –Pennisetum clandestinum, Fenix palm
–Phoenix dactylifera) with native species (e.g. Black walnut
–Juglans neotropica, Hand of Puma –Oreopanax argentata,
–Mountain cedar –Cedrella montana) or Andean wax
Figure 4. Ritual procession to reaffirm the Utawallu identity around the palm –Ceroxylum andicola) form the forested matrix of the
pukara of Reyloma, in route to the pinllucruz. Maintaining the identity
markers and reifying the presence of sacred natural sites, such as the manufactured mountainscape. Here, the physical presence
tree, the lake and the waterfall nearby, helps in cohesive practices of is luxuriant with greenery and fertility all year round, making
socioecological wellbeing. (Photo: César Cotacachi).

heritage approach also provides landscape heterogeneity

accentuating the diversity of species with the various local
cultural values.
The Utawallu, for whom ‘place’ is not merely a collection of

spatial features, but a spiritually, holistic home base (Carter
2008), understand many intangible values of the cultural
landscape. Their esteem for water is derived from their own
spirituality and the significance of sacred wetland sites in
the many ancient rituals they perpetuate. The importance
of this sacred dimension is derived from the runa taytiku
ancestors, Utawallu grandparents, and parents, and is
passed with intergenerational sharing to the very young
(wawa) and teenagers (wambra) through oral history; it
includes the essential rituals of initiation and purification
associated with the heightened spirituality observed at
sacred sites (Sarmiento, Rodríguez & Argumedo 2005).
Indeed, sacred loci connected to spirituality in Imbakucha
are mostly found in locations where water emanates: they
may be where succulent plants or a sacred tree (e.g. pinllu
or pinkul, or ‘lechero’ tree, Euphorbia laurifolia) grow or
where water bodies such as streams (wayku), rivers (yacu),
coves (pukyu), waterfalls (phakcha), lakes (kucha), ice (rasu)
or snow (kasay) are found, or anywhere in which a form of
water can exist with its purifying essence. The very presence
of imposing volcanoes and life-giving lakes creates a well-
respected observance of cycles of plant production and a
concentration of fauna and flora in certain areas of their
Figure 5. A group of people in Otavalo's central park, exhibiting the Andean lifescape.
traditional garb and other attributes associated uniquely with this group,
ready to celebrate kuya raymi to thank Pachamama for her willingness to
receive seeds for the new harvest (Photo: Cesar Cotacachi). 1.3 A note on methodology
This work is an ethnoecological study that builds upon

the phenosystem a delightful deduced panorama. Amidst extensive understanding of Andean ecology and
these patches or plantations, mostly prevalent in the anthropological nuances of the region (Knapp 1991). This
homogenized landscapes of the countryside worldwide, multimethod approach required intensive and extensive
there are several home gardens that still retain elements of fieldwork and ethnographic tools. The initial study was
native flora and fauna that are mostly used for medicinal or undertaken for a Master’s thesis at a local university to identify
culinary purposes. Working like the milpa described in this the sacred dimension of the valley and its main characters. It
volume for Mesoamerica, the chakra of the Utawallu is for included more than two years of groundwork, interviews and
the tropical Andes the treasure trove of agrobiodiversity. The surveys that were conducted in the different communities of
chakra gardens include corn –Zea maiz; beans –Phaseolus the watershed. It was followed by a comparative study with
vulgaris; squash –Cucurbita ficifolia; quinoa –Chenopodium more statistical and geospatial considerations for an Honor’s
quinoa; potato –Solanum tuberosum; ‘guaba’–Inga edulis; thesis at a land-grant university in the US, with more works
‘tomate de árbol’ –Cyphomandra betacea: ‘taxo’ –Passiflora included in an updated literature review and incorporating
tripartite, ‘aguacate’ –Persea americana; ‘granadilla’ –Passiflora critical discourse analysis, focus group workshops, expert
ligularis; ‘naranjilla’ –Solanum quitoense; mountain papaya interviews and observational studies that brought in
–Vasconcellea heilbornii; and many other species of great the current tropes of the biocultural heritage narrative.
cultural significance, not only for medicine or food, but also Individual studies are published elsewhere (Cotacachi 2002;
for mystical association with the surrounding mountains, Sarmiento 2003, 2012; Sarmiento, Rodríguez & Argumedo
such as the ‘lechero’ –Euphorbia laurifolia described below. 2005; Carter 2008; Sarmiento, Cotacachi & Carter 2008;
This unseen dimension of the cryptosystem allows the Carter & Sarmiento 2011; Sarmiento & Viteri 2015) and bring
integration of inductive qualitative factors such as magic, the multimethod approach summarized hereby.
rite, spirituality and myth. Therefore, the biocultural

Table 1. A checklist of bird species found in the surrounding area of the Imbakucha watershed and the nearby western Andean
flank of the Imbabura province. Adapted from Birdlife International 2018.
Table 1 - Resident avian diversity in the Western Andean Flank of the Imbakucha Watershed and the Cotacachi-
Cayapas Ecological Reserve
Berlepsch’s Tinamou Crypturellus berlepschi Lita Woodpecker Piculus litae

Baudo Guan Penelope ortoni Guayas Woodpecker Campephilus gayaquilensis
Wattled Guan Aburria aburri Club-winged Manakin Machaeropterus deliciosus
Dark-backed quail Odontophorus melanonotus Orange-breasted Fruiteater Pipreola jucunda
Plumbeous Forest-falcon Micrastur plumbeus Wattled Umbrellabird Cephalopterus penduliger
Plumbeous Hawk Leucopternis plumbeus Agile Tit-tyrant Anairetes agilis
Imperial Snipe Gallinago imperialis Stub-tailed Antbird Myrmeciza berlepschi
Dusky Pigeon Patagioenas goodsoni Spillmann’s Tapaculo Scytalopus spillmanni
Yellow-eared Parrot Ognorhynchus icterotis Rufous Antpitta Pittasoma rufopileatum
Rose-faced Parrot Gypopsitta pulchra Chestnut-naped Antpitta Grallaria nuchalis
Bronze-winged Parrot Pionus chalcopterus Yellow-breasted Antpitta Grallaria flavotincta
Banded ground-cuckoo Neomorphus radiolosus Uniform Treehunter Thripadectes ignobilis
Choco Poorwill Nyctiphrynus rosenbergi Flammul Treehunter Thripadectes flammulatus
White-whiskered Hermit Phaethornis yaruqui Turquoise Jay Cyanolyca turcosa
Purple-chested Amazilia Amazilia rosenbergi Rufous Wren Cinnycerthia unirufa
Velvet-purple Coronet Boissonneaua jardini Tanager Finch Oreothraupis arremonops
Brown Inca Coeligena wilsoni Golden-chested Tanager Bangsia rothschildi
Buff-winged Starfrontlet Coeligena lutetiae Moss-backed Tanager Bangsia edwardsi
Gorgeted Sunangel Heliangelus strophianus Black-chested Mt tanager Buthraupis eximia
Purple-bibbed Whitetip Urosticte benjamini Glisten green Tanager Chlorochrysa phoenicotis
Violet-tailed Sylph Aglaiocercus coelestis Blue-whiskered Tanager Tangara johannae
White-eyed Trogon Trogon comptus Rufous-throated Tanager Tangara rufigula
Crimson toucan Aulacorhynchus haematopygus Scarlet-breasted Dacnis Dacnis berlepschi
Plate-billed toucan Andigena laminirostris Scarlet-and-white Tanager Chrysothlypis salmoni
Choco Toucan Ramphastos brevis Glossy Flowerpiercer Diglossa lafresnayii
Orange-fronted Barbet Capito squamatus Black Flowerpiercer Diglossa humeralis
Five-coloured Barbet Capito quinticolor Yellow-green tanager Chlorospingus flavovirens
Toucan Barbet Semnornis ramphastinus Yellow Chlorophonia Chlorophonia flavirostris
Choco Woodpecker Veniliornis chocoensis Black-winged Saltator Saltator atripennis
1.4 The Study Area Taita Imbabura (the Imbabura volcano or Yaya Imbabura;
Imbakucha proper or the Lake ‘San Pablo’, the ‘Lechero’ Tree
The Imbakucha Basin contains the largest Andean lake on the pukara of ‘Reyloma’, and the waterfall in ‘Peguche’
in Ecuador and is located in the province of Imbabura parish, also known as Phakchayacu. Cotacachi’s sacred sites
in northern Ecuador. Here, the Kichwa ethnicity is the include Mama Cotacachi (Kutakachi Volcano), the Cotacachi-
more prevalent of the two Utawallu groups, which are Cayapas Ecological Reserve and Tsuykucha crater lake in the
separated by the administrative county boundaries: The shadow of the volcano.
Kayampi to the southeastern reaches of the lake towards
the ‘Cayambe’ volcano, and the Utawallu, referred to as Given that the views of the original people are important
‘Cotacacheños’ (Kutakachikuna), living westward and the in this heavily indigenous-populated area, the ideas of
‘Otavaleños’ (Utawallukuna) living northward of the lake. the Kutakachikuna are held in high esteem by the local
Further differentiation is also possible within the Kichwa government, ensuring public support for the sanctity
ethnic groups, which creates a spectrum of ethnographic of these concepts. Thus, conservation will continue to
and epistemological oddities that makes Ecuador such a be provided, whether or not the national government
rich, pluricultural, multilingual nation (Moya 2000, Whitten includes them as part of its mandate for the conservation
2003). A good example is found where the ‘Otavaleños’ of protected areas (for instance, see Ramakrishnan 2008),
live in the Imbakucha Basin: the Kutakachikuna dwell near including the recent designation of the area as a Global
Mother ‘Cotacachi’ volcano by the city of Cotacachi, while GeoPark, officially declared by UNESCO in February 2019.
the Utawallukuna dwell near Father Imbabura volcano Presumably, ecotourism helps the local economy in such a
by the city of Otavalo (see Fig. 6). Both cities are within way that Imbabura residents will continue to preserve their
48 km of each other and share many environmental traits sacred sites for as long as they have a degree of privacy
and similar administrative histories (Keating 2007). For that allows them to respect their ancestors according to
many conservationists, the two areas are located within their spiritual traditions; this will create the type of de facto
the same type of ecosystem. Otavalo’s sacred sites include conservation that currently occurs around the sacred sites

Figure 6. Google Maps view of the location of the study area in relation to the country of Ecuador in South
America. The sacred mountains (Imbabura and Cotacachi) frame the valley where Imbakucha Lake is located.
of the world (eds. Verschuuren et al. 2010) in general, and engenders various intangibles that are engraved in the SEPL
of the Imbakucha Basin in particular (Sarmiento, Cotacachi fabric. These individual and collective values have been
& Carter 2008). labeled as intangible, social, and landscape values (Chen,
Parkins & Sherren 2018) in various disciplinary fields as of
late. Tourism studies also look at social values to explore
2. Cultural Ecosystem Services revisited destinations, imaginaries and authentic experiences.
Scholars developed a framework aiming to suggest a
Ecosystem Services have experienced enormous traction new strategy for conservation practices incorporating
in both academic and field practitioners over the last two economic valuation and transactions of diverse services
decades, with more publications appearing each year on people obtain from the surrounding ecosystem, mostly
the topic. However, studies on Cultural Ecosystem Services based in the utilitarian perspective of a commoditized
(CES) have been less explored due to limited access to gather nature. Accordingly, the framework relabeled these human
intangible values, which demands lots of time and resources perceptive values as “Cultural Ecosystem Services.” They
spent on the ground via ethnographic research. In addition to are defined as the non-material benefits people obtain
the lacking number of CES studies, previous works have been from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive
focused on urban areas, leaving out mountain SEPLs, which development, reflection, recreation, aesthetic experiences,
hold significant CES values shared communally. In exurban memory banking and intergenerational exchange, which
areas or rural areas in which people live closer to nature in the help secure the quality of life and achieve human wellbeing
farmscape, they have developed significant cultural ties with (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). In this framework,
the mountainscape, including the spiritual dimension. Hence, the categories of CES are suggested as aesthetic beauty,
communities with nearby mountains hold unique and locally opportunities for recreational activities, and educational
inherited values, more so than aesthetic or recreational values services.
alone (Kong & Sarmiento, in press).
However, mountain landscapes near Utawallu communities
Utawallu people developed shared values associated with are under constant threat of land alteration or development
the quality of the Imbakucha complex system, such as place pressures tending toward farmscape transformation. Also,
identity, sense of belonging, and cultural heritage, as well numerous communities themselves experience rapid
as personal values, such as place attachment or rootedness, socioecological changes, including the segmentation of
contentment or happiness and aesthetic beauty. The religious affiliation and the increase of new evangelical or
perception of their mountainscape and its lifescape Christian denominations, instead of the traditional Roman

Catholic affiliation, which may result in loss of traditional Andeaness and Andeanitude) observed with enthusiasm
and syncretic value systems shared in this collective. One (Yanatin) amid a duality of choice (Masantin) that is being
of the earliest stages in successful landscape conservation passed from their ancestors to the younger generations
is to identify the values shared in the landscape. Identifying (or shina nin) is the important legacy and intergenerational
CES, therefore, supports optimizing resource management equity of the original people for conserving CES as identity
by acknowledging major features, activities, and qualities markers of the indigenous territory.
comprising the soul of the Utawallu mountainscape. Also,
exploring various values shared communally helps to 2.1.1 Institutional framework and local governance
reinforce identity, which can lead to creating solid place
attachment and local solidarity. This was one of the specific The administrative structure of the Imbabura province
emphases given by one of us (César Cotacachi) as the first includes six counties (Ibarra, Antonio Ante, Cotacachi,
indigenous leader in heading the political office of Otavalo Otavalo, Pimampiro and Urcuquí) all of them managed
in history, reporting directly to the President of Ecuador on by the Imbabura Provincial Council. According to the
issues related to Otavalo city and county. Despite ardent new Ecuadorian constitution that tends to decentralize
conservation work, the pressures of industries and other governmental functions to the local level, several
productive interests, such as agribusiness, mining, and Autonomous Decentralized Governmental (GAD) units
manufacturing, are strong enough to produce a rift between operate in the area; in particular, the GAD Otavalo, the
the cultural assets of the indigenous community versus the GAD Cotacachi and the GAD San Pablo are the key players
needs of development conceived within the economy of the in the planning and execution of development initiatives
global market. in the Imbakucha watershed. The mayors of Otavalo and
Cotacachi have recently given priority to community-
2.1 Reifying the Imbakucha watershed driven initiatives and favor ecotourism development and
cultural revitalization. The overall progress noticed in vital
Otavalo and Cotacachi are northern Ecuadorian counties infrastructure and common areas, such as sport complexes,
where original peoples or ‘pueblos originarios’ maintain schools, open-air markets and gardens and boulevards, has
a close spiritual link with the environment (or kawsay captured the attention of urban planners for having model
sapi) through several factors that are instilled within towns accepting modernity but imbued with local culture.
their lifestyles and spirituality (Cotacachi 2002). A main There are provincial leaders dealing with tourism, forestry,
component includes their work with the land and the sacred agriculture and culture; however, a sectorial separation
sites that are interconnected with their spirituality (or runa seems to pervade the bureaucratic functions of state offices.
rimay). They do not analyze the practices that are put into There are several civil society groups that confirm the
conserving environmental resources (or puchuchina) as cultural oddities of the region, particularly those that join
separate issues; instead, according to many indigenous the professional ancestral healers (yachas), small producers,
citizens, conserving and protecting the environment is artisans and gremial organizations. There are several youth
incorporated into their lives, as environmental and religious organizations as well as student groups that tend to work
practices (or wakaychina) are known to be indistinguishable. with community extension work and environmental
education campaigns, and cultural rejuvenation, particularly
According to many Kichwa Utawallu, the conservation in music and dance. Private foundations and other NGOs
practices in this area are maintained through the observance operate to conserve specific areas, such as Lita, Pimampiro,
and understanding of the “ancestral murmur” (or Aya) that Mariano Acosta and Intag, most of them engaged in
shows the soul ecology, spiritual synchrony or emanating fighting deforestation, mining, fishing and illegal traffic of
energy found in the Imbakucha basin for conservation endangered species in the vicinity of small private reserves
practices in their communities (or llakta kawsay); also, the or bordering larger protected areas of the Andean flank.
work of ecologists in this region, the government’s Ministry
of the Environment, indigenous-led parochial and city 2.1.2 Sacred natural sites conservation
governance, and the few non-profit agencies in the area are
devoted to environmental conservation. Furthermore, the While the majority of ‘Otavaleños’ and ‘Cotacacheños’ are
adult indigenous citizens work with the land on a daily basis, Christian (either Catholics or Evangelicals), their religion
tending to their gardens, livestock, and farms. These adults does not conflict with the spirituality found in their
pass their attention to and care for the environment as cosmovision (or runa yachay). This important feature of
traditional ecological knowledge, TEK, (or runa yachay), along the Andean culture has been described as syncretism
with the notion of the importance of keeping reverence to that has helped both Western and original beliefs coexist
natural resources therein, to their children. This education in the area from colonial times to the present (Rodríguez
conforming to the Andean identity trilemma (i.e., Andeanity, 1999; Sarmiento 2017). However, fundamentalists have

pointed out important anachronisms that cannot admit & McLead 2008). Recent investigations into the retreat of the
the sacredness of a tree, or a waterfall (Vasquez-Fuller Mama Kotakachi glacier provide evidence of local ethno-
1995). In the synchronic approach, this non-formal ecological knowledge on the global climate (Rhoades,
education, in addition to the Utawallu’s environmental Zapata & Aragundy 2008) and changes associated with the
non-profit work with reforestation and education, allow transformation of original lifescapes. As documented by
the mountain communities to lead more environmentally- Nazarea and Guitarra (2004), the anthropomorphic idea of
friendly lives while benefiting from the conservation of the mountain landscape offers conviction to the Utawallu
the two extensive protected areas on the outer Andean that they are connected to the land through sacred sites,
flanks, two of the largest ecological reserves of the country where water rituals are still performed and observed
(Cotacahi-Cayapas towards de Pacific coast and Cayambe- as nation-building traditions among their people. The
Coca towards the Amazonian lowlands), and the clean collection of rock glacier and/or glacier ice as ceremonial
water from these reserves, taken as more than mere spatial “payments” or ‘pagamentos’ to the Pachamama, is one
features, but spiritual ones. Therefore, the indigenous example. Another example, the yearly initiation shower in
nation occupies the Imbakucha watershed flanked by the the sacred ‘cascada de Peguche’. The Piguchi waterfall (or
two tutelary mountains framing their conceptual sacred Phakchayacu) is located in a small private reserve and serves
landscape (see Fig. 2). as the main purification site for the Kichwa Utawallu during
the Festival of the Sun (Inti Raymi), a weeklong celebration
These original people have great respect for the environment; held during the summer solstice.
therefore, they also have reverence for its natural resources,
specifically water, which is one of the most important The ‘Lechero’ or yayitu or taitiku (little grandfather) is an
energies of the mountainscape (urku ayacuna). Their esteem emblematic tree (pinllu or pinkul) or ‘árbol sagrado’ tree
for water is derived from their cleanness, spirituality and the (Euphorbia laurifolia) growing on top of pukara or ‘Reyloma’
significance of sacred sites in the indigenous culture. This that overlooks the watershed, as an embodiment of the
observance of sacred sites comes from the conversations fertility of Imbakucha lake, being a majestic landmark in their
of indigenous peoples’ ancestors, grandparents, and local communal lifestyle; the tree of eternal life is a medicine
parents (tinkuy rimay), and the essential rituals of initiation tree that symbolizes life and death (Wibbelsman 2005a).
and purification (wuatuna samay) associated with their Located on top of ‘Reyloma’ hill, the ‘Lechero’ represents
spirituality and the sacred sites. This also explains the “mutual dependency” between the original people and their
mythology associated with plants (e.g. tutura reed), animals environment (Wibbelsman 2005a). Clones of the ‘Lechero’
(e.g. ukumari bear) or watery phenomena (e.g. rainbow tree are found in most households because it is highly
for ‘mal del arco’ maladies, or seepage walls for ‘rinconada’ respected and sacred; also, it has practical importance in
frights, or surface lake eddies for ‘duende’ sights). ethno-medicine and good potential as living fences (see Fig.
7). The Utawallu believe that the tree protects their fields
2.1.3 Sacred water bodies and homes: “the milky sap of the tree is a natural acid that
burns the skin…[and is used] for warts, curing deafness,
Sarmiento (2003) argued that sacred sites must integrate toothaches, eye problems, liver cirrhosis, nerves, bacteria,
conservation scenarios for biocultural heritage preservation, fungi, viral infections and abortions” (Wibbelsman 2005b).
since this will in turn protect water resources that are
located in the same areas as sacred sites (Barrow & Pathak Lake ‘San Pablo’ lies at 2,660 m ASL. It has a maximum
2005), particularly when you have montane tropical cloud depth of 35.2 m (Gunket 2000). Imbakucha, the largest
forest full of epiphytic gardens, often shrouded in horizontal tectonic lake in Ecuador, is nearly circular and is situated
precipitation. Although notwithstanding their spirituality, at the base of Tayta Imbabura; there is some shoreline
while many original peoples respect sacred sites, there are development, ranging from tourist resorts and villages, to
many who do not (Rhoades & Zapata 2006). In the event farmland (see Fig. 8) . The lake plays an important role in the
of the recognition of an officially declared conservation Utawallu arable lands (allpa) of the community: its water
category, the sacred sites of the Utawallu will be protected is used for irrigation, for animals to drink, for collecting
for posterity, in the same way that its rich agro-biodiversity drinking water and for fishing, washing clothes, and the
will be safeguarded. One way to ensure that sacred sites are cultivation of ‘totora’ reeds to manufacture ‘aventadores’ or
protected is to place them under the protection of Category squared handled fans, sleeping mats, coverings and rugs,
V of IUCN with detailed guidelines, as edited by Robert as well as to build small boats (Gunket 2000). It is also used
Wild and Toby McLead (2008). These guidelines are aimed for recreation, including boating, and tourism activities
at “improving the management of sacred natural sites in (Willis & Seward 2006). However, because of “the intensive
formally designated protected areas, as well as supporting cultivation, steep slope of the fields and high precipitation
those that lie outside protected area boundaries” (eds. Wild rate that results in much erosion…[as well as the] high

downstream) (Gunket 2000). Although development has

affected Imbakucha Lake, its waters are still sacred among
Kichwa Utawallu communities, as documented by Nazarea
and Guitarra (2004) who reveal the relationship between
the Castilian conquistadors and the original people, as well
as the importance of water to the Kichwa culture (see Fig.
9). To a backdrop of two tall mountains and their spirits
(urku apukuna), both ‘Cotacacheños’ and ‘Otavaleños’ refer
to the Imbakucha Basin in terms of the cultivation of the
area’s different environments and the use of altitudinal
defined zones that include the lacustrine (wampu allpa),
the piedmont (ura allpa), the steep mountain slopes (jawa
allpa), the Andean forests (sacha allpa), the high grasslands
or ‘pajonal’ (ugsha allpa), and the screes of periglacial
assemblage (rumi allpa).
The Utawallu associate their spirituality with the holistic

lifescape (Carter & Sarmiento 2011) with more meaning
than the simple tangible surroundings, possessing a deep
understanding of the intangible values of the cultural
landscape. The Kichwa Utawallu, therefore, observe Andean
mythology by reverence to the environmental blessings
(not services) of the valley, above all water, which is one
of the most important reifications of their mountainscape.
The importance of this sacred dimension is derived from
Figure 7. The sacred tree of the Otavalo is maintained with ornate plantings Utawallu ancestors and is passed-down through oral history;
surrounding the ancestrak location of the mature tree of pinllucruz,
despite the adventurers’ sacrilege of burning camp fires, or even bone it includes the essential rituals of initiation and purification
fires atop of the pukara of “Reyloma”. (Photo: Fausto Sarmiento) associated with the heightened spirituality observed at
sacred sites (Sarmiento, Rodríguez & Argumedo 2005),
input of nutrients into the lake”, Imbakucha is an eutrophic mainly around the ‘rinconadas’ or mountain seepage sites,
lacustrine system that needs remediation (Gómez Rosero the actual lakeshore or mythical ‘recodos de laguna’ and
2017, 155). Furthermore, sewage from the main settlement the Piguchi waterfall, where cleansing and initiation rituals
flows through a pipe directly into the lake and into the Itampi are still held. Indeed, sacred loci connected to spirituality
River (i.e. the main water source for lake communities and in Imbakucha are mostly found in locations where water
for rural dwellings and flower greenhouses upstream and emanates: they may be where useful reeds (tutura) were
Figure 8. A panoramic view of Imbakucha lake, formerly known as Figure 9. Panoramic view of the location of the study area in relation
Laguna de San Pablo, the largest water body in Ecuador and the home to the telluric presence of dormant volcano Imbabura. The sacred
base of the Utawallu Kichwa nation, , making evident the dilemma of mountains frame the valley where Imbakucha lake is located at the
keeping traditional sustainable practices of subsistence agriculture epicenter of the sacred geographies that link water (yaku), cloud (puyu),
amidst the maelstrom of modernity of the globalized world. (Photo: mountain (urku) and people (runa) in a complex, yet harmonious and
César Cotacachi). proud existence. ( Photo: César Cotacachi).

planted, or where water bodies such as streams (wayku), up and its inhabitants are much closer to their environment.
rivers (yacu), seepage coves (pukyu), waterfalls (phakcha, For example, many Utawallu buy groceries from local stores
churru), lakes (kucha), ice (rasu) or snow (riti) are found, and live in neighborhoods similar to those found in some
or anywhere in which a form of water can exist with its western nations, while the majority of Kutakachi have their
purifying essence (Sarmiento 2016b). The very presence own private gardens that they tend to on a daily basis. These
of imposing volcanoes and life-giving lakes create a well- gardens are not only for growing vegetables, but are also
respected observance of cycles of plant production and a used to keep animals (Sarmiento et al. 2019). However, the
concentration of endemic fauna and flora in certain areas ‘Cotacacheños’ are beginning to follow the same urban
of the Andean lifescape, making the Imbakucha watershed trends as the ‘Otavaleños’ and so, there is concern that the
sacred a comprehensive sacred park. Kutakachi may become more distant from their natural
environment.
3. The way forward 3.2 Management needs
Incorporating the sacred dimension is only one of many Even though Cotacachi town has more of a “mountain feel”
ways to achieve integration of CES into biocultural heritage about it (given that it is located higher in the valley between
preservation. By presenting the uniqueness of the Utawallu Mt. Kutakachi and Mt. Imbabura), respect for the sacred is
and their mountainscape, we seek to sensitize international being lost (Rhoades & Zapata 2006). In order to minimize this
audiences in helping break the trend for protecting separation in the two communities, sacred sites in Cotacachi
nature only because of its utilitarian value, commoditizing and Otavalo must be considered for IUCN’s Category V, and
the services of nature (such as providing, regulating or the principles for protected landscapes (eds. Brown, Mitchel
supporting the physical content of the landscape or & Beresford 2005) must be instilled into everyday lives to
phenosystem), but also for protecting the nature/culture allow for the preservation of Kichwa Utawallu ancestral
hybrid of the present—mainly because of the contributions beliefs and values, while also providing economic income
from nature to people (such as intangibles, social and from ethnotourism. The recent declaration by UNESCO of the
landscape values for the psychosocial mindscape or Global GeoPark in Imbabura brings a management plan that
cryptosystem), including the Andean identity. intersect geotourism for the natural monuments of the area
with the ethnotourism, or social tourism, of intrinsic cultural
3.1 Challenges aspects observable in the Imbakucha watershed. A new
approach for heritage conservation should be energized by
The newly codified constitutional rights of Pachamama, recognizing the sacred natural sites, and having a special
or ‘mother nature’, and the new array of ministerial designation of either: memory landscape, spiritual park,
responsibilities on cultural heritage in Ecuador have religious reserve, or biocultural sanctuary, to be included
brought cultural landscape conservation to the forefront in the guidelines for conservation management of the area
of governmental policy (Sarmiento & Viteri 2015) and (Sarmiento 2013). By having this new conservation category
central to the concerns of decentralized autonomous validated in Ecuador as well in other countries of the tropical
local governments (or ‘GADs’). Nevertheless, a number Andes, the monitoring and assessment of cultural values in
of potentially detrimental pressures that may negatively biocultural heritage preservation will be assured and the
affect sacred natural site conservation exist (eds. Sarmiento ecosystem services respected and protected.
& Hitchner 2017). These include an excessive number of
market-oriented tourists, non-original government officials
(aside from the original mayors), non-original businesses, 4. Conclusion
factories and polluting industries, a rise in both original and
mestizo populations and modernization as a result of the Biodiversity is threatened, since the settled area of
influence of television and technology, and an increment Imbakucha has become overgrown with introduced species,
in crime due to recent immigration fluxes from troubled most of them weeds and fast-growing invaders such as the
neighboring countries. Notwithstanding the Imbakucha African grass (Kikuyo elephantopus), Monterrey pine (Pinus
Basin identity, its SEPL is not monolithic. These negative radiata), African bristlegrass (Setaria sphacelata) and the
factors of environmental deterioration are noticeable in Australian blue gum tree (Eucalyptus globulus). Towards the
Otavalo. On one hand, it is more urban than Cotacachi and outer boundaries of the Imbakucha Basin, protected areas
its inhabitants are more distant from their environment have been established with the purpose of maintaining
(with the exception of the ‘Lechero’ trees in the majority of examples of pristine natural habitats, including the ‘páramo’
indigenous homes and gardens). Cotacachi, on the other grasslands and the remnants of the Andean forests. The
hand, is less affected by these negative factors; it is less built lack of understanding of landscape archaeology of the

area and of the true ‘natural’ history of the elements of the

cultural landscapes of the Kichwa Utawallu has exacerbated
a divorce between the goals of preservation (i.e. nature
protection) and of conservation (i.e. nature management).
By continuing to consider Andean forests and ‘páramo’
grasslands as ‘natural’ ecosystems, instead of syncretic,
manufactured SEPLs, conservationists and government
agencies are hindering the (re)affirmation of the cultural
identity of the ‘Otavaleños’; instead, they are bolstering the
hegemony of a foreign concept of conservation based on
consumption-linked, species-oriented conservation and
a forced “pristine” conceptual framework that separates
the human dimension from everything else, rather
than observing the ancestral cosmological vision of the
Utawallukuna, integrating the Andean trilemma (Sarmiento Figure 10. As a concluding graphic remark, happy faces portrayed to
et al. 2017) for a comprehensive CES valuation. convey a message of hope that new generations will follow ancestral
practices of respect for Pachamama and of reciprocity and self-
awareness, so that the Utawallu sacred natural sites be venerated
More research must be conducted into sacred site and maintained for future generations, achieving Sumak Kawsay or
conservation and its relation to spirituality, as well as into the the collective 'good living' to which all Satoyama landscapes aspire.
objectification of landscape features, ecological knowledge, The celebratory ambiance of the children translates the optimistic
outlook for the socioecological production landscape of Imbakucha
ecotourism, environmental education and environmental to incorporate the benefits of uncommodified values in nature
ethics (Verschuuren et al 2010). Additionally, future studies in conservation. (Photo: César Cotacachi).
Imbakucha should include investigations of the adaptations
of Utawallu communities to the ever-changing cultural
environment surrounding them. These studies should index Berkes, F 2012, Sacred ecology, Routledge, New York.
the reification of landscape attributes, and formal protected
area status should be given to the main features of the Borsdorf, A & Stadel, C 2016, The Andes: A Geographic Portrait,
landscape with appropriate designations such as GeoPark, Springer.
‘Reserva Paisajística’, ‘Sitio Sagrado’, Spiritual Park, Protected
Landscape, Religious Monument and/or a designation within Brown, J, Mitchel, N & Beresford, M (eds.) 2005, The Protected
the UNESCO program for Sacred Site Conservation. Ecuador Landscape Approach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community,
will benefit greatly from including Category V conservation World Conservation Union IUCN, Gland and Cambridge.
in its National Strategy for the Conservation of Protected
Areas; the current administration has already supported Carter, LE 2008, ‘Assessing environmental attitudes of
that socio-ecological production landscapes will be a goal residents of Cotacachi and Otavalo, Ecuador to conserve
of the new Law of Culture and the works of the Institute of sacred sites’, A.B. Thesis (Unpublished), University of Georgia,
Cultural Heritage. The sacred sites we have discussed must Athens, Georgia.
be protected not only for their environmental value, but
also out of respect for the significant intangibles present in Carter, LE & Sarmiento, FO 2011, ‘Cotacacheños and
the different sacred sites of the Kichwa Utawallu around the Otavaleños: local perceptions of sacred sites for farmscape
Imbakucha Basin that contribute greatly to the Ecuadorian conservation in highland Ecuador’, Journal of Human
identity in Latin America and the world (see Fig. 10). Ecology, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 61-70.
Chen, Y, Parkins, JR & Sherren, K 2018, ‘Using geo-tagged

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Chapter 4
Empowering communities for natural

resource management: the case of
Community Resource Management Areas
(CREMA) in Western Ghana
Lead authors:
Yaw Osei-Owusu1, Abigail Frimpong1*
Conservation Alliance International (13 Afari Djan Street, ECOMOG-Haatso Accra, KIA 30426, Greater Accra, Ghana)
1
*[email protected]
Abstract
Natural resource management in Ghana has gone through several phases with different results. Prior to colonialism, traditional
leaders and local communities devised different mechanisms to protect the integrity of natural resources, including the use
of taboos, norms and customs. The adherence to these traditional practices was meant to ensure the long-term conservation
of resources and safeguard economic security. The traditional practices were no longer entertained during colonial times
and at the time of independence. The government then adopted the protected area management approach for natural
resources, which only led to loss of biodiversity. Against this background, the Government of Ghana recognized the value
of community involvement in resource governance and established Community Resource Management Areas (CREMAs).
The CREMA intervention focuses on bringing together communities that share common resources and take affirmative
action to jointly manage their shared resources. An expected outcome of the CREMA initiative has been the willingness
of communities to set aside parcels of undisturbed community-owned forests to be sustainably managed. This result will
enhance the preservation of sacred groves and other cultural attractions, as well as regulate agricultural production within
the landscape.
To sustain the functioning of the CREMA initiative, a robust management strategy that will address the needs of different
stakeholders is required. A study was therefore conducted to understand the needs of 1,540 stakeholders, 50.8% of whom
were males and 49.2% females, to support the management of the CREMAs. The study adopted a survey and biodiversity
assessment strategies to generate data from the respondents. A Community Biodiversity Value Typology was used to assess
how the communities value their biodiversity. The consumptive value obtained a total score of 57, indicating that about
21% of the respondents place value on the consumptive use of the resources. This confirms that most of the local people
are only involved in subsistence agriculture. There is evidence to suggest that the landscape of the CREMAs is rich in faunal
and flora species of global and national importance. Unfortunately, historical and contemporary human activity have had
profound influence on the structure and composition of the CREMAs. The decline in wildlife populations can be attributed

Chapter 4: Empowering communities for natural resource management
to rapid human population increases within the landscape, which have led to encroachment on wildlands that previously
served as habitats for iconic wildlife species. Notwithstanding, the CREMAs are proving to be the most effective means of
engaging communities to appreciate the value of natural resources and participate in their sustainable management.
Keywords: CREMA, Natural Resources Governance, Rural Communities, Traditions and Customs, Stakeholders
Country Ghana
Province Western Region
District Aowin, Juabeso, Bia West & Akotombra
Size of geographical area 1 24,153 square km
Dominant ethnicity Aowin and Sefwi
Figure 1. Map of the country and case study region, CREMA sites in Western Region of Ghana

Size of case study/project area 1 2,391 square km

Geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) 6°35’55.4”N 2°50’19.1”W
Dominant ethnicity Aowin and Sefwi
Figure 2. Land cover map of case study site (Source: Google Maps)
1. Introduction for rural economies (Reid & Huq 2005; eds Satterthwaite,
Reid & Bass 2013). This largely explains the reasons behind
The role of natural resources in rural development the measures taken by different governments to ensure
has sometimes been viewed in terms of major public the long-term security of the socio-ecological production
investments in natural resource development such as landscape (SEPL).
large multi-purpose projects (Cockx & Francken 2014; eds.
Fabricius et al. 2004). Increasingly, natural environmental In the past, traditional ethics (norms, precepts, principles
systems have come to be recognized for their importance and taboos) were adopted to efficiently regulate the
to the quality of rural community life. Different stakeholders activities of community members towards the use and
within resource-rich communities depend on these management of natural resources (Binlinla, Voinov & Oduro
resources to meet their needs through the exploitation 2014; Harich et al. 2013; Ntiamoa-Baidu 1995; Udokang
of common property resources such as lands, rivers and 2014). The adherence to these traditional practices were
forests (eds. Satterthwaite, Reid & Bass 2013). It is therefore meant to ensure the long-term conservation of these natural
understandable that stakeholders place high value on the resources and safeguard the quality of ecosystem services
diverse ecosystem services that emanate from the natural to the locals. The traditional system of resource government
resources to sustain their livelihoods and well-being. was, however, considered insufficient to ensure sustainable
use of natural resources after independence because it
The dependence of rural economies on their natural could not be enforced by chiefs and elders under the new
environment is even more pronounced among communities protected area management system.
located within the forest zones of Ghana, due to the diverse
goods and services they provide (Ekpe et al. 2014). Any West, Igoe and Brockington (2006) noted that post-
change in the capacity of the ecosystem to sustain these colonial governments have promoted the protected area
multiple benefits could therefore have dire consequences management approach to natural resource management by

offering enhanced protection to areas of exceptional value is characterized by moderate temperatures. It is also the
(socio-cultural, ecological, economic, etc.). This approach wettest part of Ghana with an average rainfall of 1,600 mm
also provided a holistic and landscape perspective to per annum. The CREMA sites lie within latitude 6.598734°
natural resource management and provided added benefits and longitude -2.838630°.
to landscapes with varying levels of human alterations
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2010; Stolton & The landscape is restricted to a number of isolated patches
Dudley 2010; Wu 2013). This form of management offered of forest that contain exceptionally diverse ecological
opportunity for the government to sustain its revenue flow communities, distinctive flora and fauna, and a mosaic
from the supply of timber, ecotourism and agriculture. of forest types that provide refuge to numerous endemic
As a means of safeguarding the integrity of these natural species. The total area of the CREMAs in the western corridor
resources to be able to deliver multiple benefits to different now stands at over 102,000 ha, and they are located within
stakeholders, management systems were modified and 182 communities with an estimated population of 113,000
programs initiated to take on board the elements of persons in the landscape (CA 2018).
traditional and protected area management.
Agriculture is the main economic activity within the
One of such initiatives is the establishment of the landscape. Both tree and food crops are widely cultivated.
Community Resource Management Area (CREMA) in 2000 Cocoa production is an important economic activity and
by the Government of Ghana to devolve management rights the region accounts for more than 50 percent of Ghana’s
and responsibilities, and authority for natural resources cocoa export. Traditional land ownership hierarchies and
outside protected areas, to local communities. This project governing systems prevail over the area. The communities
was implemented by Conservation Alliance in collaboration within the project area have a unique attachment to
with the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission and natural resources as exhibited in the naming of villages (e.g.
other partners. The CREMA intervention focuses on bringing ‘Bokaso’, name of a village, translates ‘mountain top’), as well
together communities that share common resources and as the festivals that are directly related to celebrating the
take affirmative action to jointly manage their shared fruitfulness of agricultural lands (e.g. ‘Eluo Festival’ celebrates
resources. The increasing demand for the landscape to fruitful harvests) (see Fig. 3 and 4). The CREMA landscape is
deliver multiple values and benefits to all the different well structured thus making it easy to communicate and
stakeholders within the SEPL poses a great challenge to the monitor the use of natural resources by stakeholders.
sustainability of the initiative.
3. The problem
2. Project area
The 1992 Constitution vested all minerals and natural
The project area lies within the Western Region of Ghana and resources in the presidency (Government of Ghana 1992).
covers an area of approximately 2,391 square kilometres, The Government, therefore, established the Lands, the
which represents about 10 percent of Ghana’s total land Forestry, the Water Resources and the Minerals Commissions
area (see Fig. 1 and 2). Ghana’s Western Region constitutes and their allied agencies to manage these resources. Until
part of the Upper Guinean forest hotspot. The region has the change in management regime, the locals had adopted
about 75 percent of its vegetation within the high forest norms, precepts, principles and taboos to efficiently
zone of Ghana, and lies in the equatorial climatic zone that regulate the actions of community members towards the
Figure 3. Rural housing within CREMA (Photo: CA, Ghana, 2018) Figure 4. Women carrying baskets of cocoa pods (Photo: CA, Ghana, 2018)

use and management of natural resources (Binlinla, Voinov

& Oduro 2014; Harich et al. 2013; Ntiamoa-Baidu 1995;
Udokang 2014). With an increasing pressure on resources
and the resulting land degradation, an urgent action to
develop a more efficient management system that would
sustain the integrity of the natural resources and serve the
needs of all stakeholders was required. The CREMAs were
thus put in place to allow for local participation in natural
resource management and to address multiple demands on
ecosystem goods and services. A knowledge of the needs
of the different stakeholders was thus critical in designing a
more robust management system to enhance the health of
the socio-ecological landscape and reduce biodiversity loss.
3.1 Approach Figure 5. Chiefs and elders at CREMA Meeting (Photo: CA, Ghana, 2018)
This study sheds light on the multiple values that different

stakeholders have placed on the CREMAs and the health biodiversity in the CREMA sites. The field assessment by a
of the production landscape. It used two main approaches team of taxonomic experts focused on the forest condition
to generate data for analysis and reporting: a Community and the levels of primary species, such as the large and small
Biodiversity Value Typology (CBVT) and a rapid biodiversity mammals present within the site. The ecological health
assessment using the Rapid Assessment Program (RAP) of the sites could further explain the differences among
technique. stakeholders’ perception of the value of the landscape and
could also be key in determining the success or otherwise of
The CBVT approach links local perception of place to a similar initiatives.
broader measure of environmental values at the landscape
level. The approach was thus used to assess how the 3.2 Project activities
communities value their biodiversity (see Table 1). The tool
provided insight into how these values are likely to motivate The project activities were also consistent with the
certain community behaviors, as well as facilitate the objectives of the International Partnership for the Satoyama
design of appropriate biodiversity conservation projects. To Initiative (IPSI). In particular, the project promoted increased
capture the communities’ perception of the socio-ecological knowledge and understanding of biodiversity and the
value of the CREMA landscape, the study purposefully production landscape (Objective 1) and addressed the
categorized stakeholders into seven groups for ease of causes of loss of biodiversity and cultural diversity (Objective
assessment, analysis and reporting. The groups included 2). Similarly, it promoted improved benefits to communities
chiefs and elders, a religious group, farmers, a men’s group, from socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes
a women’s group, herbal medicine practitioners, and the SEPLS (Objective 3). The outcome of the project is reflected
youth. There were 1,540 participants, with 50.8% males in the health of the SEPL and the well-being of the locals.
and 49.2% females. This is consistent with the demographic The study was thus built around two main thematic areas,
characteristics of the area, with the female population as shown below.
being less than 2% that of their male counterparts (Ghana
Statistical Services 2018). Through a participatory manner, i. Establishment of the multiple values of the CREMA sites
the groups identified eight multiple values, including held by stakeholders; and
consumptive, production, naturalistic, aesthetic, symbolic,
moralistic, education and training and ecosystem services, ii. Establishment of the socio-ecological health of the
that the CREMAs are perceived to deliver. Members of each production landscape.
identifiable group were given the opportunity to rate the
values on a scale of 1 to 10 at several informal meetings. 3.2.1 Establishment of multiple values placed on the
Each group had a total of 220 persons and each member CREMA sites held by stakeholders
of the group rated the CREMA in terms of the services it is
perceived to provide (see Fig. 5). Information on the socio-cultural significance of
forest resources can be gleaned from anthropological,
Additionally, a rapid biodiversity assessment was also ethnobotanical, geographic, ethnomedical, and linguistic
conducted to obtain first-hand information on the state of studies. The variety of socio-cultural values, beliefs and
symbolic functions ascribed to forests are as numerous

and diverse as the communities and cultures within forest canopy trees rarely exceeding 40 metres (Hawthorne & Abu-
landscapes of Ghana. Physically and mystically, forests have Juam 1995). The high forests of the project area, like the
defined the environment of communities in the region other tropical forests of the upper Guinea, are characterized
throughout time (Falconer 1990). The distinction that has by a rich and complex floristic and faunal composition.
been made between cultural values and the functions The landscape is made up of many different tree species
of forests is actually an artificial one. These values are not (including Triplochiton scleroxylon, Khaya invorensis, Celtis
merely an additional layer of issues to consider as constraints sp., Terminalia superba, Entandrophragma ivorensis, Ceiba
to normal management, but are the vehicle through which petandra, Antiaris africana and Milicia exelsa). Deforestation
the value of biodiversity to society is realized (Tabush 2010). through logging and clearance for agricultural land has
Tangibly and intangibly, forests feature in all aspects of occurred over much of the species range, especially in the
culture: language, history, art, religion, medicine, politics, last century. In addition, both subsistence and commercial
and even social structure itself, and actually define people’s hunting have heavily impacted populations of these species.
sense of identity.
The distribution and trends in all wildlife populations within
The forest has traditionally been regarded as the home the landscape point to a steady and continuous decline
of ancestral spirits who provide protection, success and (CA 2018). It is evident that the major threats to species are
progress to the people of the Traditional Area. The forest habitat loss and degradation and hunting. Improved access to
symbols thus provide social structure and cultural identity forest interiors through logging roads has increased hunting
in the rapidly changing environment of the CREMA pressure on these species. The CREMA initiative is thus meant
landscape. The trees, the links between the sky and earth, to reduce habitat and species loss through collaborative and
symbolize the links between the spiritual world of ancestors sustainable management of community forests.
and people. Rituals and ceremonies which draw on forest
symbols serve to link the people to their cultural heritage, as
well as their ancestral past (Calame-Griaule 1970). A number 4. Results of the study
of taboos, customs and other norms are thus observed by
a group of people within a defined forest fringe locality to The survival of the communities is precariously linked to
show reverence to the forest through regulation of the use the biodiversity resources of the area. Community members
of forest resources. The community forests are thus sources depend on the biodiversity resources for their income,
of stories, myths and local traditions which provide strong health, food, housing and cultural practices (CI-Ghana 2003).
justification for the continued protection of the CREMA The respondents expressed striking differences in the value
landscape. The CREMAs also provide a range of products they place on the CREMA SEPL.
for traditional ceremonies, from food and beverages to
costumes and musical instruments. While some of these 4.1 Establishment of the multiple values placed on
products are now perhaps less often used on a day-to- CREMA sites by stakeholders
day basis, they still form essential elements of a variety of
cultural activities. Whilst biophysical, and increasingly economic, values are
often used to define high priority hotspots in planning for
Some wild animals in the CREMAs are regarded as totems conservation and environmental management, community
for some of the clans. Some streams and rivers are also values are rarely considered (Raymond et al. 2009).
regarded as gods by the fringe communities (CI-Ghana
2002). The reverence for these resources accounts for the The numerical values placed on the eight identified
taboos and norms that prohibit the hunting of these sacred biodiversity values by the different identifiable groups were
animals. Several studies have established the commitment computed to establish scores, as shown in Table 1.
of the people within the landscape to support any measures
that will contribute to the continuous existence of the forest The consumptive value obtained a total score of 57, which
and maintenance of its ecological integrity (CA-Ghana 2015; means that about 21% of respondents consider their
CI-Ghana 2002). The ecological services provided by the biological resources to be for consumptive use (see Table
CREMAs largely account for the large number of migrants 1). This supports the fact that the people are only involved
involved in agricultural production. (CA-Ghana, 2015) in subsistence agriculture (i.e. to feed their families), since
there is virtually no new land to support the cultivation of
3.2.2 Establishment of the ecological health of the cocoa and other cash crops due to population increase in
production landscape the area.
The landscape of the CREMAs forms part of the moist- The community members traditionally use their forests and
evergreen forest described as vertically compressed with agricultural lands as training grounds for their children.

Table 1. Community biodiversity values (scores) (Source: Conservation Alliance International 2018)
Scoring legend: On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 (10%) = least value; 10 (100%) = highest value
Identifiable Groups in the Community

Communities
Herbal
Biodiversity Values Chiefs & Religious Men’s Women’s
Farmers Medicine Youth Total %
Elders Group Group Group
Practitioners
Consumptive 9 9 6 6 9 8 10 57 21
Production 1 1 4 4 1 1 0 12 5
Naturalistic 2 4 2 3 3 6 8 28 11
Aesthetic 1 2 1 1 4 1 4 14 5
Symbolic 9 2 5 5 4 8 1 34 13
Moralistic 4 5 3 4 5 7 3 31 11
Education & Training 8 4 10 8 6 10 4 50 19
Ecosystem Services 6 5 8 5 6 6 3 39 15
Total 40 32 39 36 38 47 33 265 100
Farmers traditionally train their children on farms. By landscape with opportunity for improvement.
working with their parents on farms, children acquire hands-
on training and professional maturation. It is for this reason The landscape has a network of rivers and streams, thus plays
that the table shows a second highest score of 50 (19%) for an important watershed protection function, preserving the
the education and training value of the biodiversity of the quality and quantity of water for major towns and environs.
area. The community rated ecosystem services as the third Approximately half a million people depend on these water
most important value at 39 (15%), after considering the key sources and the critical watershed services provided by the
ecological services, i.e. provisioning, regulating, cultural and landscape that soaks up rain and mist and then holds, cleans
supporting. Symbolic value received the fourth place (13%) and discharges the water for all to utilize.
since the landscape is made up of indigenous communities.
In such a rustic society, much of the daily language is full The CREMAs also provide local communities with a broad
of proverbs and euphemistic expressions, which is not often range of products, including food, medicine, materials for
the case in urban areas with their cosmopolitan nature. building, and energy in the form of fuelwood (CA-Ghana,
2018). Where sufficient, communities are able to harvest
4.2 Establishment of the ecological health of the these products for commercial purposes (see Fig. 7). Over
production landscape 150,000 m3 of timber and about 400 tonnes of other wood
products are extracted yearly from the CREMA sites (Ansah
The physiology of the sites under review make the landscape 2014). Other timber products obtained from the forest
a critical component enhancing the environmental include firewood, and wood for mortars and pestles (Ansah
resilience of the surrounding area in terms of being able to 2014; Ayivor & Gordon 2012). Cocoa plantations also supply
withstand environmental stresses such as drought, mineral a portion of the non-timber products to local communities
deficiencies, unfavourable temperatures, and air pollution. that also benefit from the harvesting of cocoa itself. The
The landscape has rich flora and faunal species, including herbaceous cover, however, provides suitable conditions
mammals, amphibians and reptiles, butterflies and birds. for only part of the extensive list of non-timber products
Over 50 species of birds have been recorded; they include provided by forests, and in most cases also in smaller
the internationally endangered white-breasted guineafowl. amounts.
Unfortunately, historical and contemporary human
activity have had profound influence on the structure and The forests provide a number of regulating services
composition of the forests. The average condition score including local microclimate amelioration and air quality
of 3 was established by the taxonomic experts after the maintenance, moderation of extreme events, erosion
biological assessment. This score (based on Hawthorne & prevention and maintenance of soil fertility, pollination and
Abu-Juam 1995) indicates a high level of degradation of the biological control of pests. One striking feature in terms of

Figure 6. A Community Forest (CREMA) (Photo: CA, Ghana, 2018) Figure 7. Wattle and Dubb house under construction (Photo: CI-Ghana
2006)
regulating services by CREMAs is their carbon sequestration The chiefs and elders, religious group, women’s group and
potential. The vegetation in the CREMAs, including cocoa the youth, generally considered the biological resources of
and herbaceous cover, contribute to capturing and storing the area to be mainly for consumptive purposes. Only the
carbon from the atmosphere, thus contributing to the farmers and the men’s group pointed out that the biological
maintenance of favorable global climatic conditions. Forest resources of the area are of limited production value.
loss and fragmentation, which generate various negative Similarly, only the women’s group and the youth indicated
environmental and ecological consequences, have become that the biological resources of the area have some aesthetic
widespread phenomena across Ghana. value. These marked differences clearly capture the relative
importance of the CREMA sites to the various groups.
5. Discussion The overall interpretation of responses show that the CREMA

communities view their biological resources as valuable for
The study has clearly established the significance of the consumptive purposes and an excellent training ground for
CREMAs in promoting multiple benefits to communities their children going into adulthood (CA-Ghana, 2018). Even
within the landscape. The use of the Community Biodiversity though the land is degraded and cannot support adequate
Value Typology helped to define the differences among food production for the communities, the chiefs and elders
stakeholders with respect to the value they place on the consider it to have great value important to their survival.
CREMAs. There was evidence to suggest that different Since they are, by tradition, the custodians of all the lands,
stakeholders have different preferences. they periodically obtain royalties from developers to support
their survival and the chieftaincy institution. They are also
The high consumptive value of the CREMAs is an indication enjoined by their traditional oath of office to hold the land
that most respondents expect the landscape to support in trust for the next generation. The assessment has shown
agricultural activities. Any management system should there to be a strong bio-cultural relationship between the
therefore ensure that the ecological health of the CREMAs is CREMA community and its natural environment. In view of
sustained to deliver ecological goods and services. this, subsistence farming and the collection of wood and
non-wood forest produce form the community’s lifeline.
Considering the total value of biodiversity to the groups,
the herbal medicine practitioners considered the CREMA There is evidence to suggest that the landscape of the
environment as very important and lucrative. This probably CREMAs is rich in faunal and flora species of global
stems from the fact that they are able to make money out and national importance. Unfortunately, historical and
of the various herbal plants in the area despite the current contemporary human activities have profoundly influenced
level of degradation. It also indicates that there is demand their ecosystems resulting in decline iconic wildlife species.
for herbal medicine and that if development operations This encroachment poses challenges to both humans and
lead to deforestation, the public health and the livelihoods wildlife, with their encounters often resulting in human-
of the practitioners could be drastically affected (see Fig. 8 wildlife conflicts.
and 9).

Figure 8 and Figure 9. Two community herbalists showing the team plants of medicinal importance (Photo CI-Ghana 2002)
The CREMA initiative makes provision for routine protection through a community-based arrangement.
monitoring of the ecological health of the landscape Further investigation into the value that the different
and the socio-economic impacts of the project at the categories of stakeholders place on the CREMAs and the
community and landscape levels. This is to ensure that services they provide could help in the development of
potential risks are addressed and opportunities utilized. The appropriate management actions that ensure the delivery
CREMA constitution provides the main guiding principles of conservation outcomes, the distribution of social benefits
for all activities within any given CREMA. It was therefore and management effectiveness.
developed with broad consultation and deep reflection
on the part of all CREMA communities. A well-defined
governance structure guided by the CREMA constitution Acknowledgements
was put in place to oversee the general management of
the CREMAs. Each CREMA sets up a monitoring team that We acknowledge the funding support from the World
monitors the progress of their action plans, with teams Bank under the Enhancing Natural Forests and Agroforest
usually including CREMA leaders, members and relevant Landscapes ENFAL project, without which the project
stakeholders. The teams make periodic visits to the CREMAs could not have been implemented. We also put on record
and make the needed recommendations for uptake by the our gratitude to the community members, especially the
Wildlife Division, statutorily responsible for facilitating the leadership of the CREMA initiative. We thank the staff of
efficient management of the CREMAs. A CREMA Secretariat Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission who provided
is provided for the CREMAs to undertake all administrative the technical support during the implementation of
functions. At the national level, a forest and wildlife the CREMA initiative. We also thank all the collaborating
monitoring scheme has been developed to guide periodic organizations, including Rural Support Network, Earth
field assessment of the CREMAs. This activity is undertaken Service, Adehye Farmers Association and Conservation
by the district office of the Wildlife Division and reported Cocoa Association. Finally, we thank all the CA field team,
to the national office to help address any challenges without whose support the project would have failed to
confronting the CREMAs. achieve the recorded outcomes.
In spite of the positive contribution of the CREMAs to the

ecological health of the landscape, the system is saddled References
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Chapter 5
The San Antonio Forest Key

Biodiversity Area Governance Scheme:
collective construction based on differences
Lead authors:
Andrés Quintero-Ángel , Sebastian Orjuela-Salazar1 , Sara Catalina Rodríguez-Díaz2,
1,2*
Martha Liliana Silva3, Luz Amparo Rivas–Arroyo4, Álvaro Castro4, Mauricio Quintero-Ángel5
Corporación Ambiental y Forestal del Pacífico (CORFOPAL), Cali, Carrera 74 No 11A – 25 A, Zip code 760033201,
1
Valle del Cauca, Colombia.

2
Social and Environmental Sense (SENSE), Cali, Calle 2B 66 – 56. Apt 301B. Zip code 760035132, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
3
Corporación para la Gestión Ambiental BIODIVERSA, Cali, Carrera 35 No. 3-29 piso 2 Zip code 760043,
Valle del Cauca, Colombia
4
Fundación Ecovivero, Cali, Calle 9 No. 62 A-06 Zip code 760033039, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
5
Universidad del Valle, Palmira, Carrera 31 Av. La Carbonera, Zip code 763531, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
*[email protected]
Abstract
The San Antonio Forest (SAF) is a key biodiversity area (KBA) located in Valle del Cauca in the Colombian Andes, and one
of the regions most threatened by human intervention, with less than 30 percent of its natural ecosystems conserved. This
productive and biodiverse landscape is a dynamic mosaic of ecosystems and land uses, including villages, crops, forests,
pastures and private properties containing luxury country houses and small farms. It is considered as a socio-ecological
production landscapes and seascapes SEPLS for the reason that it generates many services important to and needed by
neighboring cities and rural settlements. Even though this area connects six protected areas (one National Natural Park, three
National Forest Reserves, one Forest Reserve and one Natural Reserve of the Civil Society), the laws that regulate the use and
conservation of these areas are not respected. As a result, the agricultural and livestock frontiers have extended over the
past few years, causing habitat loss, fragmentation and overpopulation, which in turn have increased the pollution of water
sources and threatened biodiversity. However, these threats have not been properly quantified, and neither information on
the status of the SEPLS, nor monitoring tools are available. In response to this problem, the Corporación Ambiental y Forestal
del Pacífico (CORFOPAL) and Social and Environmental Sense SENSE, with the support of other organizations working in the
area, evaluated the resilience level of the SEPLS applying the Toolkit for Indicators of Resilience, to obtain information about
the SEPLS, the communities and local stakeholders. During workshops with the different stakeholders, such as peasants,
ranchers, large farmers and wealthy landowners, among others, marked differences were observed in how different

Chapter 5: The San Antonio Forest Key Biodiversity Area Governance Scheme
stakeholders conceptualize nature and how their differing perceptions are related to their appropriation practices. Based
on an understanding of these differences, we developed a governance model called the “SAF-KBA Governance Scheme”.
The scheme is made up of four focus groups, with the representation of community leaders, ten locally-based NGOs that
act in the four municipalities present in the SAF, private companies and government entities. This participatory scheme
seeks to build a strategic and inclusive vision among the stakeholders, taking into account their different beliefs, attitudes,
roles and responsibilities towards nature in order to facilitate inclusive and consensual decisions in the implementation of
conservation strategies.
Country Colombia
Province Valle del Cauca
District San Antonio Forest Key Biodiversity Area - Cali, Dagua,
La Cumbre and Yumbo
Size of geographical area 1 8,795.25 hectares
Number of indirect beneficiaries 2 491,500 indirect beneficiaries
Dominant ethnicity Without ethnicity

Size of case study/project area 1 8,795.25 hectares

Number of direct beneficiaries 2 114 stakeholders
Geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) Between 3°38’40”N and 3°28’0”N and 76°33’40”W and
76°39’45”W
Dominant ethnicity Without ethnicity
Figure 2. Land use and land cover map of case study site, geographical location of
San Antonio Forest Key Biodiversity area SEPLS
1. Introduction When a society interacts with nature, it does so through

the exchange (sometimes involuntarily) of matter and
The notion of the social construction of nature has been energy, and intentionally through the application of certain
immersed in a debate between radical and moderate technologies and labor in order to increase the benefit of
environmental constructivism (sociology) that considers elements taken from nature (Fischer & Haberl 2007). This
nature as a social construction, and realism (philosophy) link with nature generates environmental impacts and a
that considers nature to be provided with its own reciprocal relationship of co-evolution, which leads to a
ontology existing independently of human beings. Both situation in which both systems depend on each other, and
positions can be considered radical, because the social influence and limit each other (Singh et al. 2010).
construction of nature can be seen as a relational process
of co-evolution that takes thousands of years, and whose The socio-natural interaction in the construction of the
final result is the transformation of society in the human concept of nature varies according to concrete spatial-
environment (Arias 2011). temporal or historical contexts, giving place to both

positive and negative meanings or views of nature, being These models, or representations of nature, are what
at times catalogued as the origin of the wealth of a country, define human action for or against nature. Likewise, they
and others as a wild and dangerous environment, where are influenced by scientific paradigms, e.g., the laws of
geophysical hazards such as extreme rainfall or earthquakes thermodynamics were not enunciated or established until
must be controlled (Gudynas 1999). If we look back at the 1840-1850, and the connection between thermodynamics
medieval period (5th-15th century), nature was viewed from and evolution was not traced until the 1880s (Martínez
an organicist point of view, considered a living being of 2005). Consequently, it was necessary to understand the
which humans were one component. On a different end, different models and values of nature present among
during the Renaissance period (16th-18th century in Europe), the stakeholders in the study area, in order to improve
nature was regarded as the source of resources that the conservation and environmental management of nature and
human being had to control and could manipulate at will. particularly of the socio-ecological productive landscapes
During the same centuries in Latin America, when the and seascapes (SEPLS), as well as its governance. The latter
conquest and colonial periods were taking place, nature is fundamental to better understand how environmental
was viewed as an uncontrollable entity, as a wild and decisions are made and whether resultant policies and
dangerous place due to the presence of wild animals and processes lead to environmentally and socially sustainable
unknown diseases. Between the 18th and 19th centuries, outcomes (Bennett & Satterfield 2018). In this context, this
there was a utilitarian vision of nature as a source of goods study aims to document the development of a participative
and materials that contribute to human development. governance scheme for the SEPLS present in the San Antonio
Moving into the 19th century, the natural world started to Forest Key Biodiversity Area (SAF-KBA), which integrates the
be perceived as a machine that has its own mechanisms different visions of nature held by the main stakeholders.
and operations (laws, that humans cannot violate), which
allowed the field of ecology to emerge. By the end of the 1.1 Description of San Antonio Forest – Key Biodiversity
20th century, nature was regarded as capital, reducing it to Area
a factor in productive processes and integrating it into the
tools and concepts available to economists (Gudynas 1999, The San Antonio Forest (SAF) Key Biodiversity Area (KBA),
eds. Pálsson & Descola 2001). part of the Paraguas-Munchique corridor, is one of the 31
Hotspots of the Tropical Andes of Colombia and one of the
Moving towards the present day, in the 21st century nature regions most threatened by human intervention, with less
has multiple faces or meanings. For some, it appears as than 30 percent of its natural ecosystems conserved (Etter &
the source of natural resources, which are used to achieve Van-Wyngaarden 2000; Kattan 2002). This area in particular
development (efficient utilitarianism vision), and for others, is prioritized by its very high species richness, their high
nature is equal to biodiversity and is viewed through its level of endemism, and because some of these species are
parts but also as a whole. Moreover, nature is seen as threatened with extinction (Critical Ecosystem Partnership
wilderness, described as an idyllic space where cooperation Fund-CEPF 2015).
and symbiosis between living organisms predominate, for
which it should be an example to humanity (Gudynas 1999, Comprising an approximate area of 8,795 hectares, the
eds. Pálsson & Descola 2001). As for indigenous people and SAF-KBA is located on the northern side of South America,
farmers or peasants, knowledge on the environment is valued, in Southwestern Colombia, on the eastern flank of the
human beings are seen as part of nature itself, and there is a western Andean Cordillera (system of mountain ranges) in
religiosity predominating towards the environment. Lastly, the Department of Valle del Cauca (see Fig. 1). It is under the
nowadays nature is considered an organism, and the planet jurisdiction of the municipalities of Cali, Dagua, La Cumbre
constituted a system that self-regulates with emergent and Yumbo (see Fig. 2), and comprises the area between
properties that make it a higher-level organism (Gudynas grades 3°38'40" and 3°28'0" North latitude and 76°33'40"
1999, eds. Pálsson & Descola 2001). Considering this and 76°39'45" West longitude, with an altitudinal range
historical background, we can see that ecological processes between 1,700 and 2,150 meters. Three types of climates
are viewed as real, but the interpretation of these processes and humidity provinces predominate in the area: cold
is built by the societies that interact with them, resulting in thermal floor and humid province, medium thermal floor
the construction and interpretation of nature itself (Camus and humid province, and medium thermal floor and dry
& Solari 2008). Nevertheless, “nature has its own intrinsic province, defined by the gradient altitude and the influence
values, independent from any human considerations of of the Pacific, determinants of the great diversity.
its worth or importance, and also contributes to societies
through the provision of benefits to people, which have The SAF-KBA is a dynamic mosaic of ecosystems and
anthropocentric instrumental and relational values” (Díaz et land uses, including villages, crops, forests, pastures and
al. 2015, p. 4). private properties with country houses and small farms,

Figure 3. Panoramic view of the dynamic mosaic of ecosystems and Figure 4. Permanent tea crops in La Cumbre municipality (Photo: Jose
land uses of the SAF-KBA (Photo: Sebastian Orjuela) Silva)
and therefore is considered to fall under the category network makes it difficult to market these products. There
of SEPLS (UNU-IAS, Bioversity International, IGES & UNDP is a trend towards increased land parcelling for recreational
2014) (see Fig. 3). It provides important ecosystem services use, resulting in an increase of the floating population. If
for the surrounding human settlements, including Cali, the we look at the municipality of Yumbo, subsistence crops
capital of Valle del Cauca, as well as the Dagua, La Cumbre and livestock predominate, and the number of recreational
and Yumbo municipalities. It is also important because it homes has climbed in the past years. Finally, in the Cali
connects six protected areas that the polygon-shaped area municipality, livestock and temporary crops, mainly
overlaps: the Farallones National Natural Park, the National aromatic and spices, are the main economic activities, along
Forest Reserve of Cali, the National Forest Reserve Cerro with coal mining in some sectors. The tendency to convert
Dapa Carisucio, the National Forest Reserve of La Elvira, the properties for recreation and the adaptation of tourist sites
Forest Reserve of Bitaco, and the Jurásico Natural Reserve of is also booming over the whole area. Ecotourism stands out,
the Civil Society. However, the law is not respected and the motivated by birdwatching and hiking activities.
agricultural and livestock frontiers have extended over the
past few years, causing habitat loss and fragmentation, thus
polluting water sources and threatening biodiversity. 2. Methodology
1.2 Socioeconomic characteristics of the area Taking into account the aim of the study, to construct
a participative governance scheme that represents the
The distribution of the population in the SAF-KBA SEPLS different visions of nature held by the SAF-KBA stakeholders,
reflects the disparity between the municipalities of Cali we designed and implemented a four-step method (see
and Yumbo (where the population is concentrated in Fig. 5). We first obtained historical information through the
urban areas, and the municipalities of Dagua and La review of literature regarding the study area and the social
Cumbre, where population is concentrated in rural areas). processes that have shaped it into the present SEPLS. We then
Thus, there are two densely urbanized municipalities, with visited the field and organised socializing sessions, where
a large demand for environmental services, especially we identified and became familiar with the stakeholders,
water, for their populations and that of the productive and introduced the project to them. Third, we undertook a
sectors, and also rural populations that require access to process to develop a conservation plan (Granizo et al. 2006)
the same services. tailored to the needs of the study area and the stakeholders
that inhabit it. Finally, we conducted four focus group
Although a large part the SAF-KBA is regulated through discussions with 10 to 20 community leaders respectively.
the protected areas present in the polygon, there are These groups played a key role in the construction of the
still conflicts over land use. Productive activities in the SAF-KBA governance scheme.
municipality of Dagua focus mainly on livestock, agriculture
and tourism. In the municipality of La Cumbre, livestock is 2.1 Identify and characterize stakeholders
the basis of the economy, as well as permanent crops such
as tea (see Fig. 4), coffee, flowers and some transient crops We identified the main stakeholders, both community and
such as vegetables and spices; however, the precarious road institutional (i.e. government institutions, such as municipal

Figure 5. Methods and activities description
mayoralties and regional environmental authorities), prior to grouped under two major components (see Table 1). The
introducing the project and engaging them in the process. two major components are: i) assessment of the resilience
We identified stakeholders in the four municipalities that level of the study area, which includes preparation, training,
make up the SAF-KBA SEPLS through field visits and a review diagnosis and analysis of the indicators (activities 1-3), and
of information provided by the institutional stakeholders ii) community empowerment for conservation, that consists
that work in the territory. Likewise, we reviewed secondary of activity 4, divulgation and community empowerment.
information in the form of documents and studies, This last activity embodies an approach that needs to be
particularly those produced by organizations that have integrated into all aspects of conservation programs and
worked in the area and that could contain information, either sustainability, and that was addressed transversely to
of a technical nature and/or about the stakeholders. On the activities 1-3. Community empowerment was key to linking
other hand, we took into consideration the contributions of people with nature for conservation and for encouraging
each one of the institutional and community stakeholders them to think about resilience, as it connects local knowledge
regarding the socio-environmental conditions of the and needs with policies and conservation goals.
territory, as well as their level of interest in participating in
the project during the socializing sessions. The resilience indicators, as mentioned above, have 20
subsets falling under five categories: i) landscape diversity
2.2 Evaluate the resilience level of SAF-KBA SEPLS and ecosystem protection; ii) biodiversity; iii) knowledge
and innovation, including agricultural biodiversity, iv)
We evaluated the resilience level of the SEPLS using the Toolkit governance and social equity; and v) livelihoods and well-
for Indicators of Resilience (UNU-IAS, Bioversity International, being. In activity 2, we asked community members to rate
IGES & UNDP 2014), that provides a subset of 20 indicators the state of the indicators using a five-point scale: (5) Very
to assess the trends and level of resilience of the study area. high, (4) High, (3) Medium, (2) Low, and (1) Very low. We
We then moved to implement four key activities, that are also asked them to evaluate trends using three categories:
↑ Upward trend, → No change, and ↓ Downward trend. We
implemented this activity with the support of our partner,
an NGO called Social and Environmental Sense (SENSE), as
well as that of other organizations working in the area.
2.3 Shared vision for the planning and conservation of

the SAF-KBA SEPLS
During the workshops (see Fig. 6) with the different

stakeholders, such as peasants, ranchers, large farmers, and
wealthy landowners, we identified marked differences in
the way they conceptualized nature, their relationship with
nature and the sustainable practices they implement. Based
on these differences, we searched for common points to
build a shared vision for the planning and conservation of
Figure 6. Methods and activities description

Table 1. Activities carried out to assess the resilience level of SAF-KBA
Component 1. Assessment of the resilience level of the Component 2. Establishment of community empowerment for
San Antonio Forest - KBA SEPLS conservation
Activity 1. Activity 2. Activity 3. Activity 4. Divulgation and community empowerment

Preparation and Diagnosis Analysis and
training follow-up
Activities In this phase, The evaluation Empowerment is more than a set of activities; it is an approach that
were carried the resilience and qualification must be integrated into all aspects of conservation programs and
out related to indicators were of the indicators the sustainable use of biodiversity. It is a process driven by people, so
the training evaluated were analyzed there is no single strategy that works in all cases. However, we have
of the work through and then introduced some elements that according to our experience, have
team, and the workshops with socialized. helped develop community empowerment. These can be summarized
establishment the community. as: i) collective strengthening, ii) application of knowledge to local
of contacts with needs, iii) support for change, iv) involvement of as many members as
stakeholders possible, v) promotion of a social environment based on human rights
present in the and social equity, and vi) explanation of existing laws and policies
region, as well and creation of adequate spaces for compliance. Considering the
as possible above, a flexible approach was adapted to the individual needs of the
partners. community. Therefore, the activities were carried out in different order.
In addition, this phase was transversal to previous ones (activities 1-3).
nature and biodiversity of the SAF-KBA SEPLS, with the goal the owners of the properties; the communities’ identity,
of improving the protection of this important area through freedom, health, safety, and material goods in relation to
a participative and collaborative planning exercise between biodiversity and ecosystem services; and the processes of
the community, public stakeholders (government), and ecosystem functioning and climate change.
cross-sectoral stakeholders.
2.4 The SAF-KBA SEPLS Governance Scheme 3. Results and discussion
Prior to the evaluation of resilience levels, the Corporation 3.1 Characterization of stakeholders and differences in
for Environmental Management BIODIVERSA advanced the the way of conceptualizing nature
planning process for managing the SAF-KBA SEPLS using
the "Planning for the Conservation of Areas” methodology We identified 17 public stakeholders, 40 community-based
(Granizo et al. 2006) for the design and management stakeholders, seven unionists and 50 private landowners
of this conservation area, based on a diagnosis and an (people who own an area of land and give various uses to
integrity analysis of the definition of conservation objects it; some make their livelihoods from it, while others just use
that were carefully selected with the accompaniment it recreationally) as the main stakeholders of the SEPLS in
of experts. This activity produced knowledge about the the SAF-KBA. We divided the 50 private landowners into
area and reconnected it with the expectations of the local three categories based on their educational, sociocultural
stakeholders in each municipality, as well as with the and socioeconomic backgrounds: i) peasants, ii) ranchers
institutional stakeholders. and large farmers and iii) wealthy landowners (who use the
land mainly to build country houses, but their livelihoods
Using this information and understanding of the differences do not depend on the productivity of the land). The results
in the way of conceptualizing nature and the shared vision we obtained from the characterization of stakeholders and
for the planning and conservation of the nature of the SAF- the differences in the way of conceptualizing nature are
KBA SEPLS, we have developed a governance model, which summarized in Table 2, showing the representatives of each
we call the “SAF-KBA Governance Scheme”. This scheme group of stakeholders, their interests, needs, and visions of
is based on norms, concepts and policies at national and nature. The latter corresponds to multiple values of nature
international levels, such as: the right of petition (as a and its benefits (IPBES 2015), such as recognition of the
fundamental right in the Colombian Constitution) and intrinsic value of nature by public entities that are concerned
participation mechanisms; the ordering of the territory; with ecosystem conservation, or as the instrumental value
the generation of knowledge with the management of assigned by community-based stakeholders, ranchers and
information and incentives for conservation to strengthen large farmers, who recognised nature’s benefits to people
the exercise of governance by the institutions; the for production. Also noted are the economic values trade-
political empowerment of the community base; financial union stakeholders recognise in nature, seeing it as a
sustainability by the guilds and human well-being of source of income, therefore making its management and

Table 2. Analysis of stakeholders in the SAF-KBA SEPLS
IPBES
Representative classification of
Stakeholders Interests Needs Vision of nature
Groups MVN
(IPBES 2015)
Public (17) UMATAS, Comply with Connect The remnants of Intrinsic value –
Municipal regulations, the forest nature are spaces Non-
systems of maintain the covers with protected by anthropocentric
protected areas sustainability of the the declared national, regional
(Cali and Yumbo), forest in quantity protected areas. or local regulations,
Environmental and quality. therefore their
authorities threats must be
(DAGMA AND diminished in order
CVC), Farallones to guarantee their
de Cali Natural preservation.
Park, Ministry
of Environment,
Government of
Cali, Community
action boards
of townships
of Cali, Dagua,
La Cumbre and
Yumbo.
Community-based Educational Apply for Implementation Nature is the Nature’s benefits

stakeholders (40) institutions of conservation of the strategic central axis to to people -
El Saladito and incentives; plan of the SAF- guarantee human Instrumental value;
La Elvira (Cali) food safety; KBA; Teamwork; well-being, Anthropocentric
and Bitaco peasant identity; knowledge and therefore it must
(La Cumbre) community work; research on local be conserved in
townships; forest conservation. biodiversity; order to maintain
Universidad del communication the ecosystem
Valle, Universidad channels services produced.
Santiago de between
Cali, Pontificia stakeholders;
Universidad training in
Javeriana and organizational
Universidad management.
Autónoma; Focus
groups and local
NGOs.
Trade-unions (7) Agrícola Contribute with Implementation Nature is a Good quality of life
Himalaya; corporate social of compensation source of income, - economic values.
Best Pacific and environmental measures; therefore its
Adventures; responsibility to its alliances to management
Celsia; Hotel City stakeholders. promote the and care must
Express; BNI- design and guarantee
Frutos del Sol. implementation continual
of conservation production.
strategies.
Private Peasants 25 Peasants To be able to Strengthening Nature is the Nature’s benefits to

land- legalize the and sustainable source of life, it is people - Relational
owners possession of the production. what gives us the
(50) property and thus air, water, food
be able to live off and nutrients that
the land as their our crops and we
ancestors did. need. This must
be respected and
taken care of so
that our children
can stay in the
territory. Without
nature there is
nothing.

Ranchers 5 Ranchers and 7 Produce at a low Improve access Nature can be part Nature's benefits
and large large farmers cost and generate routes and of the productive to people –
farmers higher income. marketing system, but it must Instrumental;
channels. be managed in Anthropocentric
order to make a
profit.
Wealthy 13 Wealthy Conserve the Receive some Nature is a source Good quality of life
land- landowners forests to be able to kind of financial of rest and well- – Relational
owners continue enjoying compensation being, it is an
the landscape and for conserving escape from the
the climate of the the forests at city.
region in their their country
country houses. houses.
care fundamental to guarantee its continuous production. […]establishes as the only referent the bipolar scheme between
Furthermore, the good quality of life—relational value given “tradition” and “modernity”, explained solely in function of the
by wealthy landowners who consider nature to be a source productive and economic (and sometimes social and cultural)
of rest and well-being, and the relational values peasants aspects and that proposes rural development as the productive
hold, who consider nature as a source of ecosystems services transformation of “traditional” peasant, or preindustrial ways
that benefit people, are among other values that assign a into agro-industrial or “modern” modalities, both in its state-
multitude of roles to nature in its interaction with human socialist version and in its free market version (p. 341).
societies.
Even though both rationales relate to the environment,
These MVN and its benefits, as assumed by stakeholders, they do so in a different way: one is a predatory relationship
correspond to different nature models or visions and in which human beings profit from nature to satisfy their
determine the actions or possible actions against nature in needs and desires without considering or respecting it,
the SAF-KBA SEPLS. According to Díaz et al. (2015), the value and the alternative is a relationship where human beings
of nature’s benefits to people varies among individuals, also serve the ecosystems. The latter is associated with a
within groups, and across groups at various temporal and cosmic worldview and conception of nature with an ethical
spatial scales. For instance, the value of the vegetation consideration of no-abuse in the use of nature (Quintero-
and soils of watersheds in filtering water for drinking Ángel 2015).
will vary when there is no built alternative (e.g. a water
filtration plant). Stakeholder perceptions are transformed 3.2 Evaluation of the resilience level of the SAF-KBA
into values of nature in accordance to their environmental SEPLS
rationale. The latter can be understood as the implication of
reason in the meaning of actions against the environment, In the evaluation workshops on the level of resilience,
which stages the capacity that guides and directs the participants evaluated the indicators individually and
action of stakeholders (González-Rodríguez 2014). This subsequently discussed within the group to reach
environmental rationale and the associated values of nature consensus among each of the interested parties (see Table
help define what a society perceives as important, beneficial 3). In these workshops, 69 of the participants were women
or useful in search of achieving a good quality of life (Díaz et (65%), and 38 were men (35%). Below, we present the results
al. 2015). obtained for the SAF-KBA SEPLS, grouped into five strongly-
interrelated areas..
The productive and extractive activities of some
stakeholders in the SAF-KBA SEPLS, together with their 3.2.1 Landscape diversity and ecosystem protection
rationale, as well as State and private-sector actions that
promote these activities, show a real and potential conflict Regarding the diversity of the landscape, most of the
between conservation and development in the planning for stakeholders recognize the great diversity present within
the territory (Quintero-Ángel 2015). The two environmental the SAF-KBA SEPLS, as well as the fact that the presence
rationales, the predatory (trade-unions, ranchers and large of patches of cloud forest, riparian forests and the variety
farmers) and the alternative (oriented to the conservation of microclimates, make this area more resilient to external
of nature, held by farmers, community-based stakeholders shocks. According to Pascual et al. (2017), the variety of
and wealthy landowners), present in the SAF-KBA SEPLS, views and values associated with nature’s goods and services
are closely associated with the vision of development that gives place to diverse points of view in relation to areas such
western modernization imposes, which according to Toledo, as conservation, resilience, equity and ways to accomplish
Alarcón & Barón (2009):

Table 3. Results of the evaluation of the resilience level of SAF-KBA SEPLS
Community- Private landowners

Indicator Public based Trade-unions
Indicator Ranchers and Wealthy
question# stakeholders Peasants
large farmers landowners
Score Trend Score Trend Score Trend Score Trend Score Trend Score Trend
Landscape
5 ↑ 4 ↑ 4 ↑ 4 ↑ 3 ↓ 4 →
diversity
Ecosystem
5 → 4 ↑ 2 ↓ 4 ↑ 3 ↓ 2 ↓
protection
Landscape Ecological
diversity and interactions
ecosystem between different 3 ↑ 3 → 3 ↓ 5 ↑ 3 ↓ 4 →
protection components of the
landscape
Recovery and
regeneration of 4 ↑ 4 ↑ 3 ↓ 3 ↑ 2 ↓ 3 →
the landscape
Diversity of local
2 ↑ 2 ↓ 2 ↓ 2 ↓ 2 ↑ 1 ↓
food system
Maintenance
Biodiversity
and use of local
(including 2 ↓ 3 ↓ 2 → 2 → 1 ↓ 3 →
crop varieties and
agricultural
animal breeds
biodiversity)
Sustainable
management of 2 ↓ 2 ↓ 3 → 4 → 3 ↓ 3 →
common resources
Innovation in
agriculture and
3 ↑ 3 ↓ 3 → 3 ↑ 2 ↑ 4 →
conservation
practices
Traditional
Knowledge knowledge related 1 ↓ 2 ↓ 2 ↓ 4 ↓ 3 ↓ 2 ↓
and to biodiversity
innovation Documentation
of biodiversity-
5 ↑ 3 ↑ 1 ↓ 2 → 1 ↓ 1 ↓
associated
knowledge
Women’s
3 → 2 ↓ 1 ↓ 3 → 3 ↓ 1 ↓
knowledge
Rights in relation
to land/water
and other 4 → 2 ↓ 1 ↓ 2 → 1 ↓ 1 ↓
natural resource
management
Community-
based landscape 1 ↑ 2 ↑ 1 ↓ 3 ↑ 1 ↓ 1 ↓
Governance governance
and social Social capital
equity in the form of
1 ↑ 2 ↑ 1 ↑ 3 ↑ 1 ↑ 1 ↑
cooperation across
the landscape
Social equity
(including gender 4 ↑ 4 ↑ 4 ↑ 3 ↑ 4 ↑ 4 ↑
equity)
Socio-economic
3 → 2 ↑ 2 ↑ 4 ↑ 3 ↑ 3 ↑
infrastructure
Human health and
environ-mental 5 ↑ 5 ↑ 4 ↑ 5 ↑ 5 ↑ 5 ↑
conditions
Livelihoods Income diversity 3 → 4 ↑ 3 ↓ 3 ↓ 3 ↑ 3 ↑

and well-
being
Biodiversity-based
3 → 4 ↑ 3 ↑ 2 ↑ 3 ↑ 4 ↑
livelihoods
Socio-ecological
2 ↓ 2 → 1 → 1 → 1 → 2 ↓
mobility

sustainable development goals, but this diversity of views because it confers resilience to the SEPLS in the climate
is rarely acknowledged or taken into account when making change scenario.
decisions.
Regarding sustainable management of common resources,
As for the protection, recovery and regeneration of the ratings are low mainly due to the fact that most common
landscape of this area, results are uneven. For public and resources, such as forests and water sources, are located
community-based stakeholders, the SAF-KBA SEPLS is within private properties. The situation of the water sources
protected because it overlaps with protected areas of that supply farms is probably the most complicated, since
national order; however for the peasants, the protection of by law water sources belong to the State (Decree 1076 of
the SAF has taken place for a different reason. For them, the 2015). However, located inside farms and properties with
recovery and protection of forest areas is due to the fact that country houses, access to this resource is difficult in some
many old people who used the land have died, and young cases. In some parts of the SAF-KBA SEPLS, there are water
people have moved to the cities (mainly to Cali). The younger concessions legally established by the environmental
generation does not engage in the peasant vocation, so the authority regulating the quantity and flow taken. Yet in
lands that were productive 40 years ago are now secondary other cases there is conflict, generating a so-called war of
forests. From the viewpoint of the productive sector (trade- the hoses, which involves of the connection of many hoses
unions, ranchers and large farmers), the protection status to the same stream, where the one that takes more water is
of the area is low and shows great deterioration. This may the one that has more economic resources and can pay for a
be due to the fact that land use is restricted for some longer or bigger hose that takes up more water.
productive activities inside the protected areas, meaning
that these stakeholders have frequent negative interactions 3.2.3 Knowledge and innovation
with environmental authorities, a factor that can polarize
responses. On innovation in agriculture and conservation practices,
neither the qualifications nor the trends given by stakeholders
According to the wealthy landowners, the area is are completely uneven, which can be explained by the large
deteriorating as the dynamic mosaic of ecosystems and number of people interested in the preservation of the
land uses, including villages, crops, forests, pastures and SAF-KBA SEPLS (international funds, more than ten NGOs
private properties with country houses and small farms including local and regional, universities and inhabitants
becomes increasingly evident, due to the increase of a in general). In addition, the generation of income from
floating population. For most stakeholders, the ecological nature tourism, or simply from the tourist attraction that
interactions between different components of the the change of landscape and climate just 20 minutes away
landscape were not clear. Most gave an intermediate rating from the city of Cali represents, makes those involved in this
with a clear tendency mainly because the forests protect practice keep innovating in terms of conservation strategies
water sources. Still, the peasants recognize that the forests and sustainable production methods.
not only protect the water sources, but also benefit other
areas through pollination, pest control, and an increase of Regarding traditional knowledge, innovating and learning
animal population. practices in the SAF-KBA SEPLS are being lost. This loss occurs
for various reasons, among the most outstanding are those
3.2.2 Biodiversity (including agricultural biodiversity) already mentioned (migration to the city and little interest
in the peasant vocation), but it is largely attributed to the
In terms of biodiversity, all stakeholders recognize the great absence of elders that can transmit traditional knowledge
richness of fauna and flora species of the region, especially to the floating population and the remaining peasants.
birds—in the SAF-KBA SEPLS polygon alone, 357 species of Thus, it is not uncommon to find that all stakeholders have
birds have been recorded (BIODIVERSA 2018). Nonetheless, qualified the trend downwards, a factor that confirms that
in terms of agricultural biodiversity, most stakeholders these practices are being lost.
agree that it has been lost over time, which may be due
to the migration of local farmers to the city or the arrival For public and community-based stakeholders, the
of foreigners. Nonetheless, aromatic crops and medicinal documentation of biodiversity-associated knowledge is
plants are mainly maintained in the area. Maintenance doing well and on an increasing trend because management
and use of local crop varieties and animal breeds does take plans for the protected areas are present in the SEPLS, and
place, but only among some peasants who call themselves also due to numerous studies in various related topics in
seed keepers. In this sense, these types of practices should the area. For example, the study of birds in the area has
be promoted to conserve the genetic diversity found in been researched for over 100 years (Kattan, Álvarez-López
local crop varieties and animal breeds, which is important & Giraldo 1994; Kattan et al. 2016). For the remaining

stakeholders, scores are low with a downward trend due to schools in the area, as well as health centres, safe drinking
the fact that such publications are not known, or are written water, electricity and communication infrastructure. The
in a scientific manner and even in other languages, such as only aspect requiring improvement in some sectors is the
English. roads. The indicator for “human health and environmental
conditions” has the best rating with a tendency to improve.
Women’s knowledge, experiences, and skills are recognized People are very healthy because of the good weather and
between medium and very low scores and present a good air quality. For the indicator on income diversity,
downward trend. While it is still recognized that women scores fall in the middle. Although many traditional forms
hold knowledge of medicinal and aromatic plants (which of income have been lost, such as work in growing certain
are traditional crops), the fact that girls and young women crops, there are new opportunities for income with the
are not very interested in learning these practices puts this development of activities related to tourism.
knowledge at risk. When qualifying this indicator, women
(on average 65% of workshops participants) changed their For biodiversity-based livelihoods, scores range from
way of qualifying (in the individual case) positively and high to low—high for those who are finding new ways to
with a tendency to improve by lower scores and a negative obtain income based on biodiversity, such as eco-tourism
trend, which can be understood as a search for recognition. and birdwatching, and low for the peasants who used to
This result is particularly curious considering that during have a close relationship with biodiversity, but with the
discussions and group work, it was almost always the loss of cultural identity during the last decade, also lost this
women who directed and clearly presented their position. relationship. Socio-ecological mobility, according to the
stakeholders, is low and very low, given that most agree that
3.2.4 Governance and social equity there are no opportunities for mobility.
The classification of indicators grouped in this area is 3.3 Shared vision for the planning and conservation of
very uneven, due to the legal land tenure problem of the the nature of the SAF-KBA
majority of peasants. As already mentioned, most of the
land belongs to wealthy landowners who live in the city and According to Leff (2004), the environmental crisis is crisis
have their country houses in the SEPLS. In addition, conflict of the ways of understanding the world. Since the human
exists with the national protective forest reserves present in being is as an animal endowed with language, human
the SEPLS, because although these protected areas do not history is separate from natural history. Thus natural history
put restrictions on the property, they do restrict some uses. is the meaning assigned by words to things, generating
Thus, many economic activities are incompatible with these strategies of power in theory and knowledge that have
protective institutions. disrupted reality to forge the modern world system.
For community-based landscape governance and social Therefore, the social construction of a solution to the
capital in the form of cooperation across the landscape, environmental crisis that affects the modern world must be
scores are low, but the trend is toward improvement. This focused on a shared vision of the stakeholders interested in,
is because alliances have been created to seek effective or involved in, the problem. The construction of a solution
governance of the SAF-KBA SEPLS. This can be evidenced must start from the points they (involved communities and
by the technical board of the SAF that is connected to nine stakeholders) have in common.
NGOs and that, together with the participation of other
stakeholders, has created the SAF-KBA governance scheme. In this sense, the existing similarities and differences among
the stakeholders’ opinions were evaluated. The main
The social equity (including gender equity) indicator is one similarities or factors that stakeholders had in common were
of the most similar in qualification and trend. In this sense, searched out to allow for the integration of a shared vision
the rights and access to resources and opportunities for of nature for the SAF-KBA SEPLS. In this case, we found
education, information and decision-making are fair and that for all stakeholders, nature is the source of life and the
equitable for all community members, including women, central axis to guarantee human well-being and production
as evidenced by the great participation of women in the of income. Therefore, nature must be respected, taken care
workshops. of, conserved and well managed in order to maintain the
ecosystem services that it produces.
3.2.5 Livelihoods and well-being
With this in mind, in order to guarantee the conservation of
According to our results, socio-economic infrastructure in the SAF-KBA SEPLS, the ecological integrity of the present
the SEPLS has an intermediate qualification and a tendency ecosystems must be ensured through the improvement
to improve. This evaluation is due to the existence of rural

of connectivity and the reduction of pressures that lead to improving the resilience of socio-ecological systems at
fragmentation and deteriorate the quality and quantity of local and regional scales, considering scenarios of change
ecosystem services. and through joint, coordinated and concerted action by the
State, the productive sector and civil society.
3.4 The SAF- KBA Governance Scheme
Accordingly, the objective of participatory governance
The SAF-KBA governance scheme is based on both national is to conserve and recover biodiversity along with its
and international concepts, norms and policies, such as ecosystem services, with emphasis on the connectivity of
petition rights, territory ordering, incentives for conservation, the landscape and the ecological integrity of the selected
and management of information to strengthen institutional conservation objectives: 1) natural forest cover; 2) water
governance. It also involves actions to empower the system and edaphic system; 3) community of insectivorous
communities, achieve financial sustainability, secure and and frugivorous birds; 4) the amphibian community; 5)
improve ecosystem functioning and mitigate and adapt the multicolored tanager (Chlorochrysa nitidissima); 6) the
to climate change. The governance scheme seeks to build Colombian Night Monkey (Aotus lemurinus) (see Fig. 7a), a
a strategic and integrated vision among stakeholders, to threatened species prioritized for the SAF-KBA; the cerulean
ensure inclusive and consensual decision-making and warbler (Setophaga cerulea); and the Ruiz's robber frog
implementation of conservation strategies. (Strabomantis ruizi) (see Fig. 7b).
Considering the above, the governance scheme is a shared The governance scheme is compiled in a technical
management tool in the holistic construction of SAF-KBA document, structured into seven interrelated components:
conservation strategies for implementation, with balance 1. characterization of actors and socio-economic activities;
between the State, civil society and the economic sector, 2. participatory diagnosis of the territory; 3. administrative
and in line with the personal attitudes of the community structure; 4. game rules and safeguards; 5. strategic
through agreements and consensual alliances between planning and monitoring (which addresses the following
the stakeholders. This political exercise is based on topics: conservation and restoration, use and sustainable
environmental and social sustainability, and validated by management of biodiversity with its ecosystem services,
the principles of good governance of IUCN for protected knowledge and research, empowerment, and joint and
areas: 1. Legitimacy and Voice: participation and search for shared co-management); 6. implementation of the financial
consensus; 2. Direction: strategic vision; 3. Performance: sustainability plan; and 7. continuous improvement.
ability to respond effectively and efficiently; 4. Responsibility The components are adhered to a legal and conceptual
and Accountability: transparency; and 5. Justice and Rights: framework as well as to the mechanisms or instruments
equity and law enforcement (ed. Dudley 2008). of political participation, the ordering of the territory,
the generation of knowledge, the information systems,
The scheme seeks to build, in each component, a strategic communication strategies, and to the incentives for the
and integrated vision among all stakeholders, taking into conservation of biodiversity with its ecosystem services.
account their different roles and responsibilities, as well
as ensuring inclusive and consensual decision-making In the “Strategic Planning and Monitoring” document, goals
for the implementation of conservation strategies. This were set to be fulfilled between 2018 and 2028, which is
aim is combined with the objective of maintaining and
a) b)
Figure 7 (a and b). Examples of the conservation objectives in the participatory governance, a) Colombian Night Monkey (Aotus lemurinus)
(Photo: Armin Hirche); b) Ruiz's robber frog (Strabomantis ruizi) (Photo: Oscar Cuellar)

consistent with the social, business and environmental

responsibilities of the different stakeholders of the SAF-KBA
SEPLS. The main goals are: 1) to restore 600 hectares in river
protection zones; 2) to secure 50 private properties with
incentives for conservation; 3) to develop mitigation and
adaptation measures to climate change and establish them
in five localities within the SEPLS; 4) to establish a biological
corridor connecting with the NNP Farallones de Cali for
forest compensation certified by the Colombian Institute of
Technical Standards; 5) to continuously train the community
and decision-makers through specific programs; and 6) to
implement five green- business projects.
As part of the governance scheme, two fundamental

structures were created: 1) the four focus groups (one for Figure 9. Members of technical board at the launch of the Alliance
each municipality present in the SAF-KBA SEPLS), with for the Conservation of SAF-KBA (from left to right: Andrés Quintero
Ángel (CORFOPAL - SENSE), Alvaro Castro (Ecovivero), Santiago Sierra
community leaders as representatives, that are connected (Corporación Biodiversa), Hernando Diez (Maestros del Agua), Armin
with the Municipal Agricultural Technical Assistance Units Hirche (Dapaviva), Sebastian Orjuela (CORFOPAL), Bertha Quesada
(UMATAs for its name in Spanish), Municipal Planning (Maestros del Agua), Rubén Palacios (Ecotonos), Amparo Rivas
(Ecovivero), Martha Silva (Corporación Biodiversa) and Freddy Hoyos
Secretariats, the environmental authority, trade or business
(Focus Group Cali) (Photo: Corporación Biodiversa)
associations and other public entities such as schools or
universities (see Fig. 8), and 2) the technical board, constituted
by nine locally-based NGOs (see Fig. 9) that have been implementing conservation strategies, and trade-unionists
working in this area for some years and that are members (private companies) are involved in the financial supporting
of the departmental system of protected areas SIDAP Valle aspect.
del Cauca (Corporación Biodiversa, CORFOPAL, Maestros del
Agua, SENSE, Dapaviva, Ecotonos, Ecovivero, Asociación Río Among the scheme’s main achievements since its
Cali y Fundación Agrícola Himalaya). These organizations establishment in 2018 is the signing of voluntary
are connected to different stakeholders (local communities, agreements for the conservation and shared management
NGOs, private companies and some government entities) of the SEPLS in the Alliance for the Conservation of SAF-
with recognition of differences and mutual respect. In KBA, the management of payments for environmental
addition, ongoing virtual communication and meetings are services (PSA for its initials in Spanish) of the focus group
carried out. Each player serves a different role within the of Cali and private landowners with the Department of
governance strategy. Community-based stakeholders (local Administrative Management of the Environment, DAGMA
NGOs) help establish management strategies among the (the environmental authority of the municipality of Cali),
communities, and institutional stakeholders (government and the award received from the Call for the Recognition of
entities) represent governance and policies. Likewise, Local Conservation Areas and Complementary Conservation
private landowners (community leaders) have a role in Strategies, for contributions to the improvement of the
conditions of Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru to
conserve biodiversity through effective and equitable
management of protected areas and other conservation
measures. Implementation was carried out by the German
development agency GIZ, the International Council for
Local Environment Initiative-ICLEI and the International
Union for Conservation of Nature-IUCN, with international
support from the International Climate Initiative-IKI, the
Federal Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation
and Nuclear Safety (BMU) and the Ministry of Environment
in Colombia.
Figure 8. Representatives of the four focus groups during a birdwatching

training (Photo: Linda Valencia)

4. Lessons learned and conclusion of ecosystems, as well as the well-being of their inhabitants,
key factors that contribute to the conservation of the SEPLS
These results allow us to infer that while interactions and its continuity over time.
between stakeholders and nature do depend on the
particular interests of the respective stakeholder groups, The main challenge we faced when constructing the
above all these interactions depend on the gender and shared vision was reconciling the differences in the way
the educational, sociocultural and socioeconomic levels stakeholders relate to nature; these rationales were at times
and backgrounds of the stakeholders involved. One of the almost opposed to one another, making it difficult to find
main lessons we have learned through previous work is common points. Furthermore, the relationships of power
that in this type of exercise, it is fundamental to guarantee over diverse goods of nature, and the sense of ownership
the participation of different stakeholders in the territory over a particular value, in addition to a general lack of trust
in the execution of the project, since they are the ones that in the environmental authorities, were hurdles that had to
provide the most accurate information on the social and be overcome in order to build a shared vision of nature in
environmental situation of the territory and contribute to the SEPLS.
the definition of the most appropriate routes for applying the
Toolkit for Indicators of Resilience. In this sense, we carried Finally, the conflicting visions and changes in nature models
out an analysis of stakeholders based mainly on qualitative in the SAF-KBA SEPLS can be managed in the proposed
information collected from the available participating new governance scheme, maintaining the participatory
persons in order to: i) determine their interests in relation to processes in the focus groups and the technical board.
the political proposal or to projects (be it a research project, This approach will recognize, make visible, and respect
a development project or an information policy proposal); ii) the diverse values of stakeholders and address the power
identify the key stakeholders that exert a greater influence relations through which these are expressed (Cundill &
via their power or leadership; and iii) determine the most Rodela 2012). Additionally, considering the diversity of
important issues or points for the design, development and worldviews and values of nature may lead to an iterative
implementation of the project. approach to identification of policy objectives and
instruments in the governance scheme (Pascual et al. 2017).
Ongoing challenges for the SAF-KBA governance
initiative, with the agreements and alliances between
the stakeholders, include the creation of a culture for the Acknowledgements
conservation of biodiversity and its ecosystem services,
and securing the positioning and integral welfare of the This publication is the result of joint work among projects: 1)
individuals, representing the community. In order to face Resilience level assessment of the San Antonio Forest / KM
these challenges, the continuous promotion of community 18 Key Biodiversity Areas and community empowerment
empowerment is required, which will be addressed on conservation funded by The Satoyama Development
through follow-up in the focus groups and on the technical Mechanism (SDM) 2017 grant; and 2) Multi-stakeholders
board within the programs and projects established in management planning and governance strengthening
the governance scheme, as well as in the Alliance for the for the San Antonio Forest Key Biodiversity in Colombia
Conservation of SAF-KBA, which established specific goals funded by The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF)
to address these challenges. agreement 66493 of 2017. The authors thank all the
stakeholders of the SAF-KBA SEPLS, especially the four focus
Likewise, understanding the models or representations of groups and the organizations that are part of the technical
nature held by the stakeholders in a SEPLS is very important board of the SAF and to Adelita San Vicente Tello, Kuang-
to consolidate governance processes. If different visions Chung Lee, Polina G. Karimova, Shao-Yu Yan, the IGES Team
are not understood and considered in the construction of and the SITR-5 editorial team for the final revision of this
a shared vision, the conservation objectives and the actions document.
of the stakeholders can differ, leading to major conflicts
associated with environmental rationale related to human
welfare. In the same way, those who work in the governance
of the SEPLS will be able to contribute to contexts such as
the SAF-KBA, not only through understanding the forms
of appropriation of nature and derived environmental
conflicts, but also by promoting decision-making by
different stakeholders to find more sustainable forms of
appropriation of nature, which allow for the conservation

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M 2010, ‘Local studies manual: A researcher’s guide for
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Use, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK. Ecology, Klagenfurt University, Vienna.
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Chapter 6
Landrace maize diversity in milpa:

a socio-ecological production landscape in
Soteapan, Santa Marta Mountains, Veracruz,
Mexico
Lead authors:
Adelita San Vicente Tello1*, Malin Jönsson1**
1
Fundación Semillas de Vida, A.C. Coyoacán, 04100 Mexico City, Mexico
*[email protected], **[email protected]
Abstract
We will present the results from a project implemented in the village of Soteapan, Veracruz, in south-east Mexico, by the
Foundation Semillas de Vida. The objective of the project was to increase understanding of the multiple values associated
with sustainable use of resources in the socio-ecological production landscape (SEPL) known as milpa, particularly in terms
of native maize. In Mexico, maize is staple food and a central crop which dominates all landscapes. Agriculture and a whole
civilization were constructed around this crop. Maize’s cultural importance is highly relevant to understand the indigenous
people’s worldview and relationship with nature. In Mexico, knowledge about agriculture has been developed around maize,
heightened by the crop’s especially great capacity to adapt to different kinds of climates around the planet. Semillas de Vida,
in collaboration with local communities, as well as authorities, students and researchers from the Intercultural University of
Veracruz, studied maize diversity, its use and application. We also learned of the small-scale farmers’ knowledge concerning
diversity and adaptation to climate change. Henceforth, we were able to understand how stakeholders in the SEPL have
different visions of the landscape and its resources as well as their usage priorities and perceptions of value. Samples were
collected and characterization of native maize performed, analyzed by their pigments and association to specific uses.
The results highlight the importance of the agrobiodiversity cultivated by the indigenous and small-scale farm communities,
and illustrate the wide knowledge they have and the multiple values of nature (MVN). This exceptional diversity is related
to the special type of slope agriculture applied in the Santa Marta Mountains. The 15 variations of native maize found
demonstrated important adaptation to the specific climatic conditions and the MVN the farmers received from the milpa
production. We concluded that the knowledge and diversity is exceptional, and probably greater than in other tropical
regions in the country. The diversity is associated with multiple values of the SEPL, such as different food uses, especially
for black and dark blue maize, preferred in the traditional drink pozol and cultivated by practically all the families in the
mountains. Together with maize cultivation, accompanied by ample plant diversity within milpa, the Popoluca (Nuntajiyi)
people have traditional diverse small-scale coffee plantations and in recent years they have also added production,

Chapter 6: Landrace maize diversity in milpa
management and commercialization of understory palm, selling their foliage. The diversity of native maize grown by the
Popoluca (Nuntajiyi) people still requires further studies and projects developed together with the communities, as well as
an institutional framework for its protection and development.
Keywords: Landrace maize, small-scale farmers, biocultural diversity, milpa, knowledge, indigenous people
Country Mexico
Province Veracruz
District Santa Marta Mountains
Size of geographical area 1
41,000 hectares
Number of indirect beneficiaries 2 720 persons
Dominant ethnicity Popoluca (Nuntajiyi)


Number of direct beneficiaries 2 144 persons
Dominant ethnicity Popoluca (Nuntajiyi)
1. Introduction a part of the Mexican indigenous people’s worldview; it

is a way to understand and relate to nature (see Fig. 3). It
In this chapter, we present the results of a project represents a landscape with multiple values of nature
implemented in the municipality Soteapan, Veracruz, (MVN). Within the polyculture milpa system, each one of
in south-east Mexico (see Fig.1 and 2), initiated by the the virtuously combined species contributes with its special
foundation Semillas de Vida (Seeds of Life, http://www. characteristics to support the others. For example, the bean,
semillasdevida.org.mx/). Through the study of vast as a legume, fixes the nitrogen from the air into nutrients
diversity of the landrace maize used by the farmers, as required by the maize. Together with maize and bean, chilli
well as their knowledge and adaptation to climate change, and squash constitute the foundation of the milpa. In fact,
the project has contributed to a deepened understanding the number of different plant types can reach as many as 10
of the multiple values associated with sustainable use of to 20; the combination depends on the geographical place
resources in the socio-ecological production landscape and local conditions. Likewise, in these production systems
(SEPL), especially production in the milpa. the small-scale farmers conserve and manage their own
varieties of seeds which maintain and drive the germplasm
Bartra (2008) asserts, “the Mesoamerican people do not just evolution process forward.
plant maize, we make milpa, with all the intertwined diversity
it beholds” (p. 42, own translation from Spanish). Milpa is

The milpa itself has been, and still is, a fundamental tool,
used by small-scale farmers and indigenous people, to
conserve and develop agrobiodiversity. The importance
of emphasizing agrobiodiversity and the agroecological
matrix as an analytical category, including the definition
of agrobiodiversity, has been established by Blanco (2006,
quoted in Boege 2010, p. 42, own translation from Spanish):
Agrobiodiversity implies a domesticated part of

the biological diversity. Because of this it should be
analyzed as a special category, above all since it is a
vital element of development. Its lack of recognition
has prevented its conservation, protection,
encouragement and also its incorporation in the
market economy.
The milpa production method is mostly applied in south

and central Mexico, where we find highly diverse territories
with differing climatic conditions, with cultivation on
the hillsides in the mountains, conditions which make
mechanized monoculture practically impossible. There are
thousands of examples of families and small-scale farmers
in Mexico using the milpa system. One example can be
found in a collaboration Semillas de Vida had with the
organization Alternativas Sustentables Agropecuarias (RASA)
Figure 3. Milpa in Sotepan in the state of Jalisco, which has worked on sustainable
agricultural alternatives within milpa production over the
last 20 years. Other examples are the cooperative Tosepan in
In general, Mesoamerican indigenous people, the inventors
the mountains of the state of Puebla and coffee producers
of the milpa, have an inclusive vision of nature. This applies
in Chiapas. Various organizations and communities there
particularly to the region where the study was conducted, a
insert coffee plants as a part of their milpa (Bartra et al. 2014).
region still inhabited by the Popoluca (Nuntajiyi) people. The
indigenous vision of nature considers all of the elements as a
whole, interconnected: plants, insects, forests, water, marine
life and soils, among others. The vision includes human
2. Maize – the backbone of the milpa SEPL
life as a part of the interrelated whole, thus consequently,
and Mexican agrobiodiversity
harmonious relations become necessary for nature’s
It is important to specify the importance of maize in the
reproduction and permanence, which is represented in
Mexican context, as the axis of the agricultural production
the milpa. They preserve the supreme symbolic meaning
system, particularly in milpa, and as central to every food
of nature as “Mother Earth”, which gives life and allows
table. Maize has been a vital part of the civilization process
reproduction of the universe. This is reflected in agricultural
that began approximately ten thousand years ago. In
production where the milpa itself creates its own ecosystem
Mesoamerica, maize is found at the center of creation;
as a part of the environment, not destroying it.
its circle of life makes human life possible, shaping the
community social life. This long process finds its roots in
The established relations between humans and nature have
maize and milpa: the former as the backbone and the latter
generated a profound knowledge about natural processes
as the tissue established to complement and promote a
and reproduction itself. In fact, this part of the planet,
series of supporting relations.
Mesoamerica, is considered as one of the centers of origin
of agriculture due to these processes that were initiated
Maize is not only the most important grain in our country,
by the people more than 8,000 years ago. Today millenary
but also worldwide. Its rapid expansion across the world is
agricultural practices, such as the milpa, are upheld by
likely due to its considerable capacity to adapt to different
indigenous people and other small-scale farmers in the
production conditions and also thanks to its versatility of
region.
use, making it an ingredient in various industrial products.
The global market is dominated by a yellow maize, modified

to generate an increased amount of starch; a large part is 3. Santa Marta Mountains, Veracruz
also genetically modified (GMO) and produced with seeds
owned by a few transnational corporations. Álvarez-Buylla Different political and socioeconomic factors have
& Piñeyro (2013) argue, “their main interest is the economic influenced the evolution of maize diversity and other species
profit, very much above the cultural, symbolic and from the milpa, generating a change in the Santa Marta
sometimes religious value that maize has in many cultures, Mountains’ SEPLs. The study, documentation and analysis
also the value it has in Mexico for the entire population as of this diversity represent a significant step in contributing
one of their basic food products” (p. 18, own translation). to the profound knowledge of the communities and the
Precisely because of this global homogenization of maize, it conservation and use of this diversity, as well as a basis for
becomes more relevant to emphasize the importance of the defending the communities in this region.
vast biodiversity that still exists; landrace maize is conserved
and developed by farmers themselves. In this chapter, we The Santa Marta Mountains interrupt the plains of the
will illustrate this prominence. Veracruz coast, generating mountainous environmental
conditions in a tropical zone with high humidity, from
The state of Veracruz is in seventh place for national which life flourishes in its multiple diversity expressions. The
maize production, where five percent of this sacred grain indigenous people have developed and conserved great
is produced. Of this, 97 percent of the maize is seasonal landrace maize diversity and species associated with the
without irrigation, which means that production mostly milpa in line with the mountains’ environmental variation.
comes from small-scale farming of less than five hectares The area’s geological history and orographic conditions,
per farmer. It becomes interesting when compared to with forests and jungles, generate moisture and rain
Sinaloa in northern Mexico, where 93 percent of the maize catchment. This makes it a, fluvial filter, vital for populations
production in Sinaloa comes from irrigated land with agro- in low-lying areas, mainly in the cities Acayucan, Minatitlán
industrial monoculture production based on homogeneous and Coatzacoalcos (Ávila, Morales & Ortega 2016). This
seeds and agrochemicals, that is to say, the opposite of the region, with its biological richness, is a part of the Los Tuxtlas
production type we find in the south-east of the country Biosphere Reserve.
(SIAP-SAGARPA 2018).
Thanks to the hard work of generations of small-scale
Maize diversity in Mexico is widespread at a national level farmers and also the special environmental conditions,
and tends to be concentrated and present patterns of larger the mountains are not only a reserve of vital resources and
variation in specific regions, mainly in the mountains where biological richness, but also a haven for a particularly vast
there is a higher presence of indigenous people. In these agrobiodiversity of landrace maize. The maize grown here is
regions, maize’s ample adaptability and uses are illustrated distinguished in the impressive variation of pigments, uses
since it has been adapted successfully to the adverse and adaptations (Ávila, Morales & Ortega 2016; Negrete et
ecological conditions. Agrobiodiversity plays a central role al. 2013).
in food provision, and maize is the basis of a diet which is
rich, balanced, diverse, appropriate to the environment The mountains are the home of the Nuntajiyi people, as they
and accessible to the population. Thanks to polyculture, call themselves (Elson & Gutiérrez 1999; INALI 2010; Leonti
the necessary quantity and variety of foods are cultivated 2002), also known as Popoluca or Zoque-Popoluca, inheritors
together, and surpluses can also be generated which are of the territory where the Olmec culture flourished. The land
sold commercially in local and regional markets. The species is shared with other communities such as Nahua and Mestizo
produced in these regions are useful for food, feed and people. Our project was developed in communities in the
medicine. municipality of San Pedro Soteapan, “the natural home” of
the Nuntajiyi people (Blanco 2006) (see Fig. 4).
A region that is particularly distinguished by its diversity is
the Santa Marta Mountains in the south of Veracruz. This
region is located in the distribution corridor of maize from
the group Dentados Tropicales, represented by the landraces
Tuxpeño, Tepecintle and Olotillo (Kato et al. 2009). Despite
the especially complicated conditions in the mountains,
indigenous peoples such as Nuntajiyi and Nahua have
succeeded in creating exceptional pigment variations and
adaptations of these tropical maize varieties.

maize agrobiodiversity and adaptation achieved in face of

climate change.
During collection and documentation of maize diversity,

106 small-scale farmers participated from different
communities: 25 in La Magdalena, 24 in Ocotal Grande, 11
in San Antonio, nine in El Tulín and Santa Marta, eight in San
Fernando, seven in Ocotal Chico, five in Ocozotepec, four in
Mirador Saltillo, two in Soteapan and one in Buenavista. All
of the communities are a part of the Santa Marta Mountains.
In developing the activities, the university students’

participation was fundamental; they were trained in
collection, documentation and preliminary characterization,
Figure 4. Landscape of San Fernando, Soteapan, Veracruz with the intention that they would be able to continue
the assessment of the agrobiodiversity in the future. The
samples contained around 5 to 10 representative maize
4. Methodology cobs of each type cultivated by the farmers.
During the year 2017, Semillas de Vida, in collaboration with We consider that the recuperation of knowledge and
communities and authorities in the municipality Soteapan, processes provided us with keys to understanding how
and graduates and researchers of the Intercultural University the seeds have been preserved and developed over the
of Veracruz, guided experiences in the study, collection and centuries, and also, most importantly, how we will keep
characterization of the diversity, management and use of on preserving them in the future. The objective was to
landrace maize seeds in communities in the Santa Marta revaluate this richness and generate larger benefits for
Mountains. We collected and characterized samples of small-scale agriculture and indigenous communities, who
this diversity, as well as carried out pigment analyses with are the keepers of agrobiodiversity, through the design of
help from researchers at the university. A portion of the highly diversified agroecosystems.
results is presented here for the knowledge and use of the
communities and as a modest acknowledgement of the
farmers who preserve the agricultural activity indispensable 5. Farmers – essential for agrobiodiversity
for the vast richness and legacy which the landrace maize of and for the milpa SEPL
this region represents (see Fig.5).
Maize is the foundation for food and the economy in the
The agrobiodiversity of maize was studied through Nuntajiyi communities, and is closely linked to the family
identification and preliminary characterization of landrace as a unit. It is also the nucleus and an essential part of the
maize in the communities. This methodology involved profound worldview (cosmovisión) of these people, which
collecting maize samples and interviewing the small-scale is reflected in the mythical presence of the god-hero of
maize farmers, after which information was gathered and maize, Homzhuc. The god of maize tradition is an expression
samples were characterized. This method is applicable of maize’s relevance and connection to the sustenance of
in the future and could be useful to follow changes in the Mesoamerican people. Today this tradition is still a part of
Figure 5. Small scale maize farmers in the municipality Soteapan

between agroecological matrices, but also for reforestation

and productive diversification, placing special emphasis on
the use of native evergreen species, mainly in places with
sleep slopes. Recently the production of understory palms
for commercialization of its foliage were also added.
One of the first things that surprises during the study of

landrace maize diversity in the Santa Marta Mountains’
communities, is the already mentioned vast color variation
of the grain. The communities mainly use this characteristic
to distinguish the varieties of maize they grow. It is common
for each family to have at least one white and one black
maize. However, variations could be greater due to various
reasons, for example: 1) the ample crossing that exists
Figure 6. Maize from Ocotel Chico between the landrace maize of different colors; 2) selection
made for distinct uses; 3) environmental adaptation; and 4)
in some cases for the association of cultural concepts, such
the worldview, culture and agricultural practices of Mexican as the so-called “blood maize”.
and Central American indigenous people, and is particularly
vivid in villages of the Nuntajiyi people in the Santa Marta While white or cream-colored maize is predominant,
Mountains. next is the black maize that is widely appreciated in the
communities for preparing one of the most important
5.1 Agrobiodiversity of Maize drinks and foods in Mexican tropical zones: pozol. Unlike in
other regions of the country (e.g. Yucatán, Chiapas) where
In the communities of the study, we collected 234 maize this drink is generally made from white or yellow maize, here
samples with the following distribution: 65 in Ocotal Grande, the preference is for pozol made from black or red maize.
55 in La Magdalena, 24 in San Fernando, 18 in El Tulín, 17
in San Antonio and Santa Marta, 16 in Ocotal Chico, eight The natural pigments in landrace maize, expressed in
in Mirador Saltillo, eight in Ocozotepec, four in Soteapan colorations such as dark blue, black, red and orange, are of
and finally two in Buenavista. Each sample contained one great importance not only for their natural origin, but also
type of maize that was cultivated by the farmers in these for food and health benefits. It is known that the pigments
communities (see Fig. 6). contain antioxidants, anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory
elements and can contribute to the control of degenerative
On average, the farmers cultivated 2.3 different types of diseases such as diabetes (Castañeda 2011; Miguel 2011;
maize, but this number varied depending on the community. Salinas et al. 2012, 2013).
For example, the average in San Antonio was 1.5, but rose to
2.7 in Ocotal Grande and 3.0 in San Fernando. We observed In these mountains, the entirety of agrobiodiversity is
that some families planted four or five different varieties of adapted to hillside agriculture. Here we find heterogeneous
maize; the maximum was ten different varieties by the same soils and extreme meteorological phenomena–such as
farmer. strong wind and hurricanes– together with the incidence
of pests and diseases, making production conditions
Consistent with the environmental variations in the somewhat complicated. Nevertheless, over the generations,
mountains, the Nuntajiyi people conserve a diversity farmers have succeeded in adapting close to 15 different
of maize and other crops adapted to the temperature, landrace maize varieties, which are grown between 300 to
precipitation and high relative humidity conditions. The 1,700 meters above sea-level, to these special conditions.
special conditions are created by the rain shadow effect
which comes from humidity captured in the Mexican Gulf Compared to commercial hybrids, these landrace maize
and brought to the mountains’ foothills. Together with maize varieties are most adapted to local conditions. Farmers
cultivation, accompanied by plant diversity in the milpa, the continue to use them, even though they have had only very
Nuntajiyi people also practice traditional diversified coffee limited state support for their conservation and production
production; in Veracruz we find 25% of the amount of coffee initiatives. The state policies have favored the use of
produced in Mexico ( SIAP-SAGARPA 2018). In fact, traditional commercial hybrid seeds through technological packages
coffee agroecosystems are an excellent source of connection and financing schemes connected to inputs related to these
between different patches of original vegetation. This can seeds, such as chemical fertilizers and other agrochemicals.
be a basis, not only for programs to maintain connections

In the lower parts of the mountains (as in other parts of

Mexico), the hybrid seeds have practically displaced the
landrace maize seeds. Even though some families, even
in lower parts, preserve the landrace maize for their own
consumption, especially the red and black for pozol, it is in
the middle and higher parts of the mountains where most
farmers produce only the landrace maize (see Fig. 7). This
trend could be explained by cultural aspects, but also by the
special climatic and geographical conditions. For example,
few hybrids are appropriate for growing high above sea-
level.
5.2 The most common maize landraces
In the following landrace identification, the person Figure 7. Making tamales, Veracruz
responsible was the agronomist and landrace maize expert,
Cecilio Mota Cruz. The three most common types found
in the study were Tepecintle, Olotillo and Tuxpeño. The 5.2.2 Olotillo
preliminary characterization is based on relevant references
to the region (Wellhausen et al. 1951; ed. Sierra 2010; Ávila, We also found the landrace Olotillo to be widely distributed
Morales & Ortega 2016), and Mota’s own ample experience. in the communities of the Santa Marta Mountains. It had the
second largest prevalence in the Soteapan communities,
5.2.1 Tepecintle with 52 samples associated and identified as belonging to
this landrace (see Fig.9).
This landrace has received little attention in Mexico, but it is
definitely a staple food for the communities located in the This landrace is particularly adapted to hillside areas and
hot-humid mountainous regions of practically the entire often grown on stony or less fertile ground. As expressed
slope of the Gulf of Mexico, reaching into the mountainous in its name, Olotillo is distinguished for its “slim cob”. This
region in the states of Tabasco and Chiapas (also south-east). characteristic makes for a fewer number of kernel rows,
With this study, it was possible to confirm the extraordinary making it almost always possible to bend the cob. This
diversity of this landrace for its adaptation abilities, thanks landrace is highly appreciated since it grows in thin soil
to the indigenous groups in this region. and/or in marginal lands and, thanks to its structure, is easy
to thresh.
The name itself, with roots from Nahua (tepo = mountain,
cintle = maize), refers to the different niches or environments
where it has been developed and grown (Wellhausen et
al. 1951). It is characterized by semi-cylindrical cobs, and
its top tends to be devoid of kernels, which simplifies its
identification. The kernels have a considerable variation
in texture, from serrated to semi-crystalline. Within the
landrace, the colors white, cream and yellow are common.
Nevertheless, as observed in the region of the study, this
landrace can also be black, dark blue, pink, red and mixed
colors.
Tepecintle is the predominating landrace with the greatest

diversity in the region. We found 113 samples of this
landrace, accounting for 56% of the samples (See Fig. 8).
Of these, 76 were identified as only Tepecintle, and 37 were
combined with other landraces, such as Olotillo, Tuxpeño,
Olotón, Zapalote Chico, Dzit Bacal and some other mixes and
influences by hybrid maize.
Figure 8. Tepecintle (Photo by Cecilio Mota)

Figure 9. Olotillo (Photo by Cecilio Mota)
The Olotillo has an ample variation of cob and kernel

characteristics, and particularly diversified is the dimensions
of the cob. The kernel’s texture can be semi-crystalline,
serrated and semi-hardened. The color can range from all-
white or cream to dark blue, black, yellow, orange or red.
5.2.3 Tuxpeño
The most representative and important landrace in the

tropical areas around Mexico is called Tuxpeño. A total of
16 of the samples were characterized as this landrace. Its
material is the best adapted to local conditions; it also has
the largest output and excellent agronomic characteristics.
Therefore, it has been widely used in not only in Mexico, but
also in other tropical regions in the world. Tuxpeño has also
been used as the base for generating hybrids or varieties
produced in special selection processes, to develop so-
called “improved” hybrid seeds.
Tuxpeño is characterized by cylindrical long cobs (around

20 cm) and the number of kernel rows is usually more than
12. But it is also known for its jagged kernels with an ample
variation of colors, predominated by the white and creamy-
colored (Wellhausen et al. 1951).
Due to environmental conditions, this variety of maize is Figure 10. Examples of kernel colorations of landrace maize in Soteapan,
cultivated together with a vast array of other varieties, such Veracruz. (Photo by Cecilio Mota)
as the previously mentioned Olotillo and Tepecintle. We

mostly found it in the lower lands of the mountains, and in
the municipality of Soteapan, it grew in the community of
6. Discussion
La Magdalena (See Fig. 10).
This case study illustrates the vast agrobiodiversity in
the milpa, particularly concerning maize. Henceforth, we
conclude that in the same plot you can find not only different
species (maize, chilli, squash, beans, green plants such as
quelites, tomatoes, etc.) but even different varieties of maize
itself. The preliminary characterization carried out in our
study is vital for the community itself to learn about the vast

diversity of their own maize. In this way, the diversity can be still a high risk of the small-scale diverse production without
protected, preserved and developed. Information has thus agrochemicals being eliminated, since these farmers
been gathered about this richness created by the farmers. are competing in the same deregulated market as the
monoculture production. The import of cheap maize puts at
In Mexico, the milpa constitutes a SEPL, a space in which, risk the small-scale landrace production of maize.
even though maize is central, there is a diversity of plants.
Various different kind of plants, from combinations of the While throughout the last century and still in this one,
three basic plants grown at the same time, to intercropping, public policies have tended towards terminating the milpa
to the succession of crops at different times, can all be found system, aiming to impose monoculture, today there are
in the same space. The possibilities and variations in this some programs beneficial towards farmers producing in this
system are many. Today we can also find milpa intercropped system. One example of this is told in a book published by
with fruit trees. Semillas de Vida, entitled, “The countryside in the city. The
city in the countryside” (El campo en la ciudad. La ciudad en el
Even though milpa are one of the systems that contributed campo, San Vicente & Mota 2018). This book discusses a rural
to constructing the base of agroecology (Morales 2011), part of Mexico City called Tlalpan, where the municipality
they have not yet been sufficiently studied and analyzed. has given subsidies in the form of financial support for maize
This production system represents vast opportunities, and and milpa production. The book presents a similar case
analyzing it is highly relevant to accomplish biodiversity study to the one of this chapter and illustrates the impact of
conservation and sustainable development. Firstly, we have policies that foment the milpa production system.
observed the importance not only of the study of maize,
but also of the diverse agroecosystems of the whole region. To solve today’s challenges of sustainable food production,
Subsequently, there is a need to understand the beneficial input from multiple actors is necessary. Hence, the
relationships between these species and agroecosystems. foundation Semillas de Vida promotes what we call social
We also consider it fundamental to observe and quantify the milpa, which aim to reproduce social relations based on
milpa as a system in terms of energy recycling and nutrition. the concept of a system which benefits from a diversity
of multiple characteristics and that allows for complex
The milpa of Mexican farmers make up a part of a worldview agroecological matrices.
where biodiversity is identified and respected as a part
of the culture, and are therefore also of a way of thinking.
This conception permits the sustainable management of 7. Conclusion
the landscapes. As such, while the ecologically-termed
relationships should be further studied by evaluation and The biodiversity conserved and in constant development in
monitoring methods, it is also vital to know and recognize Mexico, particularly that supported by indigenous people
the profound knowledge of the farmers. These capacities such as the Nuntajiyi, still deserves and needs further
have been despised and even fought against as a remnant research, and projects need to be implemented together
of the past, but today they are central to landscape with the communities. This further research is required not
conservation and sustainable management. only due to the vast variation of species cultivated and the
adaptation of landrace maize to the particular conditions of
The most important challenge is to achieve acknowledgment the mountain, but also because important aspects of the
for the milpa SEPL, considering its contribution to multiple uses of this biodiversity have not yet been discovered and
values. Unfortunately, the value of agricultural production, described.
relegated to the so-called Green Revolution, has been
measured through the output of the plants cultivated. This There are various aspects to the SEPL and MVN apart
is a challenge for the agrobiodiversity of maize since even from those addressed in the case study. Since the milpa
though there are MVN benefits, the economic value of the production system reproduces and increases the number
amount that can be sold has been prioritized. Aside from the of species and different varieties of maize, the MVN are
output itself, another challenge is the use of agrochemicals, increased. It is essential to preserve the production and
which are problematic for different reasons. For example, seeds in the hands of the farmers to keep this elevated
herbicides kill all the plants except for the maize and have number of different varieties. Agrobiodiversity is not only
been developed for monoculture. Often these chemicals important in and of itself, but also in relation to other aspects
contaminate, for instance fertilizers that destroy the soil. of life, such as food culture. Each species and maize variety
So, even though milpa and agro-industrial monocultures has its own special destiny as food, foremost for humans,
are for the most part grown in different places due to the but also for animals. This value is multiplied through the
diverse geographical and climatological conditions, there is dialogue of knowledge, which at the same time produces

and deepens farmers’ indispensable knowledge about the in harmony, human communities support each other in
milpa system, agrobiodiversity and the selection of seeds, established relationships based on cooperation taking
amongst other aspects. Also, it is important to build high- advantage of the particular characteristics and abilities of
quality agroecological matrices by increasing biodiversity. every member. This is how the MVN inserted in the social
Doing so would achieve water catchment and improve its context could be understood, from the perspective of
quality and reduce global warming, which would lead to smallholder and indigenous communities in the municipality
preservation of the integrity of biogeochemical cycles and of Soteapan, through the study of the use of landrace maize.
conservation of forest resources, and accordingly food self-
sufficiency, preservation of culture, and protection of the
rights of Nuntajiyi people. Acknowledgments
To maintain and develop maize agrobiodiversity, it is This project was made possible thanks to the agricultural
necessary to support farmers, for example through communities, who with tenacity, and in spite of all the
subsidies that remunerate them for their meaningful work circumstances going against them, have conserved the
of selection and adaptation. In fact, in Mexico the possibility agricultural production in Mexico. Therefore, firstly we
of paying the farmers for conserving biodiversity has been would like to express acknowledgement to them who
discussed, and another suggestion has been paying a higher preserve and develop agrobiodiversity in the countryside,
price in the market, particularly for their maize. This could in our case, landrace maize within the milpa. A particular
be accomplished by a governmental institution buying the thanks to the small-scale farmers in Soteapan, who kindly
maize for a dignified price. Nevertheless, it is also possible to welcomed us and opened up for dialogue about the vast
increase the income of the farmers though opening up new maize richness and its management. They shared their time
markets, since today a direct connection between market and knowledge, and facilitated our access to the maize
and production is lacking. samples they cultivated.
The characteristics of the maize pigments have great value as Also, we would like to profoundly thank Dr. Carlos Héctor
an important part of the socio-ecological landscape due to Ávila Bello. He is a researcher and teacher at the Faculty
their importance for food, health, environment and culture. of Engineering in Agricultural Systems of the Universidad
The results of the study illustrated that the agrobiodiversity Veracruzana, and has committed his life work to small-scale
cultivated by the indigenous people and small-scale farmers farming communities. Particularly in this region, he has
in this region has great value in the rich variation of the done a great job of interconnecting diverse perspectives
grains’ colors: white, cream, light yellow, intense yellow, in support of the communities. With this integrated vision,
orange, black, dark blue, red, violet, purple, mixed colors, Ávila invited us to work in the region and provided the
etc. This exceptional agrobiodiversity is associated with support we needed from graduate students.
different types of food, for example, pozol.
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Chapter 7
Enhancing communication and co-learning

in socio-ecological landscape management
through elicitation of local communities’
visions and values
Lead authors:
Emilio R. Díaz-Varela , César A. Blanco-Arias2, Beatriz Rodríguez-Morales1, Ramón A. Díaz-Varela2
1*
1
ECOAGRASOC. Higher Polytechnic School of Engineering. University of Santiago de Compostela (27002, Lugo, Spain)
2
Department of Botany. Higher Polytechnic School of Engineering. University of Santiago de Compostela
(27002, Lugo, Spain)
*[email protected]
Abstract
Serra do Xistral is a medium-range (maximum height: 1,052 m) mountainous area in the North of the Autonomous
Community of Galicia (Spain). Its Atlantic oceanic climate, characterized by abundant precipitation, winds, and fogs,
facilitated the formation of a landscape characterized by extensive wet heathland and bog habitats. These are considered
the most valuable ensemble of bog and wet heathlands for biodiversity conservation in all the Iberian northwest, and
include blanket bogs unparalleled in all of southwestern Europe. The area is also a European Natura 2000 network site (i.e.
nature conservation instrument defined by European environmental regulations). In addition, an essential component for
the formation of this ecosystem was the coevolution of natural features with human activities, e.g. cattle and horse livestock
husbandry. The area is characterized by a singular ownership regime, the “Communal Forest Land” (MVMC). Decisions on both
management approaches and the benefits obtained from the common land are made at MVMC Community Assemblies.
Visions and values of local communities are essential in the decision-making process, and in turn a major influence on
the management of natural resources and the configuration of the landscapes. However, in many instances such visions
and values differ from institutions at different administrative levels. More in-depth knowledge on the visions, values and
narratives of local communities would help to enhance communication in the socio-ecological system and ultimately, in its
management.
The European Union financed “LIFE in Common Land” was developed in Serra do Xistral, involving eleven MVMC. Its aims
include the development of management approaches for the protection of priority habitats, including incentives like
payment for conservation results. A qualitative approach for obtaining information from local communities was developed.
Semi-structured interviews with board members of the MVMC Communities were recorded, gathering information about
management systems, community organization, and natural resource uses in the area. In addition, questionnaires specifically
designed to assess perceptions of ecosystem services and nature conservation measures were collected. Results allowed

Chapter 7: Enhancing communication and co-learning in socio-ecological landscape management
for characterization of views on nature and ecosystems of the local communities, whose values in many instances differ
from those of environmental conservation institutions. Also, important elements of sense of place and attachment of the
community members to their environment were identified, as well as environmental conflicts related to wildlife-livestock
interactions. These results could be used to develop new ways of understanding and co-learning, which could form the
basis of novel approaches to ecosystem management and conservation.
Keywords: Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes (SEPL); Participatory approaches; Co-Learning; Value conceptualization;
Common Land; Ecosystem Management;
Country Spain
Province Galicia (Region)
District Lugo (Province)
Number of indirect beneficiaries 2
407 persons
Dominant ethnicity Caucasian
Figure 1. Map of the country and case study region – Galicia, Spain


Dominant ethnicity Caucasian
Figure 2. Land use and land cover map of the case study
1. Introduction The complexity of modern day societies challenges this

capacity for vision alignment (Folke et al. 2005; Ostrom
2005). One example is the current understanding of the
1.1 The role of visions and values in Socio-Ecological
concept of value. In many cases, and specifically in the field
Production Landscapes
of ecosystem services, the concept tends to be interpreted
as monetary value (Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2010). The use
Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes and Seascapes of conceptual models for the process of value attribution for
(SEPLS) are the result of the interactions of nature and ecosystem services, from their recognition as biophysical
society in a given geographical and temporal context. Their entities to their trade in the market (e.g. the “ecosystem
sustainability through time has depended on the careful services cascade”; see e.g. Potschin-Young et al. 2018),
management of ecosystem services and the multifunctional is useful to characterize them in the socio-economic
use of land within the carrying capacity and resilience of subsystem, but has the risk of confounding it with the
the environment. As a result, they constitute examples whole socio-ecological system. A proper understanding of
of areas with high capacity for biodiversity conservation, the whole system should include the interactions between
socioeconomic development and preservation of cultural society and the environment in all its complexity, including
assets such as traditional knowledge and local traditions components not exclusively definable by their economic
(eds. Bélair et al. 2010; Okayasu & Matsumoto 2013). In many role or value (Constanza et al. 2017). Consequently, and
instances, these outcomes have depended to a high degree given the plurality of the term, a conceptualization of value is
on the capacity of societies to agree on specific visions and needed (Pascual et al. 2017; Small, Munday & Durance 2017).
values, which guide the actions collectively undertaken (e.g. In this sense, the conceptual framework and approach of the
what crops and where to produce them, how to repair a wall, Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity
etc.) and to set up control elements for individual actions and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) (Díaz et al. 2015; Pascual et
that could go against the collective interest (Ostrom 1990).

al. 2017) represents a system based on series of elements height: 1,052 m ASL). The livestock-centered activities of
and the interrelations among them, in which different local communities, dating back to time immemorial, form
interpretations of “value” should be taken into account and the characteristic heathland and bog socio-ecological
integrated. In general terms, a distinction may be made production landscapes (SEPLs).
between non-anthropocentric values and anthropocentric
values. Among the former, the intrinsic value of nature The Serra do Xistral SEPL supports a diverse ecosystem, rich
can be considered of major relevance, and may include in plant communities (Romero-Pedreira 2015) and endemic
the ‘per se’ value of biodiversity; among the latter both species, and presents three habitats declared of priority
instrumental (i.e. contributions of nature to people) and interest in the EU Directive for the conservation of natural
relational (i.e. components for the good quality of life) can habitats: active raised bogs (7110*), active blanket bogs
be included (IPBES 2015). An inclusive perspective of values (7130*) and Atlantic wet heathlands (4020*). These priority
should also take into account their definition at different habitats have developed over centuries through their use
levels, ranging from the whole society, the community and as pastures (see Fig. 3). Thus, the state of their conservation
specific groups, to individuals, and distinguish between depends on the management regimes, including the grazing
more transcendental (i.e. shared collectively in the form of intensity using different livestock species (mainly horse, cow
social principles of general application) or contextual (i.e. and sheep) and other practices for the regulation of woody
dependent on a given object or situation) values (Kenter biomass for burning and cutting (Fagundez 2016, 2018;
et al. 2015). This will help to understand how values can Díaz-Varela et al. 2018). While the habitats are recognized to
take the form of principles, preferences, measures or needs be in a good state of conservation, their continuity over time
(IPBES 2015), and in the latter case, how they are dependent depends to a large extent on the careful maintenance and
on context (abundance or scarcity of a given resource), improvement of the management regimes, especially those
barriers (either physical or social obstacles for resource use), related to pastoralist activities (Muñoz-Barcia et al. 2019).
or trade-offs between different goods and services for their
use (Daw et al. 2011). As mentioned above, livestock in a semi-wild regime,
specifically horses (official sources in the Galician regional
Taking all this into account, the analysis of visions, preferences government consulted for the project account for a total
and values and their influence on decisions affecting the of 1,324 individuals currently in the study area), cattle and
environment and natural resources becomes of primary sheep, have played an important role in the use of land
interest to understand the dynamics and sustainability of from ancient times (Bouhier 2001), and form the backbone
SEPLS. This would also imply the identification of differences of a multifunctional landscape. In present times, a number
and conflicts between different visions and divergences in of ecosystem services are provided by the area, including
the interpretation of values, not only among individuals
in a community, but also between different levels and
components of the general society.
In the case study presented here, the mountainous area of

Serra do Xistral (NW Spain) is analyzed in the framework
of a European Union (EU) financed LIFE Program (“LIFE
in Common Land”). This project aimed to develop
environmental management instruments, including
payment for conservation results incentives, in order to
improve the conservation state of a series of habitats
declared of priority interest in EU environmental regulations.
A major area covered by these habitats is in community-
managed common lands, so conservation of habitats has a
strong relationship with decision-making on the activities
and management of these lands by the communities.
Considering the strong relationship between incentives and
values, the local communities were approached in order
to learn in-depth about how they manage their resources,
their visions on the social-ecological systems they are
integrated into, and their perspectives and opinions about
the conservation policies developed up to now.
1.2 Study site: Serra do Xistral
Serra do Xistral (Galician language for Xistral Mountains) is a

mountainous area in the northern part of the Autonomous
Community (region) of Galicia, in Spain (43º 27’ 33.2” N - 7º
32’ 55.9” W) (see Fig. 1 and 2). The oceanic climatic influence,
which provides the area with abundant precipitation, winds
Figure 3. Horses grazing under windmills in the heathlands of Serra do
and fogs, combines with medium-range relief (maximum Xistral (Photo: Emilio Diaz-Varela)

the production of food (e.g. meat, cheese, honey), energy Discernment of these attitudes will help in understanding
(windfarms), and ecosystem regulation (biodiversity, the visions and conceptualization of “nature” and associated
pollination, and water purification, to name a few), as well as values; b) to assess the degree of awareness and perception
cultural services (from local knowledge and sense of place of the ecosystem services provided by the common lands.
to tourism and recreation). Such perceptions will be interpreted as an indicator of
how people prioritize natural resources and their use,
In Serra do Xistral, pastures are mostly common lands thus informing about the related values; and c) to gather
under an ownership regime called “Communal Forest Land” information about the different aspects of management in
(“Montes Veciñais en Man Común” (MVMC) in Galician the common land, both as an organization and a production
language). Lands under the MVMC ownership regime unit, in order to understand the system and its dynamics. In
are, by law, indivisible, inalienable, imprescriptible and addition to previous and ongoing studies made by other
unseizable. The MVMC are community managed, and all members of the team (Izco et al. 2006; Ferreiro da Costa et al.
decisions (from management approaches to the destination 2013; Fagundez 2016, 2018; Díaz-Varela et al. 2018; Muñoz-
of benefits) are made democratically through the assembly Barcia et al. 2019), a mixed qualitative-quantitative approach
of the Community of MVMC (CMVMC), with a board acting was utilized to retrieve information from the communities.
as representative body. Community decisions thus have a
major influence on the management of natural resources Semi-structured interviews were conducted, addressing
in the MVMC, and ultimately, in the configuration of the the boards of the 11 MVMC communities that participate
landscapes. Consequently, the visions and values of local in the project, considering that they fulfill the conditions
communities are linked to the future of the socio-ecological of availability and knowledge required by the approach
landscape. Nowadays, different visions of nature and (Gorden 1975; Vallés 2009; Hernández-Carrera 2014).
human-nature interactions and the values thereof can be Different subjects were covered including use of the
found among the local inhabitants and different institutions common land, pastureland and livestock management,
and administration levels, especially regarding conservation internal organization of the community and the historical
practices and measures. In many instances, these differences evolution of the use of common land. Next, a questionnaire
hinder the communication process across the governance including 24 questions related to perceptions of and
system. More in-depth knowledge on the visions, values attitudes towards the Natura 2000 program was utilized
and narratives of the local communities, and how they (covering topics on the utility of the approach, general
perceive themselves in their environment, could lead to a knowledge about the program, positive and negative
mutual-learning and understanding process which would views and the level of involvement of the community).
enhance communication in the socio-ecological system and Finally, 17 additional questions related to perceptions
ultimately, in its management. of ecosystem services were asked (respondents scored
provision and regulation services on a 1-5 scale, and were
asked to refer to and locate important cultural services-
2. Description of activities (methods) providing areas on a map). In total, 11 meetings were held
(one for each community). Interviews and questionnaires
Inside the areas protected under the Natura 2000 network were undertaken in the same meetings (see Fig. 4). The
live 407 inhabitants (INE 2017). A total of 11 MVMC entire process was sound-recorded. The contents of the
communities were addressed in this study, totalling 291 questionnaire were set up as a reference to define the list of
communal forest owners. Information was collected on initial topics, for which a summary is shown in Table 1.
the communities and their management of the common
land with three different goals: a) to check the attitudes of From the interviews, the identification of induced
community members towards environmental protection topics was expected. The initial topics were designed to
actions, and specifically the EU Natura 2000 program. inform about the specificities of the system, leading to
Figure 4. Two different moments in the development of interviews (Photo: C. Blanco-Arias)

Table 1. Summary of initial topics on which information was gathered. Numbers in brackets refer to the number of actual topics covered.
Summary of initial topics
Involvement of communities in management (1) Organization of the MVMC (7)
Species used (forestry, agriculture, livestock husbandry) (3) Intra- and Inter-community conflicts (3)
Number of livestock individuals (1) Changes in land use and management (4)
Typologies of pasture (1) Provision of ecosystem services (7)
Pasture management details (4) Regulation of ecosystem services (6)
Livestock management details (8) Cultural ecosystem services (4)
Conflicts in management (including wildlife) (1) Opinions on Natura 2000 network (1)
an understanding of its dynamics, and allowing for the management of pastoralism, synergistic with the cycles
identification of relationships between human activities and characteristic functions of the ecosystem, is the
and biodiversity conservation. On the other hand, induced central element that defines the continuity of priority
topics would be more concerned with specific values habitats, essential for the conservation and enhancement
through their relation to the priorities and visions of the of biodiversity. This approach is characterized by cyclic
communities for resource use. management, alternating horse and cattle for the use
of pasture, depending on the pasture’s height, species
The interviews were directly analyzed from the audio composition and lignification degree. This management
files. This helped to save time and resources, avoiding the acts as the stabilizing force of the system, defining a
transcription of unnecessary sections of the interviews metastable (i.e. “almost stable”) state. In parallel with this
(e.g. explanations made by the interviewers, deviations management, subsidies promoted by public administration
from the main subject, etc.), and focusing on those aspects and institutions favoring territorial governance and
initially considered as relevant for the study (Gibbs 2007). alternative economic activities, also support stability. All
Those fragments considered as significant were directly these factors increase the resilience of the system in the
transcribed, coded and registered in a digital database. We face of external destabilizing forces, which could drive
assumed the possible loss of context in the fragmented the ecosystems out from their metastable state. In such a
transcription and the possibility of change in what is case, two possible thresholds were identified, generating
considered relevant across the study (Gibbs 2007). two alternative trajectories (see Fig. 7), in both cases
leading to a decrease in biodiversity in the ecosystems:
In the framework of the “LIFE in Common Land” project, the abandonment of livestock activity, leading to high
beyond the gathering of information for analysis of the shrub ecosystems, and eventually to pre-forest and forest
socio-ecological system, the interview protocol was also ecosystems, or to a degraded ecosystem if forest fires take
aimed at the future assessment of changes in the attitudes place. The second trajectory would occur in the event of
and values of the local population. To this aim, the interview excessive intensity of management (overgrazing, excessive
protocol will be repeated at the end of the project, to check vegetation clearing) beyond a certain threshold, causing
the extent to which the incentives for habitat conservation the system to evolve towards a degraded ecosystem.
changed visions, values and priorities in the communities.
A third trajectory would be driven by the transformation
of the heathland ecosystems (priority habitats) to artificial
3. Results herbaceous pastures or forest plantations. These changes
in land use involve important modifications in the
3.1 Systemic interpretation of the SEPL management system, and currently their development is
limited by regulations for the conservation of natural areas.
Information gathered from interviews, together with
Finally, the social structure and relationships are represented
previous studies (Izco et al. 2006; Ferreiro da Costa et al.
in a stakeholder map (see Fig. 7), defined from references
2013; Fagundez 2016, 2018; Díaz-Varela et al. 2018; Muñoz-
to actors, institutions and relationships obtained in the
Barcia et al. 2019), allowed for a general description of the
interviews. The MVMC communities show a strong link
social-ecological system. This characterization is considered
and/or mix with local producers, the local tertiary sector
as a necessary initial step for the understanding and
(tourism), and local cultural NGOs. In addition, there
comprehension of the interactions of stakeholders amongst
are important links with producers associations. Links
themselves and with the biophysical environment (see Fig.
with non-local individuals include visitors interested in
5), and thus, with the conservation of priority habitats and
tourism, recreation and other outdoor activities. Indirect
ultimately, biodiversity.
connections with institutions include regulations and
Figure 6 shows conceptually the functioning of the programs, both in the framework of nature conservation
ecosystem and some parameters for its resilience. The strategies or in rural planning and development. Direct

Figure 5. Synthetic scheme of the relationships detected between livestock management systems (in the central
position), elements of the biophysical system (above and to the right), and elements of the economic, social and
cultural system (below and to the left). The scheme includes both different ecosystems of the area and main relevant
wildlife species, as well as elements of the economic, social and cultural system, both local and from extra-local
administrative units.
Figure 6. Conceptual model and possible evolution trajectories for the ecosystems in Serra
do Xistral. See text for details.

Figure 7. Stakeholder mapping
relationships involve public (e.g. forestry officers) or festivals, fairs or local pilgrimage destinations. Twenty of the
private (e.g. technicians and advisors) intermediaries, with former locations were geo-located (see Fig. 9). In general,
functions including administrative support and extension all local community members declared a high level of
advisory services. Non-administrative institutions, like non- personal connection with Serra do Xistral through their way
local environmental NGOs and research institutions, also of living. In general terms, the higher importance conferred
have interests in the area, and their interaction with the local to provision services, and to those regulation values with
population is varied – more direct in research projects, and clear relationships to production, can be interpreted as a
less in conservation activism. preponderance of instrumental values. Nevertheless, the
clear identification and the relationships with the ecosystem
3.2 Specific results for ecosystem services of the culturally-valued spots, which can be interpreted
as important relational values contributing to the local
The questions regarding provisioning ecosystem construction of identity, have to be considered.
services resulted in ordinal scores from 1-5 regarding
the importance of the provision of food from livestock, 3.3 Specific results on perceptions of nature
agriculture, honey production, and mushroom and wild conservation activities
fruit picking; the production of wood; and the production
of energy (mainly in windfarms). Energy production As commented above, the information gathering
got the highest score followed by the provision of food approach included questions about the perceptions of
through livestock husbandry, followed by hunting/fishing the communities concerning conservation initiatives, and
and honey production (see Fig. 8 for more details). specifically, the EU Natura 2000 network.
For regulating services, the highest score (see Fig. 8) There was not a consensus among the communities on
corresponded to protection against floods, followed by the utility of the conservation programs for the protection
water quality, for which a special awareness has been of species, habitats, improvement of water quality or
perceived. The next services in order of importance were the promotion of sustainable practices. Nevertheless,
habitat, erosion control, and pollination. The least valued while all the communities had a general knowledge
service was the climate regulation. Regarding cultural of the conservation program, important deficits were
services, the only one measured on the 1-5 ordinal scale was identified related to information exchange between the
the perception of the possibility of tourist and recreational administrative bodies and the communities. All of the
activities in the area, with relatively high scores (4.27 out communities reported that the information received from
of 5). The interviewees also located areas of provision for the administration on Natura 2000 was not enough (72%
cultural services, resulting in the identification of 19 spots stated a total absence of information), and all of them had
considered important for their historical value; 20 spots for insufficient information (36%) or none at all (63%) about
their outstanding aesthetic landscape; and 9 locations for subsidies and support measures linked to the protected

Figure 8. Scores obtained on a 1-5 ordinal scale for provision (left) and regulation (right) ecosystem services
areas. In addition, all referred to the fact that they were

neither asked to be involved in the delineation process,
nor informed on how the process developed. Finally, it
was generally perceived (82%) that conservation measures
linked to the protected areas are prejudicial for agricultural
or forestry activities to some degree; nevertheless, almost
half of the communities positively view the inclusion of their
MVMC in the program.
3.4 Extended information and induced topics
During the interviewing process, a series of frequent themes

were identified, which were classified as induced topics. The
topics are not mutually exclusive, and in fact have strong
mutual relationships. Those identified so far are described
below.
Different understanding of “conservation value”. When

asked about conservation initiatives, communities normally
identified more or less clearly the subject of the conservation
(e.g. either by naming a single species or a particular habitat),
but in many instances, they did not clearly acknowledge the
reason for conservation. This may be due to a confrontation
between conservation and production - i.e. they see that
conservation threatens the productive activities linked to
their way of living. More specifically, some of the statements
may suggest that conservation menaces their own rationale
of management, and/or that of their ancestors. However,
they expressed a clear understanding that their activities
contribute to the preservation of the landscape and/or the
habitats of interest. Therefore, while there is some agreement
on what should be preserved, there are divergences on the
vision of why and how.
Lack of communication and neglect by the

administration. The lack of communication with
administrative bodies was clearly reported in the answers to
the initial topics. Communities felt uninformed in different Figure 9. Places identified in the interviews related to cultural ecosystem
aspects regarding the declaration of protected areas. They services. Letters in the codes make reference to heritage (h), landscape
also reported several instances of administrative barriers (p) or celebration (c) related services.
to compensatory measures, like subsidies or payments
for wildlife attacks on livestock. Communities therefore
reported feeling neglected by the administrative bodies.

Frequent comments regarding the absence of policymakers While other values and visions could also be acknowledged
and other public representatives “stepping on the ground” in the different stakeholders, we identify an important failure
in the area also may be interpreted as a lack of interest or in the mutual acknowledgement of two perspectives – one
understanding on the part of the administration. centered in the productive vision, and other in the conservative
vision. Consistent with other works in EU states (see e.g. Gallo
Conflicts with wildlife. In general, conflicts with wildlife
et al. 2018), this failure emerges through different conflicts:
were considered an important issue in all the communities,
lack of understanding of restrictions, bureaucratic barriers,
the main ones being wolf (Canis lupus signatus) attacks on
or communication deficits. The deficiency of a common
livestock (mainly foals and calves). Also, the griffon vulture
language, the lack of information channels and the absence
(Gyps fulvus), while not considered a threat, was pointed
of participation of local communities in decision-making
out as a worsening factor, as they remove the carcasses
are all indicative elements. As a result, the communities
making it difficult to prove the attacks and thus to ask for
have a general perception of the conservative vision as
compensatory payments. It is generally acknowledged
restrictive, viewing the conservation efforts as giving more
that wolf attacks have happened from ancient times,
attention to the preservation of wildlife in the area than to
but the perception is that they have increased in recent
the maintenance of the local inhabitants. This will hinder the
years. Attitudes towards wildlife as a threatening factor
acceptance of conservation measures by the communities,
reveal possible conflicts between intrinsic values of nature
which will paradoxically result in a deterioration of the
(i.e. conservation of wildlife), and relational values (the
priority habitats, dependent on the traditional perspectives
continuity of a way of living). The consequences also extend
of management.
to a conflict with the administration, as it is perceived as a
“protector” of the wildlife, instead of the people. In addition, it should be considered that the SEPL behaves
as a Complex Adaptive System (Preiser et al. 2018). As
such, the system itself adapts to changes in ways that are
4. Discussion
difficult to understand and foresee in many instances.
For instance, in the last decades, windmills were installed
The current vision of the Natura 2000 network program
in the mountains, involving the construction of road
for nature conservation acknowledges farming as a major
infrastructure. Also, in some areas heathlands were
contributor to biodiversity. In fact, due to the non-exclusive
transformed into artificial grassland. While the first caused
character of the protected areas regarding human activities,
impacts in both landscape and hydrological regimes (Diaz-
the latter are recognised as an integral part of nature in a
Varela et al. 2007), it brought new income sources for the
mutual partnership process (Olmeda et al. 2014). However,
MVMC communities, as well as improved access to remote
the protection character of the Natura 2000 imposes some
pastures. The second reduced the area of habitats (Gómez-
specific limitations on productive activities, namely those
Orellana et al. 2014), but improved the availability and
that can be harmful for the habitats or species of interest
quality of fodder for livestock. Both actions would involve
that are meant to be protected. This can be a source of
potential harms for the ecosystem, but improve the quality
conflict with local inhabitants, acknowledged and studied
of life for the communities, thus securing their permanence
in the search for solutions (Bouwma et al. 2010). In our study,
in the area. In addition, changes in management regimes
we consider these conflicts as confronting visions of local
may have consequences for the system’s functioning (e.g.
communities and environmental administrative bodies,
the behavior of wildlife and their interaction with livestock,
whose vision can also be shared by other stakeholders like
the outbreak of diseases or invasive species, etc.) that are,
non-local environmental NGOs, and to a certain extent,
together with the influence of global changes, still to be
some visitors attracted by the natural values of the area.
examined.
As shown in our analysis, the structure and dynamics of
the system, the preferences of communities regarding
provisioning ecosystem services, and the importance 5. Lessons learned and conclusions
given to the obstacles to productive activities set by
the administrative nature conservation regulations, The information obtained through interviews,
characterize the vision of the local communities as centered questionnaires and direct observation of the SEPL provide
on productive aspects. Thus, instrumental values are the strong support for the elicitation of the inhabitants’ visions
most apparent. Nevertheless, productive activities should and values, from which a series of lessons can be learned:
not be considered simply as entrepreneurial activities, but
also as an important component of a way of living. The Differing views on the reasons for conservation
results of the assessment of cultural ecosystem services have been detected between environmental
indicate that an important part of the identification of administrations and local communities. For the
local inhabitants with their environment is made through first, conservation is related to the intrinsic value
their activities in the MVMC, but not only the productive of habitats and ecosystems – for the latter, as
ones. This is evident in the location of a variety of sites they consider the ecosystems as part of their way
recognized as providers of cultural services in Serra do of living, instrumental and relational values are
Xistral. Consequently, the consideration of relational behind their visions for conservation.
values (Chan et al. 2016) as part of the visions of local
stakeholders becomes necessary.

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Chapter 8
“The Sundarbans is our mind”:

An exploration into multiple values of
nature in conversation with traditional
resource users
Lead authors:
Rashed Al Mahmud Titumir , Md. Shah Paran2, and Mostafa Walid Pasha2
1*
1
Professor, Department of Development Studies, University of Dhaka and Chairperson, the Unnayan Onneshan,
Dhaka-1215, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected] & [email protected]
2
Researcher, the Unnayan Onneshan, Dhaka-1215, Bangladesh
*[email protected] and [email protected]
Abstract
This study captures and depicts the understanding on multiple values of nature (MVN) by traditional resource users (TRUs)
of the Sundarbans. The research, using multiple evidence-based approaches, combining participatory insights of the TRUs
of the Sundarbans and interdisciplinary heterodox perspectives, demonstrates that valuation of environmental resources
through market penetration pricing does not reckon the social benefits and values coproduced through complementarity
between humans and nature. The TRUs of the Sundarbans treat the forest as their mind, through which human-nature sociality
flourishes. The traditional knowledge system can significantly contribute to the sustainable management of biodiversity
resources, both within the protected areas system and potentially within other effective area-based conservation measures,
if given a chance and supported by governmental and non-governmental agencies. Moreover, TRUs argue that due to
lack of a proper market structure and equal distribution of power, rents are dissipated through market pricing, going into
the pockets of the rent-seeking powerful class. This rent-seeking behaviour induces unproductive, expropriating activities
that bring positive returns to the individual but not to society. Dividing the tranformational pathways into three phases –
stabilization, transformation and sustainability – this chapter argues that such processes require approporiation of nature,
as oppossed to expropriation, for harmony of nature with people.
Keywords: Interdisciplinary Valuation, Multiple Evidence-based Approach, Traditional Resource Users, Indigenous and
Local Knowledge, Human Sociality, the Sundarbans

Chapter 8: “The Sundarbans is our mind”
Country Bangladesh
Province
District Khulna, Satkhira and Bagerhat
Size of geographical area 6,071 km2
Number of indirect beneficiaries 3.5 million
Dominant ethnicity Bengali
Figure 2. Land cover map of case study site
Figure 1. Map of the country and case study region, the Sundarbans

Size of case study/project area 1,775 km2

Number of direct beneficiaries 350 persons
Geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) 21030’ and 22030’ N and 89000’ and 89055’ E
Dominant ethnicity Bengali
1. Introduction from this, an attempt has also been made to explain the
findings with analytical abstractions. Therefore, information
This is an investigation into understanding the multiple has been verified based on multiple evidence. By using
values of nature (MVN) perceived by traditional resource a multiple evidence-based approach, both scientific and
users (TRUs) of the Sundarbans (see Fig. 1 and 2). The traditional knowledge can be brought onto the same
TRUs pursue their livelihoods as Bawalis (wood collectors), platform, striking a balance and creating a comprehensive
Jele (fishermen), Mouals (honey collectors), Chunari (shell and integrative understanding. Thus, attempts have been
collectors) and crab collectors. This study particularly made to gather primary information from TRUs, as well as
draws on the traditional knowledge of the forest people to collate corroborative evidence from the literature about
of three cooperatives that the research institute Unnayan pricing and valuation; rent, power and political settlement;
Onneshan helped set up— Harinagar Bonojibi Bohumukhi and valuation, conservation and sustainable customary use
Unnayan Samity (Harinagar Forest People Multipurpose of the resources.
Development Cooperative), Koyra Bonojibi Bohumukhi
Unnayan Samity (Koyra Forest People Multipurpose The Sundarbans is the largest single-tract mangrove
Development Cooperative) and Munda Adivasi Bonojibi ecosystem of the world, enriched with high biodiversity. The
Bohumukhi Unnayan Samity (Munda Indigenous Forest combination of various types of ecosystems (forest, coastal
People Multipurpose Development Cooperative). A and wetland) makes the Sundarbans home to uniquely
significant amount of data has been collected from adapted aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna (see Fig.3).
the members of these three cooperatives through The Sundarbans was declared a Natural World Heritage Site
participatory observations, key informant interviews and (139,700 hectares of forest land comprising Sundarbans
focus group discussions for gathering Indigenous and East, Sundarbans West and Sundarbans South) in 1997 by
Local Knowledge (ILK). This study has also used the data UNESCO and as a Ramsar Site of international importance
reservoir of the Unnayan Onneshan, which has undertaken in 1992 (IUCN Bangladesh 2014). It has also been listed for
several biodiversity conservation programs and conducted the selection of seven wonders of the world. It is located at
research on the Sundarbans. Moreover, evidence collected the great delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna
from the field has been comprehensively rechecked and (GBM) rivers at the edge of the Bay of Bengal. With majestic
cross-examined with the available relevant literature. Apart beauty, tranquility and wilderness of nature, it is a hotspot

of biodiversity. It harbors 334 species of trees, shrubs, Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity
herbs and epiphytes and about 400 species of wild animals and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). Thus, conceptualizing
(Behera & Haider 2012). Of the 50 true mangrove plant values considers a “plurality of worldviews” of nature since
species recorded throughout the globe, the Sundarbans people differ in how they understand the word “value” and
alone contain 35 species (Rahman & Asaduzzaman 2010). in how they attribute importance to nature (González-
It is also rich in its faunal diversity with 448 species of Jimenez et al. 2018). Likewise, there are different scientific
vertebrates including 10 amphibians, 58 reptiles, 339 birds concepts of value—intrinsic, instrumental and relational
and 41 mammals (DoE 2015). values, which cannot be conceptualized solely through a
market-pricing mechanism. As these values are subject to
The resources of the Sundarbans have been declining experience-based and/or traditional forms of knowledge,
gradually (Iftekhar & Islam 2004; Gopal & Chauhan 2006; Giri exploring human-nature relationships from different angles,
et al. 2007, 2015; Rahman, Rahman & Islam 2010; Rahman operating with specific paradigms and methodologies,
& Asaduzzaman 2010; Uddin et al. 2013; Aziz & Paul 2015; is regarded as a crucial way of valuing nature (González-
Sarker et al. 2016). The forest structure is becoming simpler Jimenez et al. 2018). Thus, IPBES places emphasis on
and the average height of the trees is decreasing, causing multiple values and how they change across individuals,
a decline in habitats for birds, monkeys and other tree- contexts and scales (González-Jimenez et al. 2018). As such,
dwelling species. This globally important ecosystem is now IPBES advocates for an accumulated approach that takes
vulnerable due to anthropogenic pressures amidst fragile into account real world experience and the needs of local
institutions and an ineffective command-driven governance decision-makers (eds. Barton & Harrison 2017). The ultimate
system (Titumir & Afrin 2018). purpose is to integrate local level knowledge platforms into
mainstream policy tracks to value natural ecosystems on
The traditional knowledge system can significantly multiple grounds.
contribute to the sustainable management of biodiversity
of resources, both within the protected areas system and Breaking down natural resources into commodities,
potentially as other effective area-based conservation mainstream economics considers the value of nature in
measures (OECMs), if it is given a chance and is supported monetary terms. Thus, natural resources are understood
by governmental and non-governmental agencies (Titumir under this framework as valuable assets that yield flows of
& Afrin 2018). services to people (Freeman III, Herriges & Kling 2014). The
valuing of nature in this way largely ignores the intrinsic
The value of nature can be understood from multiple value of the resources, and in this process the resources are
angles, beyond monetary valuation, as emphasised by the regarded as extractable as much as possible for the benefit
Figure 3. Mangroves in the Sundarbans (Photo: Unnayan Onneshan)

of human beings, leading to the destruction of the resources. for personal gains under the capitalist market economy.
Moreover, neo-classical economics regards environmental Nevertheless, integrating human behavior into the formal
pollution and natural resource degradation in terms of model of natural resource management is still a major
“market failure” and argues that a distorted market cannot challenge (Janssen & Jager 2000; Fulton et al. 2011; Milner-
ensure efficient allocation of natural resources. For efficient Gulland 2012; Schlüter et al. 2012).
allocation of natural resources, the market of environmental
goods and services has emerged, which entails that the Against the backdrop of valuation by IPBES and critique of
market has the power to allocate environmental resources different market-centric approaches, this study attempts
efficiently and in a socially optimal way by initiating to discover how TRUs value the Sundarbans using multiple
corrective measures like taxes and subsidies which require evidence-based approaches, guided by political economy. It
the intervention of a regulatory or government agency has been demonstrated that market pricing does not reflect
(Beder 2011). Thus, mainstream economics argues for the true values of the Sundarbans. Moreover, due to lack of
market-based mechanisms on the one hand, while it proper market structure and equal distribution of power,
proposes some solutions through government interventions rent through market pricing gets dissipated, going into the
on the other. pockets of the rent-seeking powerful class. This rent-seeking
behaviour induces unproductive, expropriating activities
New institutional economics, modifying market centrism that bring positive returns to the individuals but not to
with some new explanations, argues that the overuse of society. Thus, it has been argued that, for the conservation
natural resources occurs due to lack of well-defined property and sustainable use of the resources of the Sundarbans,
rights. As a result, resources become readily available too traditional customary knowledge of the TRUs and their way
cheaply to their current users, which forces the degradation of valuation should be brought under consideration.
of the resources. The argument is that when property rights
are clearly defined, compensations change hands according
to which party holds the natural resource, ensuring an 2. “The Sundarbans is our mind”: an
efficient degree of economic activity. Though this school alternative conceptualization of values by
of thought emphasizes formal institutional arrangements, the TRUs
it focuses less on informal institutions like social norms,
values and customs, which are also crucial for resource The conceptualization of values by the TRUs goes beyond
conservation and management. orthodox market-centric price-based mechanisms—
they value the Sundarbans as their “mind”. As “mind”
Nevertheless, market-centric approaches fail to understand involves various states of action and every state of mind
the dynamic nature of the problem and offer solutions that is determined by matter, the Sundarbans have created an
ignore political-economic factors such as power, political orientation in which they serve as the “mind” of the people.
settlement and social order, and as a result, the solutions This orientation encompasses the people’s existence, their
are found to be failing in addressing the problems. These social harmony, the breeding of their offspring, natural
approaches see the crisis of nature or environment as a safety and security. Human beings are dependent on the
technical problem that can be fixed within market-based Sundarbans. They have come in touch with the services
mechanisms and technological innovations (Clark & York provided by this forest which amalgamate plentiful values,
2012). Accordingly, it ignores the issues of equitable including both use values and non-use values.
distribution, intergenerational effects and the sustainability
of resources. Moreover, in determining the optimal The TRUs cite numerous examples of direct, indirect
management of natural resources, such approaches neglect and option use values. For example, the direct use value
humans and their behavior (Fulton et al. 2011). includes supplies, such as food, fuel, and water, while
indirect use value incorporates the likes of climate
The political economy approach, which is adopted here, regulation, cyclone protection, erosion control and
helps deal with the impact of power structures and power option values such as research, education and aesthetics.
relations on the usage, management and distribution The non-use values, according to them, are bequest and
patterns of natural resources and argues that an unequal existence values. For example, the bequest value includes
distribution of power induces over-extraction and the Sundarbans as cultural heritage and historical legacy,
degradation of natural resources. The political economy with biodiversity and habitat among the existence values.
approach, in fact, does not explicitly discuss the problem of These values not only ensure their present existence and
natural resource degradation, rather it offers guidelines to the interlinked harmonious relationship between forest
scrutinize the problem by incorporating some major factors and people, but also assure goods and services for future
that help explain how the resources are being accumulated generations (see Fig. 4).

Figure 4. The Sundarbans as the “mind” of the people (Photo: Prepared by the authors)
This age-old relationship has taken different shapes through one of the respondents, sums up: “Since the market price of
different passages. Local forest people use traditional resources has increased, the number of resource collectors is
knowledge to conserve the forest. It is not about any also increasing. Now they are coming from outside areas and
deliberate attempt to save the forest, rather it comes from extracting as many resources as they can. As a result, the forest
the mind instinctively through human-nature sociality1. is losing its resources.”
The TRUs have abided by customary sustainable use

3. Multiple values of nature: Reflections practices in the Sundarbans area over the ages. The way they
from the field collect resources and value nature is significantly different
from the people outside this area and from the mainstream
According to TRUs, the services received by humans from valuation perspective. Anju Ara, a female respondent, quips,
the Sundarbans have innumerable types of value (Table 1). “Sundarbans not only gives us various valuable resources, but
Not all of these values can be calculated by market-centric also it is our intimate relative, our life. We cannot survive a single
approaches. During focus group discussions (FGDs), they day without the existence of this forest.”— which reiterates
also argue that high prices derived from marketization of the the perpetual human-nature relationship and sociality.
natural resources causes over-extraction of the resources,
which is seriously damaging the ecosystems of the The respondents believe that valuation to the TRUs is equal
Sundarbans. Instead of market-based valuation, the TRUs to life. They consider the Sundarbans as part of their day-to-
value the Sundarbans based on their age-old relationships day life, which directly contradicts the mainstream market-
with the forest. centric approach of valuation. Based upon the FGDs, services
and values have been summarized in Table 1.
3.1 The TRUs’ perspective
The resources are valuable to the forest people in various
All of the study participant argue that prices of the resources ways. Different parts of flora and different types of fish
in the market are getting high. For this reason, it has become (and different sizes of same kind) are used by the local
profitable to collect the resources of the Sundarbans. So people for various purposes (Table 2). This elucidates that
marketizing the resources is leading to the vast intrusion forest resources are more valuable to the local people than
of people from outside, who do not care about the commodification alone entails.
conservation and sustainability of the resources. Omar Ali,

Table 1. Services from the Sundarbans (Source: Prepared by the authors)
Services Example Value type
Food Fish, shrimp, prawns, shells, honey, salt, crabs, fruits. Direct use value2
Water Transportation Direct use value
Raw materials Algae, sand, seaweed Direct use value
Medicinal resources Cortex of Poshur (X. mekongensis), Hargoza (Acanthus ilicifolius), Direct use value
fruits of Sundori (Heritiera fomes)
Ornamental resources Shells Direct use value
Air purification Removing toxic elements like SO2, CO2 to reduce air pollution Indirect use value3
Protection from disasters Protection from storms, floods, tsunami, etc. Indirect use value
Nutrient cycling Mineralization of nitrogen and phosphorus by fish through Indirect use value
excretion
Biological control Ecological balance through maintaining population of wildlife Indirect use value
Life cycle maintenance Reproduction of various species of flora and fauna Indirect use value
Pollination and seed dispersal Seed dispersal by aquatic animals, water, air and insects Indirect use value
Habitat Spawning and nursery grounds for various species of flora, Existence value4
fauna and organisms
Hydrological cycle Movement and storage of water Indirect use value
Recreation and leisure Nature watching, sailing, recreational fishing, etc. Direct use value
Aesthetic services Seascape, landscape, abundance of beautiful biodiversity, etc. Option value5
Cultural heritage and identity Contribution of the Sundarbans to certain cultural traditions, Bequest value
e.g. different songs, dance, rituals, etc. of local community
Future generation possible use All goods and services which can be used by future generations Bequest value6
Right of existence Flora, fauna and organisms that cannot be used but their Existence value
existence is important to the forest and to the people
Table 2. Usage of different parts of flora (Source: Prepared by the authors)
Name of part Usage/importance
Flower Honey, fruit, seeds
Fruit Reproduction of trees, food for birds and animals, food item for human beings, such as pickles from Keora
(Sonneratia apetala) fruit
Leaf Fallen leaves increase the fertility of the forest land, herbal usage, e.g. leaf of Hargoza
Root Prevents soil erosion
Branch Holds leaves to provide shadow
Cortex Used as herbal medicine, e.g. cortex of Poshur works against dysentery
Wood Making of furniture, boats, pillars of houses, etc.
Others Fishes hatch on the roots of the forest trees. Thus, trees help breeding of various species of fish

Table 3. Amount of major resources and respective revenue earnings from the Sundarbans during 2001-2002 and 2014-2015 (Source: DoF 2015
cited in Islam & Hossain 2017)
Types of ecosystem service 2001-02 2014-15
Provisioning Produces (unit) Amount Revenue (in USD) Amount Revenue (in USD)
Excoecaria 84,630 33,187 6,026 3,894
Agallocha (Gewa) (ft3)
Ceriops 15,865 (MT) 47,742 118,451 (no.) 7,520
Decandra (Goran) (no.)
Thatching 17,525 33,123 16,868 57,338
material Nypafruticans
(Golpata) (MT)
Thatching 3,621 790 668 225
material grass
(MT)
Phoenix 543 (MT) 348 19,761 (no.) 1,044
Paludosa (Hantal)
Fuel wood (ft3) 69,370 47,523 14,455 10,190
Honey (MT) 84 7,970 67 24,048
Wax (MT) 23 1,665 63 8,108
Fish (MT) 2,061 58,374 3,432 158, 368
Crab (MT) 123 2,148 1, 123 52,026
Dry fish (MT) 1,095 18,998 2,773 179,761
Cultural Tourist (no.) 59,169 14,588 100,817 144,832
3.2 Corroborative evidence powerful groups who are grabbing the resources and selling
them in the market at high prices. Thus, consumers are also
Over extraction of resources has created serious threat to facing losses in their accounts. As a result, benefits for the
the conservation of the biodiversity resources. Therefore, local forest people are decreased.
present resource extraction as well as revenue earning is at
stake, leading to overvaluation of the current resources by 3.3 Analytical abstraction
powerful syndicate.
When non-marketable goods are transformed into
It becomes visible that extraction of most forest resources marketable goods, it creates rent and deadweight loss. This
has increased over the years (Table 3). As a result, producer valuation through pricing mechanisms results in higher
surplus of the forest has reduced. On the other hand, the prices, loss of consumer surplus, loss in growth and loss in
government is losing revenue due to over-extraction by the endowment of the resources (i.e. the producer surplus).
Figure 5. Price effect if natural resources are turned into marketable goods (Source: Titumir, Afrin & Islam, n.d.)

Figure 5 (in Panel A) explains the same as the reality of inefficiency. Consequentially, TRUs are losing their consumer
the natural resources markets. The x-axis in horizontal surplus, the government is losing the share of revenue and
line indicates price, where y-axis in vertical line indicates the forest is losing its endowment of resources, whereas
quantity. Initially, at a very low level of price or sometimes the powerful groups are getting the lion’s share of the rent
with no price, the demand for natural resources is infinite (Titumir, Afrin & Islam, n.d.).
measured through a perfectly elastic demand curve.
Simultaneously, the earth herself is endowed with a fixed 3.4 Summary of multiple values based on IPBES
amount of resources. There are some resources that have guidelines
regenerative capacity, but are depleted when the harvest
rate is greater than the regeneration rate. Consequently, the Local people conceive of values based on their day-to-day
supply curve is perfectly inelastic. interrelations and interdependence with the Sundarbans.
They often value the resources of the Sundarbans by what
Panel B of the same figure attempts to depict the price they get from them, both directly and indirectly, including
effect on natural resources if they are metamorphosed into both use value and non-use values of nature. For example,
marketable goods. When non-market goods transform they use various flora and fauna, based on which the use
into marketable goods, the positive demand curve will values can be categorized but at the same time, they also
change and consumers get to interact with different prices. acknowledge the non-use values of nature (Table 1). These
The changing demand curve produces some alternative non-use values include both bequest value and existence
distribution and sharing. Firstly, the new equilibrium point value, which can be sorted into intrinsic value as well as
sets at E, spiralling up the prices from P1 to P2. Consequently, relational value (Table 4), i.e. cultural heritage, historical
the consumer surplus gets reduced from PEHP1 to PEP2. legacy, habitat, biodiversity, etc. On the other hand,
Thus, loss of consumer surplus as rent is P2EHP1. Another instrumental value takes the form of indirect use value,
important change in distribution occurs if non-marketable e.g. climate regulation, cyclone protection and erosion
goods transform into marketable goods. The change control. Certain multiple values of nature as conceived by
generates rent and deadweight loss (shaded area) due to the TRUs (Table 1), therefore, are summarised in Table 4 as
higher demand and lack of supply, causing consumption illustrations, using IPBES guidelines.
Table 4. An illustrative summary of the different meanings of value: collated from the TRUs of the Sundarbans, using IPBES guidelines (Source:
Prepared by the authors)7
Principles Importance Preferences Measures (Explanation)
Intrinsic The right of the National interest Tigers are natural Tiger Population Bequest value,
Royal Bengal Tiger in maintaining the saviors of forest and Census, Cultural heritage of
to survive world’s biggest the national symbol myths and beliefs,
cat as the world’s of Bangladesh Narratives, Aesthetic value,
The survival right of charismatic Indigenous World’s largest
the other floral and mega-fauna and Diverse species knowledge based mangrove forest,
faunal species maintaining maintain ecological testimonies, Oral World Heritage site
ecological balance that history
balance to keep conserves the
the ecosystem ecosystem
sustainable and
resilient
Instrumental Ecosystem-based Contribution as Interest in Quantitative, Resist soil erosion,
disaster risk natural fortress in maintaining habitat Narrative, combat salinity
reduction and reducing natural and biodiversity Indigenous intrusion and
climate regulation, disasters and of this diverse knowledge based provide fresh air
Cyclone protection contribution ecosystem testimonies, Oral
of carbon History
sequestration to
global stock
Relational Living in harmony Identifying TRUs as Interest in Economic price Provides livelihood
with nature, key to conservation maintaining based measures are services (food, water,
Customary rights, and sustainable use these multiple inadequate and the fuel etc.), Identity
Rights to self of biodiversity for ecosystems that following are to be and autonomy,
determination, sustainability and provide different explored: Narrative, Living well in
Sustainability and resilience ecosystem services Indigenous, harmony with
resilience (provisioning, Deliberations, nature, Spirituality
regulating and Multiple evidence- of nature, Cohesion,
supporting) based approaches Governance and
justice

Figure 6. Sundarbans with complex network of tidal waterways (Photo: Unnayan Onneshan)
4. Valuation, conservation and sustainable “Outsiders catch fish by using ‘Bainjal’ which kills most of the
use: indigenous and local knowledge and carps.” Like the fishermen, other TRUs also follow traditional
customary use norms, rules and practices to conserve the resources of the
forest. Khalilur Rahman says, “Certain religious rituals are
The consultations suggest that the rules and practices the followed before going to the forest for honey and Golpata
TRUs follow help conserve the forest as ecological harmony collection, like performing special prayers and collecting ‘tabij’
remains unchanged and their socio-ecological life cycle (amulets) so that tigers cannot harm them.” These norms,
thrives. They treat the resources of the Sundarbans as rules and practices come from their belief that the forest is
blessings and try to make sustainable use of them so that the perpetual kin to the TRUs, and they tend to instinctively
resources are not harmed. They have respective values, use the resources of the forest sustainably. Ambia Khatun, a
norms and behaviors which create conventions, restrictions, TRU woman opines, “The Sundarbans is our life. If it dies, we
taboos and other socially-formed characteristics for using will not be able to survive for a single day. You cannot buy life
the Sundarbans. with money.” (see Fig.6)
4.1 The TRUs’ perspective Apart from the traditional norms, other rules by which
TRU fishermen sustainably use forest resources are worth
In terms of netting the fish, Habibur Rahman Gazi, a mentioning. To understand these more clearly, a comparison
fisherman says, “We catch fish by rocket nets that do not kill the between the traditional rules followed by the TRUs and the
carp. Therefore, fishes are not being killed by the local people.” practices of non-traditional users are provided in Table 5.
In conjunction with Gazi’s words, another fisherman says,
Table 5. Traditional rules vs. non-traditional practices followed by the fishermen of the Sundarbans (Source: Prepared by the authors)
Item Traditional rules followed by Practices of non-traditional Remarks
TRUs users
Spatial restrictions Temporary closure of 1-2 No spatial restrictions are Fishing opportunities are
weeks to get substantial followed; extraction of fish is decreased and some important
amount of fish in certain areas performed constantly from all species of fish are getting reduced.
which are abundant with more the water bodies.
species of fish.
Temporal restrictions Normally they do not go No temporal restrictions are Because of incessant fishing
fishing on Friday. Also, some maintained. by outsiders, fish resources are
small period restrictions are getting fewer day by day.
imposed when necessary to
get more fish.

Gear restrictions They do not use fishing Detrimental nets like “bainjal”, Because of the pernicious fishing
techniques which destroy the “chorjal” are used for fishing. techniques, larvae, carp and fish
carp. eggs are diminished.
Effort restrictions There is mutually negotiated No particular restriction over Outsiders are extracting as much
fishing opportunities using using techniques, spaces and fish as they can evading the rules
traditional nets like “chawrpata” who can use or not. and regulations.
and “khalpata”.
Species restrictions Restrictions are put in place During the use of nets like Carp die which results in less fish in
during ovulation periods of “chawrjal”, “bainjal” and some the canals, rivers and coastal areas.
certain species like “paissha”, foreign nets, fishes including
“dadne”, “vetki” and other fishes. carp get caught in the net.
Catch restrictions Only consumable species of Most species of fish are caught. Natural biodiversity gets disrupted
fish are caught. and harmed.
Water color When the water gets reddish, Outsiders are mostly unaware Due to use of engine boats and
they predict more Hilsha of this idea. trawlers by the outsiders, water
production in the coastal gets polluted which kills many
region. Amount of fish species of fish and hampers
increases in turbid water. reproduction.
Number of fish decreases in
polluted water.
Water, wind direction and Fish increase during high tide. Non-traditional resource users More extraction of fish occurs
current Wind from both southern and do not follow this perspective. as outsiders utilize the derived
southeast directions indicates Many of them have learnt knowledge of the traditional
increase in amount of fish. traditional rules recently. fishermen.
Lunar periodicity During a full moon the amount They go fishing all the time More extraction occurs and carp
of fish increases. Hence it is irrespective of full moon and get killed.
wise to wait for the full moon new moon.
to catch more fish.
Sediment and topography High amount of siltation is Non-traditional forest users cut Due to more sedimentation,
dangerous to the topography trees incessantly, which create marine and coastal ecosystems
of the water bodies. They also more sedimentation. are disrupted and fishing sites
detect type of mud using their decrease.
fingers and can predict the
best fishing sites.
Traditional celestial They use traditional method of Non-traditional resource users Traditional method is more reliable
navigation static (e.g. location of the site) mostly have wristwatches to because of years of experience in
information to calibrate the get the direction of the fishing practice.
relative position of the fishing site.
boat.
Birds They consider birds like No particular affiliation with Birds are also killed by hunters
pigeons, egrets, common tern, any particular species of birds. which damages the biodiversity of
and kingfishers as sacred. the forest.
These birds also help them find
suitable places for fishing.
Fishing sites They divide fishing sites They tend to go fishing where Due to encroachment in almost
based on different canals, e.g. they can extract more fish. every waterbody, traditional
“Bustamkhal”, “Keora kata” and fishermen are getting deprived of
“Kodal kata”. fish more than before.
Netting the fish They use “rocketjal”, “berjal” They use “bainjal”, “chawrpata” Because of nets used by outsiders,
mostly to catch fish. and some foreign nets to catch carps and larvae get caught
fish. and killed also, causing less fish
reproduction.
Nets The nets have medium to big The nets they use are normally As the nets of the non-traditional
holes which are mainly used more than 100 meters long users are dense with very tiny
to catch medium to big fish. and have very tiny holes. holes, carps and larvae get caught
Length of “berjal” varies from and killed.
4-5 meters to 90-100 meters
and width is around 7-8
meters.
Boats They make boats using Most of the non-traditional As more outsiders come for fishing,
“sundori” mostly. The boats resource users use engine they are using more engine boats,
are traditionally called “dingi boats and trawlers made from which are polluting the water and
nouka”. different kinds of wood like destroying the ecosystems of the
“gewa”, “goran” and “sundori”. fish.

Besides the fisherman, other TRUs also uphold traditional Guinea (PNG), the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji, there
rules. When collecting honey from honeycombs, usually are examples of temporary reef closures before religious
during the months of April, May and June, the Mouals ceremonies (Polunin 1984) to replenish supplies of fish and
(honey/wax collectors) usually cut a specific section invertebrate species (Hviding 1989; Aswani & Weiant 2004;
(about two-thirds) of the honeycomb and leave the rest Hickey 2006), after the death of a landowner or village chief
for reproduction. They also try to make sure that no young (Wright 1985; Hickey 2006; Macintyre & Foale 2007), and
bees are killed while collecting honey and squeeze beehives after a marriage or birth (Ravuvu 1983). In Maluku, Indonesia,
by hand, never using metal tools. They revisit the colonies certain community leaders used customary management
after a period of one month or more depending upon the to ban cyanide fishing associated with the live reef food
size of the colony and the flowering conditions of nearby fish trade (Thornburn 2001). In some areas, particular
vegetation. When collecting the honey, the Mouals produce groups have rights to specific fishing techniques, which
smoke using dry leaves but never put fire on a beehive. are restricted for others (Carrier & Carrier 1983). Currently,
The Bawalis (wood collectors) leave at least one stem in coastal groups in the Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands,
each clump of trees after cutting. Once the Bawalis have are not only excluding non-owners from using restricted
harvested wood from a compartment, they will not use the technologies such as spear fishing at night, but they are also
same compartment for harvesting the following year, rather relentlessly demanding that inclusive stakeholders should
will harvest on a cyclical basis so that there is an adequate not use these fishing methods (Aswani & Hamilton 2004).
re-growth of plants. They usually cut wood where there is Also, there are restrictions on who can catch particular
abundance. They do not cut young and straight trees. species of fish, which methods are to be followed and which
areas allow for fishing (Cinner & Aswani 2007).
According to the rules followed by Golpata (Nypa fruticans)
harvesters, exploitation in any area is not allowed more than 4.3 Analytical abstraction
once a year and is not allowed during June to September
specifically as it is the growing period of Golpata. They cut The existence of interrelationships between human sociality
only leaves that are approximately nine feet long, and the and nature is the key to optimal usage and conservation of
leaves are cut in a way so that the central leaf and the leaf natural resources. In the following graph (see Fig. 8), the
next to it in each clump are retained. They maintain the rule vertical axis measures the individual’s preferences. On other
that the flowers and fruits shall in no way be disturbed when hand, the horizontal axis measures welfare, as well as the
cutting leaves. They also maintain that young plants with cooperation and defection that depend on two different
only one utilizable leaf should not be cut (see Fig.7). functions of the individual preferences. The graph explains
the rational choice view versus social cooperation. At point
4.2 Corroborative evidence A, the expected cooperation and the expected defection
intersect, showing a lower level of welfare and a low level of
Traditional knowledge is followed in conservation of individuals’ consensus. Individuals as social beings belong
natural resources in other countries as well. In Papua New to the web of ecological and social environment. Therefore,
Figure 7. TRUs in the Sundarbans collecting Nypa fruticans using their traditional knowledge
(Photo: Unnayan Onneshan)

Figure 8. Rational choice vs. social cooperation (Source: Titumir, Afrin & Islam, n.d.)
ecosystem carries the function of individual social being Sundarbans is incumbent on the forest department. But the
as the process of reservation and reiteration. The graph people who are dependent on this forest are not entitled
shows that, as a social being in a particular ecosystem, the with any responsibility. Participation of TRUs, recognition of
individual can enlarge its welfare at W*, which is greater than their knowledge and practices, and the well-defined rights
point A. So, the total welfare generates the area of AW1W*B of TRUs are considered to be crucial for management and
(Titumir, Afrin & Islam, n.d.). conservation of the Sundarbans (see Table 6).
The essence of this proposition is that social norms can

organize the equitable benefit-sharing of the resources. The 5. Rent, power and political settlement
traditional evolution of norms and knowledge can efficiently
manage the resource rent and the sustainability of resources. The opinions of the TRUs demonstrate that there is a
The power of sanction imposed by the stakeholders can triangular-shaped power distribution among employees
informally organize the rights of resource consumption and of the government agencies (e.g. forest department,
accretion. Social norms are so powerful that social beings law enforcement), (illegal) businesses, and politicians.
are ready to sacrifice to prolong the relationship between These powerful groups dictate the pricing strategy of
nature and human beings. The recognition of social norms the resources and control the market structure through
and social ownership, thus, can sustainably manage natural political settlement. Despite several rules, regulations and
resources and the equitable sharing of natural resource embargoes, they get extra privilege by giving bribes to the
rents (Titumir, Afrin & Islam, n.d.). employees of the forest department and police. In some
cases, they too also get involved in extraction of resources.
4.4 Institutionalizing traditional knowledge and TRUs have to get permission to access the forest (e.g. boat
customary practices licenses, Golpata and honey collecting licenses). This process
requires some amount of money, but the forest people also
The rights of the local communities of the Sundarbans are have to give an extra toll of money in the form of bribes
not clearly defined and acknowledged in Bangladesh. A few to the forest department, which compels them to extract
issues regarding the rights of the forest people are found more resources from the forest. As a result, biodiversity
in certain project circumstances.8 Likewise, project-based reproduction is hampered and damage occurs to the
participation has little impact on the activities of government ecosystem of the forest. On the other hand, even if powerful
organizations. Thus, existing acts, policies and regulations groups get caught by the forest people while violating any
provide few opportunities for local people to participate in ban or rule, they immediately get released by giving extra
the conservation process of the forest. According to the law, amounts of money. Local forest people have mentioned
the state is entitled with the responsibility for the protection such a group, known as the “black party”, which extracts
of the Sundarbans. The main responsibility to protect the resources regularly, violating the laws. If anyone by any

Table 6. Institutional steps for resource management and appropriation (Source: Prepared by the authors)
Institutional steps Present state Suggestions
Participation of TRUs in policy Little scope of participation TRUs’ practices, perspectives and participation are needed to
making, management of by TRUs yield better conservation outcomes and sustainable use of
ecosystem and conservation of biodiversity
biodiversity of the Sundarbans
Enacting laws and regulations to ensure the rights and
empowerment of TRUs to practice their ILK in the conservation
of the forest
Engaging TRUs in co-management and conservation process
Recognition of traditional No/little recognition of Legally recognizing traditional rules, practices and values of
knowledge and practices traditional rules, norms, TRUs
in management and values and practices in
conservation of the forest existing management and Incorporating these in formal conservation and management
conservation framework strategies
Definition of rights of the TRUs Declining user rights of the Clearly defining the rights of the TRUs, not exclude them from
in laws and regulations TRUs in existing rules and forest resources but to ensure customary and sustainable use
regulations by TRUs
chance sees them violating the law, they capture the person result, decisions are being made from a level of authority and
and do not release him until their extraction is finished. Thus, are transmitted to the lower level without any substantial
rent dissipation and unequal distribution of power have degree of discussion. Likewise, due to a lack of recognition
created a clientelistic network through which extraction of of traditional knowledge and other kindred circumstances,
resources occurs randomly in order to accumulate more rent. the significance of the ECA designation has been smothered
This state of affairs is highly responsible for the degradation to a large extent. Recently, a coal-based electric power plant
of the ecological biodiversity of the Sundarbans. named Rampal is being constructed only 14 kilometers away
from the Sundarbans ECA zone. Another electric power
5.1 Governance structure of the Sundarbans and signs plant has been planned for construction only 10 kilometers
of unsustainable resource extraction away from the ECA area. According to the environment law
of Bangladesh, establishing this kind of power plant within
The Sundarbans was declared a reserve forest in 1875. 10 kilometers of the ECA zone is strictly prohibited.
About 32,400 hectares of this forest have been designated
as three wildlife sanctuaries. These wildlife sanctuaries Despite objections and violations of the existing laws,
were established in 1997 under the Bangladesh Wildlife industrialization is advancing on the periphery of the
Preservation Amendment Act, 1974. Afterwards, the Sundarbans. Hence, it could be recapitulated that the legal
Sundarbans was declared an Ecologically Critical Area (ECA) and governance structure of the Sundarbans has been
by the Department of Environment (DoE) of Bangladesh feckless and contradictory in terms of its implementation
in 1999 under the Bangladesh Environment Conservation process. As a consequence, conservation strategy is being
Act, 1995, which was amended in 2010. According to the hampered while sustainability of the forest is at stake due
Conservation Act of 2010, an Ecologically Critical Area refers to incessant exploitation by powerful groups and the
to an area which is rich in unique biodiversity, or due to the ineffective role of the administration.
importance of its environmental aspects, is necessary to
protect or conserve from destructive activities. The ECA also 5.2 The TRUs’ perspective
falls within the category of natural and cultural heritage.
The respondents argue that their collection processes are
Despite the ECA designation, rules were not enforced not harmful to the conservation of the forest. As Abu Musa,
and most importantly, the rights of inhabitants of the one of the respondents argues, “TRUs usually collect resources
Sundarbans were equivocal and trifling for the most part. keeping in the mind that if they cause any harm to the forest,
As a result, opportunist groups took advantage, engaging they will be sufferer.” However, after enactment of laws, rules
in over-exploitation of the resources of the forest. Problems and regulations, access to the forest has become restricted,
arose including lack of participation of the TRUs in the and the powerful are extracting resources secretly by
conservation process, declination of user rights, lack of bribing the police and personnel of the forest department.
implementation of laws and rules, emergence of imposed Abu Musa further added, “As the powerful class is getting
development projects and also use of top-down approaches access to the forest bribing huge amounts of money, they are
in the co-management process of the Sundarbans. As a extracting as many resources as they can without caring about

Figure 9. Effects of poisoning and use of prohibited nets for catching fish (Source:
Prepared by the authors)
the survival of the forest. But TRUs are being deprived.” Though due to the non-existence of markets, but also because of
clientelist groups are illegally extracting resources through unequal power distribution among different groups. Thus,
unsustainable practices, the TRUs say, illegal activities go infiltration and illegal removal of valuable wood from the
unpunished. Rather TRUs are being harassed, and they do forest occurs due to the absence of sustainable management
not have any voice in decision-making processes of the practices and well-functioning institutional arrangements
forest management. Tanjila, a TRU woman says, “They (forest (Rahman, Rahman & Islam 2010).
department and other governance body) do not listen to us.
They only pay heed to the opinion of the powerful class. We, the 5.4 Analytical abstraction
TRUs, are the victims”. During the FGDs it came forth that the
rent-seeking groups who are powerful both politically and The agents assert control over the potential rent under the
bureaucratically are using illegal means to extract resources. extractive institutional arrangements that are historically
Moreover, a group of people are using poison and prohibited prevailing, not only by the dominant goals of production,
nets to extract more fish at a time, which not only destroys but also by the prevailing social relations and the scale of
all kinds of fishes but also other aquatic species (see Fig. 9). production, as well as relations of distribution and property
regimes. Specifically, it can be said that in a developing
5.3 Corroborative evidence economy, the likelihood of unstable property rights
for natural resources is very high. A strong institutional
A few studies show that the existence of organized groups arrangement can check the stability. Here, we try to visualize
of mongers who illegally cut and remove valuable trees are the way in which different agents behave in strategic ways
acutely prevalent in the Sundarbans (Rahman, Rahman & under vulnerable institutional arrangements to further their
Islam 2010). The forest department allows illegal means of own interest under a game theory approach, and which
fishing by taking bribes from the fishermen (Hassan, Nabi ultimately results in the destruction of natural resources.
& Mozumder 2012). Moreover, the existence of vertical
relations in society and upward enforcement of rules enable To explain the phenomenon as well as the rational incentive
the powerful groups to capture resources with impunity to break the contract under weak institutional arrangements,
(Adhikari & Goldey 2010). Due to unequal distribution the above graph (see Fig. 10) that depicts the prisoner’s
of power and wealth, conflict and discrimination among dilemma and the Nash equilibrium9, can be very useful.
different stakeholders emerge (Hassan, Nabi & Mozumder Here, the vertical axis measures the resource extraction
2012). Accordingly, biodiversity degradation not only occurs by agent A, and the horizontal axis measures the resource
extraction by agent B. Under mutual contract, both agents

Figure 10. Institutional vulnerability and destruction of resources (Source: Titumir, Afrin &
Islam, n.d.)
extract resources on the A1B1 line. The next scenario is that governance and institutional framework, it is crucial to
as a rational being, agent B can maximize his extraction incorporate it in the stabilization process. This stabilization
if B thinks that by holding agent A constant he (B) can will transform the biodiversity and ecosystems of the
extract more resources as there is no one to monitor him. Sundarbans bringing about a situation where sustainable
So, agent B will go for more extraction at B1*, and keeping use and benefit-sharing between human beings and nature
the A1 fixed is the symptom of cheating, pointing to B1*/A1 will be ensured. Transformation of natural resources towards
in the graph. Similarly, another rational agent of this model sustainability and resilience would thus create an ambience
A will do the same at A1*, keeping the B1 fixed is another of well-being for both humans and nature (see Fig. 11).
symptom of cheating, pointing to A1*/B1. Therefore, under When nature and humans live in harmony, ecosystems
weak institutional arrangements, the contract does not become balanced through sustainable use, access and
hold. In the graph, the new resource extraction line is now benefit-sharing.
A1*/B1 and B1*/A1, galloping up from A1B1. Despite the Nash
equilibrium, it is not stable. Until the complete extraction If the transformation of ecosystems to sustainability is not
of natural resources happens, the shift and alteration of achieved, there will be imbalance in the ecosystem, leading
the non-cooperative game will persist. The key underlying to destruction of biodiversity, which is delineated in the
essence of this proposition is that the faulty persistence following three scenarios.
and the adverse development of the institutions of the
ex-colonial country are the reasons for massive resource 6.1 Scenario A: Loss of biodiversity (level of alienation)
destruction (Titumir, Afrin & Islam, n.d.).
The TRUs say human beings consider themselves, at the
present time, to be independent and the master of nature,
6. Towards transformational pathways though they are part of nature. They argue that generally
people treat nature as “mere matter” that can be extracted
Tranformational pathways require stabilization of for human purposes, destroying the natural resources in
ecosystems, that is, the conservation of the Sundarbans various ways. In this way, according to them, human beings
through damage limitation. For stabilization of ecosystems, alienate themselves from nature. People become alienated
it is necessary to identify the drivers of ecological from the world when they fail to recognize its humanity,
degradation. These drivers include both natural and when they are unable to see the world as their world and
anthropogenic pressures on the Sundarbans. Moreover, themselves as the part of the world. Thus, alienation derives
institutional and governance structures are seen to be from people’s failure to recognize the sociality between
involved in degradation processes through various means humans and nature. These alienated relations, as they
of exploitaition of natural resources, even though they are suggest, lead to commodification of natural resources
supposed to serve as the savior of the Sundarbans. Since through market pricing. In this way valuation becomes
indigenous local knowledge has been kept outside of this equal to the market price and the intrinsic values of natural

Figure 11. Transformation pathways ( Source: Prepared by the authors)
resources and the sociality between nature and humans is beliefs on commodities have created an obscure hierarchy
ignored, leading to over-extraction and thus destruction of of value of the natural resources on which demand for
the natural resources (see Fig. 12). On the contrary to the commodities depend. The high price commodities are
virtuous cycle of the ecosystem, they draw the vicious cycle seen as the most valuable. This commodity fetishism
of how producers, consumers and decomposers - all of them induces over-extraction of the resources through primitive
start to get alienated from each other and have to bear loss accumulation of nature (see Fig. 13). The more money the
in each of the provisions. powerful class gets, the more influence it can wield on
extracting resources from the Sundarbans. Through this
6.2 Scenario B: Loss of biodiversity (commodity pervasive motivation, according to the TRUs, a clientelistic
fetishism) network emerges wherein members of the network thrive
through primitive accumulation. Through this, only material
The TRUs often talk about pervasive commodification of provision of the forest comes forward ignoring the intrinsic
natural resources. Everything produced or received from and underlying values of mutual existence. Degradation of
nature is seen as commodities in their mind. In this way, the forest, loss of biodiversity and overall socio-ecological
commodities turn into fetishes in the sense that human imbalance occur.
Figure 12. Alienation and loss of biodiversity (Source: Prepared by the authors)

Figure 13. Commodity fetishism and biodiversity loss (Source: Prepared by the authors)
6.3 Scenario C: Sustainable and non-sustainable constructed norms and values, which are an informal
scenarios (appropriation and expropriation) institutional set-up, can solve the natural resource problem.
The norms and values create a collective organization
As stated above, alienation occurs through materialistic that can preserve the natural resources sustainably and
provision of commodities where the capitalist class equitably. The authority to impose credible threats and
tends to get access to the resources and sell them in the sanctions by the stakeholders of the resources on the
market at high prices. By using the power of institutions, resource distribution could immensely contribute to solving
powerful agents expropriate the resources. The extractive the natural resource problem and ensure distribution
institutions exclude the TRUs and the primary producers of benefits. As forest people regard the forest as their
from equitable benefit-sharing of natural resources. intimate relative, they do not think of harming the natural
Likewise, the state also loses a significant share of revenue resources of the forest. Therefore, their values, norms and
in natural resource rents. The TRUs claims that the officials traditional rules and practices should be incorporated in the
of the local forest department, police and leaders of conservation processes of the Sundarbans (see Fig. 14).
political parties “successfully” marginalize the general
people or community people.
7. Conclusions
Contrary to this non-sustainable use of the resources, proper
appropriation of the natural resources of the Sundarbans is By using a multiple evidence-based approach, the diverse
healthy. In conjunction with this statement, it is important knowledge system of the TRUs and corroborative scientific
to consolidate the customary and traditional rules and evidence, this chapter conceptualizes nature and its values.
practices of the forest people who actually treat the forest TRUs consider the Sundarbans as their mind, through
as their mind. The key understanding is that these socially which human-nature sociality thrives. The TRUs challenge
Figure 14. Human-nature-sociality framework: sustainable utilization, customary rights (Source: Titumir, Afrin & Islam, n.d.)

mainstream valuation methods and argue that valuation Barton, DN & Harrison, PA (eds.) 2017, Integrated assessment
of environmental resources through market penetration and valuation of ecosystem services, Intergovernmental
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coproduced through complementarity between humans Services (IPBES), Bonn, Germany.
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Titumir, RAM & Afrin, T 2017, ‘Complementarities of human- 7 These are examples that could be made into an article of their own
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nature well-beings: A case illustrated through traditional
8 For example, a special operation named “smart patrolling” has
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Sustainable livelihoods in socio-ecological production financial assistance of USAID, which is known as “Bagh”. Also
landscapes and seascapes, eds. UNU-IAS & IGES, Satoyama another program of the forest department named “IPAC” is run by
the financial assistance of USAID. In these programs, people from
Initiative Thematic Review (SITR) vol. 3, United Nations nearby villages were included in co-management of the forest, but
University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability, their participation halted when the program ended.
Tokyo, pp. 34-45. 9 The Nash equilibrium is a steady state where the each agent has
no incentive to deviate from their chosen strategy assuming the
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can traditional concepts and contemporary development be
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Johannes, UNESCO, Indonesia, pp. 79–100.
1 Human groups maintain a high level of sociality despite a low level

of relatedness among group members (Gintis 2000). This signifies
that pro-social behavior exists in human-beings, as Gintis called it
“strong reciprocity”, which in part may explain sociality.
2 Direct use value means the economic or social value of the goods
or benefits derived from the services provided by an ecosystem
that are used directly by an economic agent. These include
consumptive uses (e.g. harvesting goods) and non-consumptive
uses (e.g. enjoyment of scenic beauty).
3 Indirect use value includes benefits derived from the goods and
services provided by an ecosystem that are used indirectly by an
economic agent. For example, indirect use values are the provision
of cyclone protection by the forest or the usage of natural water of
the forest, etc.
4 Existence value is often reflected as a sense of well-being, such as
existence of coastal and marine biodiversity and habitats. People
may not have experienced or utilized this value directly but they
benefit from the knowledge of it.
5 Option value refers to the value of retaining options for the future.
These values include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently
unknown and need to be explored. It is the value of knowing that
there are biological resources existing in this biosphere that may
prove to be an effective option for something important in future.
For example, research helps explore the diversity of myriad flora
and fauna of the forest. Education and aesthetics are also examples
of option value.
6 Bequest value refers to the readiness of present day mankind
to spend goods in order to preserve biological diversity and its
components for future generations. Bequest value is often termed
as beneficial or altruistic value. For example, cultural heritage and
resources for future generations, which are also expressed through
consumers’ willingness to pay or less/delayed consumption of the
resources for the sake of future.

Chapter 9
Towards an integrated multi-stakeholder

landscape approach to reconciling
values and enhancing synergies:
a case study in Taiwan
Lead authors:
Kuang-Chung Lee , Polina G. Karimova1, Shao-Yu Yan1
*1
1
National Dong Hwa University, No. 1, Sec. 2, Da Hsueh Rd. Shoufeng, Hualien 97401, Taiwan
[email protected]
Abstract
The case study analyzes the collaborative planning and management processes of the ‘Forest-River-Village-Sea (森-川-里-
海) Ecoagriculture Initiative’ from 2016 to 2017 in Xinshe Village, Hualien County, Taiwan. Two indigenous ethnic groups
– the Kavalan Xinshe tribe and the Amis Dipit tribe – and their farmlands are located in the same watershed between the
national forests of the Coastal Mountain Range and the Pacific Ocean. Resource conflicts over water usage, hunting and
fishing rights have happened from time to time between the tribes. In the past, different government agencies worked
separately with each settlement based on their sectoral goals. An integrated multi-stakeholder landscape approach and
cross-sector collaborative governance were required to reconcile different values and enhance synergies.
To analyze the planning and management processes of the Initiative between October 2016 and December 2017, the
research framework was comprised of two task loops: evaluation of existing institutional capacity and development of new
institutional capacity. Classification of multiple values of nature MVN under the IPBES and ‘Ecoagriculture Stool’ landscape
objectives were applied to examine stakeholders’ value priorities. Healey’s theory of collaborative planning and the ODA’s
method of stakeholder analysis were adopted for the institutional capacity evaluation.
With potential risk factors and suggestions to their resolution outlined, this study demonstrates how a synthesis of
‘intellectual’, ‘social’ and ‘political’ capitals is capable of bridging values of various stakeholders to, on the one hand, forge a
cross-border connectivity among the inhabitants, and on the other hand, encourage a cross-sector coherence among the
government agencies engaged in the area.
Keywords: Socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS); Multiple values of nature; Collaborative
planning; Multi-Stakeholder Platform; Synergy

Chapter 9: Towards an integrated multi-stakeholder landscape approach to reconciling values
List of Abbreviations:
COA: Taiwan Council of Agriculture
EBAFA: Eastern Region Branch Agriculture and Food Agency, Council of Agriculture
HBSWC: Hualien Branch, Soil and Water Conservation Bureau, Council of Agriculture
HDARES: Hualien District Agricultural Research and Extension Station, Council of Agriculture
HFDOFB: Hualien Forest District Office, Forestry Bureau, Council of Agriculture
IPBES: The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
NDHU: National Dong Hwa University
ODA: Overseas Development Administration
Country Chinese Taipei (Taiwan)

Province Hualien County
District Xinshe Village, Fengbin Township
Number of indirect beneficiaries 2 700 persons
Dominant ethnicity Indigenous (Kavalan, Amis)
Figure 1. Map of the case study region, Xinshe Village, Fengbin Township, Hualien County, Taiwan

Size of case study/project area 1 600 hectares

Geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) 23°39’20.8”N 121°32’21.8”E
Dominant ethnicity Indigenous (Kavalan, Amis)
Figure 2. Land use and land cover map of the case study site
1. Introduction the world and may impact the pathways to achieving socio-
ecological harmony, at the same time, local experiences, like
‘Societies living in harmony with nature’ as the core vision of the ones of the Xinshe SEPLS, may provide a valuable piece
the Satoyama Initiative makes one take a pause and ponder of knowledge to be shared on both regional and global
upon the most suitable ways of achieving such harmony. levels.
In the context where revitalization of socio-ecological
production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS) depends 1.1 Background
on different, and at times conflicting, value priorities and
decisions made by various stakeholders, it is crucial to Taiwan is a small island with a high population density of
ensure the existence of a multi-stakeholder dialogue. average 649 people/km2 (World Population Review, 2019).
Presented in this study is an attempt to analyze a multi- 80% of the population is concentrated in urban areas which
stakeholder landscape approach in Xinshe Village, Hualien cover only 13% of Taiwan’s total land, while natural and rural
County, Taiwan, from the standpoint of multiple values of areas take up 58% and 29% respectively (Lee, 2016). Rural
nature under IPBES (Diaz et al. 2015). While background and urban areas are mainly located in the middle and lower
conditions, composition of stakeholders and many other reaches of the island. In the past, the livelihoods of local
factors are unique to each SEPLS case study area around and indigenous communities in rural areas depended on

environmentally friendly agriculture, forestry, fishery, and within planning activities. However, to date, there has
livestock farming. However, in recent decades, pressured been a lack of empirical research to develop such a kind of
by urbanization, conventional farming, and climate change, approach.
rural areas have been suffering from such problems as
aging population, deterioration of production landscape, 1.2 Socioeconomic and environmental characteristics
economic depression, and disappearance of traditional of the area
ethics and culture.
This chapter presents a case study of Xinshe Village,
Due to the significant change in resource use in rural areas, Fengbin Township, Hualien County, located on the east
which is associated with a reduced collection of firewood coast of Taiwan, bordered by the national forests of the
and the decreasing and aging population of locals able to Coastal Mountain Range on its western side, extending
manage forests and farmlands, SEPLS are no longer being eastward and descending into a watershed of about 600
maintained as they once were. Consequently, species that hectares of land surrounded by the Pacific Ocean (see
live specifically in SEPLS and have been maintained by Fig. 1 and 2). There are two indigenous settlements in the
human intervention, such as the African grass owl, leopard Xinshe SEPLS. These are the Dipit tribe, an Amis settlement
cat, Chinese box turtle, John’s frog, paradise fish, crab- of 77 residents on farmland in the middle reaches of the
eating mongoose, greater painted-snipe and pangolin, watershed, and the Xinshe tribe, a Kavalan settlement of
are now in danger of extinction (Forestry Bureau 2018). In 366 residents (Household Registration Office 2019) on
contrast, populations of wild boars and monkeys have been farmland located in the lower reaches of the valley down
rapidly expanding, causing adverse effects on ecosystems, to the coastal terrace.
severe damages to agricultural and forestry activities, and
substantial impacts on the livelihoods of rural communities. Geographically the Dipit and Xinshe tribes are both situated
inside one watershed, which connects the communities
Thus, integrity and connectedness among forests, rivers, along the ‘Forest-River-Village-Sea’ axis (see Fig. 3). Over
human settlements, and seas in natural and rural areas of time, this connectedness stimulated inhabitants of the
Taiwan are in need for an integrated landscape approach two tribes to develop versatile land use skills, ranging from
to conservation, revitalization, and sustainability. Moreover, hunting wild boar and gathering wild edible plants in the
a cross-communicative and participatory nature to this forests to farming terraced rice paddy fields and fishing in
approach is required and should incorporate, on the one the ocean. At the same time, the overall ecosystem health
hand, cross-border connectivity among inhabitants of of the Xinshe SEPLS largely depends on the practices taking
the area, and on the other hand, cross-sector coherence place all the way from upstream to downstream. For instance,
within government agencies engaged in the area. agricultural and household activities of the settlements may
Also, conservation and revitalization of SEPLS call for a lead to nutrient runoff and leaching into surface waters and
comprehensive assessment of values possessed by each groundwater, resulting in nutrient (N and P) discharge into
of the stakeholders and their reconciliation and inclusion the ocean. A hypoxic and/or eutrophic environment may
Figure 3. SEPLS of Xinshe Village (Photo: Vision Way Communication Co., LTD, Taiwan)

potentially impact the ecosystems of coastal coral reefs, and, the socio-ecological value perceptions of multi-interest
in turn, affect the fishery resources of both tribes. stakeholders, can be collectively developed to form a
new cross-border and cross-sector institutional capacity.
1.3 Objective and rationale The overarching goal of the study is to provide relevant
government authorities, rural communities, and other
Despite a seemingly intrinsic connection between the interested stakeholders with a reference for development
settlements and similar perceptions towards MVN, there of a collaborative, community-based landscape approach to
has never been a sufficient cross-settlement dialogue revitalization of rural areas.
mechanism for the co-management of common resources.
On the contrary, resource-related conflicts over water usage,
hunting and fishing rights have occurred from time to time 2. Methodology and framework
between the Dipit and Xinshe tribes. In the past, various
government agencies worked separately on different 1.1 Research framework
community affairs for either one of the settlements, while
their plans and actions lacked coherence. Thus, potential For the purpose of developing and evaluating participatory
collaboration pathways needed to be sought. forums for the ‘Forest-River-Village-Sea Ecoagriculture
Initiative’, two questions needed to be addressed. Firstly, is
Starting in October 2016, the case study area has been there any existing participation mechanism fit for bridging
recognized and managed with the help of ‘other effective diverse values and building up partnership among various
area-based conservation measures’ (OECMs; Jonas et stakeholders in the area (current status review)? Secondly,
al. 2018) by means of a multi-stakeholder cross-sector if there is no such mechanism, then how should a Multi-
platform (see below as Multi-Stakeholder Platform) for Stakeholder Platform and an Action Plan be designed and
promoting the ‘Forest-River-Village-Sea (森-川-里-海) implemented to reconcile diverse values and enhance
Ecoagriculture Initiative’. It was designed to set up and collaborative governance among stakeholders (new forum/
collectively implement an Action Plan for the area to action plan design and implementation)?
enhance ecosystem services for both communities. In other
words, the vision of the Multi-Stakeholder Platform was to Therefore, an action research framework for the evaluation
stimulate cross-border and cross-sector cooperation to help and development of institutional capacity, based on
Amis and Kavalan communities live in harmony with nature Healey’s theory of collaborative planning (1998, 2002),
through the revitalization of the SEPLS (see Fig. 4). was constructed for addressing each of the questions. The
framework itself is comprised of two task loops (see Fig. 5).
This study aims to analyze the processes and outcomes of The first task loop is the evaluation of existing institutional
the Initiative in the period from October 2016 to December capacity, while the second task loop is the development of
2017 and to demonstrate how the Action Plan, based on new institutional capacity.
Figure 4. A typical landscape of Taiwan’s East Coast (Photo: Hualien District Agricultural Research and Extension
Station, Taiwan)

Figure 5. An action research framework for the evaluation and development of institutional capacity
Within this study, the term ‘ecoagriculture’ was initially

visualized as a ‘three-legged stool’ (Scherr et al. 2014).
The ‘stool’ concept represents an integrated landscape
management that involves collaboration among different
groups of stakeholders (supportive institutions) to solve
shared problems and strengthen synergies among three
landscape objectives (three ‘legs’ of the ‘stool’) such as viable
local livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, and agricultural
production (see Fig. 6). It may be observed that the three
landscape objectives of ecoagriculture and three types of
MVN (Diaz et al 2015) similarly point out such categories as
nature in its intrinsic sense, the utilitarian function of nature,
and its socio-relational function. Thus, within this case study
analysis, the value aspect was regarded from the point of
both approaches.
Figure 6. The ecoagriculture ‘stool’ (Scherr et al. 2014)

2.2 Evaluation of existing institutional capacity
Existing institutional capacity in the case study area was stakeholder analysis by identifying key stakeholders and
assessed within the first task loop by answering the first their interests, determining their importance and influence,
research question of ‘whether or not there is an existing making a prognosis of their associated cooperation or risk
participation mechanism fit for bridging diverse values and potential, as well as comparing appropriate and employed
building up partnership among various stakeholders in the ways of stakeholder participation (see Fig. 7). In the first task
area’. This study adopts ODA’s (1995a, 1995b) method of loop, the researcher played an observer’s role, while also

Explanatory note:
Box I: Stakeholders of high importance to the project, but
with low influence. This implies that they will require special
initiatives if their interests are to be protected.
Box II: Stakeholders with a high degree of influence on the
project and a high importance for its success. This means that
a good working relationship with these stakeholders is vital to
ensure an effective coalition for support for the project.
Box III: Stakeholders with a high degree of influence on
the project but a low importance for its success. It signals
that these stakeholders may be a source of significant risk,
and, therefore, might need to be carefully monitored and
managed.
Box IV: Stakeholders in this box have a low influence on, or
importance to, the project’s objectives. They may require
limited monitoring or evaluation and are of a low priority.
They are unlikely to be a subject of project activities or
management.
Figure 7. Stakeholder assessment matrix (ODA 1995a, 1995b)
trying to be an attentive listener to better learn from the further allowed for the findings to be validated or challenged
stakeholders about local issues. by applying the triangulation process for comparing the
data collected via different methods (Denscombe 1998).
2.3 Development of a new platform/action plan for
institutional capacity building
3. Results and discussion
The second task loop was developed as a response to the
findings of the first task loop based on the necessity of The ‘Xinshe Forest-River-Village-Sea Ecoagriculture Initiative’
participatory forums and resources input for new institutional was carried out from October 2016 to December 2017 in
capacity building. Activities within this loop were aimed at accordance with two task loops for institutional capacity
answering the second research question: ‘how should a building. Firstly, the research team evaluated existing
Multi-Stakeholder Platform and an Action Plan be designed institutional capacity by means of stakeholder analysis and
and implemented to reconcile diverse values and enhance assessment of MVN. Secondly, a new Platform and Action
collaborative governance among stakeholders’. Social Plan for institutional capacity building were developed,
capital (relational resources), intellectual capital (knowledge while Healey’s three-capital criteria were used for progress
resources), and political capital (mobilization capacity) were evaluation. The main processes and findings of the Initiative,
the three criteria (Healey 1998) used within this task loop within the given time period, are discussed in this section.
to evaluate the progress of institutional capacity building
among the stakeholders. The whole process was facilitated 3.1 Evaluation of existing institutional capacity
and analyzed by the NDHU research team.
Focused on various value priorities (intrinsic, instrumental
2.4 Qualitative data collection methods or relational values of nature) as well as different landscape
objectives of ecoagriculture (biodiversity conservation,
This study employed a qualitative research methodology agricultural production or viable local livelihoods), several
based on the notion that qualitative methods can provide government institutions were separately working with
a more in-depth understanding of ‘inner experiences’, either the Dipit or Xinshe tribes up until the end of 2016
‘language’, ‘cultural meanings’ or ‘forms of social interaction’ (see Table 1).
than purely quantitative data (Silverman 2000). A multiple-
method approach alongside a range of various reference
sources was applied to maximize the understanding of
research questions (Flowerdew & Martin 1997). Methods
included participant observation, individual interviews, and
group discussions, while each method provided a particular
perspective that was able to highlight a specific aspect of the
researched phenomenon. The multiple-method approach

Table 1. Assessment of stakeholders’ value priorities and landscape objectives

Stakeholder Examples of stakeholders’ priorities and/ or sectoral Prioritized category of Prioritized
groups goals MVN* ‘Ecoagriculture stool’
landscape objectives*
Kavalan Xinshe Priority or sectoral Specific examples Good quality of life Viable local livelihoods
tribe goal (relational value)
Income and livelihood Rice production, selling of local
(esp. for young people) crafts, local restaurant/coffee
shop, tribal tourism
Revitalization of SEPLS Marine ecosystem (fishery,

corals), organic rice farming
Indigenous (esp. elders’) Local primary school/ place-

knowledge transfer and based curriculum, educational
education albums/ pamphlets/ brochures
about socio-ecological
knowledge, role of shaman in
tribal rituals
Amis Dipit tribe Income and livelihood Millet, rice and indigenous Good quality of life Viable local livelihoods
(esp. for young people) quinoa production, selling (relational value)
of local crafts, tribal tourism
(camping included)
Revitalization of SEPLS Riverine ecosystem of Jialang
stream (shrimp and fish),
biodiversity checks and
monitoring of the national
forest (indigenous plants and
animals)
Indigenous (esp. elders’) Local primary school/ place-
knowledge transfer and based curriculum, educational
education albums/ pamphlets/ brochures
about socio-ecological
knowledge, weekly lunches
for the elders (on Tuesdays),
bonding role of church
HDARES Agricultural productivity Creating vegetative buffer strips Nature’s benefits to people Agricultural production
and farmers’ income in Xinshe rice paddy fields, (instrumental value) and marketing
inventory and monitoring of
agricultural crop diversity, Supportive institution
replanting of fallow land with
Organic and traditional crops, utilization
environmentally-friendly of wild edible plants and
farming technology household horticulture,
assistance with composting
technology, processing
Food and agricultural equipment and organic
education labelling schemes
HFDOFB Biodiversity monitoring Removing alien species, Nature (intrinsic value) Biodiversity conservation
and conservation (e.g. preventing species harmful to
wildlife, coral reefs) the crops (wild boars), stopping Supportive institution
deforestation, inventory and
monitoring of terrestrial/
riverine/ marine biota, forest
National forest economy, green labelling of
protection produce, promoting landscape
diversity through creative art
events
Environmental
education
Ecotourism

Stakeholder Examples of stakeholders’ priorities and/ or sectoral Prioritized category of Prioritized

groups goals MVN* ‘Ecoagriculture stool’
landscape objectives*
HBSWC Rural settlement Monitoring and prevention of Good quality of life Viable local livelihoods
development landslides and coastal erosions, (relational value)
repairing terraced fields, roads Supportive institution
Natural disaster and waterways in eco-friendly
risk reduction and way, refurbishing of local
mitigation housing, promoting ecological
and cultural tourism and
Capacity building aboriginal crafts
Environmental
education
Ecotourism
NDHU Observing and facilitating role; supportive institution**
* Categories of value priorities and landscape objectives Interestingly, for the primary stakeholders – the Dipit and
are based on the conceptual framework of IPBES (Díaz et Xinshe tribes – despite the existence of resource-related
al. 2015) and the ecoagriculture ‘stool’ (Scherr et al. 2014). conflicts over water usage, hunting and fishing rights,
their value priorities and landscape objectives were rather
** Value priorities and landscape objectives are not comparable (maybe this explains the nature of the conflict
applicable for NDHU, as it played observing and facilitating itself ). Despite recognition of the value of nature in its intrinsic
roles in the process. sense, good quality of life (relational value) and viable local
livelihoods were given roles of primary importance by both
For instance, since 2010, with the help of NDHU, HFDOFB communities. Probably, due to prevailing socio-economic
assisted the Dipit tribe by conducting annual investigations hardships associated with aging population, deterioration
of natural resources, surveys of indigenous edible plants of production landscapes, economic depression, and
and ecotourism planning activities. Starting from 2015, disappearance of traditional ethics and culture, it was the
HFDOFB took a further step by jointly implementing a community revitalization and livelihood-oriented stance
‘Joint Community Forest Protection Program’ with the that mattered most to Amis and Kavalan residents.
members of the Dipit tribe, where the latter engaged in
patrolling mountain forests to help prevent illegal logging NDHU, the research team, originally differed in its role as
and poaching. Clearly, as a supporting institution, HFDOFB compared to other stakeholders. At this stage, by the means
primarily emphasized the intrinsic value of nature and the of participatory observations, individual interviews and
biodiversity conservation objective in its assistance efforts. group discussions, the team worked with other stakeholders
in assessing their value priorities and landscape objectives.
Meanwhile, in 2011, by the means of Rural Rejuvenation Understanding of the stakeholders’ values and objectives in
Programs, HBSWC aided the Dipit tribe with capacity many ways shaped the tasks and categories of work that were
building, community greening and facility enhancement, further outlined in the Action Plan of the Multi-Stakeholder
along with drawing college students back to the rural Platform (see Section 3.2). Prior to October 2016, however,
areas. Thus, within the framework of the programs, HBSWC despite the team’s engagement (since 2010) in assisting
prioritized the good quality of life (relational) and viable the Amis Dipit tribe to work with HFDOFB on biodiversity
local livelihoods above other values and objectives. conservation and with HBSWC on local livelihoods, there
was no institutional arrangement in place (see ‘supportive
The third government institution involved was HDARES. institutions’ in Fig. 3) to promulgate collaboration among
Its inclination towards instrumental values of nature and the stakeholders.
agricultural production and marketing was rather obvious
when, starting from 2014, it became involved in promoting Therefore, a lack of communication between the Dipit and
production and marketing of organic and environmentally- Xinshe tribes and of cooperation between the government
friendly rice farming in the Xinshe tribe. Visible increase agencies was resulting in functional incoherence and
in landscape diversity, achieved through planting of low efficiency of the stakeholders’ efforts (see Fig. 8).
grass carpets on rice field ridges, slopes and surrounding Undoubtedly, though, overall economic, social and
hedges in order to control pests by natural enemies, had an environmental problems of the area could only be resolved
additional positive impact on the ecotourism revenues for through a cross-border, cross-sector, and multi-stakeholder
the Xinshe tribe. action. In other words, an integrated landscape approach

Figure 8. Stakeholder assessment matrix before the Initiative (dash line: allies)
and cross-sector collaborative governance were required to research team, participants discussed and reached a
address varying priorities towards MVN and find a common consensus on the Collaborative Mechanism of the Multi-
ground for their management and co-existence. Stakeholder Platform in the ‘Xinshe Forest-River-Village-
Sea Ecoagriculture Initiative’. Additionally, participants all
3.2 Setting up a new Multi-Stakeholder Platform agreed to regard the meeting on that day as the first Task
Force Meeting, a group that was to be composed of six core
Following the suggestion and with the assistance of the members, including representatives of the Xinshe and Dipit
NDHU research team, on 11 October 2016, the vice-director tribes, HDARES, HFDOFB, HBSWC, and NDHU.
of HDARES invited the directors of HFDOFB and HBSWC, and
local people from Xinshe and Dipit tribes for a meeting in the On 20 December 2016, the first Multi-Stakeholder Platform
Xinshe community to discuss the idea of the ‘Xinshe Forest- Meeting was held by the director of HDARES in the Xinshe
River-Village-Sea Ecoagriculture Initiative’. Participants, ten tribe’s community. The list of attendants included about
people in total, generally welcomed the idea and suggested 40 people, amongst whom were two directors and several
that HDARES and NDHU help set up a formal Multi- staff members from HFDOFB and HBSWC, local people from
Stakeholder Platform for planning and management of the the Xinshe and Dipit tribes, NGOs and other government
Initiative (see Table 2). institutions. Members of the Task Force clarified to all
participants the origin and the goal of the ‘Xinshe Forest-
For the second stage, from November to December 2016, two River-Village-Sea Ecoagriculture Initiative’ by also presenting
formal multi-stakeholder meetings were held in the study a draft of the Collaborative Mechanism of the Multi-
area to discuss the design of the collaborative mechanism Stakeholder Platform. In the end, all participants reached
for multi-stakeholder participation. On 30 November 2016, a consensus on each aspect for promoting the Initiative:
the first formal multi-stakeholder meeting was convened by name, goal and the Collaborative Mechanism.
the director of HDARES on the premises of the Dipit tribe.
There were 23 people, including two directors and several A particular unity in opinion was achieved at this stage in
staff members from HFDOFB and HBSWC, as well as local relation to the question of who should be the convener for
people from the Xinshe and Dipit tribes, in attendance at the Task Force and Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meetings.
the meeting. Based on the draft prepared by the NDHU Determined to have not only shared results but also

Figure 9. First Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meeting convened by HDARES on 20 December 2016 (Photo: NDHU
research team)
responsibilities, at the first Task Force Meeting held in Stakeholder Platform Meetings took place in March, June,
November 2016, HDARES and NDHU suggested that the September, and December. Necessary date and time
meetings should be conducted on a rotational basis by adjustments were also acceptable.
HDARES, HFDOFB, and HBSWC. It was also anticipated
that the local communities, Xinshe and Dipit tribes, could Venue, conveners and role of local communities: Both
be in charge of convening and chairing the meetings Task Force and Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meetings were
in the foreseeable future. The above propositions were convened in turn by HDARES, HFDOFB or HBSWC and were
unanimously approved by the leaders of the three held on a rotational basis either at the community center in
institutions and representatives of the two tribes at the the Kavalan Xinshe tribe or at the activity center in the Amis
first Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meeting in December Dipit tribe. The ultimate goal was to empower the primary
2016 (see Fig. 9). stakeholders – the Xinshe and Dipit tribes – to be soon able
to take the lead in convening and chairing the meetings.
Collaborative Mechanism of the Multi-Stakeholder
Platform Facilitator: College of Environmental Studies, NDHU
(Laboratory of Landscape Conservation and Community
Objectives: Multi-Stakeholder Platform working on Participation – the research team).
revitalization of Xinshe SEPLS was established to realize the
vision of ‘living in harmony with nature’ for Dipit and Xinshe 3.3 Drawing up a cross-sector Action Plan
tribes.
At this stage, from January to March 2017, two Task Force
Participants and meetings: Stakeholders engaged in Meetings and one Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meeting
promoting the Initiative included the Task Force composed were held each month to determine short- and medium-
of six core members (Xinshe and Dipit tribes, HDARES, term action plans for promoting the Initiative. Each of
HFDOFB, HBSWC and NDHU), and the Multi-Stakeholder the meetings was chaired by the department heads of
Platform comprised of all interested participants (at that either of the three units. Referencing the ‘vision-methods-
time around 20 members) – local community organizations, perspectives’ framework of the three-fold approach to the
central and local government institutions, local schools, Satoyama Initiative, the Action Plan for the Initiative was
academia, NGOs, NPOs, green enterprises, etc. jointly discussed, revised and completed in March 2017.
The Action Plan (see Appendix A) explicitly outlined division
Meeting frequency: October 2016 to December 2017 of labor within five major categories of work, stipulated 38
was the period of intensive planning. Regular Task Force tasks and their expected durations (short-, medium- or long-
Meetings were held in January, February, April, May, July, term), as well as specified main organizers and co-organizers
August, October, and November, while the regular Multi- (see Fig. 10).

Figure 10. Task Force Meeting held on 30 November 2016 (Photo: NDHU research team)
3.4 Implementation/adaptation of the Platform/Action Each main organizer mentioned in the plan was responsible
Plan for reporting the progress, difficulties and outcomes, as well
as discussing collaborative strategies needed.
In the beginning of the implementation stage, during a Task
Force Meeting on 24 April 2017, NDHU suggested clearly At the Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meeting on 18 July 2017,
specifying the functions of each of the two meetings (see participants deemed the Initiative to be on the right track and
Fig. 11). It was determined for the Task Force Meetings to decided to adjust the meeting frequency. Thus, regular Task
give priority to reporting and discussion of the issues that Force Meetings were to be held in February, April, August
required immediate attention, especially matters proposed and October, while the regular Multi-Stakeholder Platform
by the two tribes. In addition, the ways of conducting Meetings were to be held in June and December. During
meetings were seen as flexible, held both indoors and the implementation stage, from April to December 2017, a
outdoors, so that the participants could explore the issues total of four Task Force Meetings and two Multi-Stakeholder
in a solution-oriented way. At the same time, the function Platform Meetings were organized to implement the Action
of the Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meeting was to overview Plan of the Initiative.
the progress of relevant tasks outlined in the Action Plan.
3.5 Evaluation of new institutional capacity
The given case study demonstrates how the partnership

Platform and the Action Plan, collectively developed by the
multi-interest stakeholders, evoked the formation of a new
cross-border and cross-sector institutional capacity.
Thus, the stakeholder assessment matrix after the start of

the Initiative (see Fig. 12) demonstrates, on the one hand,
established collaboration and communication between six
initial stakeholders (Kavalan Xinshe tribe, Amis Dipit tribe,
HDARES, HBSWC, HFDOFB, and NDHU), and on the other
hand, the emergence of two new stakeholders – EBAFA and
the Xinshe elementary school – as a result of planning and
management processes. EBAFA joined the platform as a key
member to assist in agricultural product marketing for the
two communities, while the Xinshe elementary school was
invited to participate in discussions pertaining to education
Figure 11. 4th Task Force Meeting on 24 April 2017 (Photo: NDHU and transfer of indigenous culture and knowledge.
research team)

Table 2. Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meetings timeline (October 2016 – December 2017)
Steps Related Platform Meetings

Preparation and Discussion (October 2016) • Preparation meeting (October 2016)
Consensus-building • 1st Task Force Meeting (November 2016)
(November - December 2016) • 1st Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meeting (December 2016)
Action-planning • 2nd, 3rd Task Force Meetings (January - February 2017)
(January - March 2017) • 2nd Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meeting (March 2017)
Implementation • 4th -7th Task Force Meetings (April - November 2017)
(April - December 2017~) • 3rd, 4th Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meetings (July, December 2017)
Moreover, stakeholders agreed on the need to inform the Another way to evaluate the progress of institutional
COA (a superior unit of HDARES, HFDOFB, HBSWC, and capacity building among stakeholders is to look at it
EBAFA), as well as Hualien County Government, about the from the point of Healey’s ‘three capitals’ of collaborative
progress and problems of the Initiative in order to ensure planning: intellectual, social and political.
timely and sufficient support.
When it comes to intellectual capital, traditional planning
Worth noting is a special ‘supportive institution’ function and decision-making are usually reliant on the decisions
that NDHU was playing in the process of building this new of government officials and experts as to what constitutes
institutional capacity. While before the Initiative, in October the problem and what are the possible solutions. The
2016, there were no institutional arrangements in place newly established Multi-Stakeholder Platform, in this case,
and each government agency worked separately on their provided opportunities for the two local communities,
respective objectives and sectoral goals, after the Initiative government agencies, and experts to sit at a round table
was introduced, the role of NDHU shaped into a ‘backbone’ and vis-a-vis each other discuss existing issues, solutions,
of the process – it became the main facilitator of cross- projects, financial support, and division of work. The Multi-
border and cross-sector activities. Stakeholder Platform helped to enhance the dialogue
Figure 12. Stakeholder assessment matrix after the Initiative (dash line: allies)

between the “expert knowledge” and the “local knowledge”, Firstly, the Initiative demonstrated how a synthesis of
as well as contributed to mutual trust and synergy between ‘intellectual’, ‘social’ and ‘political’ capitals is capable of
the stakeholders’ value priorities and landscape objectives. bridging the value priorities and landscape objectives of
various stakeholders to, on the one hand, forge a cross-
For realizing the social capital, the newly established Multi- border connectivity among the inhabitants, and on the
Stakeholder Platform not only emphasized the role of other hand, encourage a cross-sector coherence among the
community but also reminded all members that planning government agencies engaged in the area.
and implementation of the Action Plan should match the
paths of the two communities. The Platform Meetings were Secondly, there appeared to be an observable change in
held in turns in the two communities, making it convenient the perception of MVN and of landscape objectives pursued
for the local people to participate. It also demonstrated that by each of the stakeholders. Indeed, each of the involved
government officials were willing to leave their offices and government agencies (supportive institutions) continued
engage in face-to-face interactions with the local residents. to have their own ‘leg’ of the ‘stool’ to work on, based on
Mutual trust between the local people and the officials was their sectoral goals and primary responsibilities, and both
enhanced. Moreover, the Platform encouraged different communities prioritized community revitalization and
government agencies and the two communities, who livelihoods above other factors (see Table 1). What changed,
originally had no interaction, to start discussing, drafting however, was the appreciation and understanding of the
and implementing a landscape- and seascape-scale Action other ‘legs’ of the ‘stool’ as equally important for the overall
Plan. This contributed to an integrated working partnership revitalization of the Xinshe SEPLS. All of the stakeholders
among all stakeholders. recognized that only participation and cooperation among
them can ensure the stability of the ‘stool’ in ecological,
In terms of the political capital, the newly established Multi- social and economic dimensions, as well as help society live
Stakeholder Platform helped to figure out an integrated in harmony with nature.
cross-border and cross-sector Action Plan in accordance
with the three-fold approach to the Satoyama Initiative. The Thirdly, the Initiative opened a new window to the
Action Plan prescribed an overarching goal, five strategic enhancement of human-to-human and human-to-nature
perspectives, and 38 tasks, while short-, medium- and synergies in the area. It became clear that socio-ecological
long-term deadlines, main organizers, and co-organizers issues within the Xinshe SEPLS could only be resolved
were appointed for each task. At the end of each year, the through the combined efforts of all stakeholders, which
outcomes of the integrated Action Plan were set to be gave a new sense of hope and dedication to enable such
reviewed, while at the beginning of each year, a work plan synergies happen.
and resources input for the upcoming year were to be
reported by the main organizers. Therefore, the Platform Lastly, it should be noted that as the initial period of the
and the Action Plan could provide an action guidance for multi-stakeholder landscape approach was primarily
the required input of human and financial resources. focused on setting up the Platform, and drafting and
ensuring an early-stage implementation of the Action Plan,
the lessons learned presented above mainly reflect the
4. Conclusion results of collaborative experiences before and after the
Initiative. Clearly, more time and consistent effort would be
4.1 Lessons learned needed in order to witness biodiversity benefits as a result
of the Platform activities. Nevertheless, there are already
Development of a new institutional capacity for the Xinshe initiatives in place that have a high potential to contribute
SEPLS, Hualien County, Taiwan, by the means of the ‘Xinshe to SEPLS ecosystem health. For instance, starting from
Forest-River-Village-Sea Ecoagriculture Initiative’ presented 2017, with the support of HDARES and HFDOFB, villagers
itself as an innovative, community-oriented participatory of the Xinshe tribe took up the role of civic scientists for
approach to conservation, revitalization, and sustainability. monitoring of the surrounding coral reefs. Moreover, from
Being introduced in late 2016, this first-in-Taiwan cross- 2018 onwards, a conservation NGO assigned by HFDOFB
sectoral and landscape-scale Initiative is still too young conducted a biodiversity investigation of terrestrial and
and emerging to deduce concrete and final results and riverine ecosystems in Xinshe Village. Preliminary results
their implications. However, even the early period of showed that shrimp species abundance and diversity in the
implementation presented here (October 2016 - December stream is extremely high. This prompted the authorities and
2017) already allowed for a few notable observations to be residents to discuss how to protect, restore and utilize local
made. stream ecological resources through stream patrol activities
and ecological engineering.

In sum, following successful implementation of the Platform there is a need for a sustainable (responsible for sustaining
activities and with more stakeholders joining in (including for a prolonged period) and comprehensive (cross-sectoral
EBAFA and Xinshe Primary School), more explicit lessons and collaborative) analysis and reporting of the Initiative’s
related to biodiversity benefits, the Xinshe SEPLS ecosystem efforts.
health, as well as indigenous and local knowledge transfer
are anticipated to become available. Leadership change-related risks: Since the heads of
government agencies exercise sufficient power in
4.2 Potential risks and suggestions determining the success and the very involvement in the
Initiative, it is essential to ensure the hereditary nature of
This early stage of the ‘Xinshe Forest-River-Village-Sea agencies’ participation. In other words, a newly appointed
Ecoagriculture Initiative’ implementation also revealed head of an agency should be fully informed and advised of
several obstacles, or potential risk factors, the consideration the previous activities to make a positive contribution to the
of which is vital for the overall success of new institutional Initiative.
capacity. Presented below are some of the risk factors (as of
December 2017) as well as the authors’ suggestions towards Potential territory- and resource-related issues between the
their resolution. Amis and Kavalan tribes: Common resource use is still an
apple of discord between the Xinshe and Dipit tribes.
Lack of a higher-ranking supervising body: Since the four Therefore, any projects enacted by the government
government agencies involved (HDARES, HFDOFB, agencies under the Initiative would need to be mindful of
HBSWC, and EBAFA) are in a horizontal relationship and this, as well as recognize each tribe’s sense of territory.
equally subordinate to the COA, neither of them may
take a coordinating role in case of conflict. Therefore, it Need for a participatory monitoring and evaluation system:
is recommended that a chief officer from the COA central A relevant indicator system for monitoring the landscape’s
committee should become involved in the Initiative to take resilience needs to be developed so as to assist stakeholders,
on the dispute-resolution role if required. including local people and government authorities, in
jointly evaluating the current situation and monitoring its
Need for a strengthened competence and cross-partnership progress concerning the Initiative.
among the staff members of various government agencies:
Working for a multi-stakeholder platform on cross- In sum, continued implementation of the Initiative, with a
border and cross-sector issues might be a novelty and an proper consideration of the lessons learned and potential
overwhelming experience for many of the administrative risk factors, is believed to have a high potential for the
staff members involved, but at the same time it provides a revitalization of the Xinshe SEPLS, making the experience
unique experience for learning and knowledge exchange. of this case study valuable for analysis in both regional and
Setting up of a Staff Secretariat may potentially take global contexts.
the workload off the shoulders of single staff members
through capacity building, joint learning, and division of
responsibilities. Acknowledgements
Lack of a shared resource database: As the Task Force and This case study would not have been possible without
Multi-Stakeholder Platform Meetings are convened on a the kind support and help of many individuals and
rotational basis by HDARES, HFDOFB or HBSWC, materials organizations. We would like to express our particular
related to preparation and results of the meetings are in appreciation to the Taiwan Council of Agriculture (COA) who
the hands of the then-convener. This might pose a danger provided the funding to carry out this research. Our thanks
of resources being scattered or being lost if they are not and gratitude also go to the local people of Xinshe Village,
systematized in one place. Creation of a shared Resource Hualien County, Taiwan, who kindly welcomed and assisted
Database might be an appropriate solution. us throughout the fieldwork. This work is related to IPSI
Collaborative Activity no. 38 and has been submitted to the
Voluntary and agency-focused nature of performance IPSI Secretariat as a case study.
assessment and reporting: Currently the efforts taken by each
of the government agencies involved in the Initiative are
‘voluntary’ – they are not monitored by and do not require
reporting to the COA central committee. In addition, the
results of the Initiative are traditionally viewed through the
lens of a single task performed by a single agency. Therefore,

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APPENDIX A: Simplified Action Plan for ‘Xinshe Forest-River-Village-Sea Ecoagriculture

Initiative’
Division of labor among multi-
stakeholders
Government
Local community
Institutions
Perspectives
HDARES
HFDOFB
HBSWC
Association
Xinshe Community
Kavalan Xinshe tribe
Amis Dipit tribe

Task code and content
A-1 Promoting environmentally-friendly farming and enhancing crop

★
diversity
A-2 Enhancing landscape diversity in rice paddies by planting grass

★
carpets on ridges, slopes and surrounding hedges
A-3 Reconnecting natural stream to irrigation ditches and ponds

★
through ecological engineering instruments
A-4 Pest control (boars, monkeys, etc.) for crops ★

A. Landscape diversity/ resilience
A-5 Alien species removing ★
A-6 Preventing poaching of precious trees, forest products and stream

★
resources
A-7 Inventory and monitoring of agro-biodiversity in rice paddy fields ★
A-8 Inventory and monitoring of terrestrial biodiversity ★
A-9 Inventory and monitoring of marine biodiversity, promoting

★
community-based conservation and sustainable use
A-10 Slopes and eroded gullies monitoring and prevention of landslides ★
A-11 Coastal erosion monitoring and disaster risk reduction projects,

Main organizer: local county government
safe and accessible coastal engineering
A-12 Evaluation of resilience in SEPLS Main organizer: NDHU
A-13 No herbicide use around the settlements ★ ★ ★
B-1 Rehabilitation of fallow lands, planting of traditional and eco-friendly

★
crops
B. Agro-biodiversity
B-2 Home gardening, indigenous edible plants, use of diversified food

★
sources
B-3 Collecting and using forest products, and agro-forestry ★
B-4 Sustainable use of resources in streams and seas ★ ★
B-5 Developing new composting technologies based on traditional

knowledge and modern technology

C-1 Establishing database for local crops and varieties ★ ★ ★
C-2 Promoting environmental education activities and passing on

C. Traditional knowledge and values
★
traditional sea/land ecological knowledge and skills
C-3 Indigenous food and agriculture education ★
C-4 Working with Xinshe Elementary School to promote place-based

Main organizer: Xinshe Elementary School
curriculum
C-5 Promoting indigenous wild edible plants, food art, weaving and
★
other crafts
C-6 Making community resources maps, leaflets/booklets, books, videos

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★
concerning traditional culture and ecological knowledge
C-7 Research/inventory on traditional culture and ecological knowledge

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★
of agriculture, forestry and fishery
D-1 Convening and operating Task Force and Multi-Stakeholder Platform

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★
meetings
D. Multi-stakeholder collaboration
D-2 Strengthening local social capital (cohesion and leadership) and

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★
capacity (planning and action)
D-3 Building up a community-based form of co-management, between

government and community (cross-sector), community and community ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★
(cross-border)
D-4 Promoting national forest co-management with local people: patrol

in mountain forests, sustainable use of forest products, prevention of ★ ★ ★
alien species
D-5 Consensus on guarding ancestral properties and sale of land ★ ★
E-1 Ecological engineering for disaster risk reduction and climate change
★ ★
adaptation (slope erosion/flood/ landslide/storm)
E-2 Maintaining quality/quantity of natural stream water for drinking

★ ★ ★ ★
and irrigation
E-3 Ecological engineering for terraced fields, irrigation ditches and

★ ★ ★
agricultural roads
E. Socio-economic benefits
E-4 Settlement greening and facility enhancement ★ ★
E-5 Community eldercare services, local medical services ★
E-6 Promoting green labelling schemes to add value to environmentally

★ ★
friendly products
E-7 Upgrading agricultural products processing equipment and

★
enhancing marketing ability
E-8 Promoting eco-cultural tourism and native art ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★
E-9 Promoting local food products through community-based

ecotourism and Xinshe Elementary School’s food and agriculture ★
education activities
E-10 Promoting landscape art and activities that feature local SEPLS
★
characteristics
Note: (1) This table lists only primary jobs organized by Task Force members (the three bureaus under COA and two local
tribes); (2) NDHU is also a member of Task Force, whose main job is giving assistance to tasks A12, D1-D3.

Chapter 10
Direct use values and nutritional potential

of selected wild edible plants from
Teso-Karamoja Region, Uganda
Lead authors:
Samuel Ojelel1,2*, James Kalema1, Esther Katuura1, Esezah K. Kakudidi1, Mary Namaganda1,
Patrick Mucunguzi1
1
Makerere University, College of Natural Sciences; School of Biosciences; Department of Plant Sciences, Microbiology and
Biotechnology; P.O. Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda
2
Save A Seed for the Future (SAFE), P.O. Box 703 Soroti, Uganda
*[email protected] and [email protected]
Abstract
The use of wild edible plants is steadily being limited by biodiversity loss. This study therefore sought to investigate the
instrumental value of nature in terms of wild edible plant species, their direct use values and the nutritional potential
of selected wild edible plant species in the landscapes of the Teso-Karamoja region of Uganda. An assessment of the
opportunities, challenges and biodiversity benefits of maintaining these landscapes was also made. Semi-structured
questionnaires, focus group discussions and field excursions were used to collect data in the field, and laboratory analysis
performed following standard methods. Data was analyzed using relative frequency of citation indices, factor of informant
consensus indices and one-way ANOVA. A total of 99 wild edible plant species in 78 genera and 45 families has been
documented. The nutritional potential of five species, namely Vigna kirkii (Baker) J.B. Gillett, Maerua angolensis DC., Leptadenia
hastata (Schumach. & Thonn.) Decne, Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby, and Dioscorea sp., was significantly different
at the p=0.05 level. The highest moisture content was 80.74±0.34%/100g in V. kirkii, ash content was 3.95±0.23%/100g in
M. angolensis, gross energy was 19.04±370.65Kcal in M. angolensis, dietary fibre was 27.93±0.85%/100g in L. hastata, and
crude fat was 3.40±0.13%/100g in L. hastata. Likewise, carbohydrate content was 65.43±2.91g/100g in Dioscorea sp., crude
protein was 36.37±0.42%/100g in M. angolensis, ascorbic acid was 14.71±3.56mg/100g in M. angolensis and beta-carotene
was 1082.12±0.08μg/100g in S. obtusifolia. The direct use values of wild edible plants include food (99 species), medicine (17
species), woodfuel (39 species), wine (10 species), construction materials (13 species), timber (8 species), crafts (17 species),
fodder (3 species), fibre (14 species) and gum (8 species). Species such as B. aegyptiaca, T. indica and V. paradoxa have
multiple direct use values. Therefore, a high diversity of wild edible plant species with potential to enhance human well-
being exists in the Teso-Karamoja region. This implies that various opportunities can be harnessed from the biodiversity
benefits of maintaining landscapes in this region. However, the deteriorating state of the landscapes due to anthropogenic
activity is one challenge that needs to be overcome. This inevitably requires adoption of methods to conduct regular
assessment and monitoring of the impacts on these landscapes. These findings can be used to create awareness about the
nutritional potential of selected species and incentivize the stewardship of species and landscapes in the Teso-Karamoja

Chapter 10: Direct use values and nutritional potential of selected wild edible plants
region of Uganda. Microlevel domestication initiatives, adoption of improved cook stoves and clean energy sources, as well
as streamlining the collection, value addition and marketing of natural products, need to be prioritized in this region.
Keywords: Direct Use Values, Wild Edible Plants, Nutritional Potential, Landscapes, Teso-Karamoja Region, Uganda
Country Uganda
Province Eastern
District Abim, Moroto, Napak, Nakapiripirit, Katakwi, Serere and Kaberamaido
Dominant ethnicity Acholi-Labwor, Tepeth, Bokora, Kadamites, Iteso and Kumam
Figure 1. Map of Uganda and case study region.


Geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) 2°42’24.1”N 33°39’34.3”E
1°41’46.8”N 33°12’49.9”E
1°29’49.2”N 33°23’36.6”E
1°58’23.2”N 34°03’50.9”E
1°57’38.2”N 34°35’49.7”E
2°21’46.8”N 34°14’31.7”E
2°31’60.0”N 34°45’60.0”E
Dominant ethnicity Acholi-Labwor, Tepeth, Bokora, Kadamites, Iteso and Kumam
1. Introduction One example of instrumental value is the consumption

of wild edible plants to enhance human well-being.
People conceptualize the “value” of nature as either This practice is common in most African communities
principles or core beliefs underpinning rules and moral (Maroyi 2011) and these plants enable communities to
judgement, importance and preferences for something or cope with food scarcity (IPC 2017). As a result, they make
a particular metric, indicator or symbol (Gonzalez-Jimenez up a significant proportion of the global food basket
et al. 2018). These values are determined by local, cultural, (Bharucha & Pretty 2010). Approximately one billion
socio-economic and ecological contexts, shaped by human people globally supplement their diets using wild edible
experiences and change across spatio-temporal dimensions plants (Shumsky et al. 2014). Such plants also hold great
(Gonzalez-Jimenez et al. 2018). Piccolo (2017) summarizes cultural significance (Shad, Shah & Bakht 2013) and greatly
the value of nature into three categories, namely intrinsic increase the nutritional quality of rural human diets
(inherent value of nature and its components), instrumental (Msuya, Kideghesho & Mosha 2010). Some of them contain
(nature’s contribution to human well-being) and relational genes that can improve the productivity of domesticated
(human-nature relationships). crops (Gockowski et al. 2003). In addition, their sale bolsters
household incomes (Maroyi 2011).

Notwithstanding the potential of wild edible plants, their

diversity and associated indigenous knowledge globally
has not been sufficiently documented (Karjalainen, Sarjala
& Raitio 2010). This is worsened by the rampant loss of
biological resources (Bhattarai, Chauldhary & Taylor 2007)
and erosion of the associated indigenous knowledge (Alves
& Rosa 2007). It has been estimated that one in every five
plants is at risk of extinction globally (Bachman et al. 2016).
In the Teso-Karamoja region, it has been reported that 77%,
66% and 45% of the natural vegetation cover has been
lost in the districts of Katakwi, Kotido and Kaberamaido
respectively (Drichi 2003).
Although ethnobotanical surveys have been conducted

in Uganda (Kakudidi, Bukenya-Ziraba & Kasenene 2004,
Agea et al. 2011), the diversity of species in the different
locales has not been comprehensively established, largely
because the species used are determined by local culture
and location (Bortolotto et al. 2015). Therefore, this study
was designed to examine the diversity of wild edible plant
species, their direct use values and the nutritional potential
of five commonly used species in the Teso-Karamoja region
of Uganda. This region is comprised mainly of the dryland
landscape of Uganda (cattle corridor) and is an important
socio-ecological production landscape (SEPL) (Olupot
Figure 3. Human settlement in the savannahs on slopes of Mount
2015). The drylands are a dry belt stretching between the
Moroto, Uganda
country’s North eastern and South western borders with
an area of 84,000 km2 (Olupot 2015). However, this study
was only conducted in the North eastern (Teso-Karamoja) in the North eastern part only. The forest reserves studied
region due to information paucity created by cultural have ecological and biodiversity conservation importance
and biogeographical diversity, rampant food scarcity (National Forestry Authority 2005). In terms of climate, Teso
(IPC 2017) and few botanical surveys due to a history of experiences a humid and hot climate with rainfall between
armed conflicts (Kalema 2005). This study also highlights 1,000-1,350 mm annually (Egeru 2012). On the other hand,
the challenges, opportunities and biodiversity benefits of Karamoja is mainly comprised of semi-arid lands inhabited
maintaining landscapes in the region, futuristic assessment by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists (Egeru et al. 2014). It
and monitoring of impacts, and the institutional framework receives variable and unpredictable rainfall between 500-
involved in the management of these landscapes. 800 mm annually (Egeru et al. 2014).
2.2 Ethnobotanical survey

2. Materials and Methods
Semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions
2.1 Study area and field excursions were used to collect ethnobotanical
data, namely species identity and uses. The questionnaires
The study was conducted in eight forest reserves of the were administered to 240 respondents in and around the
Teso-Karamoja region (see Fig. 1 and 2), namely Onyurut, eight forest reserves of the Teso-Karamoja region (see Fig.
Bululu Hill and Ogera Hills (Teso); and Akur, Kano, Mount 2) between November 2017 and May 2018. Focus group
Napak, Mount Kadam and Mount Moroto (Karamoja). discussions were conducted to corroborate responses in
These forest reserves are found in the dryland landscape the questionnaires, while field excursions were undertaken
and are identified as a SEPL in Uganda (Olupot 2015). to collect the voucher specimens of the enumerated
The SEPL is comprised of mainly woodlands, grasslands wild edible plants. Voucher specimens were identified at
and shrublands (Drichi 2003) (see Fig. 3). This dryland Makerere University Herbarium. The five wild edible plants for
landscape is popularly referred to as the “cattle corridor” laboratory analysis were selected based on (i) high frequency
and stretches from the South western to the North eastern of use, (ii) paucity of information on the nutritional potential,
parts of the country. However, this study was conducted and (iii) use as ingredients for making local sauces.

in the means of macro-element, ascorbic acid and beta-

carotene content was analyzed using one-way ANOVA at
P<0.05 in SPSS vers. 16.0.
3. Results
3.1 Socio-economic characteristics of respondents
A total of 54% female and 46% male respondents were

interviewed. They had varying levels of education, whereby
36% had no formal education, 42% primary level, 19%
secondary level and only 3% tertiary level. The respondents
were comprised of 91% peasant farmers rearing livestock
and/or growing crops, 4% petty traders, and 3% fishers,
while 2% were civil servants.
3.2 Diversity of wild edible plant species

Figure 4. Commonly used wild leafy vegetables; A (L. hastata), B (V.
kirkii) C (S. obtusifolia) and D (M. angolensis)
A total of 99 wild edible plant species in 78 genera and
45 families (Appendix 1) was recorded. These species are
2.3 Laboratory analysis in five lifeforms, namely trees, forbs, shrubs, climbers and
graminoids, corresponding to 35%, 29%, 26%, 9% and 1%
Analysis of the nutritional composition of four leafy respectively. The families with the highest representation of
vegetables (see Fig.4) and a tuber was carried out in species are Fabaceae, Moraceae and Malvaceae, each with
triplicate following standard methods: Moisture content at least six species each.
(AOAC 2016), Ash content (AOAC 1996), Protein (Kirk &
Sawyer 1991), Crude fat (AOAC 2016), Dietary fibre (Kirk & 3.3 Nutritional potential of the five wild edible plant
Sawyer 1991), Carbohydrate (Nielsen 2003), Gross energy species
(AOAC 1995), Ascorbic acid (Kirk & Sawyer 1991) and Beta-
carotene (De Ritter & Purcell 1981). The five wild edible plant species selected for analysis
of nutritional potential are shown in Table 1. Table 2, on
2.4 Data analysis the other hand, presents the mean values for the macro-
element, ascorbic acid and beta-carotene content for each
The Relative Frequency of Citation (Tardio & Pardo-de- species. A one-away ANOVA test of the means of species
Santayana 2008) and the Informant Consensus Factor showed a significant difference at the P<0.05 level for all the
(Trotter & Logan 1986) were determined for each species parameters.
and use category respectively. The statistical difference
Table 1: Five wild edible plant species from Teso-Karamoja for laboratory analysis
Key: RFC=Relative frequency of citation
Family Scientific name RFC Edible parts
Apocynaceae Leptadenia hastata 0.06 Leafy vegetable
Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea sp. 0.19 Tuber
Capparaceae Maerua angolensis 0.20 Leafy vegetable
Fabaceae Vigna kirkii 0.03 Leafy vegetable
Senna obtusifolia 0.03 Leafy vegetable

Table 2: Macro-element, ascorbic acid and beta-carotene content of five wild edible plant species from Teso-Karamoja region, Uganda
Wild edible plant species

Parameter (/100g) Leptadenia hastata Senna obtusifolia Maerua angolensis Vigna kirkii Dioscorea sp.
Moisture content (%) 79.30±0.20 78.86±0.38 66.09±0.19 80.74±0.34 59.36±0.82
Dietary fibre (%) 27.93±0.85 16.93±2.54 12.42±0.26 21.46±0.58 2.74±0.24
Carbohydrate (g) 22.45±1.96 25.27±1.18 23.77±2.02 17.32±0.40 65.43±2.91
Ash content (%) 2.84±0.10 2.37±0.10 3.95±0.23 2.60±0.01 0.63±0.03
Gross energy (KCal) 18.40±56.69 19.03±903.25 19.04±370.65 18.49±73.13 16.17±91.26
Crude fat (%) 3.60±0.13 2.02±0.09 0.94±0.03 2.72±0.18 0.08±0.02
Crude protein (%) 19.14±0.26 27.26±0.12 36.39±0.42 28.37±0.42 7.17±0.17
Ascorbic acid (mg) 6.89±1.33 10.77±2.70 14.71±3.56 7.62±0.54 8.78±0.37
Beta-carotene (μg) 363.54±0.09 1082.12±0.08 817.31±0.05 965.14±0.01 5.15±0.01
3.4 Direct use values 4. Discussion

The number of species in each direct use value is 4.1 Diversity of wild edible plant species
summarized in Figure 5. It is worth noting that some species
have multiple direct use values. Such species include, but The diversity of wild edible plant species (Appendix 1)
are not limited to B. aegyptiaca, T. indica and V. paradoxa. It identified by the local people in the Teso-Karamoja region
is clearly evident that these wild edible plant species serve demonstrates that they still rely on the wild plants for
other multiple purposes in addition to the foods (spices, food. Carissa spinarum L, Strychnos innocua Delile, Balanites
leafy vegetables, fruits, oils, seeds) derived from them. aegyptiaca (L) Delile, Tamarindus indica L. and Ximenia
Figure 5: Number of wild edible plant species in each direct use value

americana L. were the most cited species. The Rubiaceae, supplies the RDA of protein for a lactating mother (71g per
Fabaceae, Anacardiaceae, Amaranthaceae and Moraceae day). Dioscorea sp. (16.17Kcal) provides the lowest gross
families with the highest number of species are generally energy while M. angolensis provides the highest (19.94Kcal).
among the largest, economically important sources of food However, there is no RDA for energy because energy intake
and are widespread in the tropics (Maroyi 2011). Trees are that is above the Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) would
the dominant lifeform because the landscapes surveyed are be expected to result in weight gain (IOM 2005). The RDA
woodlands. of ascorbic acid for different life stages and groups aged
1-70 is 15-120mg per day (IOM 2005). Therefore, consuming
4.2 Use and nutritional value of the five wild edible 100g of M. angolensis (14.72mg/100g) daily can meet the
plants RDA of individuals aged 1-3. The RDA for beta-carotene for
different life stages and groups aged 1-70 is 300-1,300µg
The wild edible plants documented in this study are used per day (IOM 2005). Thus, consuming 100g of S. obtusifolia
are varying ways. The five major parts used categories (1,082µg/100g) meets the RDA of healthy males and females
are fruits, leafy vegetables, seeds, tubers and gum. Most aged 9-70.
of species produce edible parts that are eaten without
cooking (64%), while the reminder (36%) require cooking or 4.3 Direct use values
preparation. Some of the species eaten without cooking are
fruits from C. spinarum, Psilotrichum axilliflorum Suess and V. The consumption of wild edible plant species in the Teso-
doniana. The method of preparation depends on the edible Karamoja region is highly valued due to: (i) hunger due to
parts. For instance, V. kirkii and S. obtusifolia leafy vegetable food scarcity, (ii) spicing staple foods, (iii) preservation of
preparation starts with plucking young leaves, followed by cultural practices, (iv) nutri-medicinal value and (v) their
wilting under direct sunlight for about 30 minutes, washing delicacy. Zanthoxylum leprieurii Guill. & Perr was a commonly
and then boiling. Thereafter, local salt called “Abalang” is mentioned nutri-medicinal plant for flavoring tea but also
added and then sodium chloride is added to give a good used in treating various ailments.
taste. The vegetable can be eaten at this stage, or with sour
milk, groundnut or simsim paste added to spice it. The direct use values of wild edible plants enhance human
nutrition, healthcare, housing and energy (see Fig. 5). Earlier
Nutritional parameters in food play different roles in the studies have also reported this pattern, for instance in Nepal,
human diet. Moisture content determines the growth of where 80 percent of 62 wild food plants have multiple uses
micro-organisms (Nollet 2004) and the shelf life of food (Shrestha & Dhillon 2006), and in the Mekong Delta and
(Agea et al. 2014). All the leafy vegetables in this study have Central Vietnamese Highlands, where several wild food
moisture content values between 59 and 80%/100g (see species are used as medicine and livestock feed and one-
Table 2), which is within the acceptable range of 60-83% fifth are used as all the three (Ogle et al. 2003).
moisture content for vegetables (FAO 1986). The Adequate
Intake (AI) for dietary fibre ranges from 19-29g per day The direct use values of the wild edible plants offer
for different life stages and groups (IOM 2005). Therefore, opportunities, which include but are not limited to low-cost
consuming 100g of L. hastata (27.93±0.85%/100g) per and low-input boost to human nutrition; enhancement of
day supplies the AI for normal laxation in adults. The household incomes through the sale of natural products
Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for carbohydrates such as shea butter, gum Arabic, tamarinds, etc.; provision of
for different life stages and groups ranges from 130-210 mg employment opportunities especially to women and youth;
per day (IOM 2005). Thus, consuming 200g of Dioscorea sp. sustainable harvesting of Non-Timber Forest Products
daily can ably meet the RDA of carbohydrates for healthy (NTFP) and apiaries. In a nutshell, the landscapes in the
individuals aged 1-70. Ash content is the residue after Teso-Karamoja region make a vital contribution towards
burning and it represents the total amount of minerals Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA).
within a food (Nielsen 2003). The lowest ash content was
recorded in Dioscorea sp. (0.63%/100g), while the highest The sustenance of values from these landscapes is however,
was in M. angolensis (3.95%/100g). The AI for crude fat in being threatened by detrimental human activity. Examples
infants between 0-12 months (30-31g per day) is higher of such anthropogenic activities include indiscriminate
than the values obtained for all the wild edible plants from tree cutting for woodfuel (charcoal and firewood), clearing
the Teso-Karamoja region. This conforms to earlier findings for agricultural expansion, as well as demand for land for
that leafy vegetables are inferior sources of crude fat (Agea settlement caused by the high population growth rate.
et al. 2014). The RDA of protein for different life stages and Olupot (2015) observed that although wild resources
groups ranges from 13-71g per day (IOM 2005). Therefore, such as fruit plants may be appreciated by local people
consuming 200g of M. angolensis daily (36.39%/100g) in the Teso region, this has not translated into their active

retention, and instead resources are being decimated by 4.5 Institutional frameworks on management of
unsustainable uses, for example wood over-exploitation. It landscapes
has also been noted that weak forest management capacity
has largely contributed to the poor state of forest reserves in The level of awareness and adoption of the concept of Socio
Uganda (Obua, Agea & Ogwal 2010). Ecologically Productive Landscapes (SEPLs) in the Teso-
Karamoja region (Uganda at large) is still in its infancy. The
It ought to be noted that the benefits of maintaining institutions include clans with clan elders as custodians of
biodiversity are enormous, although not well appreciated TEK and advocates of principles and values, and cultural
by many. As illustrated by some of the direct use values institutions such as the Iteso Cultural Union and Karamoja
of wild edible plants in Figure 5, biodiversity has a huge Women Cultural Group. These advocate for the preservation
potential to enhance the well-being of mankind, especially of TEK for posterity. Recently, the concept of SEPLs has
in rural smallholder communities. The species, landscapes been championed by Nature and Livelihoods, a civil society
and associated Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) in organization in the Teso region. This is now followed by
the Teso-Karamoja region represent living libraries where another organization, Save Aseed for the Future (SAFE),
cultural heritage is being preserved for posterity. The in this region. At the national level, the epitome of this
benefit of biodiversity in this region is even critical because movement was the formation of the Satoyama Initiative
the majority of the population are peasants predominantly National Network (SINN) for Uganda in 2016. On the side
engaged in rain-fed subsistence agriculture. In addition to of government, both local and national institutions exist to
Figure 5, plant diversity in this region also offers services advocate for the protection and sustainability of biodiversity
such as nutrient cycling, eco-tourism opportunities, and and ecosystems. These include local government
maintenance of water quality in the rivers running through departments, parastatal bodies like the National
the mountainous and hilly areas of Moroto, Nakapiripirit, Environment Management Authority (NEMA), the Uganda
Kano and Akur, as well as the water catchment areas of Wildlife Authority (UWA), National Forestry Authority (NFA),
Lakes Bisina, Opeta and Kyoga. and ministries such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) and directorates.
4.4 Assessment and monitoring of values and benefits
Appreciation of the value of nature has elicited various
The design of effective conservation actions is premised decisions and actions. These include among others, parkland
on accurate biodiversity information (Lovett et al. 2000). farming systems; cultural beliefs and ethics attached to
In order to generate this information in the landscapes of individual species; community by-laws; home and kitchen
the Teso-Karamoja region, a mixture of methods ought to gardens; local government ordinances; afforestation and
be pursued. For instance, spatio-temporal surveys of key reforestation programs; adoption of improved cook stoves;
indicator taxa, such as vascular plants, birds and arthropods, environmentally-friendly sources of income like bee-
can offer vital information on species richness and diversity. keeping; clean energy sources like solar energy; research and
Furthermore, measures of landscape structure, land use development of natural products; trade in natural products
change as well as intensity of human activity are pertinent. like gum Arabic, shea nuts, shea butter, tamarinds and
This combined with remote sensing can help assess the desert dates; protected areas like forest reserves; legislation
spatio-temporal aerial extent of these landscapes. such as the National Forestry and Tree Planting Act 2003;
and ratification of international conventions, targets and
In terms of assessing the value of nature in these landscapes, agreements such as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets.
different methods can as well be used. These include but
are not limited to: (i) ecological valuation such as field visits
and species richness, (ii) socio-cultural valuation such as 5. Conclusion and recommendations
ethnographic studies, participatory approaches, interviews,
cartography, etc. and (iii) economic valuation such as A high diversity of wild edible plant species and direct use
choice experiments. As a precaution, when planning for values exist in the Teso-Karamoja region of Uganda. The
value assessment, it is pertinent to recall that the choice of nutritional potential of the five wild edible plant species
valuation methods is not only a technical but also a political analyzed can be harnessed to bolster human nutrition
decision because underlying worldviews will determine among communities in the region. Generally, the wild
which types of value, valuation approaches and methods edible plants encountered in this region contribute to
may be perceived as appropriate in any given context improving human well-being. Opportunities are, however,
(Gonzalez-Jimenez et al. 2018). being threatened by a number of challenges that need to be
addressed. It is therefore recommended that (not in order of
relevance):

i. a handbook of wild edible plants and their values References

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Appendix 1: Diversity and direct use values of wild edible plant species from Teso-Karamoja region, Uganda
146
Key: RFC = Relative Frequency of Citation, , NF= English name Not Found
Family Scientific name Name (English) RFC Lifeform Direct use values
Acanthaceae Asystasia mysorensis (Roth) Anders. NF 0.03 Forb Leafy vegetable
Justicia flava (Forssk.) Vahl NF 0.03 Forb Leafy vegetable, fruit
Amaranthaceae Amaranthus graecizans L. Mediterranean amaranth 0.01 Forb Leafy vegetable leaves are anthelmintic
Amaranthis hybridus L. subsp. cruentus (L) Thell NF 0.01 Forb Leafy vegetable
Amaranthus spinosa L. NF 0.01 Forb Leafy vegetable
Amaranthus spinosus L. NF 0.01 Forb Leafy vegetable, leaves treat diarrhoea
Psilotrichum axilliflorum Suess. NF 0.13 Shrub Fruit
Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L. Mango 0.16 Tree Fruit, firewood, timber, juice
Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich) Hochst. Marula 0.23 Tree Fruit, wine, timber
Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Searsia pyroides (Burch.) Moffett NF 0.17 Shrub Fruit, stems used as toothbrushes, woodfuel
Searsia ruspolii (Engl.) Moffett NF 0.17 Shrub Fruit, stems used as toothbrushes, woodfuel
Annonaceae Annona senegalensis Pers. Wild custard apple 0.09 Shrub Fruit, tool handles, woodfuel
Monanthotaxis buchananii (Engl.) Verdc Buchanan’s dwaba-berry 0.12 Shrub Fruit
Apocynaceae Carissa spinarum L. Carrisse 1 Shrub Fruit, wine, anthelmintic, woodfuel
Ceropegia johnstonii (N.E.Br.) Bruyns NF 0.1 Forb Tuber
Leptadenia hastata (Schumach. & Thonn.) Decne NF 0.06 Climber Leafy vegetable
Saba comorensis (Bojer) Pichon Rubber vine 0.25 Tree Fruit, eating fruits cures pimples, white latex
Araceae Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Taro 0.01 Forb Tuber

Arecaceae Borassus aethiopum Mart. African fan palm 0.04 Tree Fruit, beehives from stem, oil, thatch material
Asparagaceae Asparagus flagellaris (Kunth) Baker NF 0.13 Forb Leafy vegetable
Asteraceae Lactuca inermis Forsk. NF 0.04 Forb Leafy vegetable
Basellaceae Basella alba L. Indian spinach 0.1 Climber Leafy vegetable
Boraginanceae Cordia monoica Roxb. Snot berry 0.01 Tree Fruit, woodfuel, poles, tool handles
Brassicaceae Arabis alpina L. Alpine rock cress 0.01 Forb Leafy vegetable
Cactaceae Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw. Drooping prickly pear 0.01 Tree Fruit
Capparaceae Capparis fascicularis DC. Zigzag caper-bush 0.09 Shrub Leafy vegetable
Cleome sp. NF 0.03 Forb Leafy vegetable
Maerua angolensis DC. Bead-bean 0.2 Shrub Leafy vegetable, treats epilepsy, woodfuel
Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Pawpaw 0.1 Tree Fruit
Celastraceae Catha edulis Forsk. Bushman’s tea/Khat 0.06 Shrub Leafy vegetable
Cucurbitaceae Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich. NF 0.06 Climber Fruit
Cucurbita sp. NF 0.06 Climber Leafy vegetable, fruit
Momordica foetida Schum. NF 0.01 Forb Leafy vegetable
Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea bulbifera L. Aerial yam 0.04 Climber Tuber
Dioscorea sagittifolia (De Wild.) Nkounkou NF 0.1 Climber Tuber
Dioscorea sp. NF 0.19 Climber Tuber
Ebenaceae Euclea divinorum Hiern Magic gwarra 0.03 Tree Fruit, leaves treat diarrhoea
Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F.White Giant diospyros 0.06 Tree Seed, woodfuel, tool handles
Diospyros mesipiliformis West African ebony 0.07 Tree Fruit, gum from bark, woodfuel, furniture
Diospyros sp. NF 0.13 Tree Fruit, woodfuel, tool handles
Fabaceae Senegalia senegal (L.) Britton Gum Arabic 0.01 Tree Gum, roots treat dysentery, woodfuel
Crotalaria sp. NF 0.03 Forb Leafy vegetable
Rhynchosia goetzei Harms NF 0.01 Shrub Leafy vegetable
Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Sicklepod 0.03 Forb Leafy vegetable, leaves are anthelmintic
Tamarindus indica L. Tamarind 0.52 Tree Fruit, juice and wine, woodfuel, tool handles
Vigna kirkii (Baker) J.B.Gillett NF 0.03 Climber Leafy vegetable
Hydnoraceae Hydnora abyssinica A.Br. NF 0.14 Shrub Fruits
Lamiaceae Hoslundia opposita Vahl Kamyuye 0.03 Forb Fruit, woodfuel (firewood)
Ocimum gratissimum L. Clove Basil 0.01 Forb Fruits
Vitex doniana Sweet Black plum 0.38 Shrub Fruit, wine from fruits, timber, woodfuel
Vitex madiensis Oliv. Rough fingerleaf 0.14 Tree Fruit, wine from fruits, timber, woodfuel
Loganiaceae Strychnos innocua Delile Monkey orange 0.84 Shrub Fruit, wine from fruits, woodfuel, poles
Strychnos spinosa Lam. Kaffir Orange 0.06 Shrub Fruit, wine from fruits, woodfuel, poles
Strychnos sp. NF 0.01 Tree Fruit, woodfuel, poles
Malvaceae Grewia mollis Juss. NF 0.19 Shrub Fruit, woodfuel, fibre (bark), gum (root bark), poles, sticks
Grewia trichocarpa Hochst. ex A. Rich. Raisin bush 0.03 Tree Fruit, fibre, poles, tool handles, woodfuel
Grewia villosa Willd. Mallow raisin 0.38 Shrub Fruit, fibre, making granaries and sticks
Hibiscus acetosella Welw. ex Fic. False roselle 0.01 Shrub Flowers and leaves used for tea making
Hibiscus cananabinus L. Kenaf 0.03 Forb Leafy vegetable, seeds roasted and pound
Sterculia setigera Del. NF 0.04 Tree Seeds, oil, fibre, gum, bark treats snakebites
Moraceae Ficus amadiensis De Wild. NF 0.23 Tree Fruit, latex (gum), woodfuel
Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. Red-leaved rock fig 0.1 Tree Fruit, latex (gum), woodfuel
Ficus mucuso Welw. ex Ficalho Mulberry fig 0.33 Tree Fruit, latex, woodfuel
Ficus natalensis Hochst. Natal fig 0.01 Tree Fruit, latex from bark, fibre, woodfuel
Ficus ovata Vahl NF 0.01 Tree Fruits, fibre from bark, latex, woodfuel
Ficus platyphylla Del. Broadleaf fig 0.03 Tree Fruit, latex from bark, woodfuel

Ficus thonningii Bl. Strangler fig 0.06 Tree Fruit, woodfuel, latex, timber, woodfuel
Musaceae Musa paradisiaca L. Plantain 0.01 Forb Fruit, fibre, crafts
147
148
Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L. Guava 0.01 Shrub Fruit, woodfuel
Passifloraceae Passiflora edulis Sims Passion fruit 0.1 Climber Fruit
Pedaliaceae Sesamum angustifolium (Oliv.) Engl Wild simsim 0.03 Forb Leafy vegetable
Phyllantanceae Bridelia scleroneura Müll. Arg. Assas 0.13 Tree Fruit, wine, woodfuel, poles
Poaceae Oxytenanthera abyssinica (A.Rich.) Munro 0.01 Grass Leafy vegetable, construction materials, tool handles
Savanah bamboo
Polygonaceae Oxygonum sinuatum (Hochst. & Steud. ex Meisn.) Wavy-Leaf oxygonum 0.03 Forb Leafy vegetable
Rhamnaceae Ziziphus mucronata Willd. Buffalo thorn 0.22 Shrub Fruit, roots treat snakebites, poles, reeds
Gummy canthium
Rubiaceae Afrocanthium lactescens (Hiern) Lantz 0.1 Shrub Fruit, poles and tool handles, woodfuel
Catunaregam nilotica (Stapf ) Tirveng. NF 0.16 Shrub Fruit, woodfuel
Mitragyna stipulosa (DC.) Kuntze African linden 0.01 Tree Fruits, leaves treat cough, woodfuel
Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. Large-leaved common gardenia 0.03 Tree Fruit, firewood, making tool handles

Rytigynia neglecta (Hiern) Robyns NF 0.01 Tree Fruit
Vangueria apiculata K.Schum. Triangle-flowered wild-medlar 0.26 Tree Fruit, woodfuel, leaves treat stomach-ache
Rutaceae Zanthoxylum leprieurii Guill. & Perr. Satinwood 0.04 Tree Bark, roots and leaf treat measles, woodfuel
Salicaceae Dovyalis abyssinica (Rich.) Warb. Abyssinian gooseberry 0.2 Shrub Fruit, woodfuel, bedsteads, hand tools
Oncoba spinosa Forssk Snuff box tree 0.06 Shrub Fruit, edible oil from seeds
Sapindaceae Allophylus rubifolius (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Engl. Lowveld false-currant 0.07 Shrub Fruit
Sapotaceae Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn. Shea butter tree 0.22 Tree Fruit, oil (edible and cosmetics), woodfuel, boats, poles, gum, timber
Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens L. Tabasco pepper 0.07 Forb Fruit, leafy vegetable, fruits treat intestinal worms
Physalis lagascae Roem. & Schult. Cape gooseberry 0.01 Forb Fruit, crushed leaves relieve joint pains
Physalis peruviana L. Goldenberry 0.06 Forb Fruit, leaf juice treats intestinal worms
Solanum lycopersicum L. Tomato 0.09 Forb Fruit
Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Wild sage 0.06 Shrub Fruit, firewood, roofing reeds, hedges
Lippia abyssinica (Otto & A.Dietr.) Cufod. Koseret 0.03 Forb Seeds
Vitaceae Cyphostemma cyphopetalum (Fresen.) Desc. NF 0.07 Climber Vegetable
Xanthorrheaceae Aloe sp. NF 0.01 Forb Leafy vegetable, medicine (various ailments)
Ximeniaceae Ximenia americana L. Tallow wood 0.43 Tree Fruit, leaves treat headache, seeds treat snakebite, woodfuel
Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. NF 0.19 Forb Fruit
Zygophyllaceae Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Desert date 0.64 Tree Leafy vegetable, fruit, hand tools, poles, oil, woodfuel
Balanites rotundifolia (van Tiegh.) Blatter NF 0.03 Tree Fruit, hand tools, poles, woodfuel, fodder
Tribulus terrestris L. NF 0.01 Forb Leafy vegetable
Chapter 11
Re(Connecting) with the Ifugao Rice Terraces

as a socio-ecological production landscape
through youth capacity building and
exchange programs: A conservation and
sustainable development approach
Lead authors:
Joane V. Serrano, Aurora V. Lacaste1*, Janele Ann C. Belegal1, Consuelo dL. Habito,
Mark Anthony F. Rabena2, Francis Mark Dioscoro R. Fellizar2, Sherry B. Marasigan,
Inocencio E. Buot, Jr., Noreen Dianne S. Alazada1, Thaddeus P. Lawas, Marissa P. Bulong,
Eulalie D. Dulnuan3, Martina B. Labhat, Elpidio Basilio, Jr., Romeo A. Gomez, Jr.,
Melanie Subilla5,Von Kevin B. Alag1
University of the Philippines Open University, Los Baños 4030, Laguna, Philippines
1
2
University of the Philippines Los Baños, Los Baños 4031, Laguna, Philippines
3
Ifugao State University, Lamut 3605, Ifugao, Philippines
4
Benguet State University Open University, La Trinidad 2601, Benguet, Philippines
5
Mountain Province Polytechnic State College, Bontoc 2616, Mountain Province, Philippines
*[email protected]
Abstract
The Ifugao Rice Terraces (IRT) in the Philippines was inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1995 by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. In 2005, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also
designated it as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) site, the first in the Philippines. Despite these
recognitions, the IRT faces various challenges such as under-management of biocultural diversity and socio-ecological
systems, poor maintenance, abandonment of rice terraces, unregulated tourism activities, and out-migration of young
Ifugaos. To address these challenges, rehabilitation efforts and initiatives have been initiated by various sectors to restore
conditions in the IRT and aid in its conservation and sustainable development. This paper examined the youth capacity
building and exchange program which intended to reconnect Ifugao youths and connect urban youths with the IRT as a
socio-ecological production landscape (SEPL). The youth capacity building and exchange program was implemented to
address the knowledge transfer and out-migration problems confronting the IRT. Through a conservation and sustainable
development approach, the program was executed in four phases: needs analysis, development of tablet-based training
modules, youth training and exchange program, and contextualization of the training modules. The needs analysis indicated
that the youths are still interested in being involved in the conservation and sustainable development of the IRT as a SEPL

Chapter 11: Re(Connecting) with the Ifugao Rice Terraces as a socio-ecological production landscape
and recommended the integration of digital platforms to help them understand and appreciate their culture better. Based
on these needs, experts from collaborating universities developed tablet-based training modules with the following topics:
IRT as a Satoyama Landscape; Ecosystem Services of the IRT Landscape; Sustainable Development in the IRT; My Culture, My
Nature and My Heritage; and, IRT as a Satoyama Landscape in the 21st Century. Results showed that Ifugao youths revisited
the importance and value of IRT; however, there were overlooked values (e.g. traditional knowledge and living in harmony
with nature). Additionally, these youths reported that they see the IRT only for its aesthetic and global designations value. On
the other hand, the urban youths were able to connect to the knowledge and value systems of the Ifugao culture, through
the exchange program, thus, enabling them to learn the values of Ifugao towards IRT and nature. It is recommended that
the program be expanded to other youths in the IRT landscape and other SEPLs.
Keywords: capacity building, exchange program, conservation, sustainable development, Ifugao Rice Terraces, tablet-
based learning
Country Philippines
Province Ifugao
District Batad (Banaue), Hungduan, Kiangan and Mayoyao
Size of geographical area 250,630 hectares
Number of indirect beneficiaries 202,802 persons
Dominant ethnicity Tuwali
Figure 1. Map of the country and province. (Source: Map data from GADM 2011)

Size of case study/project area 59,550 hectares

Number of direct beneficiaries 25 persons
Geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) (Batad) 16.95°N 121.13°E
(Hungduan) 16.84°N 121.01°E
(Kiangan) 16.77°N 121.10°E
(Mayoyao) 16.95°N 121.22°E
Dominant ethnicity Tuwali and Tagalog
Figure 2. Land use and land cover map of case study sites. (Source: Map data from Bureau of Soils and Water Management – Department of
Agriculture, Philippines 1987)
Introduction Sustainable systems like socio-ecological production

landscapes (SEPLs), a term coined by the Japan Satoyama
Over the years, drastic changes in the natural environment, Satoumi Assessment, are dynamic systems that reflect
global economy, and societal conditions have negatively human-nature interactions compatible with maintenance,
affected ecosystems and contributed to climate change, resource generation, conservation and sustainable use
habitat destruction and natural resources depletion. Human (Centre pour l’Environnement et le Développement [CED] et
activities heavily influence these changes in the human al. 2010). As SEPLs are resource and service providers to their
attempt for active and dynamic adaptation, survival, and local communities and external populations, conserving
development. For a continuous supply of natural resources, and sustaining these systems are vital.
humans have learned to manage materials and to adapt to
the environment. Thus, sustainable systems were created. Recent conservation perspectives emphasize the
These unique systems are based on a congruous relationship relationship between nature and culture, and the
with the natural environment and encourage balanced role of communities in conservation and sustainable
and effective land and natural resources management. development. Van Oudenhove and colleagues (van

Oudenhove, Mijatovic & Eyzaguirre 2010) emphasize that which in turn affects the management and sustenance of
communities have molded SEPLs through generations the landscape (Department of Environment and Natural
of coevolution—exhibiting the compatibility of human Resources [DENR] 2008). In terms of economic activities, the
needs with conservation goals. Since human activities “have Ifugao people commonly engage in farming, wood carving
significant influences in shaping SEPLs” (Ichikawa et al. and weaving.
2010, p. 178), the role of indigenous and rural communities
in conservation must be accentuated in proposing and The five rice terraces, collectively called the Ifugao Rice
planning conservation projects. Nonetheless, SEPLs are not Terraces (IRT) constituting the World Heritage Site, are in four
entities fixed in time. No amount of conservation can retain municipalities (Banaue, Hungduan, Kiangan, and Mayoyao).
their ‘initial’ characteristics since these systems are dynamic Inscribed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
and constantly evolving. However, industrialization and a Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1995 as a World Heritage
diminishing rural population, to name a few socio-ecological Site, the IRT is also the only Globally Important Agricultural
problems, threaten these landscapes, as implied by Belair Heritage Systems (GIAHS) site in the Philippines piloted by
et al. (eds. 2010). A diminishing rural population, primarily the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
caused by youth out-migration, is one of the problems (FAO) in 2005 and designated in 2011. Figure 3 presents the
confronting a renowned SEPL in the Philippines—the Ifugao four rice terrace clusters of the IRT. The IRT, a SEPL influenced
Rice Terraces. and sustained by accumulated traditional knowledge and
sustainable practices, is the primary source of the livelihoods
1.1 Ifugao Rice Terraces as SEPL of the Ifugao communities through providing food and
income. It also provides vital regulating services such as
Covering a total area of approximately 263,000 hectares, biodiversity conservation (through organic agriculture),
Ifugao province is a landlocked and generally mountainous carbon sequestration and nutrient cycling, soil and water
landscape characterized by thick forests, creeks, and streams conservation, and pest regulation (DENR 2008). A typical
that are tributaries to major rivers. Ifugao is situated within Ifugao community, shown in Figure 4, consists of a muyung
the Cordillera mountain range in the Northern Philippines. (community forest or private woodlot), payoh (rice terraces),
With eleven municipalities, the province is home to an and boble (village/residential area). These components of
approximate 203,000 people who mostly belong to the an Ifugao community are harmoniously interrelated—the
Ifugao ethnic group, according to the Philippine Statistics muyung provides water and nutrients to the payoh, which
Authority (PSA 2016a). Christianity, among other religions, provides harvest to residents in the boble, and the residents
has a growing religious influence in the province. This must tend and maintain the muyung and payoh the whole
observance of Christianity is believed to have contributed year round for food production and biodiversity.
to the disregard of indigenous traditions and belief systems,
M AYOYAO R I C E
T E R R AC E S
B ATA D R I C E
T E R R AC E S
N AG AC A D A N
R I C E T E R R AC E S
HUNGDUAN
R I C E T E R R AC E S
Figure 3. The Ifugao Rice Terraces

1.2 Youth for Ifugao Rice Terraces
In response to the need for capacitating IRT community

stakeholders, a project intending to reconnect Ifugao youths
and connect urban youths with the IRT was implemented
from November 2016 to June 2019. Youth for Ifugao
Rice Terraces (Y4IRT), a tablet-based capacity building
and exchange program for Ifugao and urban youths, is
a collaborative two-year project of the University of the
Philippines Open University (UPOU), Kanazawa University
(KU, Japan), University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB),
and Ifugao State University (IFSU). A one-year joint initiative
to the project, the contextualization of instructional
materials, was also executed from March 2018 to March
Figure 4. Typical Ifugao community 2019 for the Ifugao community. These two projects were
funded by Mitsui & Co., Ltd. and the Satoyama Development
Mechanism collaborative project of the International
Despite the abundance of resources and services in the rice Partnership of the Satoyama Initiative (IPSI), respectively.
terraces, many terraces farmers still consider themselves Currently, the capacity building program only targets Ifugao
poor. Farming in the rice terraces “is labor intensive but youths as they can have immediate influences on the IRT.
with low economic returns” (DENR 2008, p. 11). This notion To specifically address the out-migration and knowledge
of farming causes youth out-migration and the eventual transfer problems, Y4IRT was implemented to capacitate
abandonment of the rice terraces. Out-migration poses a IRT successors to sustain the biodiversity and ecosystem
threat to IRT sustainability and Ifugao traditional knowledge services of the landscape. Y4IRT was comprised of four (4)
transfer. Traditional knowledge (TK) stems from generations phases executed through a conservation and sustainable
of harmonious human relationships with nature. Expressed development approach: needs analysis, development of
through certain traditions, customs, and rituals, TK guides tablet-based training modules, youth training and exchange
a community’s interaction and utilization of land and program, and contextualization of training modules.
resources—resulting in sustainable practices (CED et al.
2010). Therefore, TK has a significant role in landscape, This chapter examines the youth capacity building and
biodiversity, and ecosystem services maintenance. If not exchange programs in terms of their contribution to IRT as
transferred to young Ifugaos, they will lack the values that a SEPL. Furthermore, this study aimed to understand the
promote co-existence and co-adaptation with nature. views of the youth participants on the pressing issues of IRT,
Dialogues with elders, parents, and youths revealed that and on the services and values derived from the landscape.
Ifugaos value formal education, and parents encourage This chapter also aims to narrate the process, lessons
their children to get degrees at the expense of transferring learned, and views of youth participants on the modules
TK. Marasigan and Serrano (2014) support this notion, but and activities in developing and deploying the tablet-based
they also emphasize the importance of parents instilling the capacity building and exchange program.
values of farming, environmental stewardship and culture
bearing in their children.
2. Description of Activities
Aside from out-migration and TK loss, the following internal
and external pressures also threaten the management 2.1 Study Sites
of natural resources and conservation of the IRT: land
abandonment, under-management of biocultural Chosen study sites were Banaue, Hungduan, Kiangan, and
diversity, aging and diminishing population due to out- Mayoyao. These municipalities, covering an estimated
migration, neglect of traditional agricultural practices, poor 85,000 hectares collectively, are situated adjacent to one
maintenance, urbanization, unregulated tourism activities, another (see Fig. 1). Rugged terrain, extensive rice terraces,
and farmers’ economic difficulties (Paleo 2010; Ichikawa et rivers and lakes, and forests characterize the study sites (see
al. 2010; Matsui, Kawashima & Kasahara 2010). These lead to Fig. 2). Agriculture is the main economic driver of these
more abandoned rice paddies, unsustainable plantations, municipalities, with most of their land dedicated to food
and weakening of traditional social systems. Nonetheless, production. Residents of the municipalities also engage in
Ichikawa and colleagues (2010) suggest that these problems tourism, wood carving, weaving, and blacksmithing. Table 1
can be addressed with raised awareness and capacity presents the demographic and geographic information of
building among stakeholders. each municipality.

Table 1. Population and land area of the study sites (Sources: DENR (2008) and PSA (2016b))
Youth aged
Municipality Population Land area (ha.) % Rice terraces % Farming
15-24
Banaue 21,837 4,654 19,120 27.7 50
Hungduan 9,400 2,033 26,030 9.3 92
Kiangan 17,048 3,541 20,000 4.2 95
Mayoyao 17,331 3,670 23,805 13.4 100
2.2 Youth participants 2.3 Activities
Table 2 presents the demographic profile of Y4IRT’s youth This study was conducted using a case study approach.
participants. There were 14 Ifugao youths, and 11 urban Defined by Crowe and colleagues (2011, p. 1), the case
youths. It was observed that most Ifugao youth participants study approach is an “in-depth, multi-faceted exploration
were female, and most participants were aged between employed to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue
21-23 years old. All participants are at least high school or event of interest, in its natural real-life context”. Based
graduates. Youths from the three main islands of the on this approach, Y4IRT’s phases were carried out, and the
Philippines (Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao) were not equally views and narratives of the Y4IRT youth participants on the
represented in the program, as most urban youths were services and values derived from the IRT landscape were
from Luzon. As indicated in the table, there were two Ifugao elucidated. The 4 phases of Y4IRT transpired as follows:
out-of-school youths who were working as tour guides in
their municipalities after graduating from high school. 2.3.1 Needs analysis
Table 2. Demographic profile of the youth participants of Y4IRT Since Y4IRT produced educational materials, it was
Ifugao Urban imperative to conduct a needs analysis prior to material
Demographic Information
youth youth development. Youth needs, problems, knowledge gaps
and challenges addressable by Y4IRT were identified
Gender through interviews and workshops. Specifically, key
Male 2 5
informant interviews with village elders and government
Female 12 6
officials, and focus group discussions (FGDs) with youths,
Age farmers, educators, and residents of IRT communities were
18-20 2 3 conducted (see Fig. 5 and 6). The utilized interview guides
21-23 9 7 are included in Appendix 1. Stakeholders were asked about
24-26 3 1
the values they attribute to the IRT landscape in terms of
Educational background natural and cultural heritage. Photos and video footage
Out-of-school youth 2 of Ifugao and related activities were also taken. Consents
College undergraduate 4 8 for interviewing and photo/video documentation were
College graduate 8 3 granted by the involved community stakeholders. These
Residency (Ifugao) activities were accomplished to ensure user-involvement,
Banaue 5 to deliver the training modules in a proper context, and to
Hungduan 4 tackle the most pressing issues relevant to IRT conservation
Kiangan 5 and sustainable development.
Residency (urban)
Metro Manila 2 In the initial discussion with the Ifugao youth, IRT presence
Luzon 8 in social media and other digital platforms was suggested
Mindanao 1 for improving youth appreciation towards the IRT. With this,
a digital tools and skills assessment among selected Ifugao
youths was conducted to determine the acceptability and
accessibility of tablet-based modules to the target group.

Figure 5. Project team interviewing a Mayoyao government official Figure 6. A project member conducting FGD with Hungduan youths
2.3.2 Development of tablet-based modules 2.3.3 Youth training and exchange program
Considering the identified gaps and needs, the training The youth training and exchange program was conducted
modules were developed with pertinent topics and as an avenue for cultural and social exchange between
multimedia materials through a series of writeshops, Ifugao and urban youths. Participants from Ifugao and
meetings, and online correspondences with content urban areas were invited through social media platforms
experts, instructional designers, and course writers. Course and direct invitations; however, participants were recruited
writer meetings and workshops, as shown in Figure 7, were on a voluntary basis. Application forms were submitted to
regularly held to revise and ensure the completeness and the project team, and participants were accepted based
quality of the training modules. Field visits and interviews on their volunteer work, advocacies, and IRT perceptions.
among community stakeholders were conducted to ensure Youths who seemed to be physically fit and driven towards
information validity of the modules. The modules were conservation and sustainability were chosen. The topics
regularly evaluated and revised by the course writers in discussed in the modules were the basis and guide of
consultation with content experts and were pretested program itineraries and activities to make the program
among selected youth and stakeholders. Peer reviews holistic, engaging, and informative. This exchange program
from partner universities were also considered pretesting was separated into two activities: Ifugao youth and urban
and evaluation. Due to the limited Internet connectivity youth exchange activities, which took place in Laguna and
in Ifugao, the modules were deployed through an offline Ifugao, respectively.
tablet application developed for the project.
Figure 7. Course writer meetings and workshops in Ifugao, UPOU, and UP Baguio, respectively

Figure 8. Three urban youths in Ifugao traditional attire, with three locals Figure 9. An urban youth pounding traditional rice, as guided by a local
and one project member after learning a cultural dance in Batad, Banaue in Kiangan
Figure 10. Urban youths learning about local flora, guided by a local Figure 11. Urban youths interviewing elders in Batad, Banaue
farmer, in the Batad Rice Terraces
For the urban youth exchange activity, the participants were For the rural youth exchange activity, Ifugao youths went to
brought to Ifugao for a three-day immersion activity wherein Laguna province for a three-day activity designed to expose
they learned about the Ifugao culture and rice terraces them to different institutions and communities in the urban
landscape. The program occurred in Batad (in Banaue), setting. Laguna is a predominantly urban province situated
Hungduan and Kiangan with the following activities: in Southern Luzon. Distinguished academic institutions (like
lectures on IRT ecosystem services and culture, learning and UPOU and UPLB), heritage sites (old churches), commercial
performing cultural dances, appreciation of a few local flora establishments, and local craft businesses (e.g. wood
and fauna, interviews with elders and community members, carving) characterize the province. The exchange took place
immersions with foster families, and a synthesis activity (see in five municipalities, namely: Calauan, Los Baños, Paete, Pila
Fig. 8 to 11). and Victoria (see Fig. 12).

Figure 12. Map of the country, province and Ifugao exchange activity sites. (Source: Map data from GADM 2011)
This exchange activity also aimed to equip the Ifugao in relocation communities, interviews and study on textile,
youths with knowledge and ideas they can apply to their paper, and forest products technology, wood carving
respective communities. Through the activity, the Ifugao industry, and heritage house preservation, and a synthesis
youths were able to experience firsthand the contrast activity (see Fig. 13 to 16). Furthermore, the tablet-based
between Ifugao and an urban area. Program activities were: modules were only given to and utilized by the Ifugao
lectures on sustainable development, site and institution youths.
visits, interactions and observations of livelihood programs
Figure 13. Ifugao youths attending a lecture on paper and forest products Figure 14. Ifugao youths interviewing a textile-making worker in a
technology in UPLB relocation community in Calauan

Figure 15. Ifugao youths interviewing a trolley-pusher about this Figure 16. A wood carver in Paete demonstrates his craft to the Ifugao
livelihood in Los Baños youths
Note: Trolley pushing is a form of transportation on inactive train tracks.
2.3.4. Contextualization into translated materials 3. Results and Discussion

As a joint initiative of Y4IRT, the developed training modules 3.1 Addressing needs through tablet-based modules
were translated into two local dialects: Ayangan and Tuwali.
This initiative will sustain Y4IRT’s impacts by making the Categorized according to the Intergovernmental Science-
modules more relevant to a wider scope of community Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
stakeholders. Experienced English-to-local-dialect (IPBES) multiple values of nature (MVN) framework
translators, who were retired teachers and community (IPBES 2015), Table 3 shows the needs, issues, and Ifugao
elders, were identified by IFSU colleagues. This choice values identified during the needs analysis. Among all
of translators assured the congruent context between needs assessed, these were the most pressing/recurring:
the locally translated and English modules. Evaluation knowledge transfer to younger generations, attracting
workshops with other experts and selected community youths to conservation projects, digital technology to
stakeholders were also conducted to ensure the materials’ engage youths, IRT learning resources, and emphasizing the
validity. Conclusively, the translated materials were well- values in sustaining the IRT.
received by the evaluators and stakeholders.
Table 3. Needs, issues, and values identified by Ifugao community stakeholders
Category Needs and Issues Values
Control of invasive pests (i.e. earthworms, snails) Presence and interrelationship of muyung (tree, plant
and animal species), rice terraces (rice varieties, insects,
Retention of sustainable agricultural practices (organic vegetables), swidden farms (root crops, fruits and
pest elimination, non-introduction of invasive species) vegetables), bodies of water (fishes) for biodiversity
Shift in economic activities unrelated to farming and

cultivating causing biodiversity loss (unregulated farm
and terrace management)
Nature
‘Disconnection’ of youths from nature
Low level of people’s awareness on biodiversity value
Lack of support from local government units (lack of

regulatory policies for tourist access in the rice terraces
[terraces are susceptible to damage/trampling], and
addressing abandoned rice terraces, and misallocation
of government funds)

Category Needs and Issues Values
Abandonment of some rice paddies Provision of food, water, timber, materials, TK, cultural
services
Nature’s
Changes in the agricultural practices in the rice
benefits to
terraces: use of non-traditional rice varieties, farming Sustainability of rice terraces through traditional rice
people
other crops production system (water and soil management for
terrace maintenance prevention of soil erosion)
Children and younger generations are discouraged IRT as symbol of ingenuity and Ifugao pride
from farming and are losing interest in their
production and traditional systems resulting in IRT sustainability and management with human
reduced knowledge transfer coevolution
Youth out-migration causing a decrease in manpower Culture and tradition as ‘guides’ in living with nature
in the rice terraces, resulting in less harvest
Food insecurity (rice produced in the rice terraces Preservation of indigenous values and culture through
is not enough for some families because of yearly knowledge transfer
agricultural cycle)
Good quality Conservation and sustainability of IRT

of life
Ways to attract youths to help in conserving the rice
terraces
Social media and digital technology use among Ifugao

youths
Learning materials and documentation on IRT
Equal promotion of all UNESCO-inscribed rice terraces
Lack of inter-agency collaborations
Although not explicitly mentioned during the needs analysis,

it was deduced that most youths do not readily recognize
and appreciate the intrinsic value of nature. However, data
indicated that youths were interested in being involved in
the conservation and sustainable development of the IRT
and suggested the use of digital tools. To entice youths
in involving themselves and appreciating the IRT, digital
modules were developed. The digital assessment yielded
results indicating Ifugao youths are digitally proficient
and can utilize digital materials (computer=57, tablet=46,
smartphone=44, Internet=58, search engine=60). Full
results are shown in Appendix 2.
The contents of the training modules were written based

on the identified needs, issues, and values, and based on Figure 17. Tablet-based training modules
the following principles: is engaging for youths; does not
use terms/concepts that are too technical since target
audience is both uneducated/educated youths; introduces is a remote province with limited Internet accessibility,
and discusses scientific topics; contains actual, relevant and accessing the modules using a portable and mobile device
valid IRT information; and utilizes multimedia materials and through a non-Internet-dependent application was the
interactive learning activities. Briefly described in Appendix project’s approach. Having tablet-based training modules
3, the training modules discuss natural landscapes, makes it easier for target youths to learn more on the IRT as
sustainable development, ecosystem services and culture. they can access the materials anytime, anywhere, through a
single device.
These tablet-based training modules, shown in Figure 17,
are comprehensive innovations in the development and There are existing frameworks, policies, and organizations
delivery of education and training programs. Since Ifugao involved in the conservation of the IRT. Initiatives (forest,

agriculture and water management, tourism, livelihood values, must be done to instill the same gravity of the values
assistance, restoration and conservation) for the IRT are in them.
abundant, from local government units (LGUs), non-
government organizations (NGOs), academia, and private Furthermore, the Ifugao youths have also stated that learning
institutions. Y4IRT differs from other initiatives since it some information about the IRT through the modules has
focuses on the youths through value ‘(re)connection’ and influenced their perceived values. It is noteworthy to report
digital education. Furthermore, Y4IRT can attain long-term that the Ifugao youths, after witnessing the views of the
sustainability as opposed to other efforts. urban youths, or the ‘outsiders’, were able to ‘reconnect’
and ponder on the significance of their culture and the
3.2 Values perceived during the exchange program IRT. Moreover, three major points about the rural-urban life
contrast emerged during their synthesis activity: recognition
With the exchange program, the youths interacted with each of the importance of having permanent residences in their
other, resulting in the interchange of ideas and reflections. family/ancestral land and of not having problems related
This in turn affected their current perceptions and value of to housing, encroachment, and relocation; appreciation
IRT conservation and sustainable development. Views about of innovations and technology on sustainable practices
the values of the IRT were shared by the youths during the (maximizing resource utilization); and acknowledgement
respective synthesis activity of their exchange programs. of government roles in providing support (e.g. livelihood
Table 4 summarizes these views into the MVN framework programs and assistance).
(IPBES 2015).
For the urban youths, although they showed an appreciation
Additionally, one core Ifugao value, as narrated by the for IRT, they only recognized its ‘theoretical’ value as they are
Ifugao youths, is their belief that they belong to the land, not its direct beneficiaries. These youths have ‘less grasp’
and that the resources they acquire from the landscape are of the extent of the IRT’s importance to the Ifugao people.
not truly theirs, and therefore must be replaced to ensure a Nonetheless, through the exchange, they indicated that they
sustainable supply of resources. However, just as the value were ‘connected’ to other knowledge and value systems by
for TK, the Ifugao youths are admittedly ‘indifferent’ towards the introduction and immersion in the Ifugao culture. These
this value they must possess as IRT successors. They also youths shared that the immersion became an avenue for
shared that they sometimes overlook the IRT’s significance them to be more concerned and involved individuals on
and only perceive its aesthetic and recognition values. the IRT’s conservation and sustainable development since
Nonetheless, the Ifugao youths believe that interacting with they saw and experienced firsthand the importance of the
elders and older adults, who strongly embody the Ifugao landscape to Ifugao livelihoods and culture.
Table 4. Perceived values of the youth participants towards the IRT
Types of Specific values

Category Focus of value
value Ifugao youth Urban youth
Rarity and importance of
Individual organisms tinawon (traditional rice) to the
Ifugao culture
Biophysical assemblages Ecosystems in the rice terraces
Nature Intrinsic
Significance of muyung, rice Significance of farm and
terraces, swidden farms, bodies terrace labor in biodiversity
Biodiversity
of water management (regulated terrace
harvest and cultivation)
Maximum resource utilization
and avoiding wastes (dropped
Nature’s ability to supply rice grains from pounding and
benefits dehusking—realization of the
Nature’s gravity of farm labor and value of
benefit to Instrumental a single rice grain)
people Muyung for temperature IRT as a rewarding experience
regulation, water and timber (serenity and ‘clean’ air compared
Nature’s gifts, goods and
supply to lowland and urban areas)
services
Aesthetic value of IRT

Types of Specific values

Category Focus of value
value Ifugao youth Urban youth
Source of livelihood and food through sustainable and organic
Security and livelihood
agriculture
Significance of natural and ‘Union’ of natural landscape and
cultural heritage human intervention in IRT
Living well and in harmony
TK, which is related to the
with nature and Mother
indigenous religion that honors
Earth
deities, flora, and fauna, is
essential to have a positive
relationship with nature
Culture benefits indigenous Recognition for its scientific
knowledge (provides value (the utilization of irrigation
information on how to behave channels and terraced rice
and interact with nature and its paddies to downstream water)
services)
Education and knowledge Cultural and indigenous
knowledge contributes to
educational materials
Importance of knowledge
transfer for stewardship
Important landscape for identity,
Identity and autonomy
pride and heritage
Traditions and cultural values Badang as an essential value to
(e.g. badang or cooperation, a push and continue conservation
core Ifugao value) give a sense of advocacies and efforts between
community locals and ‘outsiders’ for IRT
Good Ifugaos have a strong sense of

quality of Relational community and inclusivity
Good social relations
life
Diverse action-takers can make
a difference through planning
and implementing holistic and
sustainable approaches for IRT
conservation and sustainable
development
Representation of legacy and IRT contributes to local and
ingenuity of Ifugao ancestors national cultural heritage
who have built and cultivated
the IRT without ‘proper’
education on ecosystems and
engineering principles
Reminder to honor their

ancestors who have
accumulated traditional
knowledge which ensures
Art and cultural heritage continuous ecosystem services
benefits to future generations
Living in/with the IRT resulted

in (the production of ) many
songs, stories, and rituals which
characterize the Ifugao culture.
Culture comprised of traditions

and rituals (chanting, agricultural
practices, forest management,
badang)
Rituals, prayers and chants of the
Spirituality and religions culture are respectful towards
nature

As the Ifugao and urban youths embody significantly youths, sectors, and partner academes) will also be assessed
different cultures and values, evidently their concept and after six months and a year after the project has concluded.
appreciation of the IRT differ as well. For Ifugao youths, Monitoring these activities can be performed with an
who have a culture of intimate relationships with nature, established youth network for continued communication
TK and sustainable practices, it is expected of them to and coordination with IFSU and Ifugao LGUs. Additionally,
appreciate and regard nature better than the urban youths. Ifugao youths were tasked to devise an action plan as
Nevertheless, through Y4IRT, the youths improved their part of the activities in the tablet-based training modules.
current knowledge and values for the IRT and nature and These plans must engage and mobilize their communities
improved their conviction to contribute to the conservation in initiatives/actions that will benefit the ecosystem and
and sustainable development of the landscape. the IRT (i.e. proper waste management in tourism spots,
agri-ecotourism, and tradition documentation). Discussing
Diverse youth perceptions were evident in this study; the youths’ progress, through field visits and online
however, these results are not representative of the correspondences, on their action plans is also one of the
Ifugao and urban youth populations. Moreover, this study monitoring strategies of the project.
acknowledges a potential data bias from the skewed female-
male distribution of the Ifugao participants. Although the On the other hand, monitoring the Ifugao youths’ progress
project tried to evenly invite youths to the program, still and measuring the knowledge gained with the training
few Ifugao male youths joined. Literature indicates that modules can also assess the impacts of the project. This
males are less likely to participate in studies or in trainings can be accomplished by consolidating the outputs from
due to indifference (Holloway et al. 2017; Boyle et al. 2011; the learning activities and self-assessment questions in the
Markanday et al. 2013). modules.
3.3 Assessment and monitoring of Y4IRT’s sustainability After acknowledging the learnings from the pilot run of the
Y4IRT, it is recommended to plan for and carry out a more
The assumption of the project is that the Y4IRT’s modules inclusive and effective implementation of the project, and
will be used by other youths and sectors, and both Ifugao to develop a framework that can be used by the community
and urban youths, to sustain their engagement in similar to evaluate the impact of education and capacity-building
sustainable development engagements. Through follow- initiatives on the maintenance of the SEPLs. Indicators will
up FGDs, field visits, and interviews with the youths, the be used to assess whether the outcomes led to tangible
sustainability and extent of use of the modules (by other improvements such as behavioral change.
Figure 18. Y4IRT institutional frameworks

3.4 Institutional frameworks participants resulted in an influx of urban youths, but

only a few Ifugao youths responded—which forced IFSU
Figure 18 presents the guiding and sustainability frameworks project members and colleagues to personally invite some
of Y4IRT. The tablet-based modules will be situated in the youths. The project team expected many aspiring Ifugao
IRT-GIAHS Research and Development Center (IRT-GIAHS participants since they were Y4IRT’s target. This could reflect
R&D Center) at IFSU-Lamut, Ifugao. The Center will be a a lack of drive among Ifugao youths to act and sustain the
space for collaboration among institutional partners and the IRT and its biodiversity, resulting in the non-participation of
youth. For Y4IRT’s sustainability, activities to be undertaken young Ifugao males in training programs. Perhaps a longer
by institutional partners and youth networks are listed in the and more intensive period of recruiting participants could be
framework. Execution of these activities will result in various included in future programs. It is recommended that a study
materials to be presented to IRT communities for feedback. on indigenous youth non-participation (factoring in gender
Returning feedback to the Center repeats the process, and and socioeconomic aspects) in education and training
these interactions will translate to sustained community programs be conducted. In addition to the challenges,
interest for IRT sustainability. opportunities to sustain Y4IRT impacts are identified and
discussed in Table 5 below.
3.5 Challenges, opportunities, and biodiversity benefits
of Y4IRT In line with the opportunities, the biodiversity benefits of
Y4IRT are projected through execution of the biodiversity
The Y4IRT was challenged in logistics and recruitment. conservation activities discussed in the tablet-based
Distance, schedules, other responsibilities, and weather modules: regulating and continuous silviculture, strict
conditions made visits to Ifugao limited and often cancelled. tree-cutting regulations and policies, efficient utilization of
Youth availability and schedules also affected the progress timber crops, multiple cropping in swidden farms, regular
of the exchange program. However, when field visits were production in the rice terraces (traditional rice farming, then
postponed, online correspondences and meetings were during the fallow period, vegetable farming), and regulated
conducted to accomplish project tasks. pesticide use. These could be incorporated into the action
plans to be executed by the Ifugao youths.
On the other hand, Ifugao youths, especially males, were
difficult to recruit to the exchange program. The call for
Table 5. Suggested opportunities for sustained Y4IRT impacts
Opportunity Description
Exploration of further use of mobile Further studies can be undertaken to establish the benefits of mobile technology in
technology in training indigenous indigenous youth capacity building.
youth
Use of tablet-based modules as Partner institutions utilizing the modules.

learning materials for academic
institutions
Contextualization of modules into This phase emphasizes the vital role of “education in their own language” (CED et al. 2010,
translated materials p. 34). Utilizing translated modules makes the Y4IRT more inclusive, accessible, and relevant
to community stakeholders not adept in the English language. Both the English and locally
translated materials can be used as supplemental learning resources in Ifugao academes. This
opportunity can also sustain, assess and monitor Y4IRT’s impact by gathering feedback and
evaluation from locals occasionally.
Established network with the local Community networks will provide resources and audiences in future IRT endeavors.
communities
Influence/reference for future Similar projects can be expanded to other youths driven to act on conserving and sustaining
capacity-building programs SEPLs, culturally significant landscapes, and other indigenous rural farming communities
across the country.
Youth action plans as avenues for Youths can collaborate with LGUs, NGOs and other institutions in implementing and
collaboration with local units expanding their action plans.
Family for Ifugao Rice Terraces Educating the whole family, where early values are formed, on IRT conservation and
(F4IRT) sustainable development. This can potentially result in improved TK and nature appreciation.
Instead of parents discouraging terrace farming, they can convince their children to recognize
sustainable agriculture as an occupation and craft—prompting youths to tend, learn, and
value the IRT more.

Conclusion Centre pour l’Environnement et le Développement,

Association Okani, South Central Peoples Development
Capitalizing on digital technology, Y4IRT utilized tablet- Association, Organisation of Kaliña and Lokono in Marowijne,
based training modules which provided information Inter-Mountain People Education & Cultures in Thailand
on the IRT, Ifugao culture, ecosystems, and sustainable Association & Forest Peoples Programme 2010, ‘Customary
development. Through these modules, the Ifugao youths sustainable use of biodiversity by indigenous people: case
reportedly gained new knowledge about the landscape. studies from Suriname, Guyana, Cameroon and Thailand’,
Their values towards IRT were influenced by the modules in Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity in Socio-Ecological
and by the urban youths’ views. Similarly, the urban youths Production Landscapes, eds C Belair, K Ichikawa, BYL Wong
have experienced and gained a deeper understanding & KJ Mulongoy, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological
of the IRT and Ifugao culture. These value (re)connections Diversity, Montreal, pp. 23-35.
will strengthen, maintain, and build the youths’ positive
relationship with nature that benefits the conservation and Crowe, S, Cresswell, K, Robertson, A, Huby, G, Avery, A &
sustainability of the IRT. Sheikh, A 2011, ‘The case study approach’, BMC Medical
Research Methodology, vol. 11, no. 100, pp. 1-9.
Alongside increasing the knowledge and improving the
values of the youths, it is also necessary to develop stewards Department of Environment and Natural Resources 2008,
who will initiate change and will advocate and commit to The Ifugao Rice Terraces Philippine Project Framework, viewed
sustainability. This case signifies the role of individuals and 20 June 2019, <http://www.fao.org/3/a-bp814e.pdf>.
communities inside and outside of Ifugao for sustaining
SEPLs such as the IRT. After Y4IRT, youth participants have GADM 2011, Country provinces, viewed 25 April 2019,
the capacity to mobilize community stakeholders for <http://philgis.org/country-basemaps/country-provinces>.
additional IRT management practices and policies.
GADM 2011, Ifugao administrative boundaries, viewed 25
April 2019, <http://philgis.org/province-page/ifugao>.
Acknowledgments
GADM 2011, Laguna administrative boundaries, viewed 25
The authors would like to thank the Y4IRT project team and April 2019, <http://philgis.org/province-page/laguna>.
participants, the translators, the Ifugao Satoyama Meister
Training Program, and their colleagues from UPOU, UPLB, Holloway, EM, Rickwood, D, Rehm, IC, Meyer, D, Griffiths,
IFSU, KU, Benguet State University, Mountain Province S & Telford, N 2017, ‘Non-participation in education,
Polytechnic State College, and the provincial government employment, and training among young people accessing
of Ifugao. The authors would also like to extend their youth mental health services: demographic and clinical
gratitude to Dr. Koji Nakamura for his guidance and correlates’, Advances in Mental Health, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 19-
support to this initiative; and to Mitsui & Co, Ltd. and the 32.
Satoyama Development Mechanism for funding Y4IRT and
the contextualization of the training modules, respectively. Ichikawa, K, Wong, BYL, Bélair, C & Mulongoy, KJ 2010,
They also thank those who provided their comments on ‘Overview of features of socio-ecological production
earlier versions of this manuscript: SITR authors and editors, landscapes’, in Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity in Socio-
IGES, UNU-IAS, and the Satoyama Initiative. Ecological Production Landscapes, eds C Belair, K Ichikawa,
BYL Wong & KJ Mulongoy, Secretariat of the Convention on
Biological Diversity, Montreal, pp. 178-82.
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the cultural landscapes of Europe while envisioning their
conservation’, in Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity in
Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes, eds C Belair, K
Ichikawa, BYL Wong & KJ Mulongoy, Secretariat of the
Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal, pp. 45-50.
Philippine Statistics Authority 2016a, Population of the

Cordillera Administrative Region (based on the 2015 census
of population), viewed 17 May 2019, <https://psa.gov.
ph/content/population-cordillera-administrative-region-
based-2015-census-population>.
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density (based on the 2015 census of population), viewed
20 June 2019, <https://psa.gov.ph/content/philippine-
population-density-based-2015-census-population>.
van Oudenhove, FJW, Mijatovic, D & Eyzaguirre, PB 2010,

‘Bridging managed and natural landscapes: the role of
traditional (agri)culture in maintaining the diversity and
resilience of social-ecological systems’, in Sustainable Use of
Biological Diversity in Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes,
eds C Belair, K Ichikawa, BYL Wong & KJ Mulongoy, Secretariat
of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal, pp. 8-18.

Appendix 1. Interview guides and FGD b.) barangay/community, c.) municipality, and d.) province
guide questions that sustain the community/livelihood development?
• Do you know any practices/customs/traditions in your: a.)
Break out Focus Group Discussion family, b.) barangay/community, c.) municipality, and d.)
province that maintain the beauty/services provided by the
Module 1: Conserving Ifugao Rice Terraces as Satoyama IRT?
landscape & GIAHS site • Do you think these two practices are suitable/relevant:
• For you, what is the Importance of IRT to the Ifugaos? developing/improving livelihoods and maintaining the
• What do you really want from IRT? (Food? Clean food? beauty/services provided by the IRT? In what ways?
Freshwater? Income? Etc.) • What are your suggestions in maintaining the IRT?
• Do you think IRT has importance to communities outside of • Plan for FGD:
Ifugao, say those in Manila, Visayas and Mindanao? 1. Introduction - give a short introduction that answers
• And do you think other countries consider IRT as important? the following:
• Do you think there is a need to conserve the IRT as a a. What does the phrase “sustainable development”
resource? mean?
• If you would think there is a need to conserve IRT as it was b. How is sustainable development defined in Ifugao?
handed by the forefathers, what initiatives are best for every c. What are the goals of sustainable development?
individual to do? How about for groups or organizations, 2. After the introduction, ask the participants about their
what should be the best thing to do? ideas on:
• What is your conservation scheme for the IRT? a. Importance of sustainable development in my
• If we do not conserve, what are your reasons? locality/in IRT community
b. Association between sustainable development and
Module 2: Ecosystem services of the Ifugao Rice Terraces
protection of the Ifugao Rice Terraces
Landscape
c. Ways on how the IRT community can arrive at
• Is food enough? Is water enough? Has the microclimate
sustainable development
changed? Can you still drink spring water?
• Plan for FGD Module 4: Nature, Culture & Heritage of Ifugao Rice Terraces
a. ECOSYSTEMS / LAND USES within IRT: (Community • In your opinion, what are challenges faced by the Ifugaos in
Forests (inalahan), Private Forests (muyung/pinugo), terms of your culture and heritage?
Rice Terraces (payo), Grasslands (mapulon), Streams / • What are your views in conserving Ifugao culture? Do you
Creeks) still see its relevance in the 21st century?
b. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES (Source: Millennium Ecosystem • How do you view the connection of nature, culture and
Assessment Framework) heritage and your role in it?
i. Supporting: Nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary
production Module 5: Ifugao Rice Terraces as a Satoyama Landscape in the
ii. Provisioning: food, freshwater, wood and fiber, fuel 21st Century
iii. Regulating: climate regulation, flood regulation, • Is population mobility in this modern time affecting IRT?
disease regulation, water purification How?
iv. Cultural: aesthetic, spiritual, educational, • With the rise of digital literacy even in Ifugao, how will this
recreational affect IRT? (Follow up and qualify every answer)
• As a community, what do you think are the benefits you • Is organic farming common now in Ifugao? Do people like
obtain from the following ecosystems: it?
a. Community Forests (inalahan) • Is there a move to use cement on IRT walls and dikes?
b. Private Forests (muyung/pinugo) (details)
c. Rice Terraces (payo) • Do you think people are satisfied with organic farming and
d. Grasslands (mapulon) may forego with total rehabilitation of IRT?
e. Streams / Creeks • With organic farming, do you think people will reminisce
• What are your views regarding the interconnectedness of and long for Satoyama in the IRT?
these systems? • Do we need to conserve IRT when we are satisfied with
organic farming?
Module 3: Ifugao Rice Terraces and Sustainable Development • Or just conserve a portion of IRT and the rest of organic
(focus on sustainable tourism, sustainable agriculture, farming?
livelihood, etc.) • If it will be like this, what do you think will happen to IRT
• What’s your definition of “sustainable development” for IRT landscape, the muyung/forest, the farm, and the village?
and the IRT community? • What could be the scenario to the ecosystem services (food,
• What is “sustainable development” for? What are its goals? water, climate, etc.) with its deterioration?
• What are the practices/customs/traditions in your: a.) family,

Appendix 2. Results of digital proficiency and digital skills assessment among selected
Ifugao youths
Level of proficiency Frequency of use
Can use Cannot use Never use Seldom Often Always
Computer 57 3 0 42 6 12
Scanner 32 28 24 28 8 0
Printer 48 12 12 30 12 6
Multimedia projector 42 18 16 36 4 4
Tablet 46 14 14 34 8 4
Smartphone 44 16 14 32 6 8
MS Word 54 6 6 30 10 14
MS Power Point 58 2 2 36 12 10
MS Excel 50 10 8 34 10 8
E-mail 42 18 20 22 12 6
Internet 58 2 2 22 12 24
Search engine 60 0 0 22 16 22
Photo editing 44 16 16 26 14 4
Audio editing 32 28 26 20 10 4
Video editing 32 28 28 26 2 4
Screencast tool 22 38 36 18 6 0
Translation tool 22 38 36 18 6 0
Conversion software 30 30 28 22 6 4
Programming tool 22 38 36 20 4 0
Poor Good Neutral Very Good Excellent

I can search on the Internet 1 14 7 22 16
I can find the particular information that I want on
0 14 13 23 10
the Internet
I can evaluate the information that I find on the
1 15 14 22 8
Internet
I can use digital media to create my own texts 1 18 19 13 9
I can manage the information that I find (organize,
0 12 13 21 14
save and store it for reuse)
I can decide if the information that I find on the
1 14 15 19 11
Internet is honest, relevant and useful
I can use the information and what I have learned
from it to create new work by blending, adapting, 2 21 10 16 11
applying, designing, inventing
I can communicate with others by exchanging
information, by sharing knowledge and creating
2 12 15 18 13
information products to suit the audience, the
context and the medium
I can communicate with others by sharing
2 17 13 19 9
knowledge digitally
I can create information products to suit the
3 21 11 19 6
audience, the context and the medium
I can use ICT appropriately and responsibly 4 23 12 17 4

Appendix 3. Content of Y4IRT training modules

Unit Unit Cover Topic Brief description Learning activities
Emphasizes the value and role

of human-nature interactions
IRT as a in the IRT Reflective questioning
1 Satoyama
Landscape Situational activities
Discusses nature’s values
States concrete examples

of biodiversity benefits and
Field visits
Ecosystem values in the IRT
2 Services of the Documentation
IRT Landscape
Habitat characterization
Discusses nature’s values and
benefits to people
Introduces sustainable
development as a concept
and the 17 Sustainable
Reflective questioning
Development Goals; Identifies
Sustainable approaches in sustainable Situational activities
3 Development in development
the IRT Relating SDG concepts
in their communities,
experiences and goals
Discusses nature’s values and
benefits, and values for good
quality of life
Observation activities
Emphasizes the relationship of
nature and culture Development of
multimedia materials
My Culture, My
4 Nature and My
Understanding meanings
Heritage Discusses nature’s benefits to of chants and songs
people and values for good
quality of life Development of an action
plan
IRT as a Directs sustainable Satoyama

Satoyama advocacies using digital
Landscape in the technologies accessible at IRT Digital skills assessment
5 21st Century
Drafting advocacy
strategies
Discusses values for good
quality of life

Chapter 12
Mainstreaming Community-Conserved
Areas (CCAs) for biodiversity conservation in
SEPLS - A case study from Nagaland, India
Lead authors:
Siddharth Edake1*, Pia Sethi1, Yatish Lele1
1
Centre for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi – 110003, India
*[email protected]
Abstract
In Nagaland, located within the Indo-Burma and Himalaya biodiversity hotspots in India, customary rights are protected
by the Indian Constitution, and the majority of natural habitats (88.3%) are owned and managed by individuals and clans
overseen by village councils, district councils and other traditional institutions. However, in the absence of alternative
livelihood options, most of the economic activities in the villages are based upon utilization of natural resources. This has
led to over exploitation of forest resources and threats to biodiversity due to the increasing needs of local people. However,
in Nagaland, traditional conservation practices have helped protect biodiversity, and there are records of Community-
Conserved Areas (CCAs) being declared in the early 1800s, especially in response to forest degradation and loss of wildlife.
Thus, the revival of traditional conservation practices through the creation of CCAs offers hope for conservation and
ecosystem resilience, as communities set aside parcels of forests within productive, shifting cultivation landscapes. It has
been documented that one-third of Nagaland’s villages have constituted CCAs, and as many as 82% of 407 CCAs have
completely or partially banned tree felling and/or hunting, and enforce various regulations for conservation. These CCAs,
covering more than 1,700 km2, also contribute to carbon storage (an estimated 120.77 tonnes per ha), and are an important
mitigation and adaptation strategy for climate change.
A pilot scale project was initiated in the three villages of Sukhai, Kivikhu and Ghukhuyi in Zunheboto district of Nagaland,
which aimed at creating and linking Community-Conserved Areas across the landscape and supporting conservation
through livelihood creation. The model adopted aimed at strengthening the resilience of these mountain communities
and their forests by rejuvenating traditional conservation practices and providing supplementary livelihoods. Activities
included compiling information on Indigenous Ecological Knowledge (IEK), developing long-term ecological monitoring
mechanisms, motivation and sensitization on landscape conservation and capacity building of the community members
in biodiversity identification, documentation and monitoring, as well as promoting ecotourism as a livelihood option.
Today, the project has yielded positive results in terms of sustainable use of biological resources by adopting long-term
sustainability, enhanced governance and effective conservation of SEPLs. Around 222 species of birds and 200 species of
butterflies have been documented and protected by declaring 939 hectares as CCAs and banning hunting and destructive
fishing across the remaining landscape of forests and rivers (total area being 3,751 hectares). The positive impacts of the
project activities were evident at the end of the project as communities reported increased protection of natural resources
after the formation of a joint CCA and improvement in management of common resources of socio-ecological production
landscapes (SEPL). The elders were satisfied with the documentation of their indigenous knowledge in the People’s

Chapter 12: Mainstreaming Community-Conserved Areas (CCAs) for biodiversity conservation in SEPLS
Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) while the youth, women’s groups and the marginalized members of the community reported
increased household income due to ecotourism. This model of biodiversity conservation is being mainstreamed within the
governance mechanism and up-scaled through a multi-pronged approach including financial support, legal recognition
and long-term ecological monitoring.
Keywords: Community-Conserved Areas (CCAs); Tizu valley; Sema community; Zunheboto; Nagaland
Country India
Province Nagaland
District Zunheboto
Number of indirect beneficiaries 2
10,000 persons
Dominant ethnicity Sema tribe
Figure 1. Map of the country and province (Source: Nagaland Forest Department) and CCA boundaries around pilot villages (Source: TERI 2017)

Size of case study/project area 1 939 hectares

Geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) 25°50’0”N and 94°31’0”E
Dominant ethnicity Sema tribe
Land cover/land use of the area- TERI 2017
CCA Contour Map- TERI 2017
Figure 2. Land use, land cover and contour map of case study sites - CCA (Source: TERI 2017)

1. Introduction values, ecological services and cultural values, voluntarily

conserved by indigenous, mobile and local communities
The state of Nagaland in India, which is a part of both the through customary laws and other effective means” (IUCN
Indo-Burma and Himalaya biodiversity hotspots, has a 2009). These CCAs include forests, freshwater resources,
forest cover of 12,868 km² that accounts for 77.62% of the grasslands as well as agricultural-forest complexes within
state’s total geographical area (FSI 2017). It also supports their ambit. One of the major characteristics of these CCAs
remarkable floral and faunal diversity with high levels is that the communities are the decision-makers, and have
of endemism. Naga tribes who inhabit Nagaland follow the capability to enforce regulations. Regulations and rules
customary laws and procedures, and their customary rights range from provisioning rules like patrolling and social
are protected under Article 371 A of the Constitution of fencing to appropriation rules like regulating collection of
India (see Box 1). These customary laws are plural in nature different forest products, restrictions on grazing, bans on
and differ from tribe to tribe and village to village. The Nagas felling of trees or bans on hunting. These bans may take
belong to an oral culture which they have practiced through many forms depending on the local situation. For example,
the ages till present times, where every aspect of life is a wide range of practices are in force for regulating
governed through time-honored customs and practices. hunting, which may range from blanket bans on hunting
These practices have not yet been codified. of all species through the year, to seasonal restrictions (e.g.
during the breeding season), to bans on hunting particular
species believed to be particularly vulnerable. Furthermore,
Box 1 Article 371 A of the Indian Constitution when populations are perceived to be endangered, then
the types of hunting weapons may be specified (e.g. use of
Article 371 A: Special provision with respect to the State only traditional traps and snares that are less detrimental
of Nagaland than guns, or of fishing nets and traditional traps, while
Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, no Act dynamite, electric currents, use of glue and poison are
of Parliament in respect of: shunned). Similarly, the local communities may restrict
- Religious or social practices of Nagas wild meat consumption for subsistence purposes, banning
- Naga customary law and procedure the sale of wildlife or forest products in local markets or
- Administration of civil & criminal justice involving for commercial purposes. The motivations for declaring
decisions according to Naga customary law, & the CCA appear to be multiple—foremost being concern
- Ownership and transfer of land and its resources, for forest degradation, followed by declining numbers
... shall apply to the State of Nagaland unless the of key wildlife species due to hunting and water scarcity
Legislative Assembly of Nagaland by a resolution so (TERI 2015). However, CCAs face numerous challenges in
decides. their creation, effectiveness and sustainability and require
sustained efforts for their conservation. This case study
The governance structure in Nagaland is a combination highlights the importance of CCAs in the socio-ecological
of customary decision-making processes combined production landscape (SEPL) of Nagaland in India.
with a statutory system set up by the state and central
governments (Pathak and Hazarika, 2012). Hence as per
the customary rights, the majority of natural habitats 2. Methods
are owned and managed by individuals and clans
overseen by village and district councils and other 2.1 Study site
traditional institutions. But, in the absence of alternative
livelihood options, most of the economic activity in the Three villages, Sukhai, Ghukhuyi and Kivikhu, lying in the
villages is based upon utilization of natural resources southern region of Zunheboto district bordering Phek
leading to over exploitation of forest resources. Wildlife district in the state of Nagaland, were selected as a pilot
hunting has always been a way of life for the Naga tribes, site under the work initiated by The Energy and Resources
but rampant and unregulated hunting has seriously Institute (TERI) with support from Conservation International
depleted wildlife populations. Nevertheless, traditional Japan via a Global Environment Facility (GEF) Satoyama
conservation practices help protect biodiversity, and grant (see Fig. 1). The pilot site lies in the heart of Nagaland
there are records of Community-Conserved Areas (CCAs) at an altitude of 1,900 m and has sub-tropical wet hill forest
being declared in the early 1800s, especially in response primarily overlapping with the sub-tropical pine forest (see
to forest degradation and loss of wildlife (Pathak 2009). Fig. 2). The area acts as an important green corridor between
According to the International Union for the Conservation the biodiversity-rich forests of the Satoi range and the Ghosu
of Nature (IUCN), CCAs are defined as, “natural and/or bird sanctuary and harbors endangered and threatened
modified ecosystems containing significant biodiversity species like the Blyth’s tragopan (Tragopan blythii), fishing

cat (Prionailurus viverrinus) and Chinese pangolin (Manis Traditionally, the Naga tribes had an intimate relationship
pentadactyla). The Tizu River, which flows through to these with nature and their SEPLs are based on a foundation of
villages, harbors a number of IUCN Red List fish species. the interconnectedness of God, people and nature. This is
reflected in their rich folklore on the plants and animals
The pilot villages are dominated by the Sema tribe, and of their forests. Some of these stories underline the
the economy is largely agriculture and forest-centered. ecological role that animals play in the ecosystem and their
Though farming is mainly for subsistence, high dependence contribution to ‘ecosystem services’ for human beings.
prevails on the other abundant resources of jhum (shifting For example, the role of the earthworm in enhancing soil
cultivation) lands, which include timber, medicinal plants fertility is transmitted through a folktale (TERI 2017). The
and non-timber forests products. Wildlife is an important value of their SEPLs was culturally realized and codified
resource for the communities and is exploited for various through wise use—for example, the killing of pregnant
reasons, including food, additional income, cultural animals and birds was a taboo that would bring misfortune
practices and as a sport. The overall SEPL comprises of a to the hunter and his family. Fishing and the use of certain
mosaic of different vegetation types and can be broadly poisonous roots and leaves that kill fishes in the rivers or
categorized as primary forests, secondary forests, jhum land springs during the spawning season were also restricted
and plantations. (Lkr & Martemjen 2014).
2.2 Multiple values of the SEPLs and challenging issues The Naga people in general consider all land to be sacred.
faced Jhuming, or shifting cultivation, involves clearing the land
and burning the jungle, so people propitiate the spirit
The SEPLs of Zunheboto provide the local people with with rice, crabs and rice beer to beg for forgiveness for
almost all of their daily subsistence and survival needs, apart the many animals, plants, birds and reptiles that might be
from contributing to their rich cultural heritage, folklore and inadvertently harmed. The entire lives of the Sema people
traditions. Landscapes of this area are comprised of diverse revolve around their forest-farm landscape. All the cultural
elements—subtropical forests interspersed with jhum fields festivals of the local people are linked to their agricultural
and differentially aged, regenerating jhum fallows. Jhum is calendar, and the Sema people’s agricultural calendar in turn
basically ‘farming the forest’, where patches of forests are is attuned to nature, guided by the movement of the stars
cleared for cultivation and then abandoned to fallow for or of birds—their migration patterns, breeding seasons and
several years. In Nagaland, this system of shifting cultivation songs. For example, the sowing of paddy is initiated only
ensures that even landless farmers are allocated patches of when the constellation of Orion (Phogwosiilesipfemi) is at its
forest to farm and is perhaps a reason for the high forest cover zenith or after the kashopapu, a species of cuckoo, is heard
of Northeast India (Northeastern forests account for 25% of calling (Hutton 1921).
India’s forest cover). Consequently, the people farm in the
forest and the two are perceived to be inextricably linked For the local Sema communities, a vibrant well-functioning
by the local communities. The forests provide enormous SEPL implies that abundant wild fauna is present in their
benefits to the local communities in terms of ecosystem forests, and easily sighted when they jhum their fields, and
services such as timber, fuelwood and forest products. Food that fish catches are abundant, large-sized and diverse,
production is enhanced owing to the location within the consisting of many species. Forests are protected at the top
forests (for example through enhanced pollination, water of hills so that their watershed services are enhanced. For
flows, nutrient enrichment, and natural fertilizers). The example, in the pilot village of Kivikhu, the main source of
jhum fields sustain a diversity of local varieties of crops (e.g. water for drinking and household activities is located 2.5 km
Miyeghu, which is the local variety of paddy) that feed the from the village boundary on a mountain top in an area that
people and their livestock. The rivers flowing through their is locally called Shoshemi-ghoki (ghoki meaning stream).
lands irrigate their fields and forests and provide them with Traditionally, lengthening of the jhum cycle provides
fish. In the valley areas adjoining the rivers, the people also improved scope for natural biodiversity to regenerate. This is
grow paddy in a pani-kheti system (water fed agriculture/ an extremely positive sign as jhuming is an excellent way to
terrace farming). Local landraces are preferred and grown, protect forests and associated biodiversity and yet produce
including the Naga Mircha (Capsicum chinense) and the crops, provided that long fallow periods allow for the forest
Nagaland tree tomato or tamarillo (Cyphomandra betacca), to regrow (see Fig. 3).
that have recently acquired the Geographical Indication (GI)
tag as directed by the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement.

has also led to reduction in fish populations of the Tizu River

flowing through the villages. Fear of losing all the fish and
the natural ecosystem is one of the reasons that led to local
communities to declare a reserve in their mountainscape. As
a wise-use practice, they believe that fish and other animal
species breed in the reserved areas and their populations
are revitalized and replenished over time (see Fig. 4).
2.3 Description of activities
Though a reserve area has been in existence since 2002,

it did not contribute to conservation in the absence of a
well-delineated program to safeguard ecosystems and
conserve SEPLs. To ensure conservation of large contiguous
Figure 3. Multiple uses of SEPLs in Nagaland in the form of forest, jhum forest areas, it was decided to mobilize support to link the
(shifting cultivation) and pani kheti (water fed agriculture/terrace community-conserved areas, revive traditional conservation
cultivation)
practices, carry out ecological assessments of these CCAs,
develop community-based ecotourism initiatives and
Of the issues currently faced in managing the SEPLs, the formalize and mainstream a network of CCAs along with the
main challenge is the decreasing jhum cycles. Earlier when a Nagaland Government and the State Forest Department.
forest patch was cleared, each patch was cultivated for only
one to two years and then left to regenerate for upwards Several deliberations were held with the communities of the
of 15 years. However, the decreasing jhum cycles at present three pilot villages of Sukhai, Ghukhuyi, and Kivikhu, to form
(less than seven years and often only for three to five years) a joint CCA Management Committee in order to enforce
prevent effective regeneration and lead to much soil erosion. rules that ban hunting, fishing, and logging as well as
Given the dependence of the local community on forest collection of medicinal plants in the designated CCAs, and
cover for a variety of provisioning and regulating ecosystem to prepare biodiversity registers to document traditional
services, loss of forest cover has affected agriculture and the ecological knowledge (TEK). Other activities proposed and
availability of water for domestic and agricultural use. carried out by the Tizu Valley Biodiversity Conservation and
Livelihood Network (TVBCLN), a formal local CCA body,
Though wildlife hunting is an age-old practice and a along with TERI and Titli Trust (an Indian NGO primarily
culturally embedded practice in the Naga way of life, the use focused on conservation and livelihoods in the Himalayas),
of guns has become increasingly common, and is popular were comprised of training the youths in biodiversity
due to the easier and higher probability of killing prey than assessments and sustainable use of natural resources;
traditional ways of hunting. This has led to rapid depletion preparing resource maps; generating awareness through
of wildlife with many species on the brink of local extinction. sensitization campaigns; and promoting ecotourism as an
Aggressive fishing using poisons (such as bleach and lime alternative livelihood activity (see Fig. 5 and 6).
powder), dynamite and electrocution using battery packs
Figure 4. (left to right) Hunted wild animals for sale, jhum (shifting) cultivation and electrocution of aquatic fauna using battery packs (Photo Credit:
Siddharth Edake)

Figure 5. (left to right) Members of the apex committee of TVBCLN & the CCA landscape (Photo Credit: Siddharth Edake)
3. Results and boosted the engagement. In addition, exposure visits

were undertaken for the community members to the
3.1 Conservation education and sensitization neighboring states to showcase similar case studies, success
stories and best practices with respect to community
Community engagement through consultation, conservation.
conservation education, and public sensitization
approaches was used to increase awareness of threats and 3.2 Formation & formalization of joint Community-
integrated approaches at the community and stakeholder Conserved Areas
level. This was achieved through participatory planning,
knowledge sharing, and capacity building. Around 30 Due to the continuous and intense engagement with the
sensitization campaigns were organized within the three communities, the three villages of Sukhai, Kivikhu and
pilot villages and on other community platforms like the Ghukhuyi in Zunheboto district of Nagaland formally
local Ahuna festival, thus reaching out to a total of around declared around a total of 939 hectares of biodiversity rich
1,200 individuals directly, along with a positive impact on forest as CCAs in respective villages, which are now being
more than 10,000 individuals indirectly living in the vicinity jointly managed by them (see Table 1). However, apart from
of the project site. This resulted in many more villages urging these CCAs, they have also banned hunting and destructive
a replication of these methods to manage their SEPLs, the fishing across the entire landscape of their villages, covering
latest being Chipoketa village, adjoining Kivikhu village, 3,751 hectares of forests and rivers. In general, each CCA on
which is dominated by the Chakesang community. Also, average is about 25% of the total landscape area owned by
scientific publications, popular articles, as well as websites the village, which is quite large. The CCAs were delineated
(http://nagalandcca.org/ and http://gef-satoyama.net/) and mapped and the boundaries were well-defined through
have helped to gain the attention of various stakeholders demarcation, digitization and participatory mapping. This
Figure 6. (left to right) Preparation of village resource maps and People’s Biodiversity Registers (Photo: Siddharth Edake) and training of youth on
biodiversity assessments (Photo: Pia Sethi)

Table 1. Area of CCAs and associated landscape recorded in field registers and this has created a conservation
Total landscape area CCA as % community amongst the youth. These sightings are also
Area of
(in ha) that is protected of total important for research and are uploaded on websites
Villages CCA (in
from hunting and landscape
ha)
fishing area
such as “eBird” and “Birds and Butterflies of India”. Regular
assessments can provide information on seasonal variations,
Sukhai 365 1,473 24.77
range extensions and changes in population abundance.
Ghukhuyi 370 1,132 32.68
The local people can use this knowledge to develop their
Kivikhu 204 1,146 17.80 own resource monitoring methods. Moreover, camera traps
Total 939 3,751 25.03 can indicate whether RET species such as the tragopan are
still sighted in the area. These surveys, by documenting
resulted in improved management of common resources. unique, rare or special fauna, have also acted as a catalyst to
Also, a blanket ban on hunting wild animals and birds, a ban attract more outsiders to the area as ecotourists. Well-known
on fishing by use of explosives, chemicals and generators, local bird guides are now including Zunheboto in their
strict prohibition of cutting of fire-wood/felling of trees, as travel itineraries. Given that unidentified species of bats and
well as a ban on collection of canes and other non-timber squirrels have been sighted through these surveys suggests
forest products for domestic and/or commercial purposes that this documentation will be an invaluable resource base
in the CCAs, have ensured conservation of large contiguous in the future and a contribution to scientific research in the
forest areas along with the unique endemic biodiversity area. A paper on the mandarin trinket snake has been jointly
they support (see Fig.7 and 8). published with an active youth member (see Fig.9).
3.3 Biodiversity assessments and preparation of 3.4 Alternative livelihood opportunities through
People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) ecotourism
Regular biodiversity surveys in the designated CCAs found The training of youth in biodiversity assessments and
an increase in the diversity of birds, reptiles, butterflies sustainable use of natural resources, as well as the training
and moths with the current checklist listing 222 species of and capacity building of local community members as nature
birds, 31 reptiles, 11 amphibians, 200 species of butterflies guides for ecotourism, has resulted in enhanced livelihood
and more than 200 species of moths. This diversity is very opportunities with the steady flow of tourists that are visiting
high in comparison to the nearby patches of forest, which this area to spot ‘bird and butterfly specials’. These include
do not receive protection and have been documented in birds like the Naga wren-babbler (Spelaeornis chocolatinus),
the People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) with local and Hodgson’s frogmouth (Batrachostomus hodgsoni), spot-
scientific names. These PBRs prepared for the three villages breasted parrotbill (Paradoxornis guttaticollis) and the grey-
of Sukhai, Kivikhu and Ghukhuyi document the folklore, headed parrotbill (Paradoxornis gularis), and butterflies
traditional knowledge, ecology, biodiversity and cultural like the endemic Naga Emperor (Chitoria naga) and Rufous
practices of the locals and help codify the oral knowledge Silverline (Spindasis evansii). Ecotourists also engage with the
of the communities. local communities to understand their traditions, culture,
food and conservation activities. This has further motivated
Biodiversity surveys by local communities have strengthened the communities, including those from neighboring villages,
interest in conservation. The youth share pictures of wildlife to take up conservation and protect their natural resources
snapped by them on a “WhatsApp group”. Sightings are (see Fig. 10).
Figure 7. (left to right) The TERI team and local people in Sukhai village, People’s Biodiversity Register of village Kivikhu (Photo: Siddharth Edake)
and the CCA logo (Photo: TERI, Titli Trust and Tshetsholo Naro)

Figure 8. Signage of CCA in Sukhai Village, Nagaland (Photo: Siddharth Edake)
Figure 9. (left to right) State bird of Nagaland- Blyth’s Tragopan (Tragopan blythii), exposure visit organized for community members &
documentation of butterflies in the CCA (Photo: Siddharth Edake)
Figure 10. (left to right) Ecotourists at the second biodiversity meet near the Tizu River, Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak) in the CCA boundary
(Photo Credit: Siddharth Edake)

4. Discussion Local communities are intimately dependent upon the

resources provided by their SEPLs and are well aware of the
An assessment by TERI to document the resilience status of many benefits they receive from their landscapes. However,
pilot villages at the start of the project concluded that the over time traditional knowledge has eroded and the folklore
communities were sensitive to the diversity of landscapes and practices that supported the wise use of their landscapes
within their village. Due to traditional farming and allied are being lost. Nevertheless, the way people perceive
conservation practices, they believed that the landscape certain elements of their landscapes has shifted after this
has good resilience and can regenerate; however, the loss project. In particular, the importance of stopping hunting
of biodiversity due to illicit tree felling and rampant hunting to increase wildlife abundance is now well supported.
is irreversible. There was also a good understanding of The role of wildlife in promoting forest regeneration, and
ecosystem services provided by community areas mainly in the interconnections of healthy rivers and fish abundance
the form of water and wild meat. However, the elders of the are clearly understood. Increasingly, though slowly, the
village also reported that the traditional taboos and beliefs people realise that forests and biodiversity can also provide
that encouraged wise-use practices in the past may be economic benefits through livelihood alternatives like
becoming increasingly irrelevant, in part because of changes ecotourism. Their fast eroding awareness of the importance
in religion, culture and globalisation. While in the short term of healthy SEPLs to their lives and cultures that were once
these CCAs face problems of rule breaking particularly with traditionally embedded in their beliefs and practices is now
regard to hunting, in the long-run threatening the very slowly reviving. These changing perceptions have been
sanctity of these areas are the lost revenues from timber captured through the second assessment of the indicators
production. As populations grow, land prices rise and of resilience which further underscores that local people
people move away from their villages, more private and clan now understand the value of banning hunting and fishing
owners of CCA land may want to manage their forests for for the benefit of future generations.
timber, rather than for conservation.
This project is just the start of what we hope will be a
One important lesson learned through this project is that if movement for conservation in the State of Nagaland. To
communities are well informed and empowered, they can date, impacts of the project have been monitored based
take steps to protect their natural resources and use them on indicators and a baseline developed at project initiation.
judiciously. The project directly helped the communities to The project has far exceeded our expectations. Since the
strengthen the age-old practice of conserving community project is for only two years, another objective was to
forests through mobilization and building synergies. The ensure sustainability of the initiatives. In January 2019,
project also responded to the critical needs of the pilot the local communities independently organised a Chengu
area by documenting the traditional knowledge and raising (Great Barbet) conservation festival which was a vibrant
awareness on the impacts of anthropogenic activities on demonstration that the local people were well on their way
the biodiversity and ecosystem services of the CCAs, as to independently carrying out conservation.
well as the ripple effect on the socio-economic and cultural
lifestyle of the Sema people. Again, the project through its Future monitoring in villages will be ensured by the Village
effort to generate alternative livelihoods built the capacity Councils themselves. The Village Councils have set in place
of communities on ecotourism and is contributing to sets of resolutions, and those failing to comply are heavily
biodiversity conservation. The positive impacts of the fined. The local communities now patrol their forests and
project activities were evident in the second resilience prevent both outsiders and people from their own villages
assessment conducted by TERI at the end of the project. from hunting and fishing. They also share pictures of those
The communities reported increases in the protection of disobeying their rules on a WhatsApp group for quick action,
natural resources after the formation of jointly managed and educate and motivate the people of other villages to
CCAs, and improvement in management of common eschew hunting. The Tizu Valley Network further supports
resources. The elders were satisfied with the documentation education and sensitization and livelihood activities.
of their traditional and cultural indigenous knowledge in Moreover, the government has taken notice of this initiative
the People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs), while the youth, and has come forward to support it by developing the
women’s groups and the marginalized members of the area into a Community Reserve under the Indian (Wildlife)
community reported increases in their household income Protection Act, for which limited funding is available.
due to ecotourism. The protection of a stretch of Tizu River
passing along the boundary of a CCA also resulted in an
increase of fish-catch downstream.

The value of linking CCAs as a network so that they act as References

refuges for wildlife and enhance connectivity for wildlife
movement has now been recognised by the Government Forest Survey of India (FSI) (2017), State of Forest Report,
of Nagaland. Enabling joint CCAs as formal institutional Forest Survey of India, Dehradun.
mechanisms that promote landscape conservation and
facilitate nature-based livelihoods is soon to be supported Hutton, JH 1921, The Sumi Nagas, Macmillan and Co. Limited,
through externally aided projects to strengthen forest London.
and biodiversity management in the State. TERI has also
developed a draft policy on CCAs as institutional frameworks International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
for conservation in the State, which has been shared with 2009, Indigenous and community conserved areas: a bold
the Government of Nagaland. new frontier for conservation, IUCN, Geneva, Switzerland,
viewed 15 February 2019, <https://www.iucn.org/content/
indigenous-and-community-conserved-areas-bold-new-
5. Conclusion frontier-conservation>.
The case study of the Tizu Valley Biodiversity Conservation Lkr, L & Martemjen 2014 ‘Biodiversity conservation ethos
and Livelihood Network’s (TVBCLN) CCAs has yielded in Naga folklore and folksongs’, International Journal of
positive results in terms of sustainable use of biological Advanced Research, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 1008-13.
resources by adopting long-term sustainability, enhanced
governance and effective conservation of SEPLs. Up-scaling Pathak, N & Hazarika, N 2012, ‘India: Community
of activities initiated by the communities will involve the conservation at a crossroads’ in Protected Landscapes and
formalization and mainstreaming of a network of CCAs in Wild Biodiversity, eds N Dudley & S. Stolton, Volume 3 in the
the State which are at par with India’s Protected Area (PA) Values of Protected Landscapes and Seascapes Series, IUCN,
network in conjunction with the Nagaland Government and Gland, Switzerland.
Forest Department. This will also require technique, finance
and institutional support to encourage and sustain the Pathak, N (ed.) 2009, Community-Conserved Areas in India –A
practice of CCA formation and sustainable management. Directory, Kalpavriksh, Pune.
Given that 88.3% of forests are under the governance of
the communities in Nagaland, the Community-Conserved TERI 2015, Documentation of community conserved areas of
Areas (CCAs) constitute the primary method for forest Nagaland, The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi.
management and conservation of SEPLs in the State. The
government needs to provide the policy, technology and TERI 2017, A People’s Biodiversity Register of Kivikhu Village,
the funding needed to allow these conservation groups to Zunheboto, Nagaland, The Energy and Resources Institute,
perform their role uninterrupted. New Delhi.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Conservation International (CI) Japan for

supporting the project via a GEF-Satoyama grant. Special
thanks to the Department of Forests, Ecology, Environment
and Wildlife of Nagaland for their guidance and support.
Special thanks to Sanjay Sondhi of Titli Trust for his
invaluable support and help throughout the project. Thanks
to Tshetsholo Naro for his support in the field.

List of Authors
Chapter 1 Synthesis Chapter

Suneetha M. Subramanian
Visiting Senior Research Fellow at UNU-IAS and Visiting Research Fellow at IGES, focusing on equity and sustainability
issues in the use of biodiversity and ecosystems. Coordinating Lead Author for IPBES Values Assessment.
Evonne Yiu
Research Fellow at UNU-IAS, focusing on biodiversity conservation in SEPLS and sustainable development of traditional
agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. PhD in Agricultural Sciences (global fisheries) from the University of Tokyo and a
member of the IPSI Secretariat. Fellow for IPBES Values Assessment.
Rajarshi Dasgupta
Senior Researcher in the Natural Resource and Ecosystem Services division of the Institute for Global Environmental
Strategies (IGES) and a visiting associate professor in the Institute for Future Initiatives, The University of Tokyo. Ph.D.
in Global Environmental Studies from Kyoto University and specializes in geospatial applications in environment and
natural resource management. Chapter Lead Author for IPBES Sustainable Use Assessment.
Yasuo Takahashi
Research Manager in the Natural Resources and Ecosystem Services Department of the Institute for Global Environmental
Strategies (IGES). Masters in Conservation and Tourism from the University of Kent. Fellow for IPBES Regional Assessment
for Asia and the Pacific and Contributing Author for Global Assessment.
Chapter 2 Mauritius
Estelle Déja
Community-based Project Manager at Environmental Protection & Conservation Organisation (EPCO), Mauritius Island.
Masters in Protected Areas Management from James Cook University.
Devon Dublin
Project Coordinator of the GEF-Satoyama Project at Conservation International Japan. PhD in Environmental Science
Development from Hokkaido University.
Yoji Natori
Science to Action Manager of Conservation International Japan at the time of the project. Currently, an Associate
Professor at Akita International University. PhD in Land Resources (landscape ecology) from the University of Wisconsin-
Madison.
Yasuo Takahashi (as above)
Chapter 3 Ecuador
Fausto O. Sarmiento
Doctor of Philosophy in Ecology, Professor of Mountain Science, Department of Geography, and Director of the
Neotropical Montology Collaboratory, a research platform for transdisciplinary research of biocultural landscapes in the
tropical mountains of the Americas, at the University of Georgia, USA.
César Cotacachi
Master in Community-based Natural Resources Management and Bachelor in Environmental Communication.
Indigenous photographer, writer and researcher in Andean mountains ethnoecology. Administrator of “Consorcio Taita
Imbabura” in Imbabura Province, recently declared the first Geopark in Ecuador by UNESCO.

Chapter 4 Ghana
Yaw Osei-Owusu
Senior Scientist and Researcher at Conservation Alliance focusing on agroecokogy and community’s use of biodiversity
and ecosystems.
Abigail Frimpong
Scientist at Conservation Alliance with expertise in forestry and community biodiversity management.
Chapter 5 Colombia
Andrés Quintero-Ángel
Scientific and Research Director of Corporacion Ambiental y Forestal del Pacifico (CORFOPAL), who majored in
conservation and use of biodiversity with ethnic communities.
Sebastian Orjuela-Salazar
Executive Director of Corporacion Ambiental y Forestal del Pacifico (CORFOPAL), who majored in planning and
declaration of protected areas.
Sara Catalina Rodríguez-Díaz

Assistant Researcher at Social and Environmental Sense (SENSE) with a Bsc in Biology.
Martha Liliana Silva

Biologist working in Biodiversa NGO as Project Coordinator and herpetologist.
Luz Amparo Rivas-Arroyo

Assistant Researcher at Fundación Ecovivero, expert in social projects and community management.
Alvaro Castro
Coordinator for the social component at Fundación Ecovivero and expert in governance and community management.
Mauricio Quintero-Ángel
PhD in Environmental Sciences and Associate Professor at Universidad del Valle. Interested in research of social-ecological
systems, landscape planning, and rural development.
Chapter 6 Mexico
Adelita San Vicente Tello
Engineer in Agronomy and PhD in Agroecology. 12 years director of Semillas de Vida, civil society organization, defending
healthy food and Mexican landrace maize seeds.
Malin Jönsson
PhD in Latin American studies, working with Semillas de Vida since August 2017. University teacher since 2013 and maize
researcher.
Chapter 7 Spain
Emilio Díaz-Varela
Associate Professor at the University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain), whose main research interests are on social-
ecological systems analysis and management.
César A. Blanco Arias

Forestry Engineer and Master in Protected Areas, works as a technician for the LIFE IN COMMON LAND project at the
University of Santiago de Compostela.

Beatriz Rodríguez-Morales
Works at the University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain, developing a PhD about the ecosystem services provided by
a common land from a socio-cultural approach.
Ramón Díaz-Varela
Associate professor at the University of Santiago de Compostela, whose research interests are the use of geomatics for
the assessment of biodiversity at different scales.
Chapter 8 Bangladesh
Rashed Al Mahmud Titumir
Professor of Economics in the Department of Development Studies at the University of Dhaka and Chairperson of
the multidisciplinary think-tank, the Unnayan Onneshan, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Masters and PhD in Economics from the
University of London.
Md. Shah Paran

Researcher at the the Unnayan Onneshan, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Bachelor in development studies and Masters (major in
development economics) from the University of Dhaka.
Mostafa Walid Pasha

Researcher at the the Unnayan Onneshan, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Bachelor in development studies and Masters (major in
development economics) from the University of Dhaka.
Chapter 9 Chinese Taipei

Kuang-Chung Lee
Doctor of Philosophy in Geography and an Associate Professor at National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan. His research
mainly focuses on community participation, natural and cultural heritage conservation, collaborative governance of
protected areas and SEPLS.
Polina G. Karimova
Master in Environmental Science and a Ph. D. researcher at National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan, with research interests
including sustainable local livelihoods, circular resource use and co-management of SEPLS.
Shao-Yu Yan
Master in Environmental Education and a research assistant at National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan, in projects focused
on participatory planning and management for revitalization and monitoring of SEPLS.
Chapter 10 Uganda
Samuel Ojelel
Assistant Lecturer at Makerere University and Board member (Environment) at Save A seed for the Future with interest
in Plant ecology, conservation and ethnobotany
James Kalema
Associate Professor of Botany at Makerere University, Uganda, interested in plant ecology, taxonomy, biodiversity
assessment, Red Listing and data basing flora in East Africa.
Esther Katuura
Senior Lecturer at Makerere University. Esther’s area of scientific research interest is in the plants used by local
communities for food and medicine.
Esezah K. Kakudidi
Professor at Makerere University with research experience and interest in Botany, Plant taxonomy & Ethnobotany

Mary Namaganda
Principal Assistant Curator, Makerere University Herbarium. Mary’s field is in plant taxonomy and systematics, with
particular interest in floristics and ecology.
Patrick Mucunguzi
Associate Professor at Makerere University with research interests in plant ecology, rangeland ecology and conservation
planning.
Chapter 11 Philippines
Joane V. Serrano
Associate Professor, and Director of the Information Office of University of the Philippines Open University. Holding
a PhD in Development Communication from the University of the Philippines Los Baños, Dr. Serrano is interested in
sustainability studies, environmental and development communication, e-Learning and educational technology.
Aurora V. Lacaste
Assistant Professor in the University of the Philippines Open University. Masters in Zoology from the University of the
Philippines Los Baños whose research interests include biodiversity education, biodiversity conservation in tropical
areas, and herpetofaunal and mammalian studies.
Janele Ann C. Belegal

Research Assistant in the University of the Philippines Open University in sustainability projects. Bachelor in Nutrition
from the University of the Philippines Los Baños and is interested in human nutrition and food composition research.
Consuelo dL. Habito

Associate Professor in the University of the Philippines Open University. PhD in Engineering (Geomatics) from University
of Melbourne with interests on ecosystems structures and dynamics, aquatic ecosystems, and coastal zone management.
Mark Anthony F. Rabena

Assistant Professor in the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB). Masters in Environmental Science from UPLB,
and is interested in researches on environmental science, botany, and ecology.
Francis Mark Dioscoro R. Fellizar

Assistant Professor in the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB). Masters in Public Affairs from UPLB and
specializes on the role of faith-based organizations for social development.
Sherry B. Marasigan
Assistant Professor in the University of the Philippines Los Baños. PhD in Education (Social Studies) from the University
of the Philippines Diliman, and specializes in rural sociology.
Inocencio E. Buot, Jr.

UP Scientist III and Professor in the University of the Philippines Los Baños and in the University of the Philippines Open
University, Dr. Buot holds a PhD in Ecology and Plant Geography from Chiba University, and specializes in environmental
rehabilitation, landscape ecology, and biodiversity conservation.
Noreen Dianne S. Alazada

Research Assistant in the University of the Philippines Open University in projects focused on sustainability, youth
capacity building, and blended learning. Bachelor in Development Communication from the University of the Philippines
Los Baños, and is interested in communication and sustainable development.
Thaddeus P. Lawas
University Extension Specialist in the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) with research and projects focusing
on disaster risk reduction and management, and information, education and communication. PhD in Development
Communication from UPLB.

Marissa P. Bulong
Assistant Professor and is currently appointed as Director of the Department of Human Resources and Development in
Ifugao State University. PhD in Crop Science from the Nueva Vizcaya State University.
Eulalie D. Dulnuan
Instructor and is currently appointed as Director of the IRT-GIAHS Research and Development Center in Ifugao State
University. Masters in Leisure, Tourism and Environment from the Wageningen University and Research Center.
Martina B. Labhat
Assistant Professor and is currently appointed as Director of the Department of Socio-Cultural Affairs in Ifugao State
University. Specializing in physical education and indigenous knowledge, she holds a PhD in Educational Management
from Saint Mary’s University.
Elpidio B. Basilio, Jr.

Assistant Professor in Ifugao State University. PhD in Genetics from the University of the Philippines Los Baños and
specializes in agriculture.
Romeo A. Gomez, Jr.

Director of Benguet State University-Open University, Dr. Gomez focuses on educational technology and blended
learning. PhD in Environmental Science from the University of the Philippines Los Baños and specializes in ecology,
biology, and environmental science.
Melanie S. Subilla
Associate Professor in Mountain Province State Polytechnic College. Masters in Environment and Natural Resources
Management from the University of the Philippines Open University.
Von Kevin B. Alag

Research Assistant in the University of the Philippines Open University.
Chapter 12 India
Siddharth Edake
Fellow at The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), India in projects focused on biodiversity assessments, community
engagement and habitat conservation.
Pia Sethi
Dr Pia Sethi is a tropical ecologist with a specialisation in plant-animal interactions and a special interest in community
conservation in the North-East of India. She currently coordinates the Centre for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services at
TERI, The Energy and Resources Institute, an Indian think tank.
Yatish Lele
Associate Fellow at The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), India in projects focused on ecosystem services, natural
resources management and climate change mitigation strategies.

For information on the Satoyama Initiative please visit the IPSI website: http://satoyama-initiative.org
Or contact the IPSI Secretariat: [email protected]
IPSI Secretariat is hosted by the United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS)
ISBN 9789280846454
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Satoyama Initiative

Understanding the multiple values associated with

Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 i

© United Nations University

Cover photo credits

ii Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Chapter 7. Enhancing communication and co-learning in socio-ecological landscape management through

List of Authors 180

Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 iii

Prof. Kazuhiko Takemoto

iv Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Patricia Balvanera1, Mike Christie2, Unai Pascual3 and Brigette Baptiste4

Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 v

The Satoyama Initiative

Figure 1. The conceptual framework of the Satoyama Initiative

Purpose of the Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review Volume 5 (SITR-5)

Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 vii

Suneetha M. Subramanian1, Evonne Yiu2, Rajarshi Dasgupta3, Yasuo Takahashi4

viii Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

How multiple values influence decisions

Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 1

1. Introduction of monoculture plantations or widespread high chemical

Table 1. Overview of the case studies

2 Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 3

4 Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Figure 2: Dimensions of ‘values’ (IPBES) (Pascual et al. 2017)

Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 5

As such, and quite expectedly, instrumental values,

6 Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Distribution of multiple values in SITR-5 case studies

Intrinsic Instrumental Relational

Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 7

C-3: Land ownership

ce alit , ene erb

C-9 Chinese Taipei

8 Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 9

Administrative Geographical Cultural

• Global (every country) • Watershed • Ethnicity

10 Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Table 2: Stakeholders and interest holders in management of SEPLS

• Regional • Producers / • Local communities • Chiefs and elders • Media

Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 11

Tier 6. Set up landscape institutions

Figure 7. Guiding principles for bringing MVN to decision-making

12 Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

TOOLS AND MEASURES KEY MISMATCHES ADDRESSED

Tier 1. Center on nature’s values as a common principle

Tier 2. Document MVN

Tier 3. Inform, empower and involve key stakeholders

Tier 4. Collaborate with stakeholders across sectors and scales

Tier 5. Get decision-makers to understand MVN

Tier 6. Setup landscape institutions

Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5 13

3. Incoherence in policy and governance framework

14 Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review vol. 5

Gu, H & Subramanian, SM 2012, Socio-ecological production

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity