Earthworm Resources

and
Vermiculture
EARTHWORM RESOURCES
AND
VERM"ICULTURE

Edited by
The Director, Zoological Survey of India

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

199~
 Copyright, Government 'of India, 1993

Published : December, 1993

Based on the lectures delivered during the Training Programme on

Earthwonn Resources and Venniculture held at Solan, in September 1990

Compiled by Dr. J. M. Julka, Scientist SE,

High Altitude Field Station, ZSI, Solan

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Published by
the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
 PREFACE

The soil ecosystem supports the most vital components for human development by way of
agricultural production, forests and vegetation. India with a vast area under wastelands has taken up
a national policy for reclamation of such land area which invariably will involve restoration of soil
condition. While soil management has been traditionally dependent on water and fertilizer, role of
biotic components has not been fully evaluated and integrated in the management strategy. The
earthworms constitute one of the vital groups of any faunal element in the soil and the role of
earthwonns in keeping the fertility of soil systemhas never been increasingly acknowledged. India
has a large earthworm resource both in terms of faunal diversity and in terms of numbers.
However, rearing of earthwonn, for practical application in restoration of degraded soil system or
improving of existing condition has never been attempted on. a commercial basis. The technology
of venniculture as such needs to be standardised and result oriented.
The Zoological Survey of India during its last seven and a half decades has been acting as the
national organisation to study the faunal diversity and also to assist the management of biological
resources. With it tremendous development-impact in the post independence period this Survey has
become the right partner in national efforts to re$tore and conserve vital ecosystems. In order to
disseminate the lQtowledge acquired through field and laboratory researches, the Survey also
organised periodic training programme on some topics of priority. During its Platinum Jubilee
celebrations, Zoological Survey of India ha~ organised 3 special training programme viz., (i)
Snails, Flukes and Man, (ii) Snakes and Human Welfare and (iii) Earthwonn Resources and
Vermiculture.
The present publication is based on the last of the above named programme which was
conducted at the High Altitude ZoOlogy Field Station of Zoological Survey of India at Solan
(Himachal Pradesh) in September, 1990. It is expected that the contents of the presentation will be
useful to the users community. I would like to put on record my sincere thanks to Dr. I.M. lulka,
Scientist-in-Charge ofHAZFS, Solan and his colleagues for initiating the ttaini~g programme on
Earthworm Resources and Venniculture" and for the major textual contents in the present volume.

Dr. A. K. Ghosh
DIRECTOR
Zoological Survey 0/ India
 Earthworm Resources and Vermiculture
CONTENTS
Eanhwonns and Venniculture : An Introduction -1
M. S. Jairajpuri
Collection, Preservation and Study of Earthwonns 7
J. M. Julka and R. Paliwal
Rearing and Culturing Earthwonns 1-3
J. M. Julka and R. Paliwal
General Morphology and Characters of Taxonomic Importance 17
J. M. Julka '
Distribution Pattern in Indian Earthworms 27
J. M. Julka
Chromosomal Pattern in Earthworms 33
S. M. Handa
Know-how of Earthworms - The Soil Macrofauna 43
RadhaD. Kale
~wonn Resources of Indi~ and their Utilization in Vermiculture 51
J. M. Jul/ca
Population, Biomass and Secondary Production in Earthworms 57
B. K. Senapati and S. K. Sahu
Reproductive Biology (Cocoon morphology, life cycle pattern
and life table analysis) in Earthwonns 79
B. K. Senapali and S. K. Sahu
Eanhwonn Gut Contents and its Significance 97
B. K. Senapati
Regeneration, Predators and Parasites, of Eanhwonns 101
RadhaD. Kale
Venniculture : Scope for New Biotechnology lOS
Radha D. Kale
Vennitechnology in In'dia 109
B. K. Senapati
Selection of Suitable Earthworm Species for Vermicomposing
Under Indian Conditions 113
B. K. Senapati and 1. M. Julka

Appendix
Soil Organisms and their Role in Humification of Organic Matter 117
A. K. Sanayal
Myriapods in Relation to Soil: Their Identification, Collection and Preservation 123
Vinod Khanna
Earthworm Resources and Vermiculture : 1-5, 1993

Earthworms and Vermiculture : An Introduction

Molaommad Shamim }airajpuri

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Earthworms are perhaps the best known of all soil-inhabiting animals which possess
cylindrical body and well marked external, and internal metameric segmentation. They lack any
appendages and suckers but have a few hook-like chaetae for gaining hold on the substratum.
Hence, the name Oligochaeta (Gk. Oligoi, few; chaite, hair), a group of the phylum Annelida to
~hicb they belong. Earthworms are hermaphrodite and sexually mature worms have'a distinctive
epidermal ring-shaped area called, the clitellum, which has gland cells that secrete materials to
fonn the cocoon.
Earthworms vary greatly in size though not-in shape. In India, some peregrine species like
Microscolex phosphoreus (Duges), Dichogaster saliens (Beddard) and Bimastos parvus (Eisen) are
even less than 20 mm long, while some endemic geophagous forms, such as Drawida'
nilamburensis (Bourne) and Drawida grandis (Bourne) may reach up to one metre in length.
Megascolides australis (McCoy) from Australia is reported to attain a length of over 4 metres. The '
world's largest known worm Microchaetus microchaetus (Rapp) which is found in South Africa
has a length of about 7 metres.
Ordinarily earthw9rms have to be dug out of the soil, but during rains they may be found
crawling actively on the soil surface. Generally. they occur in top 30-40 cm layers of soil wJtich is,
moist and has plenty of organic matter. Some species burrow deeper in search of moisture to avoid
desiccation during periods of prolonged drought in summer and spring months. The species,
Drawida grandis was collected from a depth of 2.5 to 3 metres in the Nilgiri hills during summer.

General Activity
Earthworms occur in diverse habitats. Organic materials like manure, compost, litter, hUAWs,
effluents and kitchen drainage are highly attractive for some species. They are also found in very
hydrophilic environs close to both the fresh and brackish waters. Some species can survive under
snow and a few are arborial inhabiting accumulated detritus in the axils of banana, palm ana
bamboo trees. Earthwol'J1ls are omnivorous but they mostly derive nutrition from dead organic
matter, which generally does not occur abundantly in the soil. As a result, they are adapted to
swallow large quantities of soil for extracting sufficient nourishment from it The soil-inhabiting
protozoans, nematodes, rotifers, bacteria, fungi, etc. have been recorded from the contents of their
guL Earthwonns are capable of withstanding considerable starvation with water loss of up to 70%
of their body weight. Agastrodrilus Omodeo and Vailaud, a carnivorous genus of earthworms from
the Ivory Coast of Africa has been reported to feed upon other earthworms of the family Eudrilidae
(Lavelle, 1983). The quantity of food taken by a worm varies from 100 to 300 mg/g body
weight/day according to Edwards and Lofty (1977).
The main activity of earthworms, however, involves the inges,tion of soil, mixing of different
soil componentS and production of surface or subsurface castings. The earthworms consume the
soil organic matter and convert it into humus within a short period of time and thereby increase

Present address: Professor, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P.
 2 Mohammad Shamim lairajpuri

the soil fertility. Within 24 hours they can pass soil almost equivalent to their own weight
through the alimentary canal. They have therefore rightly been called the nature's ploughman.
Thus, ,the soil is being constantly and continuously turned over and over again by these worms and
the amount brought to the surface is quite considerable. Annual wonn cast production has been
estim.ated to be between 1.4 and 77.8 tonnes/ha at some Indian sites (Roy, 1957; Dash and Patra,
1979) as compared to 18-40 tonnes/ha in English pastures (Darwin, 1881). Larger quantities of
2100-2600 tonries/ha have been reported in Africa (Edwards and Lofty, 1977). Different species
produce sttuctmally distinct and taxonomically significant casts: heterogeneous masses, spheroidal
to oval-shaped individual pel1ets~ small towers of coiled tubes, short threads and beaded-strings
(Julka, 1988). A species of Tonoscolex in Burma produce~casts that may reach up to 20-25 cm in
height.
~eproduction and cocoon production is possible throughout the year, although maximum
cocoon production by Indian species of worms in pasture soils has been recorded in late October
and early November (Das and Senapati, 1982). The incubation period varies from species to
species. It may be 14-30 days for some Indian species as compared to 8.5 to 30 weeks in some
European species. Usually one or two young wonns hatch from a cocoon, but they may be as
many as six in number in Eisenia fetida and Bimastos parvus.
Earthworms possess limited means of active dispersal. Mountains, deserts and oceans ar~
effective physical barriers for their migration. Some species are able to move actively for
considerable distances during or after heavy rainfalls. In some areas of Western Himalaya, a few
litter dwelling species emerge on a mass scale towards the end of monsoons and migrate for short
distances in search of suitable environs to tide over unfavourable winter conditions (Julka, 1988).
Passi ve' dispersal through stream drift and in mud on the feet of animals and birds bas been
recorded. Over the years man has also played a significant role, though unintentially, in
transporting some species in soil around roots of plants. It is quite possible that all the lumbricid
and a few other species have been brought to India in this manner.
The activit}' of most earthworms is interrupted during dry periods or under high temperatures.
To overco~e the adverse period they~ usuaily move into the deeper soil layers and may undergo
'diapause' or transfonn into a quiescent stage. During this period the wonn stops feeding and
constructs a spherical chamber lined with mucus within which it usually rolls into a tight ball or a
loose knot

Environmental ~equirements

With adequate supply of food and availability or moisture the earthworms can'thrive very well
in all kinds of soils. The type and amount of food influences their population size, diversity,
growth rateand fecundity. Tolerance of soil pH varies from species to species. Usually they can
live in soils with pH ranging from 4.5 to 8.7, but neutral soils have greater densities of
earthworms as compared to alkaline or acidic soils. The soil temperature and moisture are other
two important factors that influence their seasonality and distribution. In sub-tropical climate like
that of India, they are active and abundant mainly during summer rains. Prolonged drought
decreases their numbers significantly. A period of about two'years is generally required for
populations to recover upon the return of favourable conditions. Fluctuations in temperature
influence their overall activity, matabolism, respiration, growth as well as reproduction. The ultra-
violet rays are injurious and extreme temperatures may often be fatal for the earthworms.

Effects of Pesticides
Large quantities of insecticides, herbicides and fungicides are usually applied to soils for
controlling different kinds of pests. Some of these chemicals are general biocides that may also
kill earthwonns besides the target organisms. By and large they are not very susceptible to
Batthwonns and Venniculture : An Introduction 3

pesticides at normal dosages, but at higher concentrations these toxic substances are absorbed into
earthworm's tissues as the soil passes through their intestine while feeding. Residues of heavy
metals like cadmium, led, zinc and nickel have also been recorded in their bodies~ The
aCcumulation of tOxic chemicals in earthworm tissues is very significant ecologically, because
these animals are important components in the food chain of several species of birds and
mammals.

ECODomic importaDce
To a common man earthworms are rather insignificant animals which generally come out on
the soil surface during the rains and serve as bait for angling. The role of earthworms in enhancing
soil fertility was, however, known to even ancient farmers. But with the advent of modern.
agricultural practices, during the last 2 to 3 decades, and the use of artificial fertilizers their
significance faded. In recent years the farmers are once again realizing the worth of these highly
beneficial animals and are making all possible efforts to culture and subsequently release them in
fields and gardens. The beneficial effects of earthworms in increasing soil fertility was documented
since the time of Darwin (1881). Soil with higher densilites of worms remains loose and has a
greater capacity to retain air and moisture. The earthworms by making tunnels while burrowing
aerate the earth wHich helps in increasing the air-holding capacity of soil. In the act of depositing
their castings on the surface at night, they bring the sub-soil to the top and expose it to bacterial
action. The bacteria help in the decomposition of cellulose which otherwise does not breakdown
easily. The earthworms also take the rich humus from soil surface to plant roots and thereby help
in maintaining soil pH. Worm castings contain more water stable aggregates which keep the soils
well drained. Soil nitrogen is generally bound in organic complexes and as such is n.ot rea<l:ily
available to plants. This bound nitrogen is converted into available forms like ammonia, nitrates
and nirn\es as it passes through the digestive tracts of earthworms. Compared to parent soil the
worm casts contain more available nitrate nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and
potassium. Organic matter ingested by the worms is pulverized in their alimentary canal, and
excreted as acolloidal humus which is rich in plant nutrients. Also, a large number of worms die
during unfavourable periods wlien the chemical .demand in the soil is maximum due to growing
plants. The microbial decomposition of dead worms releases considerable amount of locked up
nitrogen and thereby making it available to the plants.
Increase in the organic wastes -mainly due to growth of human population, agriculture and
industry is a global problem and a serious constrain in the maintenance of a clean and healthy
environment Because of their food and feeding I:tabits, the earthworms should be considered
nature's moSS useful converters of these waste products. Experiments with worms have
successfully been conducted for recycling the utilisable organic wastes arising out of household
garbage, city refuge, sewage sludge, and paper, food and wood industries (Mitchell and Homer,
1980).
Earthworm tissues comprise high amountS of proteins which after proper processing could
benefit the livestock and aquaculture by augmenting or replacing traditional feeds. There are also
reportS of worms being eaten by Maoris of New Zealand and the natives of New Guinea (Edwards
and Lofty, 1977). In Indian Unani system of medicine, the external application of preparations
made from the dried worms is ~sed in treating wounds, piles, chronic boils, sore-throat, hernia,
etc., and when taken internally for curing respiratory ailments, jaundice, rheumatic pains, etc.
On the other hand, certain habits of earthworms are considered harmful. Some species seize
leaves of growing plants and pull them into their burrows, often killing the plants. Their
extensive burrowing activity sometimes retards germination, growth and root development of
paddy and some vegetable crops. There are some reports which suggest that earthwonns contribute
to soil erosion because they bring fine soil particles to the surface. The earthworms are also
known to help in the spread and development of some parasites and diseases of both animals and
4 Mohammad Sharnim Jairajpuri

plants. The foot and mouth viral disease of domestic animals is transmitted by earthwonns
(Edwards and Lofty, 1977). They also act as intermediate ho~ts of certain parasitic protozoans,
cestodes and nematodes. A number of species of nematodes of interesting and phylogenetically
primitive type are found as parasites of earthworms.

Vermiculture
Vermiculture, the technology of producing rich bio-fertilisers and animal protein by using
earthworms, has established itself commercially in many developed countries. It has been
estimated that one million worms can convert about 120 tonnes of organic wastes into bio-
fertilisers in about one month's time. According to conservative estimates over 2,000 million
tonnes of solid and liquid excreta of animals and human beings, and another 200 million tonnes
from crop straws are available as wastes annually in the country. Besides there are vast quantities
of domestic garbage and industrial wastes. Thus production of bio-fertilisers through venniculture
has a bright future in India. But it is very essential to select suitable species for vermiculture.
These should be capable of living in rich organic matter, be stress resistant, efficient decomposers,
and having high fecundity and growth rates.
It is not very difficult to raise and maintain earthworms. They can be reared in small containers
filled with compost, cow-dung and kitchen refuse. The rainy season seems to be best for culturing
them. Sufficient soil moisture and adequate organic residues are considered ideal for their growth
and multiplication. Within a period of about one year, if the culture is properly maintained, the
multiplication may be more than 50 times. The worms may be taken from culture as and when
needed, and can be introduced in the desired fields, gardens, etc. If used in orchards, the worms may
be released in the pits in which the trees or plants are grOWing. The earthworins provide excellent
conditions for the build up of a number of useful micro-organisms and consequently. the soil with
its teeming millions of organisms becomes highly suitable for plant growth.
Earthworms along with some soil micro-arthropods are important fOr the formation of humus
which is the end product of organic matter in top soils. This organic matter is cycled and recycled,
so that the humus fonnation is natural and a continuous process. The worms, no doubt, accelerate
this process, when multiplied and released through cultural practice. The ~nrichment of soil, thus
helps in agriculture and forestry. By planning and managing agriCUltural operations,. supplemented
with inputs from the earthworms, the farmers can get signific~t increase in crop yields. Countries
like U.S.A., U.K. and Japan have realized this potential of earthworms and are therefore taking
vermiculture quite seriously as an aid to farming. Young and healthy live worms of those species
which are more suitable for a particular type of crop and soil of a given area are raised. These are
mixed in soil free medium with a shelf-life of about 4 weeks. The .worms in the medium are spread
around roots of plants of agri- and horticulture, or may be used as a source of food for poultry or
fIsheries.
As part of bio-technology, vermiculture has attracted attention, since it ,is an entirely natural
process which maintains the environmental balance and leaves no advers~ effects. The earthworms
feed on decaying organic matter in the soil and after its assimilation in. the alimentary canal,
excrete the soil as 'cast' which is rich in the nutrients. Vermicast contains various amino acids,
minerals and micro-organisms which humify the organic matter in the surrounding soil and ~ct as
a bio-fertiliser for plants.
According to Bhole (pers. comm.) the soil with worm casts, in comparison to soil without
these, has 5 times more nitrogen, 7 times more phosphorus, 11 times more potassium, 2 times
more magnesium and calcium each. All these along with other trace elements and soil nutrients,
soluble in water, are released during vermiculture, and are readily available to the root systems.
The same applies to the Actenomycetes bacteria also which are 7-8 times more in the cast soils
than in the surrounding soils. Different kinds of organic wastes could be utilised for enriching
soils through vermiculture. The earthworm feeding helps in the quality of composting. This
Barthwonns and Vermiculture : An Introduction 5

venn i-compost is mixed with soil and is recommended by the vermiculturists in, the ratio of 30 :
70 v/v. To avoid leaching of chemical fertilisers, it can also be used in 40: 60 proportion.
Considering the potential of venniculture in enriching soils and in tum in the increase of crop
yields. the practice needs more and more support. The fact that it does not harm the ecology in
anyway. is an additional advantage. There is much scope to expand venniculture, its trade and
expon. in the third world countries, which is still sustained on traditional organic farming.
References
Edwards. C. A. & Lofty, J. R. 1977. Biology of earthworms, 2nd edition. Chapman and Hall,
London.
Darwin. C. 1881. The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms, with
observations on their habits. Murray, London.
Dash. M. C. & Patta, U. C. 1979. Wormcast productien and nitrogen contribution to soil by a
tropical earthworm population from a grassland site in Orissa, India. Rev. Ecol. BioI.
Sol., 16 (1) : 79-83.
Dash, M. C. & Senapati, B. K. 1982. Environmental regulation of oligochaete reproduction in
ttopical pastures. Pedobiologia, 23 : 270-271.
JuJka.. J. M. 1988. The Fauna of India and adjacent countries. Megadrile Oligochaeta
(Earthworms): Haplotaxida : Lumbricina : Megascolecoidea : Octochaetidae.
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Lavelle. P. 1983. Agastrodrilus Omodeo & Vaillaud, a genus of carnivorous earthworms from the
Ivory Coast In : Earthworm Ecology from 'Darwin to Vermiculture, 425-429. (Ed.) J.
E. Satchell. Chapman and Hall, New York and London.
Mitchell, M. J. & Homer, S. C. 1980. Decomposition process in sewage sludge an" sludge
amended soils. In: Soil Biology as related to land use practices. Proc. 7th Intn. Colloq.
Soil. Zool., New York: 129-138. (Ed.) D. L. Dindal. Office of Pesticides and Toxic
Substances, EPA, Washington, D.C.
Roy, S. K. 1957. Studies on the activities of earthworms. Proc. zool. Soc., Calcutta, 10(2) : 81-
88.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Bclrtlrworm Resources and Vermicullure ; 7-11, 1993

Collection, Preservation and Study of Earthworms

J. M. Julu Gild R. Paliwal

Zoological Survey of India.
High Altitude Zoology Field Station. Solan 173 212

Barthwonns are found in all types of soils provided there is sufficient moisture and food. They
occur in forests, grasslands, arable lands, gardens, orchards, plant nurseries and green houses. They
have been ltving in caves and axils of tree leaves. Organic materials like compost, manure, forest
num: ~d humus, municipal dumps, soils wetted with effluents and kitchen drainage are highly
atttactive to some species. Some earthwonns are very hydrophilous and a few species can live
under snow on high mountains. They are soft-bodied and require special methods of collection,
parcotisation, fixation and preservation for their morphological, taxonomic and ecological studies.

Morphology and Taxonomy

Collection and Preservation
The best method for collecting earthwonns is by digging soil with a shovel or spade or any
other suitable implement. For a comprehensive survey of earthworms of an area, they should ~
collected from different ecological niches, viz., litter, kitchen drainage, manure heaps, different
types of soils, margins of freshwater bodies, pastures, grasslands, forests, cultivated fields, etc.
For morphological studies it is essential to narcotise live worms before flXation. Several
narcotising solutions are effective, and 5-10% ethyl alcohol or 1% propylene phenoxetol are
amongst the most convenient. Live wonns brought from the field are placed in a suitable flat-
bottomed container with little freshwater. Anaesthetic solution is gradually added to the conl4iner
till the wonns become motionless. When the wonns 1)0 longer respond to probing they should be
ttansferred to a flat dish containing the fixative solution for at least24 hours. The most suitable
fixative for normal morphological and taxononllc studies is 5-10% fonnalin depending upon the
size of the WOnD. A 100/0- solution of Dowicill00 (proprietary name for 1-(3 chlorally) 5,7-triaza-
l-azoniaadamantane chloride) is also an excellent fixative for earthwonns. Specimens fixed in
dowicil solution retain their shape and remain quite flexible, showing none of the brittleness often
associated with formalin preserved material. Both formalin and dowicil solution are slightly acidic
and can be neutralized with limestone or marble chips without affecting the preservative action.
Nephridia are best studied by dissecting a freshly narcotised worm in normal saline (0.750/0
solution of Sodium chloride) and fIXed in situ by covering the whole wonn with Bouin' s fluid or
with acetic bichromate.
Histological studies of earthwonns require special attention. The main difficulty encountered in
sectioning is the presence of soil in their gut To flqsh out the soil, wonns are fed on wet blotting
paper for several days until their faeces contain no trace of soil or blotting paper. Vail.(1972) fed
wonns on sphagnum moss for about 7 days to ensure the voiding of solid particles from the gut.
He found the use of sphagnum moss for the maintenance of wonns in good condition for a longer
period than did wet blotting paper/ftlter paper, wet paper towels, wet leaves or just water in a dish.
WonnS'with voided guts should be narcotiS({,d and fIXed in Bouin's fluid (75 cc saturated aqueous
solution of picric acid, 25 cc fonnalin and 5 cc glacial acetic acid) or AFA: alcohol-fonnalin-acetic
acid (10 cc fonnalin, 10 cc glacial acetic acid, 30 cc of 95% ethyl alcohol, 50 cc distilled water) for
micrqtome sections of an entire wonn or its various organS.
8 J. M. Julka & R. Paliwal

Worms are killed by dropping them in 70% ethyl alcohol for taxonomic studies., When the
movement stops, they are removed from alcohol and placed on a piece of blotting paper or any
other absorbent paper in a straight position. They are then transferred to a flat-bottomed contain~r
with 10-J5% formalin for fIXation for a period of at least 24 hours. It is essential that worms are
straight because curled and twisted specimens are difficult to handle during dissection. The
specimens are stored in suitable sized vials' or bottles filled with 70% ethyl alcohol or 5-10%
formalin. A label with locality and altitude data, name of collector and date of collection is to be
added to each vial. For best results, the preservative should be ch8{lged within a week, especially
for large worms. Sometimes for lack of adequate time in the field it is not possible to follow this
programme, it is then recommended to preserve the specimens directly in 4-10% formalin
depending on the size of the worm. Fixation of specimens in alcohol is not desirable as they
become soft and macerated, and are unsuitable for dissection. Some workers anaesthetize and relax
the worms before fixation by placing them in a contaiRer filled with water and gradually adding
alcohol to it The main disadv8ijtage of this method is that length of the relaxed specimens may
be twice, thrice or even more than the contracted specimens' as obtained by dropping them directly
into alcohol or formalin. For taxonomic description of a species, the latter condition is preferable
because uniform contraction is often more easily obtained than uniform relaxation of a worm.
Various methods of estimating earthworm populations and habitat preference are being used.
Their effectiveness varies with the species and habitat. No one method is equally suitable for all
species and habitats.

Digging, Hand Sorting and Wet Sieving

Though lahorious and time consuming, this method has been widely used for sampling
earthworms with best results (Edwards and Lofty~ 1977; Reynolds, 1977). Sometimes specimens
are liable to be damaged during digging. With the help of suitable digging tool, cores or quadrats
of soil of exact dimensions are taken for accurate population estimates. Usually 16 sample units of
25 cm2 with 20 cm depth provide adequate estimation of medium-sized worms. For bigger species
and deep burrowers, large areas of deeper samples are required. The dug out cores or quadrats are
gently broken and the worms are handsorted and preserved in 5-10% formalin. For better results the
broken soil is washed with a jet of water through a series of sieves for collecting smaller worms
and cocoons. The sieved samples are stirred with magnesium sulphate (specific gravity 1.2)
solution and a stream of air is blown simultaneously into the solution. After sometime, the
liberated worms and organic debris float on the surface. 1ft this way earthworm cocoons can be
easily collected. Thus~ all stages of the population can be sampled by this method.

Chemical extraction
Various types of chemical extractants have been used for studying earthworm population
dynamics. The standardized technique employed for quantitative extraction is based on 0.25 m2 of
soil surface. A solution of 0.55% formalin (25 mt of formalin in 4.5 lines water) is sprinkled
over each quadrat (Fig. 1) taking care to avoid its run off. The earthworms that surface in 10
minutes following the application of the expellant are collected and preserved in 5-10% formalin
for studies in the laboratory. For wet biomass studies, the worms should be washed in freshwater
and soak -dried over a blotting paper before weighing. Other chemical extractants lUte mercuric
chloride solution (1.7-2.3) litres of solution containing 15 ce' mercuric chloride in 18.25 litres
water), potassium perman,anate solution (1.5 g!litre at the rate of 6.8 litre per m2 ) and Mowrah
meal have also been used. The advantage with a chemical extraction method is that the sampling
time and labour are reduced, a well-defined sampling area may be chosen, and there is minimum
disturbance of habitat. But the disadvantages are that only active surface dwelling species are
collected because aestivating or hibernating individuals or some species do not respond to these
Collectipn, Preservation and Study of Earthworms 9

extractants. It is also difficult to collect and quantify cocoons by this method. A suitable quadrat
for chemical extraction is shown in Fig. 1.

~
2 5 c m - - - - - - -..

Fig _1

Fig. 1. Quadrat for chemical extraction.

Electrical extraction
A current of electricity passed through the soil also acts as an expellant (Walton, 1933).
Deoksen (1950) used an electric current of 220-240 volt at 3-5A through 75 cm long electrode for
expelling worms from the soil. The only advantage with this method is minimal disturbance to
the habitat. The disadvantages are in derming the exact volume of soil treated and variability of
physico-chemical properties of the soil. For example the current penetrates deep into moist soil
which brings deep dwelling species to the surface. There is some danger of too much current
killing the worms near the electrodes. The response of different species to electricity may also
vary.

Heat extraction
This method operates -on the principle of Baermann funnel and may be useful in obtaining
small surface dwelling species that are difficult to handsort. Reynolds (1977) employed Tullgren
funnel and incandescent lights for extracting worms from soil samples brought from the field. This
method is again time consuming and has limited use in earthworm sampling.

Vibration method
The mechanical extraction by vibration methods are currently limited to south-eastern United
States. Mechanical stimulation by vibrations seems to have very little effect on Lumbricidae but
is extremely successful for some Acanthodrilidae and Megascolecidae species. This often takes the
fonn of a vibrating flexible rod with a bow. The advantages of the mechanical extraction are
minimal habitat destruction and the reduced sampling time required for each sample. The
disadvantages are the difficulty of defining the exact volume of soil treated, the effects of the
10 J. M. Julka & .R. Paliwal

variability of the physical and chemical properties of soil and the variable response of the different
species.
Several workers have compared the relative efficiency of extracting earthworms by two or more
of these methods. The hand sorting or waShing give the best result for most species but are very
time consuming. The formalin method seems to be the best compromise for species with burrows.
Formalin extraction followed by handsorting to fmd animals that had not been extracted (Bouche.
1969) seems tD be most suitable method for ecological studies.

Method of study
Earthworms cannot be identified without resorting to dissection since their generic or even
suprageneric identification is dependent on internal characteristics. Before dissecting a worm, its
various external characters like shape of prostomium, location of genital and nephridial apertures,
and form and extent of clitellum should be recorded. It is then pinned in a dissecting dish,
containing water, by fine entomological pins at the anterior and posterior ends, taking care to
avoid injury to the prostomium. Using a fme scissor or scalpel or even a sharp shaving blade, the
body is cut open longitudinally slightly to the left or right side of the mid-dorsal line in order to
avoid damage to dorsal pores. By carefully cutting septa, the flaps of the body wall are slowly
pinned out with fine forceps, .preferably frrst at the pos~..prostatic region and then continuing
forward, care being taken to record exact location of missing and delicate. septa in the gizzard
region. To determine the presence of calciferous lamellae and openings of calciferous glands, it is
necessary to slit open the oesophagous along the mid-dorsal line.. The beginning of intestine and
form of typhlosole can be determined by giving a slit just below the mid-dorsal line on one side of
the intestine. Penial and copulatory setae are easily removed alongwith their enlarged follicles from
inside, they cannot be pulled from outside without some damage to them. After cleaning the
adhering tissue, the setae are mounted on a slide in glycerine or any other media provided the
referactive index is sufficiently different from. that of the setae. Canada balsam is not satisfactory
for this reason, unless the setae are stained. For the study of epidermal setae, a small portion of
the body-wall is cut off with a pair of scissors and treated with 40% solution of hot potassiuni
hydroxide (KOH) for 15-~O minutes. The skin is washed in water and mounted directly in
glycerine after proper dehydration and clearing.
To study digestive system, gizzard should be cut into two by a longitudinal incision for
observing thickness of its wall and its cuticular lining. In the same way a portion of intestine and
rectum is also opened frem the ventral side to study the ~orphology and limits of the typhlos01e,
which lies along the mid-dorsal line of the intestine .. Excretory system should be examined after
fixation of the nephridia in situ with Bouin's fluid; a septum with attached nephridia is dissected
out with needles under a binocular dissecting microscope in order to separate.individual nephridia~
care being taken to keep. funnel intact on each nephridium. These are stained and mounted in
balsam. Pharyngeal nephridia .are studied by tracing their ducts in the pharynx region.
Integumentary nephridia are picked up with the forceps and are studied by mounting on a glass
slide in glycerine. In a similar manner holonephridia and megameronephridia are taken out from
the parietes with the help of forceps for study under microscope. Care should be taken' to keep
funnel intact. Septal excretory canals and the supra-intestinal excretory ducts are best studied in
well fixed and preserved specimens. Preparations of complete septa show the septal excretory
canals, while the supra-intestinal excretory ducts can be dissected out with needles from the roof of
the intestine. The opening of these ducts into intestine are seen only in sections (Bahl, 1950).
For the purpose of sectioning, worms with voided gut and fiXed in Bouin's or AFA are used.
The dehydrated specimens are cleared with a toluene-terpineol mixture (3 : 1) and then used alone
and embedded in a hard paraffin (melting point 60-620 C). The use of xylol and a softer paraffin
give unsatisfactory results, and many of the sectioning problems (e.g. eXGessive static elasticity,
failure of ribbon fonnation, shredding of individual sections) are eliminated with the use of
Collection, Preservation and Study of Earthworms 11

toluene. terpineol, and hard paraffin. Embedded tissue is sectioned at 10 J.1, and the sections are
stained with Ham's hematoxylin and alcoholic eosin.
In order to obtain cocoon, it is best to select a piece of ground showing castings 1n April-]une
or in September-October. Put heap of earth in a sieve and stir the earth while keeping the sieve in
a bucket of water. The earth passes through the sieve while cocoons remain in the sieve alongwith
some pebbles and stones. Coccons are easily picked up with a camel-hair brush. Cocoons are
opened in normal saline by using needles under dissecting microscope. Embryos of all ages can be
obtained and studied by making whole mounts or by sectioning.

References
Bahl. K. N. 1950. The Indian Zoological Memoris. I. Pheretima. 4th edition. Lucknow
publishing House, Lucknow.
Deoksen, J. 1950. An electrical method of sampling soil for earthworms. Trans. 4th Int. Congr.
Soil Sci. : 129-131.
Edwards, C. A. and Lofty, J. R. 1977 Biology of earthworms. 2nd edition, Chapman and Hall,
London.
Reynolds, J. W. 1977. The. earthworms (Lumbricidae and Sparganophilidae) of Ontario. Royal
Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Vail. V. A. 1972. Natural history and reproduction of Diplocardia mississippiensis (Oligochaeta).
Bull. Tall Timbers Res. Stn., no. 11 : 1-34.
Walton, W. R. 1933. The reaction of earthworms to alternating currents of electricity in the soil.
Proc. enl. Soc. Wash., 3S : 24-27.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta~

Earthworm Resources and Vermiculture : 13-15, 1993

Rearing and Culturing Earthworms

J. M. Julia and R. Paliwal

Zoological Survey of India
High Altitude Zoology Field Station, Solan

Earthwonns feed upon a variety of organic material and could be raised commercially for
recycling biodegradable organic wastes, production of biofertilisers and animal protein for poultry
and fish feed. Venniculture is feasible in suitable containers or specially designed boxes, since they
are omnivorous, able( to withstand environmental changes and resistant to many di~ases. The
technology involved is very simple and can easily be adopted in India, especially in the rural areas.
It is possible to culture worms both indoors and outdoors depending upon the local climatic
conditions.
The culture boxes or containers should be non-porous to minimise loss of moisture from
culture medium. The boxes should be made up of light weight materials like plastic, wood, tin
etc., which could easily be carried from one place to another. The size of the containers may vary
according to the need. Reynolds (1977) considers a specially designed wooden box to be more
convenient and useful (Fig. 1). It measures 50 cm in length, 35 cm in width and 15-20 cm in
depth. The bottom of the box is provided with a few holes of 50 mm diameter. Plastic window
screen is placed on the inside bottom with a burlop (or jute cloth) lining on top of the screened
sides before the culture ~um is added. This prevents the culture medium from sticking to the
box and escape of worms through the holes but allows the excess of water to drain. Top of the box
is covered with a burlop (or jute cloth) frame. Earthworms can be cultured in commonly available
glazed earthen pots, plastic tubs or even discarded wooden cases, etc., each being covered with a lid
made up of plastic or iron window sCreen. Plastic tubs are considered to be advantageous because
these are more durable, lighter in weight and could easily be arranged one a~ove the other in
vertical rows on concrete shelves in limited space (Fig. 2).
Various combinations of soil and organic matter have been tried for raising worms. A mixture
of 1/3 soil and 2/3 organic matter is considered to be more useful in culture containers by
Reynolds (1977). Beds in plastic or discarded wooden cases are prepared by spreading a sand layer
of 2-4 cm in height over which another layer of equal thickness of soil is added. Organic matter is
placed on one side of the container. Water is added to the culture medium so as to hold 25-30 per
cent of moisture. Indoor cultures are preferably kept in a cool building at a temperature between
10C and 15C for the lumbricids (e.g. Eisenia fetida) and about 20C for tropical species (e.g.
Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excayatus). Sources of common organic materials are : decayed
leaves, hay, straw, rice or wheat bran, vegetable wastes, cow dung, poultry droppings, biogas
sludge, etc. Kale (1986) carried out trials of various mixtures of organic matters to study the
dietary influence on the biomass and size of population in Eudrilus eugeniae. Young wonns fed
upon a feed combination of dung and gram bran gained maximum population and dry weight
biomass after 3 months of their introduction into the culture medium.
The following precautions should be taken for vennicultme :
1. The culture medium must have sufficient organic material to avoid its' formation into a
soggy mass.
2. Moisture of the medium should be maintained at required levels by sprinkling water
regularly. Overwatering affects the culture adversely:
 1. M. lulka &: R. P

soem WOODEN BOX WITH A

~ MIXURE OF" 113 SOIL AND
213 ORGANIC MATTER

F"IG-l

Fig -2

Fig. 1. A design OfvcnniCUl!urc wooden box (after Reynolds, Personal communication).

Fig. 2. A diagmmnl<lLic representation of indoor Venniculture in vertical rows of plastic lubs.
Rearing and Culturing Earthworms 15

3. Presence of a low watt light will prevent the worms from crawling out of boxes.
4. Outdoor cultures at places with low temperature in winters should be covered with
suitable insulation materials like wheat straw, dry hay or weeds, manure, compost, etc.
Large outdoor venniculture beds of convenient dimensions may also be established on waste
lands. An outdoor culture bed is generally prepared with a bottom layer of 10 cm higb gravel over
which plastic window screen is placed with its edges raised up to 20 cm in height. A layer of 2-4
em sand is laid over the wiOdow screen layer. A mixture of 1/3 soil and 2/3 organic matter is
spread over the sand layer. The bed is slightly raised in the middle which allows drainage of excess
of water on sides during the rains. The bottom layers of gravel and sand also help in maintaining
the water content in the culture. The window screen prevents the escape of worms.

References
Kale, R. D. 1986. Earthwonn feed for poUltry and aquaCUlture. In : Proc. Nat. Sem. Org. Waste
Utilize Vermicomp. Part B, Verms and Vermicomposling, 137-144. (Eds.) M. C. Dash,
B. K. Senapati and P. C. Mishra. Sri Artatrana Rout for Five Star Printing Press,
Burla, Orissa.
keynolds, J. W. 1977. The earthworms (Lumbricidae and Sparganophilidae) of Ontario. Royal
Ontario Museum, Toronto.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

Btlnllworm Reso!,ce's and Vermiculture: 17-26, 1993

General Morphology and Characters of Taxonomic

Importance
J. M. J,,'u
Zoolopcal Survey of India,
Hiah Altitude Zoology Field Station. Solan

Earthwonns are defined as terresuial annelids with external and internal metameric
segmentation throughout the body, without any appendages and suckers but possessing few setae
on all segments except the ftrSt and last ones. They are hermaphrodite with few gonads in definite
segmental locations. They possess a true coelom and closed vasc1WJr system. In sexually mature
worms, a precisely located epidermal thickening, the clitellum, secretes a cocoon in which ova and
spennaroZOB are deposited and which are fertilized and develop without a free larval stage.
External Structure
Barthwonns are elongate and vermiform in shape. They are usually' circular in cross-section b~t
same fmms may be squarish or trapezoidal. An arboreal species of Perionyx has flattened ventral
smface. The length and thickness of wonns are of limited taxonomic importance, since these
characters vary considerably within a species. Amputation, regeneration and methods of
preserWlliOD also affect their body dimensions. A few species of Bimastos (Family Lumbricidae)
and DicMgaster (Family Octochaetidae) are less than 20 mm in length, whereas some deep
burrowing representatives of Drawida (Family Moniligastridae) exceed 1000 mm. Different types
of coloms of wonns like rich brown, light to dark red, grey, purple, etc. are due to deposition of
pigments in the circular muscles of their body walls. The colour should be recorded when a worm
is alive since strong fixinS fluids generally destroy the pigment.' Litter dwellers are deeply
,pigmen1ed as compared to inhabitants of top soil and deep burrowers.
The entire body is divided externally into a series of distinct segments by furrows. External
segmentation of the body corresponds to an internal segmentation. In some fonns, segments may
be superficially subdivided into two or three or more annuli by secondary and tertiary grooves. The
number of segments vary intraspecifically and this character can be of taxonomic value only when
its limits of variations-have been detennined in a large number of individuals of each species. For
a taxonomic description of a species, segments are numbered by ~onvention in roman numerals
i.e. i. ii. iii .... (capitalized by some authors) beginning with the peristomium. Intersegmental
furrows are designated by the number of segments on either side of a.furrow as 1/2,2/3,3/4, etc.
The first segment with a crescentic opening, the mouth, is the peristomium. It is provided with a
small fleshy lobe the prostomium which is located above the mouth. The different shapes of the
pJOStomium (Figs. 1..8) are sometimes of taxonomic importance. In mature worms, a conspicuous
cylindrical band of glandular tissue known as the clitellum is present at some distan~e from the
anterior end. Its shape may be eith~r annular (extending all round the body) or saddle-shap.ed
(restticted to dorsal and lateral sides of the body). The location of clitellum varies between
families/genera/species. Drawida spp. (Family Moniligasbidae) have the clitellum extending over
segments x-xiv and include male genital 'pores (Fig. 9). In Megascolecidae, Acanthodrilidae and
Octocbaetidae the clitellum begins at or in ,front of xiv, and posteriorly it may include male pores
(Figs. 10-13). Lumbricidae have the clitellum behind male pores beginning on segments xxii-
xxviii, and extending over four to ten segments posteriorly (Fig. 14).
Characteristics of all earthwonns are the short hook-like retractile chaetae or setae embedded in
the skin with which they/hold gain on the substratum during burrowing and locomotion. The
 18 J. M. Julka

positioQs of setae provide significant reference points for describing location of taxonomic
characteristics like genital and nephridial pores, grooves, genital mai'lcings, etc. Often seta~ in the
region of genital tumescences, male thecal pores are modified in size and shape. Those associated
with genital tumescences are known as genital setae, those with male/prostatic pores_ as penial
setae and those with spermathecal pores as copulatory setae. The arrangements of setae according
to their number are expressed as lumbricine (8 setae per segment in 4 pairs, e.g. Drawida.
Octochaetona, Eutyphoeus, etc.) or perichaetine (more than 8 setae per segment, e.g. Amynthas,
Metaphire, Perionyx, Lampito, etc.). Rarely, setal arrangement may be lumbricine in anterior and
middle regions, and perichaetine in posterior region of the body as in a few species of Wahoscolex
from Coorg area of Karnataka (Julka, 1988). In taxonomic descriptions, individual setae are
designated by italicized letters, i.e. in the lumbricine arrangement by a,b,c,d beginning with the
most ventral one and in the perichaetine arrangement by a,b,c.d,e, ........beginning with the most
ventral setae and z,y,x, ........beginning with the most dorsal one irrespective of the actual number
in the ring (J ulka, 1988).
A series of tiny openings, the dorsal pores, are located along the mid-dorsal line in the
intersegmental furrows. These pores lead directly into the body cavity. The location of r1l'st dorsal
pore varies in traspec ific ally . Dorsal.pores are usually absent in worms with aquatic or subaquatic
habitats (Drawida -spp. and most of the ocnerodrilids). Different types of genital pores are located
-on the ventral surface of earthworms. The position and size of these have long been employed as
taxonomic characters. In the Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae and Megascolecidae,
the male pores are associated with the prostatic pores (openings of the ducts of prostates, accessory
reprod~ctive glands). The prostatic and male ducts may open to the exterior either separately or as
combined pores. The basic conditions of these openings are : acanthodriline (male pores on xviii,
prostatic pores on xvii and xix, all pores in seminal grooves), microscolecine (prostatic pores
alongside or combined with mate pores on xvji), balantine (prostatic pores alongside or combined
with male pores on xix) and megascolecive (prostatic pores alongside or.combined with male pores
on xviii). Male potes in some forms are located on papillae of various shapes or at tips of
intromittant organs. In tire lumbricid worms the male pores are often located on segment xv, and
in the Moniligastridae these pores are one or two pairs in intersegmental furrows 10/11, 11/12 o~
12/13. The female pores are most commonly- a single pair, either in an intersegmental furrow or
on a segment. They are tiny in size and their position is often diagnostic of a particular family.
Thus, they are on segment xiv or its homoeotic equivalent in the Lumbricidae, Octochaetidae,
Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae and Megascolecidae, and in the Moniligastridae they are either in
the groove 11/12 or on segments xiii or xiv. Sometimes the female pores are united into a single
median pore.
The location and number of spermalbecal pores vary betwcenJamilies and species. They may
be paired or sometimes combined to form single median series of pores. In some species
(Bimastos parvus), they may be absent. A few species like Eisenia fetida and Ocnerodrilus
occidentalis may have athecal morphs. InPolypheretima- elongata, spermatbecae ar~ more than
one pair in each segment. The openings of the integumentary meronephridia (nephridiopores) are
microscopic apertures and cannot be easily recognised. But nephridiopores in some holonephric
species are quite obvious and their axial position provides important distinguishing characters.
Certain epidermal areas on the ventral surface of sexually mature worms are some.times
modified in the form of markings, tumescences, ridges, pits, tu~rcula pubertatis, etc. (Bahl, 1950;
Edwards and Lofty, 1977; Julka, 1988).

Internal Structure
The .body wall consists qf an outer thin non-cellular membrane of cuticle, epidermis, circular
and longitudinal muscle layers, and coelomic epithelium, which separates body wall from the
coelom. The coelom or body cavity is filled with a fluid and is divided at each segment by a
MorphOlogy and Characters of Taxonomic Importance 19

_---~'f--- Sp P.

xv

Figs. 1-8. Various forms of prostomium in earthworms, 1. zygolobic, 2. prolobic,

3. proepilobic, 4. open epilobic,. 5. closed epilobic, 6. combined proepilobic,
7. tanylobic. 8. combined protanylobic.
Fig. 9. VenttaI view of Drawida nepalensis. Sp. P.-~permathecal pore.
 J. M. Julka
20

.,',
'~I, ...
,.' "'GM ~

,-.----~
' .. .
... 0

x .' . -,os

- - - - --DP
E
E .......
LO ' ... , .

.' .

(;,. _---- --FP

".....
--c

..... '"

.. .. ' ."
;~':'::"". ~
/..

",;1!\
.
.......
xvIII '~);""'"
'- .,. '.rr..
\.~. "'oMP

10 11
Fig .. 10. DQrsaI view of Amynthas diffringens. c-clitellum, DP-dotsal pore, P-plostomium, Per-
peristomium, S-setae.
Fig~ ~.1. Ventral view of Amynthas diffringens. FP-female pore, GM-genital marking, MP-male
pore, Sp. P-:spe111IIIIhecal pore.
 Morpholol)' and Characters of Taxonomic Importance 21

- - - ~_ -- .. Sp.P
"'-'- I.~. '"
/~(~ e' .'.a:::)
((~J'
........ . ' ' '

v
x GM

G ... -~-- -FP

XIV

-- .- .... ~ -- -~

XIV . .
~"f;-- -:--- -FP
dF> --.-.~
..
~Pr. P
-MP E
E
"Sem.G Lfl
E
E -- .--
N -

13
12
Fig. 12. Ventral view of Pellogaster bengalensis. FP-female pore, GM-genital marking, MP-male
pore, Pr. P-prostatic pore, Sem. G-seminal groove. Sp. P-spermathecal pore.
Fig. 13. Ventral view of Eutyphoeus waltoni. FP-female pore, GM-genital marking, Pen-penis,
Sp.P-spcrmathecal pore, Vest-vestibulum.
22 J. M. Julka

_M

Se m . V-. - - - -___ _

H----
................
'

xv
xx

E
E
Ln xxv
E
E
Ln

14

Fig. 14. Ventral view of Octolasion tyrtaeum. C-clitellum, MP-male pore, TP-Tubercula
pUbertatis.
Fig. 15. Internal organs of Amynthas dijfringens.- Br-brain, Dv-dorsal vessel, Giz-gizzard, GMG-
genital marking gland, lnt-intestine, L.Int.C-Iateral intestinal caecum, M-mouth, 0-
ovary, Oes-oesophagus, OD-oviduct, Ph-pharynx, Pr. G..prostatic gland, Sem. V-seminal
vesicle, Sp-spermatbecae, TS-testis sac, VD-vasa deferentia.
MoIpItololY and Characters of Taxonomic Importance 23

E
E
N

17

Fig.. 16. Holonephric excretory system in Perionyx sansibaricus. Hn-holonephridia, Ph-pharynx t

Sp-sperrnathecae.
Fig. 17. Meronephric excretory system in Eutyphoeus nicholsoni. Giz-gizzard,
Mn-meronephridia, Pn-pharyngeal nephridia.
24 J. M. Julka

septum at the intersegmental furrow. Most of the septa are provided with minute aperturs which
permit the coelomic fluid to pass freely between segments. Some of the septa in the gizzard region
in some'species may be much thickened or absent. The presence or absence of septa in the anterior
region is of taxonomic importance.
The digestive system (Fig. 15) comprises a straight alimentary canal exiending from mouth to
anus, and associated caeca and glands. The anteriormost part of the canal consists of a short but
muscular, buccal cavity, followed by a pharynx. The dorsal surface of the pharynx is thick,
muscular and glandular. The worm sucks food by the action of pharynx. A short narrow tube, the
oesophagus. passes posteriorly from the pharynx. In most of the megascolecids, octochaetids and
acanthodrilids, oesophagus is modified to form a very prominent oval structure, the gizzard, in any
of~e segments from v to viii. The gizzard is a highly muscularized organ for pulverising the food
material. The number and position of gizzards have been used in ~istinguishing the genera, but
'their position should be determined carefully as some of the septa in this region are either absent
or very delicate which may break as the worm is opened. The gizzard may be rudimentary in 'some
wonns, e.g. Perionyx spp. There are two oesophageal gizzards in ~ome octochaetid genera like
Dichogaster, Eudichogaster and Barogaster. In the Moniligastrldae, usually more ~an 3-5 gizzards
are present in xii and posteriad segments. A thin-walled storage chamber, the crop, is located at the
posterior end of the oesophagus and in front of the gizzard in the family Lumbricidae. Various
types of calciferous glands are associated with oesophagus in some earthworms. They are highly
,vascular organs provided internally with lamellae. Their sllape, number, segmental position as
well as stalked or sessile, paired or unprured and extramural or intr~ural provide useful
distinguishing characters. The rest of the alimentary canal is the intestine in which most of the
digestion and absorption of food takes place. The internal surface of the intestine is sometimes
increased by a large dorsal fold, the typhlosole, which may be in the form of a simple, bifid or
eveo trifid lame~la. Its presence or absence, and anterior and posterior limits are important
taxonomically. Some species have small tubular outgrowths of intestinal caeca; their shape,
position, number and whethe.. single or' paired are of systematic value. Several pairs of glands, the
supra-intestinal glands, are sometimes located on the dorsal wall of the intestine in successive
segments at the posterior end of typhlosole (e.g. Eutyphoeus).
The blood vascular system comprises three main vessels extending almost the entire length of
the body. These are : a dorsal vessel, closely associated with the mid-dorsal line of the alimentary
canal; a ventral vessel between alimentary canal and nerve ~ord; a subneural vessel between ihe
nerve cord and the body wall. A supra-oesophageal vessel is present on the dorsal wall of the gut
in anterior segments. P~ired extra~oesophageal and latero-parietal vessels may be present in some
earthworms. The dorsal and ventral vessels are connected in each segment by palled commissures,
which in some of the anterior segments are enlarged as contractile 'hearts' The segmental location
of last pair of hearts is of taxonomic importance. T~ese may be in segment xi (e.g. Families
Ocnerodrilidae and Lumbricidae) or in xii or xiii (e.g. Families Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae and
Megascolecidae). The dorsal vessel may be aborted anteriorly in some' species of Eutyphoeus,
while the subneural is abse~t in several octochaetid genera.
There is no formalized respiratory mechanism in earthworms. Exchange of gases takes place
through highly vascular moist epidermis. Respir~tion occurs in air but worms can exist for long
periods in highly oxygenated water (Reynolds, 1977).
The excretory organs of earthworms are series of coiled tubes called nephridia. They are of
various 'kinds and have recently gained importance in earthworm taxonomy. Different types of
nephridia may be found within a species. They may be one pair (holonephric; Fig. 16) or more
than one pair (meronephric; Fig. 17) in each segment. Either type of nephridia may be open
(stomate,' furnished with a ciliated nephrostome) or closed (astomate). Nephridia are either
exonephric with their ducts openi~g directly to the exterior or enteronephric with ducts discharging
into the alimentary canal. Astomate enteronephric holonephridia are not yet known. Meronephridia
are either very small (micromeronephridi~) or relatively conspicuously enlarged into
Morphology and Characters of Taxonomic Importance 25

O1egameronephridia. Ectal ends of the ducts of holonephridia are sometimes dilated to form
nephridial bladders or vesicles of various shapes.

The central nervous system comprises a bilobed cerebral ganglion on the dorsal surface of the
pharynx, a pair of subpharyngeal ganglia, a pair of circumpharyngeal connectives and a ventral
nerve cord. The cerebral ganglion is connected to the subpharyngeal ganglia by the
circumpharyngeal connectives. The ventral nerve cord runs beneath the alimentary canal close to
the body wall from the subpharyngeal ganglia to the last body segment. Superficially the ventral
nerve cord appears to be single, it is actually made up of two longitudinal fused cords. Behind the
fourth segment, the nerve cord is swollen in each segment to form a ganglion, from which arise
three pairs of segmental nerves that extend around the body wall. At present characteristics of the
nervous system have not been used in the earthworm taxonomy.

The reproductive organs (Fig. 15) consisting of testes, ovaries, seminal vesicles, spermathecae
and prostatic glands have long been used as the main source of taxonomic characters. The basic
arrangement of the gonads in the megascolecoid worms (Families Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae,
Octochaetidae and Megascolecidae) is paired testes in segments x and xi on posterior face~ of septa
9/10 and 10/11, paired male funnels on anterior faces of septa 10/11 and 11/12, and paired ovaries
in xii and xiii (hologyny). The number of testes may be reduced to a single pair (meroandry); a
c~ndition with one pair of testes in segment x is termed as proandric, and when in segment xi it is
called as metandric. The number of ovaries may also undergo reduction i.e. one pair of ovaries in
segment xii (progyny) or in xiii (mctagyny). The testes and male funnels may lie free in their
segments or enclosed in' special coelomic chambers, the testis sacs. Septa of the testis and ovarian
segments may be evaginated to form the seminal vesicles and ovisacs respectively. The shape,
size, number and segmental location of these structures are of systematic importance. The malc_
funnels open into straight or coiled male ducts, the vasa deferentia. In holandric forms, the anterior
and posterior male ducts on each side extend backwards and may unite with each other before
opening to the exterior or may discharge independently on the body wall. They may open directly
on the bcdy wall (as in Octochaetona) or through the, prostatic glands (as in Amynthas.
Metaphire). The posterior end of the vas deferens is sometimes enlarged into an ejaculatory bulb
(e.g. Hoplochaetella). Accessory reproductive organs, the prostates, are associated with the
posterior ends of vasa deferentia in most families of earthworms. Prostates are tubular in shape
with a central canal as in the Octochaetidae, Ocnerodrilidae and Acanthodrilidae or are of racemose
shape without a central canal as in the Megascolecidae. In the Eudrilidae, thesa glands are in the
form of outgrowths from the male ducts and are called as 'euprostates'. In the Moniligastridae, the
prostates (also termed as male atria) have an outer and an inner glandular, and a middle muscular
layer, the latter forming a prostatic capsule. Prostatic glands are absent in the Lumbricidae. The
spermathecae are sac-like organs opening ventrally in some of anterior segments, and receive 'the
sperm of the other worm during copulation. A spermatheca, typically, consists of an ental sac-like
ampulla, a duct by which it opens to the exterior and one or more diverticula usually arising from
the duct. Spennathecae in some worms may be absent or adiverticulate. The structure, arrangement
and position of reproductive organs in other families of earthwonns are different as compared to the
megascolecoid worms. One or two pairs of testes and male fpnnels are enclosed in intraseptal sacs
in the Moniligastridae. Spermathecae are one or two pairs with long tubular ducts in this family.

Internally accessory glands may be associated with genital markings, tubercula pubertatis,
copulatory and genital setae. The s~pe and size of these glands are of taxonomic value.
26 J. M. Julka

References
Bahl, K. N. 1950. The Indian Zoological Memoirs. 1. Pheretima. 4th edition. Lucknow
Publishing House, Lucknow.
Edwards, C. A. & Lofty, J. R. 1977. Biology of earthworms. 2nd edition. Chapman and Hall,
London.
Julka, J. M. 1988. The Fauna of India and adjacent countries. Megadrile Oligo chaeta
(Earthwonns). Haplotaxida: Lumbricina": Megascolecoidea: Octochaetidae. Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta.
Reynolds, J. W. 1977. The earthworms (Lumbricidae and Sparganophilidae) of Ontario. Royal
Ont8rlo Museum, Ontario.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

IltInIlwDrmResoUTces aiad Ver",;cullure: 27-31, 1993

Distribution Pattern in Indian Earthworms

I. M. I,,'u
.ZooJopCal Survey of India.
Hiah Altitude Zoology Field Station, Solan

Barthworms possess limited means of active migration; but passive dispersal bas disttibuted .
some species over wide areas. Most of them cannot survive marine environments whici) are,
therefore. effective baniers for extension of their natural distribution. Endogeic species have, in
geDtZBl. a poor capacity to migrate (Bouch6, 1983). Some of them are very sensitive to desiccation
and do not leave the soil. Anecic worms are able to leave their burrows under certain conditions and
colonize a few metres per annum (Mazaud and Bouchc, 1980). Epigeic fonns are most mobile and
travel some distances (sometimes on a mas.s scale) in search of food or shelter. Man is also
responsible for transporting a few species for culture and in soil around roots of exotic .plants. It is
well known that anthropochorous species are able to colonize disturbed environments which may be
created by deforestation, intensive cultivation of new area, pesticides, waste disposal, etc. Natural
destruction of earthworm habitats may be due to glaciation, tectonic disturbance and changes in sea-
levels. Presence of antbropochorous or peregrine species in an area sometimes obscures the
disttibutional pattern of earthworms. These species, therefore, must be disregarded for the
distributional considerations of earthworms.
Earthworms of the world belong to not more than a dozen families. According to Wallwork
(1984), this is a remarkably small number for a group of invertebrates that has been around for a
very long period, and successfully spread to soils throughout the world. Possibly, these organisms
have not been able to exploit diverse food mches in an evolutionary sense.
The evolution of earthworms is obscured due to paucity of fossil records. Nevertheless, their
origin has been inferred from studies on the distribution, ecology and comparative anatomy of the
e~tant species. On the basis of their food and feeding habits, Stephenson (1930) believes that they
appeared in the Cretaceous when dicotyledenous plants came into existence. Michaelsen (1903) and
Arldl (1908) estimate their origin much earlier during the upper Jurrasic and upper Triassic periods
respectively. Recendy, Bouche (1987) traces their origin in the Palaeozoic period. Sims (1980)
assumes that the ancestors of present day earthworms were wide spread in the undivided
paleocontinent of Pangaea, which existed dming the Palaeozoic.

PbY$iograpbic and Zoogeograpbic Regions of India

Considering the past geological history of the Indian subcontinent, Wadia (1973) divided the
present day India (excluding Bunna, Nepal and Pakistan) into six well-defined physiographic regions
depending upon topography, climate and vegetation. These are : Western Himalayas, E~tem
Himalayas and Northeast Ranges, Indo-Ganga Plains, Central Highlands, Peninsular Plateaus and
Western Ghats including Sahyadri and Nilgiri Hills. The insular areas of the Andaman and Nicobar
fann a distinct region having geo~ogical and biotic affinities with Burma and Malayasia.
Different zoogeographical divisions of the Indian subcontinent have been proposed from time to
time. Recently, Menon (1990) has critically reviewed these and followed the system as propOsed by
Smith (1931-43) keeping in view the present day distribution of freshwater fishes. Smith's
zoogeographical areas of the subcontinent includes the Indo-Chinese subregion. These divisions are
fmther divided into distinct geographical areas. The Indian subregion comprises: the Desert area of
28 1. M. Iulka

North-west India (North-west frontier Province, Punjab, Western Rajasthan as far as the Aravallis
and Sind); Kashmir and the Western Himalayas upto Nepal; the Indo-Ganga Plains (from the Indus
valley in Sind'to the right bank of Brahmaputra in Bengal); Central India (between the Ganga Plains
and the Deccan, bounded on the west by the Aravalli, and on the east by the Chota Nagpur Plateau);
the Deccan (most of the Peninsular India between lOON and 20N); mountains of the Malab~ Tract
and Sri Lanka; the Chota Nagpur area. The Indo-Chinese subregion is represented by Eastern
Himalayas (from Western border of Nepal to the bend of the Brahmaputra in Arunachal Pradesh);
Trans-Himalayan 'Mountains (hills east of the Brahmaputra, whole of Bunna except lowlands in the
south and the northern part of Siam); Annam; Peninsula of Indo-China; Tenasserim and PeninsulaJ1
Siam.

Distribution of Earthworm~ in the Indian Subcontinent

Family Moniligastridae
It is a group of primitive earthworms with endemicity. in eastern and southern Asia. Some
species are common in arable, soils, but most are found in primary forests. Most of the',
moniligastrids prefer soils with high per cent of moisture. A few species exceed one 'metre in
length. Of the 5 genera known in the world, 4 are found in our subcontinent. These are :',
Desmogaster, Drawida, Hastirogaster and Moniligaster. Desmogaster and Hastirogaster are restricted: ,
to Burma. A single record of Desmogaster /erina from Arunachal Pradesh may be due to its .
transportation from Burma. Drawida is the largest genus in terms of number of species. Its natura1~
distribution extends to the Indian Peninsula, Eas~em Himalayas and northeast Ranges, Burma and as
far as Korea, Japan, China, Manchwia, and Phlllipine Is1aQds. Sumatra and Borneo. Occurrence of
pregrine species, prawida japonica and Drawida nepalensis, in the Western Himalayas may be (loe to'
recent transportation. Moniligaster comprises 9 species, which are restricted in their distribution to
the southern region of the Western Ghats.

Family Criodrilidae
Its indigenous range is confmed to the southwestern Palaearctic but some species have been
c~ed to other regions, probably with water plants. Immature specimens of the widely dis~ributed
Criodrilus lacuum. from our region belong to Glyphidrilus (Family Abilidae).

Family Lumbricidae
The family is endemic throughout the Palaearctic region and eastern North Am~ca. A number
of species have been introduced into almost all the zoogeographical regions of the world. At places
they have been able to compete with them, especially in cultivated soils. Stocks of one species.
Eisenia letida, have been carried from one place to another allover the wor~d for commelCial culture.
Lumbricids possess inherent ability to colonize wide range of soil types and microclimates. :'
Peregrine lumbricids have acquired domicil~ in India at hill resorts with a temperate-like climate in
the Himalayas, and Nilgiii and Palni Hills in the Peninsula. They are more widely distributed in
Western Himalayas, 'and form a dominant group in certain habitats at some places~

Family Glossoscolecidae
This family forms the dominant group in tropic'al South America. It is represented in the Indi;pt
, subcontinent by a circummundane species, Pontoscolex coreihrl4'us which is now widely dis1ributed
in the Indian Peninsula and northeast region.

Family Almidae
Members of this family are mud dwellers or found in freshwater habitats. In this regioD, it ~,
;oepresented by a single genus, Glyphidrilus with endemicity in Burma, Northern Ranges, Ganga
DialnDuticm pattern in Indian Earthworms 29

Plain, Western Ghats, Peninsular Plateaus and Sri Lanka. The genus is also indigenous to Africa.
Malayasia and Indonesia. An African origin of the genus has been assumed.

Family OcneodriJidae
It comprises two subfamilies : Ocnerodrilinae and Malabarinae. Ocnerodrilinae is represented in
tbis subcontinent by one or two circummml(iane species of Gordiodrilus, Ocnerodrilus, Eukerria and
NemtJtogenia. They were possibly transported from Africa or South America where the subfamily .is
endemic. Monospecific Curgiona of this subfamily is found only in South ~dia. Though its origin
is uacerI8in,.its home range is also believed to be in Africa.
The subfamily MaJabarinae is constituted by 3 genera : Decca~a. Thatonia and Malabaria. They
occur mainly in the peninsular India, but some species have spread into the Himalayan hills and
Burma.

Family ACDlllhodrilidae
Bndemics of the family are found in South America. some ,parts of North America. Africa,
southeast Asia and Austtalasia. Three genera occur in the Indian subcontinent Pontodrilus and
ltai.croscolex are representad by the peregrines P. bermudensis and M. phosphoreus respectively.
P'utellus has endemicity mainly in ,the Western Ghats and Annamalai Hills in the Peninsula,
Eastern Himalayas and Northeast Ranges, and Burma. One species has been'recorded from the Ganga
Plains. The genus Plutellus has been resbicted by Jamieson and Nash (1976) to include only
Australian .species.Jamieson (1977) referred the Oriental species of the genus to the Australasian
Diporochaeta, a view which is ~t acceptable on morphological and gepgmphical grounds.

Fomlly OctochMtiI.IM
The family occurs in New Zealand, Australia and spreads through the tropics of America and
,Africa, including Madagascar, with the Asian representatives extending outward from peninsular
India.
Twenty six octochaetid genera are known ~m the Indian subcontinent Of th~e, twenty five are
indigenous and fonn more than SO% of the known endemic genera of earthworms in the
subcontinenL These can be referred to two distinct groups : a small north and northeast group of
Eutyphoeus. Scolioscolidl!s. Bahlia and Calebiella and the rest forming a larger southern group. The
soulhem group is confmed to the Western, Ghats (including the coastal plain), Nandi Hills, Central
Highlands and Eastern Plateau of the Peninsula. A few peregrine species of the bolaui group of .the
Ethiopian genus Dichogaster have domiciled at various parts of subcontinent.

Family Megascolecidae
The distributional range of the family extends between the wann-temperate Asia and Australasia.
Two genera of the pheretimoid group, Amynthas and Metaphire, are endemic in' Burma, and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, but are represented by peregrine species in other parts of the region.
Two genera of the group, Pithemera and Polypheretima are exotic in the subcontinent. The'other
endemic megascolecids in our' area are : Comarodrilus, Lampito, Kanchuria. Megascolex,
unnoscolu, Nelloscolex, Notoscolex, Perionyx. Tonoscolex and Troyia. Of these Comarodrilus.
unllOscolex, Notoscolex, Troyia and Lampito (excluding widely distributed L. mauritii) are
confmed to the southern portion of the Western Ghats. Megascolex is widely sptead in the Western
Ghats and adjoining peninsular plateaus. Both Megascolex and Notoscolex have also endemic
species in Australasia. It is suspected that the Australasian species are not congeneric with the
IDdian forms. Nelloscolex and Tonoscolex occur in northeast Hills, the latter's range extending to
the Eastern Himalayas. Both these genera are also endemic in Burma. Another allied gerius,
30 J. M. Julka

Kanchuria, is restricted to the Garo and Khasi Hills. Perionyx (excluding widely distributed P.
excavatus and P. sansibaricus) is found in the Peninsula, Eastern and Western Himalayas and
Bunna.

Conclusions

Majority of earthwonn genera in the. Indian subcontinent have endemicity in the Deccan
Peninsula (including Sri Lanka), northeast India and Bunna. The Peninsula was once a part of an
ancient supercontinent Gondwana and has never been submerged under the sea. Excepting the
Malayan Mopiligastridae and Ethiopian Almidae, most of t,he indigenous ~arthworm genera
presumably evolved and developed in the Deccan Peninsula. Plutellus, Megascolex and Notoscolex
also have endemic species in Australasia. These genera are ~onsidered to be polyphyletic congeries
and their relationships with Indian species are yet to be detemiined, and should be disregarded for any
biogeographical.considerations.
Nelloscolex, Tonoscolex, Eutyphoeus and Scolioscolides in the northeast region, and Bahlia in
the Ganga Plains do not occur in the peninsula. According to Gates. (1972), these genera are the
culmination of megascolecid and octochaetid lineages that evolved in the northern half of the
peninsula. The route for the migration of their ancestral stock was probably over a Miocene land
bridge across the present day Rajmahal Gap between the Satpura Hills of the Peninsula. and
northeast ranges. Perionyx and'Plutellus are found in the northeast region and in the Peninsula and
migrated to the northeast across the Rajmahal gap. The Malayan moniligastrids possibly -followed
this route to reach the Peninsula. The endemics of Amynthas and MfJtaphire oecurring in Burma
have closer affmities with the corresponding Malayan and Chinese fauna.
The most interesting feature of earthworm distribution in the Western Himalayas is pauper
representation of endemic species; only four species belonging to Perionyx, Eutyphoeu.s and
Glyphidrilus have been recorded at isolated places. It seems that the endemics in this region were
exterminated duJi.ng. the last Quaternary glaciation which affected the area most than the other
regions of the subcontinent (Wadia, 1973). Alternatively the wave of westward migration of
endemic earthworms from the east could not reach this region with full force.

References
ArIdt, T. 1908. Die Ausbreitung der terri colen Oligochaeten im Laufe der erdgeschichtlichen
Enwicklung des Erdreliefs. Zool. Jb. (Syst.), 26B : 285-318.
Bouche, M. B. 1983. The establishment of earthworm communities. In : Earthworm Ecology from
Darwin to Vermiculture, 431-447. (Ed.) J. E. Satchell. Chapman and"HalI, London.
Gates, G. E. 1972. Burmese earthworms. An introduction to the systematics and biology of
megadrile oligochaetes with reference to southeast Asia. Trans. Am. phil. Soc., 62: 1-
326.
Jamieson, B. G. M. 1977. Preliminary descriptions of Indian earthworms (Megascolecidae :
Oligochaeta) from the Palni Hills. Bull. natn. Hist. nat., Paris (ser.3), no.450, Zool.,
313 : 477-502.
Jamieson, B. G. M. and Nash, W. 1976. The first record of Plutellus (Megascolecidae :
Oligochaeta) in Queensland, P. incommodus and P. raveni spp. nov. Proc. R. Soc.
Queensland, 87 : 45-52.,
Mazaud, D. & Bouche, M. B. 1980. Introduction en surpopulation et migrations de lombriciens
marques. In : Soil Biology as Related to Land use Practices, 687-701. (Ed.) D. L. Dindal
E. P. A., Washington, D.C.
Dialribution pattern in Indian Earthwonns 31

Menon, A. G. K. 1990. Zoogeography of India. In : Taxonomy in Environment and Biology, 59-

75. (E4) Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Michaelsen, w. 1903. Die GeographiscM Verbreitung der Oligochaetan. R. Friedlander and Sohn,
Berlin.
Sims, W. 1980. A classification and distribution of earthworms, suborder Lumbricina
(Haplotaxida: Oligochaeta). Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hisl. (Zool.), 39 (2) : 103-124.
Smith, M. A. 193143. The Fauna of British India. Reptilia and Amphibia, Vols. I-ill. Taylor and
Francis, London.
Stephenson, J. 1930. The Oligochaeta. Clarendon Press, London.
Wadia, D. N. 1973. Geology. In : The Gazeneer of India, 1: 117-162. 'Government of India, New
Delhi.
Wallwork, J. A. 1984. Earthworm Biology. 1st Indian edition. Gulab Vazirani for Arnold-
Heinemann, New Delhi.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Eurlhworm Resowces and Vermiculture : 33-42, 1993

Chromosomal Pattern in Earthworms

S. ,\,1. Handa

Cy togcn~t ics Rest: arch Unit.

Department of Zoology. Panjab University, Chandigarh

Earthwom1s playa major role in the formation of soil structure and its fertility. They are also
an important link in the food chain of soil fauna. As source of animal protein they contain
essential aInin') acids, and have been added to poultry and pet food in some countries. It is
estimated that there arc nearly 90,000 earthworm ranchers, who rear and sell wonns in the United
States of America. Many families in the world arc profiting by utilising worms for the
improvement of soil, disposal of organic wastes and producing worm casts as biofertilizers.
There had been a rapid advancement of chromosome finclings in many groups of animals but
such studies remained totally lacking on earthwonns. A perusal of the literature reveals that only a
fraction of earthwom1 species is known cytologically when compared to the vast taxonomical
available data. Reasons for scanty information on the cytology of earthworms could be due to
small size of their gonads, clumping tendency in their chromosomes, low mitotic and meiotic
indices, high degrec of polyploidy resulting in an uneasy counting and incomplete analysis of
chromosome structure, existence of parthenogenesis, etc. Earthworms are hermaphrodites and are
believed to have originated from some ancestral polychaete having separate sexes. These animals
arc charactcrised in the b,l~ic chromosome numbers of 11, 16, 17, 18, 19 and frequent occurrence
of polyploidy in many species. Some of earlier reports show that polyploidy and aneuploidy are
common but their evolutionary significance has not yet been realized. Further, the extent of
polyploidy is too limited for any assessment of its role in speciation.
The Indian subcontinent is rich in earthworm fauna with about 500 known species belonging
to about 65 genera. Handa (1969) initiated cytological studies on Indian earthworms and brought to
light some interesting chromosoInal information. As a result, he reported chromosome number in
13 species of worms of the families Lumbricidae and Megascolccidae.

Table I 1\umber of Cytologically known species

Family No. of spp. No. of spp.* %

Cytologically Known
worked out

Tubificidae 2 147 l.36

Enchytracidae 71 500 14.20
Lumbricidac 54 302 17.80
~lcgascolccidac 24 1912 l.25
(including Acanthodrilidae
and Octochactidae)

Total 15] 2861

($ Source: Brinkhurst and Jamieson, 1971; Sims, 1982)

34 S.M. Hmda

Table 2 Details of chromosomal studies by different workers

Author Year Chromosome number and related infonnation

Calkins 1895 Spermatogenesis Lumbricus terrestris, 2n = 32. n = 16

Foot 1898 Oogenesis of Allolobophora foetida, 2n =22, n =11
Gatby 1900 Oogenesis of Tubifex, somatic cells-100, oocyte-I-IIO
Bugnion & Popoff 1905 Lumbricus agricola, n = 16
Foot & Strobell 1905 A. foetida-ll bivalent with tetrad, rod, rings and cross,
figures. 2n = 22, 0 = 11
Meek 1913 Lumbricus sp., 2n =32, n =16
Muldal 1949 30 spp. polyploidy in 5 genera (3n, 4n, IOn)
1952 n = 18 in Lumbricus; 16.18 in Allolobophora; 18 in
Octolacium. Eiseniella; 11, 18, 20 in Eisenia; 17 in
Dendrobaena; 10 in Bimastus
Makino 1951 For details see Atlas on chromosomes
Walsh 1951 Reported variations in Lumbricus te"estris
1954 No multiplication of chromosome set beyond 2n in
testes and seminal vesicle
Omodeo 1952 Lumbricidae, 30 spp.
1955 2n = 114, 72, 54, 36, 32, 30, 180 (IOn), 22 (n = 11),
34, 102, 112-124, 108
Christensen & Nielsen 1955 Worked on 7 Danish genera. 2n = 120-140, in some
180-200; n =13-17, 21, 32
Murchie 1967 11 spp. of Diplocardia (Megascolecidae), n = 22.
highest no. as 198
Handa 1969 Studied 13 spp. of land earthworms
1971 Studied 5 spp. of aquatic earthworms
1974 Described 2n, n. aneuploidy, polyploidy
1975 Aberrant behaviour, low mitotic index
1977 Chiasma in Lumbricidae and its absence in
Megascolecidae
Dulout et ale 1971 20 = 30 in Pheretima californica Kinberg (in testes,
seminal vesicles and ovaries, somatic tissues)
Soadra & Renata 1972 Gametogenesis in 3 spp. of worms of lceland. i.e.,
Dendrobaena and Lumbricus. In D. rubida, hexaploid
parthenogenesis and octoploid amphigonic strains.
Sharma et ale 1976 Cytogenetical relationship, etc.
Mihailova & S ubchev 1981 0= 7, 2n = 14 in Branchiobdella astaci
Handa & Kumari 1984 Chromosomes of Eutyphoeus incommodus and E.
waltoni
Chromosomal Pattern in EarthwormS" 35

Techniques lor the Study or Earthworm Chromosomes

Localion ofReproductive Organs
The oligochaetes are protandrous, hermaphrodite and the number, .position and arrangement of
the testes, ovaries and seminal vesicles vary greatly between families and genera. In the order
Moniligastrida with a single family Moniligastridae, paired testes and seminal vesicles are
inttaseptal (septum 9/10 in Drawida), and ovaries are elongately band like, with large, yolky
oocyctes, paired in segment XI (Drawida spp.). The order Haplotaxida with major families of
Lumbricidae, Acanthodrilidae, OctOChaetidae and Megascolecidae possess 2 pairs of testes in
segments X and XI, one pair of ovaries in xm and seminal vesicles in all or some of IX-XII. One
of the paired testes may be absent in some genera/species.
The individuals are dissected with the help of a fine blade, a pair of forceps and needles. Testes
and seminal vesicles are removed for chromosome preparations.
Dissecting mediums : The specimens aredissected separately in either 0.7% saline (Baker,
1944) or 1% Sodium citrate (French. Baker and Kitzmiller, 1962) medium. The dissecting medium
0.7% saline yields better n!Sults.
Hypotonic treatment : In order to get good spreading of chromosomes and clear
morphological structures, various hypotonjc treatments are used resulting in the swelling of cells
as well as avoiding clumping of chromosomes.
Saline treatment : An aqueous salt solution recommended by Darlington and Lacour (1960) is
tried for 30-40 minutes. The concentrations applied are 0.7% and 0.9%. The results obtained by
this method are, however, not very satisfactory.
Sodium citrate : Different concentrations of sodium citrate solutions used can be 0.9% (Ford
and Hamerton, 1956), 0.7% (Fredga, 1964) and 1.12% (Sparano, 1961). Best results are obtained
by using 0.9% sodium citrate solution for 60 minutes at 37C.
Fixation : After pretreatment, the mat~rial is fixed in one of the freshly prepared fix~tives.
Camoy's fixative (3 parts absolute alcohol: 1 acetic acid-45% acetic acid) (Vaartaja, 1963) i.e.
Camoy's without chloroform for 60 minutes at room temperature gives good results.
Preservation of Material
The material is proceeded for staining soon after flXation. Sometimes, it ~ evel.l preserved in
70% alcohol at 4C for 1-2 days, which may be stained later on after washing it 4-5 times in
distilled water.
Chromosome Techniques
The following techniques can be employed for the prepamtion of chromosomes.
1. Squash techniques : The various stains used for the squash preparations are : Gomori' s
haematoxylin (Gomori, 1941; Melander and Wingstrand, 1953), Aceto-caramine (Rattenburry,
1956) and 2% aceto-orcein (Darlington and Lacour, 1960)
For squashing: Take a small piece of the tissue (Gonads and seminal vesicle or any growing
tissue) which is already lying in the stain (15-30 min.) on a slide and put a cover glass on it.
Apply uniform pressure on the cover slip with the help of thumb through folds of a blotting
paper. Invert the slide with cover glass (after squashing) in a covered tray containing tertiary butyl
alcohol and keep till cover glass is detached. Mount the cover glass and slide separately in euparal.
Slides stained in Gomori's haematoxyline produce goocJ results to some extent.
2. Air drying technique : This technique is employed as recommendecH>y Crozier~1968). A
small piece of material is taken on chemically clean slide and on it 2-3 drops of 60% acetic acid is
poured. This is followed by vigorous tapping of tissue with forceps or needles so that cells are
loosened. The slides are then allowed to dry and stained in Carbol-fuchsin stain (Carr and Walker,
36 s. M.'Handa
1961) for 24-48 hours. Differentiation is done by just giving a dip in rectified alcohol. For
dehydration, the slides are kept in n-butyl alcohol for 40-50 minutes and mounted in euparal.
Excellent results are obtained by this technique.
Giemsa Staining
Preparation of Giemsa stain : Giemsa stock-380 mg/Giemsa powder is dissolved in 25 ml of
glycerol and kept for overnight To this is added 25 mI of methanol and stored.
So"enson's buffer
Solution A 0.9078 g of KH2 P04IlOO ml
Solution B l.1876 g of Na2 HP04fl()() mt
Solution C 50.8 ml of solution A and 49.2 ml of solution B
Working solution : From 100 ml of solution C, 47 ml is uiken and to it 3 mi of Giemsa
stock is added. This makes the working Giemsa stain with pH 6.8.
Method of staining : The air dried slides are kept in working Giemsa stain for half an hour
and after washing in distilled water, these are dried and mounted in DPX.
Chromosomal Pattern in a few selected species
Handa (1969-1984) in a series of papers has given chromosome infonnation on 13 species of
Indian earthwonns. Some of the papers refer to only chromosome number and level of polyploid
cells in them while others relate to detailed aspects of chromosomal characteristics. In the present
account, it is not possible to give details of chromosomal pattern of species studied so far.
However, an attempt is made to give chromosomal pattern in some of selected species so that
future workers in this field are able to know the type, shape, size and behaviour of chromosomes
in earthworms. The species reported here belong to the families Lumbricidae (3 species),
Octochaetidae (1 species), Megascolecidae (3 species). .
Family : Lumbricidae
Bimastos parvus (Fig. 15)
Lumbricidae is one of the most widespread and investigated families of the Oligocbaeta. Its
species from the Indian subcontinent had remained totally neglected. Handa (1969, 1971) for the
rust time reported diploid number in Bimastos parvus as 2n = 18 with n9 morphological
distinction between autosomes and sex chromosomes. The meiosis is coDventional but for the
occurren~e of a diffused stage after pachytene. Several spermatogonial metaphases showed the
presence of 3n, 4n, 8n, lOn, 17n and 18n chromosomes in them.
Eisenia fetida (Figs. 4, 8, 14, 18, 25, 28-29)
The Indian population of this species (Handa, 1969; 1975) carry a diploid number of 11
chromosomes while 22 have been recorded for this species from Europe. Location of centromere in
various chromosomes cannot be marked out with certainty. Aneuploid cells with chromosome
number 5,6,9 are frequent. The availability of polyploid cells fs common and they are mosdy at
the mitotic metaphase stage with 4n = 22.
Aporrectodea (= Allolobophora) trapezoides (Fig. 10,11,13, 17,24,26,31)
This species carry 2n= 11 and chromosomes can be arranged in their descending order in a
karyotype. The aneuploid cells with chromosome number 5, 6, 8 (n = 5, 6) are also met with.
Polyploid cells at 4n level (4n = 22, 26) are quite common.

Note : Explanation to Figures does not include details of each Figure. These are available in the
original publications thesis.
a.on-omal Pauem in Euthwonns 31

13a

FilS. 1-3, 5-7,9,12. .Pheretima mo"is;. Figs. 4,8, 14...14a. Eiseniafetida. Figs. 1()"'10a, 11...11a.
13-138. AporreClOdetJ (=AUolobophora) tTapez.oides.
 S.M"Hlada
38

,d e

N,


I- ,
1-.-
f 9 h,

. . '
.. .. . .
-
h
n
m

Fig. 15. Bimastos parvus Fig. 16. Megascol~ /conkaMRSis (a~a>; M~,ascolu ,sp. (It-n).
 39

Figs. 17,24,26,3 . Apo"ectodea trapezoides. Figs. 18, 2St 28..29. Eisenia/elida. Figs. 19, 22-
23,27. PMretima momsi. Figs. 20-21, 30, 32. Eutyphoeus incommodus.
40 S. M. Handa

Family Octochaetidae
Eutyphoeus incommodus (Figs. 20-21,30,32)
Handa (1969) reported the chromosome number and variations in its spermatogonial and
seminal vesicle cells. The 2n appears to be either 20 or 22 with n as 10 or 11 chromosomes. Cells
with 4n number of chromosomes at mitotic metaphase are also available. This species on
reinvestigation by Handa and Parveen (1984) made them to change their earlier findings on the
diploid number depending upon availability of the maximum number of diploid cells. According to
them, it appears that actually the 2n is 44 and not 22.
Family Megascolecidae
Pheretima morrisi (Figs. 1-3,5-7,9,12,19,22-23,27)
Handa (1969) reported the 2n number in this species as either 20 or 22 with 4n level of
polyploidy cells. When this species was reinvestigated in 1984 (data unpublished) it was found
that this species carried a 2n = 16 and n = 8 chromosomes. Variations in chromosome number is
quite extensive. Polyploid cells at the 4n, 5n, 8n, 9n and IOn are also available.
Megascolex konkanensis and Megascolex sp. (Fig. 16)
Handa (1969,77) reported the chromosomes of the two species of the genus Megascolex. Both
of these possess 2n = 20 and n = 10 chromosomes. In Megascolex konkanensis, chromosomes
vary in size, cells with 3n and 4n are quite common. The presence of pseudo-trivalents and inverted
'V' -shaped pseudo-tetravalents are quite common. In Megascolex sp., however, chromosomes are
alike in appearance with 2n = 20. Polyploid cells are frequent. The chromosomes fonn pseudo-
trivalents and pentavalents, besides the usual bivalents, in various metaphase I cells.

Conclusion and Future Attention

The literature reveals that only three families of earthworms Lumbricidae, Megascolecidae and
Octochaetidae are known chromosomally.
In the Lumbricidae, there exists a constancy in the diploid number of chromosomes in its
various species, and chromosomes appear as 'V's, rods and spherical bodies. The occurrence of
aneuploidy in them is quite common and the ploidy goes up to 4n level. The mitotic index is,
however, quite low and possibility of the chiasma formation is also there. Many of the workers
have given the n number of chromosomes varying from 6-27 with 18 as occurring in many of the
species. Earlier workers on Eisenia fetida have reported the presence of 2n = 22 and n = 11
chromosomes. The findings of Handa from this laboratory on this species have, however, revealed
the presence of 2n = 11 and n = 5,6 chromosomes. Polyploid cells upto 4n level in this species are
quite common. Species Bimastos parvus with 2n = 18, and n = 9 (Handa, 1969, 1971) is a new
cytological record for this family. Similarly, studies on Aporrectodea (= Allolobophora)
trapezoides (unpublished) is another new cytological addition to this family having 2n = 11, n =
5,6. The polyploid cells at the 4n level are also prescnt.
From the family Megascolecidae, various workers have reported variations in chromosome
number, wherein, the diploid number varies from species to species. The 2n may be 16,20,22 as
reported by them with n=8;10,11. The chromosomes are generally in the form of spherical bodies.
Polyploidy (cells only) is quite extensive in the family and it varies from 4n to IOn level at the
mitotic metaphase stage. Out of 23 species, Muldal (1952) reported six species of this family in a
polyploid state. The present fmdings, however, depicted the presence of only polyploid cells but
none of the individuals in a polyploid state.
1t is suggested that extensive studies should be carried out on the cytology of Indian
earthworms which is still a virgin field. About 3300 species of earthworms are known in the
world, but only 151 have so far been reported cytologically. It is hoped that future workers would
lay emphasis on the following aspects of cytological studies on Indian earthwormS.
CIaomosomal Pattern in Barthworms 41

1. Chromosome constancy/inconstancy. 2. Polyploidy and its role in speciation. 3. Chiasma

formation and chromosome behaviour in cell cycle. 4. Configurations of chromosomes at mitosis
and meiosis, and its causes. 5. Sex chromosomes, if any. 6. Amino-acid analysis by different
methods. 7. Protein pattern by electrophoresis, etc., in order to work at the biochemical level for
evaluating the differentiation of the various species.
RefereDces
Baker, J. B. 1944. The structure and chemical composition of the golgi elements. Q~ JI microsc.
Sci.,85 :1-75.
Brinkhurst, R. O. & Jamieson, B. G. M. 1971. Aquatic Oligochaeta of the world. University of
Toronto Press, Toronto and Buffalo.
Bugnion, E. & Popoff, N. 1905. La spennatogenesis due Lombric te"estra. Arch. Zool. Exp.
Gen., 4 : 3. (Quoted from Ornodeo, 1952).
Calkins, G. N. 1895. The spennatogenesis of Lumbricus te"estris. J. Morph., 11 (2) : 271-302.
Carr, D. H. & Walker, J. R. 1961. Carbol fuchsin as a stain for human chromosomes. Stain
Tech., 36 : 233-236.
Christensen, B. & Nielsen, C. O. 1955. Chromosomes in Enchyttaeidae IV. Preliminary report on
chromosomes number of 7 Danish genera. Chromosoma, 7 : 460-468.
Crozier, R. H. 1968. An acetic acid dissociation air drying technique for insect chromosomes with
acetolacto orcein staining. Stain Tech., 43 : 17l.
Darlington, C. D. & Lacour, L. F. 1960. The handling of chromosome. 3rd edition. George Allen
and Unwin Ltd., London.
Dulout, N., Tomsic, Z., Moreno, A. R. and Levin, M. 1971. Chromosomes studies in Pheretima
californica IGnberg (Megascolecidae, Oligochaeta). Acta. ~ol. Lilloana, 24 : 173-176.
Foot, K. 1898. The cocoons and eggs of Allolobophorafoetida. J. Morph., 14 : 481-506.
Foot, K. & Strobell, E. C. 1905. Prophase and metaphase of the first maturation spindle of A.
foetida. Amer. J. Anat., 4 : 199-243.
Ford, C. E. &. Hamerton, J. L. 1956. A Colchicine hypotonic, squash technique of mammalian
chromosomes. Stain Tech., 31 : 247-251. .
Fredga, K. 1964. A simple technique for demonstration of chromosomes and mitotic stages in a
small mammal: ~hromosomes from Cornea. Hereditas, 51 : 268-273.
French, W. L., Baker, R. H. & Kitzmiller, J. B. 1962. Preparation of mosquito chromosomes.
Mosq. News., 22 : 377.
Gathy, E. 1900. Contribution aI' etude du development de I' Oeuf et de la fecondation Chez les
Annelides. La Cellule, 17 : 7-72. (Quoted from Handa, 1970).
Gomori, G. 1941. A new haematoxylin stain for chromosomes. Amer. J. Path., 17 : 395.
Handa, S. M. 1969. Chromosome number in 13 species of Indian terrestrial oligochaetes. Res.
Bull. (Sci.) Panjab Univ., 20 (1-11) : 255-256.
Handa, S. M. 1971. Cytogenetical studies on Bimastus parva (Oligochaeta-Lumbricidae). Proc.
All India Congr., Cytol. and Genetics Congo Suppl., 194-197.
Handa, S. M. 1974. Cytotaxonomy of Indian earthworms, chromosomes and their behaviour in
two species of genus Megascolex (Megascolecidae). Res. Bull. (Sci.) Panjab Univ.,
28 : (III-IV) : 171-174.
Handa, S. M. 1975. Chromosomes of Eisenia foetida (Lumbricidae-Oligochaeta). Proc. lInd All
India Congr., Cylol. and Genetics, Udaipur: 77 (abstract).
42 S. M. Handa

Handa, S. M. 1977. Analysis of chromosome in two species of the genus Octochaetoides

(M~gascolecidae-Oligochaeta). 1st Coll. Bioi. Con/. Banarus, Jan. 14-16th, 1977 : 28
(abstract).
Handa, S. M. & Parveen, K. 1984. Chromosomes in two species of the genus Eutyphoeus
(Octochaetidae-Oligochaeta). Proc. 5th All India Congr. Cytol. & 'Genetics,
Bhubneshwar (abstract).
Makino, S. 1951. An atlas of the chromosome number in Animals. 2nd edition. The Iowa State
College Press, Iowa.
Meek, C. F. U. 1913. A metrical analysis of chromosomes complex showing correlation of
evolutionary development and chromatin thread width throughout the animal kingdom.
Phil. Trans. R. Soc., Lond. (ser. 8),20 : 1-74 (Quoted from Handa, 1970).
Melander, Y. & Wingsttand, K. G. 1953. Gomori's haematoxylin as a chromosome stain. Stain
'Technol., 28 : 217-223.
Mihailova, P. V. & Subchev. M. A. 1981. On the karyotype of the three species of the family
Branchiobdellidae (Annelida-Oligochaeta). CR. Acad. BULG.SCI., 34 (2): 262-268.
Muldal, S. 1949. Cytotaxonomy of British earthworms. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 161 : 116-118.
Muldal, S. 1952. The chromosomes of the earthworm. I. The evolution of the polyploidy.
Heredity,6: 55-76. '
Murchie, W. R. 1967. Chromosomes number in some diplocardian earthwonns (Megascolecidae-
Oligochaeta). Am.Midl.Nat., 78 : 534-537.
Omodeo, P. 1952. Cariologia dei Lumbricidae. Caryologia, 4 : 173-275.
Omodeo, P. 1955. Cariologia dei Lumbricidae. Caryologia, 8 : 135-178.
Rattenbury, T. 1956. A rapid method for permanent aceto cannine squash preparation. Nature
(London), 177 : 1185-1186.
Sandra Casellato & Renata RodiGhiero. 1972. Karyology of Lumbricidae. III. Contribution.
Caryologia, 25 : 513-524.
Sharma, G. P., Handa, S'. M. & Komal, Sahi. 1976. Analysis of chromosomes in five species of
aquatic oligochaetes. Nucleus, 19 (ii) : 102-105.
Sims, R. W. 1982. Moniligastrida, Alluroidina and Lumbricina : 51-61. In: Synopsis and
'Classification of living organisms. (Ed.) S. P. Parker. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York.
Sparano, B. M. 1961. Use of hypotonic citrate and acetoorcein for squash preparation of,
mammalian cells. Stain Tech., 36 : 41-42.
Vaartaja, R. W. 1963. Chromosome,s in Gynaecological malignant tumour, Aus,. N. J. J. Obstet.
Gynae., 3 : 170.
Walsh, M. P. 1951. Chromosome number and variation in L. terrestris. Genetics, 36 : 581-582.
Walsh, M. P. 1954. 'Chromosome study of L. te"estris. Trans. Am. microsc. Soc., 73 (2) : 164-
167.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

BtrtllwormR~soUTces and Vermiculture: 43-49, 1993

Know-how of Earthworms - The Soil Macrofauna

RadluJ D. Kale
Department of Zoology,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore

Earthworms belonging to class Oligochaeta form the major terrestrial and soil inhabiting
organisms of the phylum Annelida The lumbricid worms have dominated in their distribution in
tempezate soils and the megascolecid worms predominate sub-tropical and tropical 'soils. The
intensity of competition is high in temperate regions with a narrow niche where litter forms the
primary food. As a result, earthworm populations concentrate on soil surface with little
behavioural diversification. To avoid competition for space, large sized worms have become
6pian6cic and an6cic that live deep in burrows and surface out for collecting litter as food. On the
other hand, niche is enlarged with greater food diversity for tropical worms and they show much
variation in size and behavioUraI patterns. This has primarily resulted in preferential feeding habits.

Ecological Strategies
The contrasting climatic conditions of the tropical and temperate zones have made it difficult to..
compare the role of this major soil fauna. Between extremely high and low temperature and evenly
distributed rainfall have favoured worms of tempemte region to have a prolonged active ph~ with
intennittant rest period. The lower temperature also favours accumulation of litter and' humus due
to slow microbial activity, which in turn provides rich source of food for worms. This fits into the
reports of Bouch6 (1975) where he has reported that 88.1 % of earthworms are detQtivorous and
only 13.1 % of them are geophagous in a pennanent pasture. in France. Based on the nature of their
vertical distribution in soil strata. their feeding and defecation activity in temperate soils, three
diffezent categories of worms can be distinguished ecologically (Bouch6, 1977). The 6pigeic worms
inhabit the litter heaps or any other degrading organic matter on soil surface; the endog6ic forms
inhabit mineral soil horizons and feed more on soil than on organic matter; the anecics live in
highly complicated burrow systems. The anecic worms surface out to feed on dead leaves which
they normally drag into their burrows before feeding .. Majority of endogeic worms have intrinsic
factors that would trigger them into the state of seasonal diapause. The anecics which are at the
advantage of using the qualities of both 6pigeics and endogeics pack the burrow walls with their
excrements, thus fonning stable tunnel in soil. The anecics help in regular mixing of surface
matter to lower strata and also loosening the soil. Such a demarcation could not be made with
respect to earthwonns of tropics and majority of them are geophagous i.e. the endogeics, and only
a few are dettitiverous (Kale and Krishnamoorthy, 1978; Dash, 1978). Lavelle (1979) also noted
lack of anecics among the dominant species in this studies in tropics and suggested that unlike the
Lumbricidae of temperate regions where 50-75% of total biomass is anecis, in tropics they fonn a
minor component. Probably. posterior positioning of gizzard and clitellum in lumbricids has
allowed for the development of strong musculature which may be responsible fo the occurrence of
more anocic species among lumbricids. In our studies in uncultivated marshy lands of Bangalore,
Polypheretima elQngata was found to form complicated fum burrows upto a depth of 90 cm and
considered as an example of anecic magascolesid worms (Kale and Krishnamoorthy, 1982).
44 Radha D. Kale

Table I. Relative abundance of earthworm s~cies and their distribution

pattern Un ratios in different aGro-ecos)"stems (after Bano an.d Kale, 1988)

famil~' Name Coastal region Malnad region Plains

Acanthodrilidac Plutellus timidus

Almidac Glyphidrilus armandaJei
Glossoscolccidac Pontosco)ex eorethrurus y. ':12
Ocm:rodilidae GordiodriJus elegan~
Curgiona narayanl e
PriodoscoJex montanus
Octochaetona rosea
Octochaetona beatrix
Octochaetona alblda
Mallehulla Indicp
r armlella karnatakensls
Ho\\'ascolex stephenson I

Octochaet idae Hoplochaetella suctoria
Hoplochaetella kempi
HopJochaetella sp.
Dichogaster modlglia~i ---~-
Dlchogaslcr saliens
Dicho!;Jstcr eurgens.s
DicheC Ister bolaui
Dichr)8aster affinls
y .1 .
Po'ypheretlma elongata
Pt:: ionyx excavatus

M('gascolecidae Mctapllire houleti
Mcgasc()Jex la'Ysonl
Megascol~ konkanensis
M(;g~scolex inslgnls
Megascolcx fiI lelseta
e'.
Lampito maurltii
Drawida sp. (nov.)
Dra\\'lda sukata
Dra\\'lda seandens
Drawida peHudida paUida
Drawida pellucida
Dra.wida paradoxa y 2:1.
D:owida mysorensis
()rawida modesta
~ ~llnil i&<lstridae Drawida lennora
nrawido kanarensis 10:2
Drawida ghatensis
Drawida ferina
Drawida fakira 110

Drawlda calebl y
Drawida barwelli impertusa
Dra\\'ida ampuUacea

Scale Agro-eeosystems

o <: 100 worms/IOO sq.m 3000-5000 worms/sq.m

Arable land
o=J 100-500 worms/lOOsq.m L....-_-'---'-~--!..~I :> 5000 worms/l OOsq. m
fanow land
500-1000 worms/IOOsq.m
Orchards/Plantations .
o 1000-3000 worms/sq.m
forests
Know-how of Earthworms 45

Species Diversity and their Role

In subtropical and tropical regions, there is wider size variation in species rather than species
richness. Species richness is more in stable and predictable environments. Unstable and
unpredictable environments accommodate more robust communities and as such, the conditions
lead to species poverty. This kind of species association could be observed with respect to
earthworm fauna of Karnataka - a part of southern Deccan plateau (Table 1). As moisture and
available organic matter are important limiting factors for their distribution, specIes diversity is
more in heavy rainfall areas with large plantations and forests than in the plains with dry farm
lands which experience unpredictable and poor rainfall. Earthworm species in heavy rainfall areas
are larger in size than those found in the plains. Pontoscolex corethrurus and Lampito mauritii find
wider choice of habitats because of their adaptability to various niches (Kale and Krishnamoorthy,
1978; Bano and Kale, 1988 - in press). Moreover, in a subtropical country like ours, the worm
activity is limited to a short period, and not much importance has been laid on their role as
components of a soil ecosystem. But the scanty and scattered sources of information show how
Table 2 Cellulose and Lignin utilization in Earthworm worked soils

Scuupk Metabolic Total Cellulolytic Lignolytic Residual Residual

Type ratio meas- microbial organisms x organisms cellulose lignin
ured -in terms popUlation 10 4/g x 103/g mg/g mg/400 ml
of H2 S04 x 107/g
utilized

Control (A) 465.00 e

soil
without (5) 14.35 c 461.50 e
wonns
Soil (A) 4.00d 110.OOd
worked
by (S) 5.00 e 56.00 a
E. eugeniae
Soil (A) 2.83 c 97.50c
worked
by (5) 5.90 c
Perionyx
excavatus
'F'Test ** ** ** ** ** **
LSD at
P = 0.01 0.63 0.66 0.45 0.36 0.11 3.32

In Each column means with same alphabets do not differ significantly at P = 0.01
A = Agricultural waste, S = Sugarcane trash
much these worms help in annual soil tum over in tropics by their selective fceding and casting
activity even during restricted pericxis. Dash (1978) has reponed that earthwonns assimilate at least
130/0 of their net annual primary production in our grasslands and this in fact is the contributory
46 Radha D. Kale

factor in breaking down of fallen litter and enhancing of microbial activity in ingested soil and
litter. Improved water holding capacity of cast and drainage due to their movement in soil sttata
fonn a positive factor for plant growth (Dash, 1978). The intestinal mucus excreted by earthwonns
may add upto 20% of total organic matter content in a Mexican tropical pasture (Lavelle et al.,
1983). The quality of the soil organic matter acts as a regulating factor of mechanical activity of
earthwonns. The nature of soil ()rganic matter, particularly the soluble fraction, detennines the
intensity and nature of microbial activity in their guts. This factor is of importance for recycling
organic and mineral matter in the ecosystem wherein earthwonns ingest 1200 tonnes dry soil/halyr
(Lavelle, 1978). Similar dependence of microflora and earthwonns on the nature of available
organic matter was reported by Bhat (1974), where in his cultur~s establishment of Azotobacter
colonies varied with the organic feed mix used in the medium. Favourable physical conditions due
to worm activity and addition of energy rich assimilable organic matter provide scope for
microorganisms to increase their activity and digest more complex soil organic matter, a situation
also observed by Kale et ale (1988-in press) under laboratory conditions for cellulose and lignin
digestion in given period of time by known biomass of wonns (Table 2).

Cast : Production and Physico-chemical Properties

The cast production by worms during short periodS of favourable conditions has shown that
sufficient soil tum over takes place due to worm activity. Wonn casts are produced in large
quantitites on soil surface during rainy seaSon (Gates, 1961; Dash and Patra, 1979). The cast.
production of Pheretima hupiensis during active phase averaged 3.8 kg/m 2 (Watanabe, 1975). A
maximum 31 tonnes/dry weight/acre/year of cast production was reported by Dash and Patra
(1979). In Thailand, the annual cast production in grasslands was estimated to be 13.26 kg/m2 to
22.48 kg/m2 or 132.6 to 224 .. 9 tonnes/ha from May to late November (Watanabe and
Ruaysoongnem, 1984).
The size and shape of the released cast vary with species but this cannot be taken as criteria for
identifying the worms. Lampito mauritii deposits granular cast of moderate size on soil smface
whereas the cast released by Pontoscolex corethrurus and Polypheretima elongata are thick and
sticky mounds. Pelletlike and thread-like casts are produced by Metaphire postuma and Perionyx
millardi respectively. The biggest recorded castingof Notoscolex birmanicus from Burma weighed
1.6 kg after drying for 4 months. The largest cast of Pheretima species in northern Thailand was
reported to be 35 cm in height, 5 cm. in diameter and weighed 975 g (Watanabe and
Ruaysoongnem, 1984). Surface casting ferionyx excavatus and Eudrilus eugeniae release fme and
loose granular casts on soil surface.
A higher level of carbon, nitrogen, magnesium and calcium observed in cast that in
surrounding soil was attribated to selective feeding of worms (Watanabe, 1975; Kale and
Krishnamoorthy, 1978). From the observations of Nijhawan and Kanwar (1952), it could be
deduced that physical characteristics and chemical properties of worm casts vary with different
species but normally have better per~olation and dispersion coefficient than the parent soil.
Earthworm utilise organic matter as food and release part of carbon as CO2 during the metabolic
process. The production of mucus and nitrogenous excrements enhance the level of nitrogen which
helps in bringing down the ratio of carbon to nitrogen. This process is most essential in the
humification process. Under laboratory conditions nearly 31% reduction in the C/N IJtio was
observed in cultures of Octochaetona surensis in a period of 25 days (Senapati et al., 1980). An
integrated study on mechanisms involved in the process of habit selection, feeding, cast production
and physico-chemical properties of soils on inhabitation of earthworms are required to be assessed
and categorise different groups of tropical worms~ By encouraging organic farming and
amelioration by introducing hardy and more adaptable species in various agro-ecosystems, it is
KDDw-how of Barthwonns 47

feasible to develop a better biocenosIs. This, in long run, would build up a more stable and
healthy soU.

Bffect 01 Biocides
Wonns in genemJ are highly resistant to many pesticides. Senapati and his" team of workers are
involved in studies on the effect of various biocides commonly used in this country for sanitation
purpose and also in fields on the life and activity of earthworms. The question rests on the
adoption of a standard method to assess toxicity of any biocide. It is very difficult to use wonns as
standard laboratory test material because of their capabilities for physiological, behavioural and
biochemical adaptations.
Even in some of.preliminary studies carried out on the effect of the carbamate Sevin on
Pontoscolex corethrurus. it has been shown that it could overcome the effect by restricting its
movements, increasing mucus secretion level of the pesticide (Kale and Krishnamoorthy, 1979).
Barthwonns are also known to concentrate pesticides and heavy metals in their tissues (Edwards
and Lofty, 1977) and accumulation of pesticides is considered to vary with soil properties. With
little knowledge, a few of the agricultural scientists think of controlling earthworm population in
some arable lands since they believe'them to be responsible for the decline in the crop yield either
directly or indirectly. Hence, a careful thinking is very much needed on the use of chemicals. On
the one hand, nonnaI admissible dosages of these chemicals have little effect on them and on the
other hand, the weak and senile wonns affected by these chemicals may help in establishment of
pathogenic groups (Dash et al., 1979 a,b)." Studies are still to be made under tropical conditions to
eStablish the role of earthworms in detoxifying the soil.

Effect on Plant Growth

The improved growth in pastures and crops like rye and barley has been attributed to the
richness of earthworm fauna and linked with their chemical exudates and associated microbes.
Beneficial influence of worm cast has been related to biological factors like gibberellins,
cytokinins and auxins released due to metabolic activity of microbes harboured in the cast. The
presence of compounds allied to IAA in earthwonn tissues have been observed. Chemical exudates
of worms and those of microbes in the cast influence rooting of layers or shoots. Antibacterial
activity of coelomic fluid of earthworms is directed against highly pathogenic soil bacteria. These
pathogenic bacterial strains were found to possess at least one common antigen with the sheep red
blood cells. It has been demonstrated that the inhibitory effect of coelomic fluid on bacterial strains
which have a common surface antigen with sheep red bloods cells. Earthworms, apart from
encouraging the establishment of beneficial microorganisms, can also inhibit soil borne
pathogens.
Species for Biotechno)ogy
Since emphasis is being laid on organic farming and use of earthworm for conversion of
organic waste into organic manure, a question is often raised on the use of suitable species for
waste degradation. From available information and our experiments with different species of
WOODS, it is observed that some selected species are preferred for this technology. The endogeic
worms feeding on soil rich in humic substances fail to live for long under seminatural conditions
and with a higher gut transit time are poor feeders and have little preference for rich organic matter
with high nitrogen content Epig~ic species are fast breeders and are active feeders on rich organic
matter which is high in nitrogen level. But they may avoid animal waste and vice versa.
Depending on the type of organic matter to be utilized for the purpose, appropriate species should
48 Radha D. Kale

be selected. Eiseniafetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus and Lumbricus rubellus are used
allover the world for waste degradation, and are found to be very successful functionaries for
manure and biomass production. In this country also, many of the entrepreneurs have collected the
know-how of technology from within and outside the country, and are involved in culturing
worms like Eisenia fetida for compost production. At the University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore, Eudrilus eugeniae has been maintained as culture for production of wonn biomass and
vennicompost. Compost application studies have been in progress in several wet and dry lands.
Both these species are exotic and it would be pertinent to develop indigenous technology based on
them.
It is a usual practice to introduce some exotic species of both plants and animals for
commercial culture all over the world. Among earthworms, Perionyx excavatus, from this
country has been carried for culture in United Kingdom and Germany , and from the latter to South
Africa especially to study its efficiency in waste degradation. Earthworms from time immemorial
might have been entering this subcontinent, from different parts of Eurasia. But today we fail to
observe all the species that are found distributed in these regions in the southern peninsular India
which formed the gateway for many of the species. Most of the species have failed to establish
themselves. This was proved in the survey conducted for one year in the farm yard garden in
Bangalore where different plants brought from within and outside the country has only three
earthworm species namely Polypheretima elongata, Lampito mauritii and Pontoscolex corethrurus.
(Kale and Krishnamoorthy, 1982). Even when intentional introduction of worms into open fields
and pastures was tried in New Zealand, they take several decades to establish. Hence, the worms
that are being deployed for waste degradation can be cultured without any fear or favour and
without any adverse effect which has been proved beyond any doubt in this laboratory.

References
Bano, K. & Kale, R. D. (in press) Earthworm fauna of south Karnataka In : Proc. X Int. Zool.
Colloq. Bangalore, 1988. (Eds.) G. K. Veeresh, D. Rajagopal and Virakthamath. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
Bhat, J. V. 1974. Suitability of experimentation diets for earthworm culture. Curro Sci., 43 : 266-
268.
Bouche, M. B. 1975. Fonctions des lombriciens. III. Premiers estimations quantitatives des
stations francaises du PBI. Ler collq. de la societe d'Ecologie, 1973. Rev. Ecol. Bioi.
Sol., 12 : 12-25.
Bouche, M. B. 1977. Strategies lombriciennes. Ecol. Bull. (Stockholm), 25 : 122-132.
Dash, M. C. 1978. Role of earthworms in the decomposer system: 399-406. In : Glimpses of
ecology. (Eds.) J. S. Singh and B. Gopal. India International Scientific publication.
Dash, M. C. & Patra, V. C. 1979. Worm cast production and nitrogen contribution to soil by a
tropical earthwonn popUlation from grassland site from Orissa, India. Rev. Ecol. Bioi.
Sol., 16 : 79-83.
Dash, M. C., Mishra P. C. & Behera, N. 1979a. Fungal feeding by a tropical earthworm. Trop.
Ecol., 20 : 9-12.
Dash, M. C., Mishra, P. C. & Behera, N. 1979b. Microfungi associatcd with decomposition of
earthworms tissue in a pasturc. Soil. Bioi. Bull. India., 1 : 21-23.
Edwards, C. A. & Lofty, J. R. 1977. Biology of earthworms. Chapman and Hall, London.
Know-how of Earthworms 49

Gates, G. E. 1961. On some species of the Oriental earthworm genus Pheretima IGnberg. Zool.
Meded. (Leiden). 37 : 293-312.
Kale, R. D. &, Krishnamoorthy, R. V. 1978. Distribution and abundance of earthworms in
Bangalore. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci . 87B : 23-25.
Kale, R. D. &, Krishnamoorthy, R. V. 1979. Pesticidal effect of Sevin (l-naphthyl-n-methly
carbamate) on the survivability and abundance of earthworm Pontoscolex corethrurus.
Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 888 : 391-396.
Kale, R. D. &, Krishnamoorthy, R. V. 1982. Cyclic fluctuations and distribution of three species
of ttopical earthworms in a farmyard garden in Bangalore. Rev. Ecol. Bioi. Sol., 19 :
67-71.
Kale, R. D., Bano, K. t Sreenivasa, M. N., Vinayak, K. &, Bagyaraj, D. J. (in press). Incidence of
Cellulolytic and Lignolytic organisms in the earthworms' worked soils. 'n : Proc. X.
Int. Zool. Colloq., Bangalore, 1988. (Eds.) G. K. Veeresh, D. Rajagopal and
Virakthmath). Oxford University Press, New Delhi. .
Lavelle, P. 1978. Les vers de terre de la savane de lamto (cote d'Ivoire). Penplements populations
et fonctions de l'ecosysteme.-Publ. Lab. Zool. EN.S . 12 : 1-301.
Lavelle, P. 1979. Relation entre types ecologiques et troflis demograpbiques chez les ver de terre
de la savana de lamto (cote d' Ivoire). Rev. Ecol. Bioi. Sol., 16 : 85-101.
Lavelle, P., Remgel, P. &, Kenyomys, J. 1983. Intestinal mucus production by two species of
tropical earthwonns : Millosonia lamtioana and Pontoscolex earthworms. In : Proc.
VIII Int. Collq. Soil Zool. Louvain-Ia-Neuve : 405-410. (Eds.) Ph. Lebrum et al,
Lee, K. E. 1985. Earthworms. their ecology and relationships with soils and land use. Academy
Press, Sydney.
Nijhawan, S. D. &, Kanwar, J. S. 1952. Physico-chemical properties of earthwomi casting and
their effect on the productivity of the soil. Indian 1. Agri. Sci., 22 : 357-373.
Senapati, B. K., Dash, M. C., Rana. A. K. &, Panda, B. K. 1980. Observations on the effect of
earthworm in the decomposition process in soil under laboratory conditions. Compo
Physiol. Ecol. 5 : 140-142.
Watanabe, H. 1975. On the amount of cast production by the megascolecid earthworm Pheretima
hup~iensis. Pedobiologia. 15 : 20-28.

Watanabe, H. & Ruaysoongnem, S. 1984. Cast production by the megascolecid earthworm

Pheretima sp. in Nonhern Thailand Pedobiologia, 26: 37-44.'

Publisher : Zoological Survey of Indi~ Calcutta.

 Earthworm Resources and Vermiculture : 51-56, 1993

Earthworm Resources of India and Their Utilization in

Vermiculture

/. M. julia
Zoological Survey of Indi~
High Altitude Zoology Field Station, Solan

Oligochaetes a group of the phylum Annelida, dwell in all types of aquatic and terrestrial
niches with sufficient moisture and food. On the basis of size and habitat, they are often
distinguished into two convenient groups : Microdrili (small, mainly aquatic worms including the
terrestrial family Enchytraeidae) and Megadrili (larger, mostly terrestrial worms and their aquatic
representatives). It is the latter group that consists of earthworms and corresponds to the order
Moniligastrida and Haplotaxida including suborder Tubificina.
. Earthworms are familiar to almost everyone. They are one of the most popular forms of live
bait for fishing all over world including various parts in the Indian subcontinent Fanners consider
them as their friends and hold them in high esteem as nature's ploughmen (Darwin; 1881). Some
species playa significant role in organic matter decomposition and mineral cycling (Edwards and
Lofty, 1977) which is an important criterion for selecting these organisms in waste utilization and.
vermicomposting. A global problem for the disposal of wastes. has arisen due to astronomical
. growth in human population and increased industrial and agricultural activities. Earthwonns with
their peculiar food and feeding, and burrowing habits are nature's most useful converters of wastes.
A great deal of work has been carried out on commercial earthworm fanning in other countries
(S~elds, 1971), primarily for producing worms as bait for fishing. But these worms could also be
used profitably for recycling biodegradable wastes'by vermicomposting techniques for augmenting
not only an alternate source of organic fertilizers but also for providing cheap animal protein in the
fish and poUltry feed.
More than 4200 species of oligochaetes are known in the world. Of these, 280 are Microdrili
and remaining about 3200 belong to Megadrili (earthworms). In the Indian subcontinent,
earthworms also form bulk of the oligochaete fauna. They are represented by 509 species and67
genera, indicating a high degree of diversity in this region as compared to other areas. Though
majority of the forms have specific haoitat preference, a few ubiquitous species also occur. It is,
therefore, important to critically assess eJtisting diversity in Indian earthworms and their ecological
requirements for evolving suitable vennicomposting techniques.

Earthworm Diversity
The fIrst records of earthwonns in the Indian subcontinent were provided by Robert Templeton
in 1844, when he discovered a new species of Megascolex (M. caeruleus) from Sri Lanka.
Subsequently, several species have been discovered frqm the subcontinent by various workers
notably Rosa (1894), Michaelsen (1909), Stephenson (1914, 1920, 1921), Gates (1929, 1930,
1931, 1932, 1933, 1945) and Julka (1976a, 1976b, 1978, 1981). The collective studies of Indian
oligochaete taxonomists have resulted in the publication of three well-documented taxonomic
monographs on these organisms: Fauna of British India and adjacent countries on Oligochaeta by
Stephenson (1923), Burmese earthwonns by Gates (1972) and Fauna of India or megadrile
Oligochaeta (earthworms), Family Octochaetidae by Julka (1988). These monographs are of great
utility for the identification of majority of earthwonn species of our region.
52 1. M. Julka

Table 1. Earthworm genera and species (no.) in the Indian subcontinent

(including Andaman & Nicobar Isis.) Genera marked witb an asterisk (*) are
peregrine in tbe region
Family/Genus No. of Family/Genus No. of
spp. spp.

Acanthodrilidae Ocnerodrilidae
Microscolex* 1 Curgiona 1
Pluteltus 32 Deccania 1
Pontodrilus* 1 Eukerria* 1
Almidae Gordiodrilus* 2
Glyphidrilus 4 Malabaria 4
Criodrilidae Nematogenia* 1
Criodrilus* 1 Ocnerodrilus* 1
Eudrilidae Thatonia 5
Eudrilus* 1 Octochaetidae
Glossoscolecidae Bahlia 1
Pontoscolex* 1 Barogaster 3
Lumbricidae Calebiella 1
Apo"ectodea* 3 Celeriella 7
Biinastos* 1 Chaetocotoides 1
Dendrobaena* 1 DaShiella 1
Dendrodrilus* 1 Dichogaster* 5
Eisenia* 3 Eudichogaster 6
Eiseniella* 1 Eutyphoeus 45
Lumbricus* 4 Hoplochaetella 18
Octolasion* 2 Karmiella 1
Megascolecidae Konkadrilus 4
Amynthas 33 Kotegehluia 1
Comarodrilus 1 Lennogasier 6
Kanchuria 4 Mallehulla 1
Lampito 8 Octochaetoides 1
Lennoscolex 2 Octochaetona 15
Megascolex 33 Octonochaeta 1
Metaphire 26 Pellogaster. 3
Nelloscolex 2 Priodochoeta 1
Notoscolex 11 Priodoscolex 1
Perionyx 53 Ramiella 6
Pithemera* 1 Rillogaster 2
Pqlypheretima* 2 Scolioscolides 1
Tonoscolex 16 Travoscolides 4
Troyia 1 Wahoscolex 9
Moniligastridae
Desmogaster 8
Drawidn 79 Total 509
H astirogaster 2
Moniligaster 9
Barthworm Resources : Utilization in Vermiculture 53

At present, earthworm fauna (megadrile) in the Indian subcontinent comprises 509 species
placed in 67 genera and 10 families (Table 1). Majority of them are endemic and belong to 47
genera. Amynthas and Metaphire have endemicity in Burma and Andamanand Nicobar Islands, but
they alongwith other pheretimoids like Pilhemera and Polypherelima are peregrine in the Indian
and Sri Lankan regions. Fauna of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is more closely related to that
of Bunna and Malayasia than to the Indian mainland About 68% of known species of earthwonns
in the subcontinent belong to ten endemic genera with the break up as Drawida (79), Perionyx
(53), Eutyphoeu~ (43), Megascolex (33), Amynthas (33), Plutellus (32), Metaphire (26),
Hoplochaetella (18), Tonoscolex (16) and Octochaetona (15). The remaining 57 genera are either
monospecific or represented by less than 10 species. Excluding a few widely distributed species,
thirty eight of the endemic genera are only found in this region (Table 2). The rest of seven genera
have distribution in other parts of the world (species of Plutellus and Megascolex from Australian
region possibly are not congeneric with Indian species).
A few peregrine forms have also been introduced presumably in soil around roots of exotic
plants. The peregrine genera are distributed among 8 families: Lumbricidae (8), Ocnerodrilidae (4),
Megascolecidae (2), Acanthodrilidae (2), Eudrilidae (1), Glossoscolecidae (1). Criodrilidae (1) and
Octochaetidae (1). Successful colonization of peregrine species is mainly due to their tolerance to a
wide range of ecological conditions and to some extent parthenogenetic mode of reproduction in
most of them. The extent of colonization of lumbricids has become so extensive in the Western
Himalayas that they now dominate over the endemic species at several places.

Selection or Suitable Species in Vermicomposting

Though faunal resources of Indian earthworms are very rich, it is very important to select most
suitable species for vermicomposting. It is well established that different species of earthworms
have different life styles which were ,fonnally classified into three categories by Bouche (1977).

1. Epiges: Litter or dung dwellers; small in body size: tolerant to disturbance; high rate of
cocoon production; short life cycle; uniform colouration.
2. Endoges : Dwellers of top organo-mineral soil and construct horizontal and branching
burrows; tolerant to some disturbance; mOderate to high rate of cocoon production; life cycle
intermediate; small to large in body size; weakly pigmented.
3. Aneciques: Deep burrowers that construct vertical burrows, cast at surface and emerge from
burrows at night to di'aw down organic material; intolerant to disturbance; low rate of cocoon.
production; long life cycle, large in body size; slightly pigmented at anterior and posterior
m~. .

The most suitable species in vermieomposting which can be economically cultivated on a

large scale should have following characteristics: ability to inhabit and feed upon high percentage
of organic matter, tolerance to disturbance and fluctuations in environmental parameters, high rate
of cocoon production and short duration of life cycle. The ecologically classified species as epige
or endoge possess many of the features associated with this type of selection. In our region, some
peregrine as well as endemic species with these ecological characteristics are available for
utilization in vermicomposting. These are :

1. Family Lumbricidae Bimastos parvus, Dendrobaena rubida, Eisenia

feuda, Eisenia hortensis.
2. Family Eudrilidae ~udrilus euginiae.
54 .. I. M. Iulka

3. Family Megascolecidae Amynthas dif/ringens, Lampito mauritii, Metaphire

anomala, .Metaphire binnaniea, Perionyx exeavatus,
Perionyx sansibaricus.
4. Family Octochaetidae Diehogaster bolaui, Dichogaster saliens, Ramiella
bishambari, Hoplochaetella khandalaensis,
Hoploehaetella suetoria
5. Family Ocnerodrilidae Oenerodrilus oecidentalis
6. Family Mogiligastridae Drawida willsi, Moniligaster pe"ieri
Table 2 Endemic 'mlrthworm genera in the Indian subcontinent

ResU'icted to Indian subcontinent Extra - Indian

(excluding widely distributed sp.) , suubcontinental
distribution

Acanthodrilidae
PI utell us
Almidae
Glyphidrilus
Megascolecidae
Comarodrilus, Kanchuria, Amynthas
Lampito, Lennoscolex, Megascolex
Nelloscolex, Perionyx, Metaphire
Tonoscolex, Troyia Notoscolex
Moniligastridae
M oniligaster Desmogaster
Drawida
Hastirogaster
Ocnerodrilidae
Curgiona, Deccania,
Malabaria, Thatonia,
Octochaetidae
Behlia, Barogaster, C~lebiella,
Celeriella, Chaetocotoides, Dashiella,
Eudichogaster, Eutyphoeus, Hoplochaetella,
Karmiella, Konkadrilus, Kotegeharia, Lotegeharia,
Lennogaster, Mallehulla, Octochaetoides,
Octochaetona, Octonochaeta, Pellog~ter,
Priodochaeta, Priodoscolex, Ramiella,
Rillogaster, Scolioscolides,
Travoscolides, Wahoscolex

Conclusions
Our subcontinent is rich in earthworm resources in having both peregrine and endemic species
for developing vermicomposting as a potential industry. Some of the peregrine species, which
have been successfully utilized for this purpose in other countries, are also present. These are :
Eiseniafetida (an European temperate species) and Eudrilus eugeniae (an African tropical species).
The agricultural scientists at University of .Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore have developed
adequate know-how on vermicomposting under Indian conditions by utilizing Eudrilus eugeniae.
They have also released a vermicompost (Vee comp E.83 UAS) for field trials in south India with
tropical climate. Potentiality of Eisenia fetida in this regard, especially in the mountainous regions
with temperate like climate, is yet to be explored. An endemic compost wonn, Perionyx
excdvalus, with a wide range of distribution in the subcontinent, is an excelent waste decomposer.
Bathwonn Resources : Utilization in Vermiculture 55

Its potentiality in developing indigenous vermitechnology for waste control and protem production
could be exploited under natural conditions. As c.ompared to other compost dwelling earthworms
such as Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae, it has fast maturation rate and produce cocoons at
much earlier stage (Hallet et al., 1990). Though this species has a lower mean growth rate and
produces fewer cocoons than Eudrilus eugeniae and Eisenia fetida, it has much shorter life cycle
and ability to reproduce without copulation (parthenogenesis) which could be a great advantage
under certain circum$tances. Being a tropical and en~emic species, Perionyx e:xcavatus possesses
enough potentiality for its use in vermicomposting in our country.
Ecological and biological studies in several litter dwelling endemic species are lacking. It is,
therefore, very important to undertake extensive studies on these aspects before they are exploited
for waste disposal. Experiments should be conducted to develop appropriate methods for their
culture in different types of organic matter under different climatic conditions. '

References
Bouch~, M. B. 1977. Strategies lombriciennes. Ecol. Bull. (Stockholm), 2S : 122-132.
Darwin, C. 1881. The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms, with
observations on their habits. Murray, London.
Edwards, C. A. & Lofty, J. R. 1977. Biology of earthworms. 2nd edition. Chapman and Hall,
London.
Gates, G. E. 1929. A summary of earthworm fauna of Burma with descriptions of 14 new species.
Proc. U. S.' natn. Mus., 75 (1) : 1-41.
Gates, G. E. 1930. The earthwonns of Burma. I. Rec. Indian Mus., 32 : 257-356.
Gates, G. E. 1931. The earthworms of Burma II. Rec. Indian Mus., 33 : 327-442.
Oates, G. E. 1932. The earthworms of Burma. III. Rec. Indian Mus., 34 : 357-549.
Gates, G. E. 1933. The earthworms of Burma IV. Rec. Indian Mus., 3S : 413-606.
Gates, G. E. 1945. On some II~l(lian earthworms. ll. 11. R. Asiat. Soc. Beng., 11 (1) : 54-91.
Gates, G. E. 1972. Burmese earthworms. An introduction to the systematics and biology of'
megadrile oligochaetes with reference to South Asia. Trans. Am. phil. Soc., 62 (7) : l-
326.
Hallet, L. t Reinecke, A. J. & Viljeon, S. A. 1990. Life cycle of the oriental compost worm
Perionyx excavatus (Oligochaeta). S. Afr. J. Zool., 25 (I) : 41-45.
Julka, J. M. 1976a. Studies on the earthworm fauna of Orissa (India) 1. Moniligastridae and
9cnerodrilidae. Mitt. zool. Mus. Berlin, 52 (2) : 321-329.
Julka, J. M. 1976b. Studies on the earthworms collected dwing the Daphabum expedition in
Arunachal Pradesh, India. Rec. zool. Surv. India, 69:' 229-239.
Julka, J. M. 1978. Studies on the earthworm fauna of Orissa (India). 2. Megascolecidae,
Octochaetidae and Microchaetidae. Mitt. zool. Mus. Berlin, 54 : 185-197.
J ulta, J. M. 1981. Taxonomic studies on the earth worms collected, during the Subansiri
Expedition in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Rec. zool. Surv. India. Dcc. Paper, No. 26 : 1-
37.
Julka, J. M. 1988. The Fauna of India and adjacent countries .. Megadrile Oligochaeta
(Earthworms). HaplotaXida : Lumbricina : Megascolecoidea : Octochaetidae. Zoological
Survey of India. Calcutta.
56 J. M. JUlka

Michaelsen, W. 1909. The Oligochaeta of India, Nepal, Ceylon, Burma, and Andaman Islands.
Mem. Indian Mus., 1 : 103-253.
Rosa, D. 1894. Perichetini nouvi 0 meno noti. Atti. Acad. Sci. Torino, 29 : 1-18.
Sbields, E. B. 1971. Raising earthworms/or profit. 9th edition. Shieds Publication, Elgin.
Stephenson, J. 1914 .. On a collection of Oligochaeta, mainly from Northern India. Rec. Indian
Mus., 10 : 321-365.
Stephenson, J. 1920. On a collection of Oligochaeta from the lesser known parts of India and
eastern Persia. Mem. Indian Mus., 7 : 191-261.
Stephenson, J. 1921. Oligochaeta from Manipur, the Laccadive Islands, Mysore and other parts of
India. Rec. Indian. Mus., 22 :(745-768.
Stephenson, J. 1~23. The Fauna 0/ British India including Ceylon and Burma. Oligochaeta. Taylor
and Francis, London.
Templeton, R. 1844. Description of Megascolex caeruleus. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond., 12 : 89-91.

Publisher : Zo(;logi,,~.al Survey of India, Calcutta.

Eartlawoma ResoU1'ces and Vermiculture : 57-78, 1993

Populatiob, Biomass and Secondary Production in Earthworms

B.L Sellapati
Ecology Section, School of Life Sciences
Sambalpur University, Jyoti Vihar -768019, Orissa, India
and
8.L Sail"
Dept oCBnvironmental Sciences
Sambalpur University, Jyoti Vihar - 768 019, Oris~ India

Synopsil
Organism interacts and establishes itself in the ecosystem through population. Population
dynamics. biomass and production studies on Indian earthworms has been scanned. Mpthodology,
progress, prospects and challenges on the topic have been dealt. Detail comparison has been made
among three peregrine Indian earthworms; Dichagaster bolaui (Michaelsen); Drawida (Willsi
Michaelsen and Polypheretima elongata Perrier, belonging to three major ecological category on
the basis of their biological strategy. Out of 374 earthworms reported till now hardly some
information is available on about 40 species. Knowledge on biodiversity and biological strategy is
important for academic and economic application of the species. Predictabl~ models should be
developed for utilisation by vermiculture based industries and for their management in field. There.
is immense prospective of this approach among with problems in methodology simplification and
research objectives relating to worm activity in wide spectnun of habitat, climate species, waste
biomass and human impact on them.

Understanding the Organism through Population, Biomass and Production Studies

Population is the assemblage of individuals belonging to a particular species. Population biology
provides the first basic information about any species and is regulated both by abiotic and biotic
factors. Assessment of relative importance of a population in an ecosystem may be possible if the
information on population density, dynamics, distribution, growth and metabolic rate of different
age classes are available. Individual organism acquires essential resources from its immediate
environment and process through its metabolic activities utilising stored energy. Assimilated energy
is allocated to growth, repair, defence and reproduction. The organism interact and established
through the population. Thus the population remains dynamic with constant input. Resource
acquisition and allocation at the organismal level is given in Fig. 1. Pppulation dynamics and
biomass production studies indicate : (i) dynamics of the number, tissue content and their
distribution over time and space, (ii) population growth and distribution of different age classes
(iii) impact of different environmental factors (biotic and abiotic), (iv) differential. allocation of
matter and energy into growth and reproduction compartments and (v) mortality and natality.

Population, Biomass and Secondary Production StudieQ on Earthworm

Population biology of earthwonn has drawn attention since the time of Darwin (1881).
58 B. K. Senapati & S. K. Sahu

HEA1 OUTPU1
~~

~ I GROWTH
I
META BOLISM _. I S10RAGE I
RESOURCE .... AND REP,RO-
ACQUISI110N SYNTHESIS I REPRODUCTION I DUCTIVE

I REPAIR I OVTPUT

I DEFENCE I
I

Fig. 1. Resource aquisition and allocation at organismallevel.

Quantitative figures are available from the work of Morris (1922), Eaton (1942), Evans and Guild
(1947 a, b & c) and onwards. SeVeral research publications including review papers, books and
monographs have been published by the European workers. Some of them are by Satchell (1967),
Bouche (1972), Edwards and Lofty (1972), Atlavinyte (1975) and Lavele (1978). The latest review
on the biology of earthworm is made by Lee (1985). In India, Ali at al. (1973), Dash at a/. (1974),
Dash and Patra (1977) are the pioneer to indicate detail study of earthworm dynamics in grassland
ecosystem followed by a series of papers from,Life Sciences Centre of Sambalpur University. Before
1977 scattered and mostly qualitative information are available from the works of Stephenson
(1923), Bahl (1926), Roy (1957), Tembe and Dubash (1961) and Gates (1972). Several papers have
now been published dealing with seasonal activity, population density and biomass of earthworms
in many Indian ecosystems (Kale and Krishnamoortby, 1978 a & b~ Reddy and Alfred, 1978~
Senapati at al. 1979 a & b; Chauhan, 1980; Dash and Senapati, 1980; Senapatl and Dash, 1981;
Ismali and Murthy 1985; Sahu and Senapati, 1986; Pani, 1987; Julka and Se~pati, 1987;
Krislmamoorthy & Ramachandra, 1988; Sahu at al. 1988; Bhaduria and Ramakrishnan, 1989;
Ismail et a/. 1990; Dash and Senapati 1991). However very scanty information is available on
secondary productivity of earthwonns from ~erent world ecosystems including India (Lee, 1985).

Population Dynamics, Distri,bution' and Environmental Regulation

Dash and Patra (1972, 1977), Ali et al. (1973), Senapati et al. (1979), Dash and Senapati
(1980) ,Senapati and Dash (1980, 1981,.1983, 1984), Mukherjee and Singh (1986) workmg on
ecophysiologica1 studies have reported methods of earthworm extraction, sampling, preservation
and analysis sui tab,e for Indian workers. -They have certified a handsorting method combined with
wet sieving with a sample size of 25 cm x 25 cm x 40 cm depth in 10 replicates for each sampling
occasion at each site. Although this method is very much time consuming and expe~ive, but it is
most efficient" in comparison to other methods. TSBF (Tropical Soil Biologyan4 Fertility
Popu1atio~ Biomass and Secondary Production 59

Programme) methodology recommends a minimum of five and preferably 10 sartlples of 25 cm x 25

em by 30 CDl deep where the macroinvertebrates (body length greater than 2 nun) are to be
baud sorted (Anderson and Ingram, 1987). TSBF certified method holds good in soil where the ~lay
content is much less~ It is also difficult to handsort juvenile and cocoons of small earthworms (like
Dlcltogaste, bolaui). During the field work different types of materials required may be classified
into seven groups: (i) measuring materials (scale, tape, quadrate, soil thermometer, weighing
balance, altimeter, hygrometer, moisture meter, soil field kit for chemical analysis, etc.), (ii) digging.
materials (flat digger, digging rod, narrow digger etc.), (iii) sample carrying materials (Plastic
packets, plastic bottles, rubber bands, field trays, sample carrying bags etc.), (iv) preserving
uiaterials (formalin 5%, ethyl alcohol 95%), (v) sieving and collecting materials (sieve 500 @ pore
size, 2 mm pore size, white enamel tray, plastic bowel, white rexin sheet 2 m x 2 m, foreceps small
and large), (vi) labelling and recording materials (paper labels, field note book) and (vii)
precautionary materials (first-aid and emergency medicines). Before starting the field work, proper
care must be taken for experimental design and selection of the site. General characterisation of the
study site could be analysed by using th~ standard methodology described in TSBF handbook of
methods (Anderson and Ingram, 1987). Identification of different flora and fauna should be made
as PP" the requirement of the experimental design. Although generally it is certified to go for 5 to
UYfeplicates and in 25 x 25 x 40 cm area, the number of replicates/and sample area should be
checked by species - area curve method (Mishra, 1968). This shows progressive stabilization of the
mean number of species along with increase in area (to determine sample area) or with increasing
number of replicates (to determine sample number). The replicates should be located at about 5
meter regular intervals along a line whose starting point and direction should be chosen randomly.
Microhabitats such as foot of trees, surrounding of large bark, decaying logs and similar such
situation should be avoided, which may justify a separate study (Lasebikan, 1974). In each sample,
,first sample area should be demarcated with a' quadrate. Vegetation, litter and soil has to be
removed outside the boundary of sampling area by digging a trench of about 20 em width, around
the example so as to keep the sampling area intact and undisturbed. This facilitates cutting of the
sample into horizontal state and collecting the soil animals escaping from the block. All
invertebrates larger than 10 cm length excavated from the strench should be collected. These ~e
mainly large millipedes and earthworms. The sample block is then divid~ into layers of 0-10 cm,
11-20 em, 21-30 em and 31-40 cm. This will en8ble to have an idea about the vertical distribution
or stratification of soil organisms alongwitb physicochemical parameter. The soil could be
deposited on the left side of the tray and progressively moved towards right side over the whole
surface while handsorting soil animals, litters, roots etc. This enhances the handso~g processes.
After removing large animals the soil has to be mixed, weighed and divided into subsamples.
Subsamples could further be utilised for: (i) wet sieving method to assess cocoons and small
juveniles, (ii) to determine moisture content and other' parameters like soil respiration, micro~ial
analysis, enzyme analysis etc. (iii) to air dry and to store for physicochemical analysis. Soil baS to
be sieved through 2 mm sieve before analysis. Soil animals could be preserved in 5% fonnaldehyde
keeping earthworms separate from other groups for detailed study. At each stage of sampling and
subsampling there must be proper labelling of site, date, sample and subs3inpJe n;.urtber, depth and
name of the workers. Climatic data of each sampling occasion of eoii temperature has to be
recorded for future use. It is not always possible to carty l~ve earth worms sampled from the field for
quantitative study because of rapid decomposition of damaged worms. So it is suggested to preserve
the worms in 5% formalin. The loss of wei,ght due to formalin preservation could be calculated as
per the method suggested by Senapati and Dash (1980). Qualitative and quantitative analysis of soil
animals including earthworms could be done in the laboratory. Earthworms and other soil
organisms should be collected separately for taxonomic purpose. For this, healthy, inulct adult
60 B. K. Senapati & S. K. Sahu

worms should be washed in water. Then the worms are to be narcotised in a tray with small amount
of water, to which ethyl alcohol (95%) could be added drop wise and slowly shaken till all the
worms are motionless. Narcotised worms should be kept straight on 5% formalin drenched blott up
.paper. Dissection of straightened worm is much easier than coiled one (Julka per. cum.). After 24
hours, formalin preserved worms could be trasnferred to 70% alcohol, labelled and stored for
taxonomic purpose. However in field .condition where narcotisation and straightening are _not
possible, healthy adult worms are simply to be dropped into 5% formalin. ln addition to ~s
taxonomic classification, it is also important to divide them into functional categories like, epigeics,
anecics and endogeics by analysing their habit (gut content analysis) and habitat (Stratification).
Epigeic species live and feed on soil surface and these earthworms are impo~t in the nutrient
release but do not actively redistribute plant material. Besides earthworms, arthropods like
Myriapods, Isopods also belong to this epigeic category. Anecic species of earthworins which
remove litter from the soil surface through their feeding activities but most of the time remain
under soil. Endogeic species which live in the soil and feed on organic matter and dead roots,
mostly spent their life at lower depth of the soil. Here alongwith the earthworms one could consider
humivorous termites (Anderson and Ingram, 1987). Characteristic features offunctional categories
of earthworms has been dealt in the paper on "selection of suitable earthworm. species for
vennicomposting under Indian condition" as a part of this publication. Each earthworm ~ to be
identified into the taxonomic unit and to the respective age group (Table 1). Cocoons (live, dead
and empty have to be recorded species wise also. Numerical analysis has to be used for population
dynamics, mortality and natality etc..Population mortality figure should be quantified by using the
formula developed by Nowak (1975). E = Ntl - (Na - Va) where E = population mortality, Nt =
density in fortnight and Vt = number of newly recruited individuals.

Table 1. Age group classification in some Indian earthworms

Worm type Worm size Worm age group

Non-clitellate Clitellate
Juvenile Immature Adult

D. bolaui Small <lcm >1<2cm >2cm

O. occidentalis Small medium <2cm >2<4cm >4cm
D. willsi Small medium <2cm >2<4cm > 4cm
L. mauritii Large medium <4cm >4<8cm > 8cm
O. surensis Large medium <4cm >4<8cm > 8cm
P. elongata Large >6cm > 6 < 14 cm > 14cm

There are two main approaches to the species diversity : (i) Simpson's index (Simpson, 1949)
and (ii) Shannon-Wiener index (Shannon-Wiener, 1963). Simpson index is calculated by the
formula: D = N (N-l)/n(n-l) where D = diversity index, N = total nURlber of individuals of-all
species, n = number of individuals of a species. Shannon-Wiener index is ~culated by the formula:
HI = -1: (I\/N) log2 (I\/N).
where HI = diversity of species.
1\ = number of individUc:lls in the 'it the species and
Population, Biomass and Secondary Production 61

N == total number of individuals of all the species,

S = total number of species collected.
Index of dominance (e) could be calculated as per Simpson (1949) using the formula:
c =I (~1N)2
where ~ = number of individuals in the 'i' the species and
N = total number of individuals.
Inclex of species richness or variety of species (d.) could be determined using the formula
(Marplef, 1968) : d. = S-VlnN
where S = total number of species,
N = total number of individuals.
Index of evenness (e) could be quantified on the basis of the formula developed by Pielou
(1966): e = H'lln where H' = Shannon-Wiener index, S = total number of species, Ecological index
(8.1.) has been proposed by Lavelle (1979) which summarises the life style of earthworm species
and is defined as the product of maximum body weight (W) to the average depth (P) at which
worms live in soil. This may be expressed as E.I. = W.p. Average depth of occurrence could be
quauJ.fied by dividing depth interval in cm between which maximum adult population occurred
divided by two.
For further analysis in different components relating to soil organisms the workers are
suggested to refer Andrewartha (1961), Phillipson (1971), Lewis and Taylor (1974) and TSBF
methodology by Anderson and Ingram (1987). Statistical analysis for calculation of average values
with standard error of mean variance, test of significance, simple and multiple correlation and
regression and analysis of variance, any standard text book could be referred such as Bailey (1964),
Snedecor and Cocharane (1967). For analysis of physicochemical parameters in soil standard books
like Mishra(1968), Allen st al. (1974), Jackson (1973) may be referred.
Morphological variation of different Indian earthworms has been reported by Michaelsen
(1909), Stephenson (1923) Gates (1972), J\ilka (1975, 1981, 1988), Julka and Senapati (1987) and
Julka st a/. (1989). Fauna of British In~ Oligochaeta volume by Stephenson (1923) is being
revised by Dr. J.M. Julka of Z.S.I .. The morphological characters are not l>nly important pn the
point of taxonomy but also for ecological analysis. Population dynamics data reported by most of
the Indian workers have not been analysed in the light of their ecological function excepting few
recent studies (Dash and Patra, 1977; Senapati st al. 1979; Senapati and: Dash, 1981; Kale and
Krishnamoorthy, 1982~ Mishra and Dash, 1984~ Krishnamoorthy 1985; Sahu and Senapati, 1988,
1991; Krishnamoortby and Ramachandra, 1988; Sahu et al. 1988; Sahu, 1989; Bha:duria and
Ramkrishnan, 1989; Ismail et a/. 1990; Senapati and Sahu, 1991). Looking into the objective of
this publication which is largely for research workers who need very much methodology and the
prospective of the study, and problems, the authors have chosen to compare population dynamics,
bioinass and secondary production in three Indian earthworms which are not only peregrine (wide
occurrence) but also distinctly fall into the major ecological C3;tegory on the basis of their habitat
stratification (epigeic, anecic and endogeic earthworms by Bouche, 1971, 1977) and selection
pressure Cr' - and '1(' - selected worms by Satchell, 1980; Bouche, 1977; Lavelle, 1978). They are
Dichogaster bolaui (Michaelsen), Drawida willsi Michaelsen and Polypheretima elongata Perrier.
However other papers published on Indian earthworms dealing with population dynamics, biomass
and production have been referred where ever necessary. Research workers are advised to refer
individual papers for detail information with respect to their objective, species and habitat, etc. D.
bolaui is about 19-40 mm in length, 1-3 nun in diameter and is available in the litter zone. P.
elongala is about 95-300 nun in length, 3-6 nun in diameter and mostly remain below 30 to 40 em
 62 B. K. Senapati & S. K. Sahu

of soil depth where as D. willsi (40-100 mm length, 1.5-3 nun diameter) stratify itself in the litter-
soil transition zone with feeding and defecation at the surface. A high significant positive
correlation (r> 0.8, p < 0.001) has been reported between body length and body weight. Other such
regression models developed on the basis of morphometry is given in the section dealing with
selection of earthworm for vermicomposting in this publication.
Indices of dive/sity of tropical earthworms indifferent agroecosystems of Orissa have been
reported in Table 2. A maximum number of five species occur in natural grassland whereas in man
interfered grassland and crop field Qne to three species has been reported. Itidex of dominance
indicate a reverse trend than that of speci~ diversity (H') in natural ecosystems. This has been
proved in other ecosystems in both plants and animals by Elton (1958), Odum (1971) and Smith
(1980). Maximum ecological index (E.I.) of 112.0 has been calculated, for P. elongata with a
length diameter ratio of abouf85, maximum. live weight of 4 gm and mean depth of activity at 28
em. Mean depth of activity of D. bolau; and D. willsi is 5 em and 9 em respectively whereas
ecological index came to be 0.2 and 0.2 and 0.4 respectively.

Table 2. Indices of diversity of tropical earthworms in different agroecosysteml of Orissa, India

Number Index of Index of Index of Index of Reference

Site of dominance species evenness species
species richness diversity
(8) (c) (d 1) (e) (HI)

Upland grazed ~e 5 0.29 0.78 1.16 1.87 Senapati & Dash (1981)
Upland protected pasture 5 0.33 0.73 1.11 1.79 Senapati & Dash (1981)
Lowland irrigated paddy field
, 3 0.51 0.47 0.68 0.7S Pani (1978)
Plain protected pasture 3 0.39 0.33 1.10 1.21 8ahu (1989)
Upland irrigated paddy field 3 0.S7 0.33 0.S5 0.6l Pani (1987)
Upland grazed pasture 1 1.00. 0.00 0.00 0.00 Sahn (1989)

Fortnightly dynamics of total earthworm population of D. bolaui, D. willsi and P. elongala in

pasture ecosystems of' Orissa have been represented in Fig. 2 Dynamics of different age class
density of D. bolau;, D. wills; and P. elofJgata earthworms in pasture ecosystems of Orissa have
been given in Table 3. Maximum peak population of 8038 for D. bolaui. 245 for D. willsi and 231
for P. elongata worms/m2 have been reported during 1984-85 period (Sahu and Senapati, 1986,
1988, 1991; Sahu 1989). Total earthworm density ranged from 0-8038 for D. bolaui, 0-245 for D.
willsi and 49-231 for P. elongata during 1984-85 period (Fig. 2 and Tab. 3). Population turnover
(maximum density/average density) for D. bolau;, D. willsi and P. elongata were about 5.6,2.7 and
1.7 respectively. Considering worm size such as length (mm), dry weight (mg) and bi9volume
(mm3) correlation coefficient values between worm size and turnover came to be negatively
significant (r >-0.7, p < 0.2) indicating an inverse relationship. An unimodal peak for D. bolaui
(dwing Aug. II week, 1984), bimodal peak for D. willsi (during Sept. n week 1984 and Feb. n
week, 1985) and a multimodal peak for P. elongata (during Sept IV week 1984, Nov. IV week
1984, Mar. IV week 1985 and July IV week, 1985) exhibit their respective niche segregation (Fig. 2
and Tab. 3). Epigeicity and 'r'-selected strategy is associated with Wtimodality where as endogeicity
and 'K' selected strategy is associated with mwtimodality (Bouche, 1971, 1977; Satchell, 1980;
Population, Biomass and Secondary Production 63

Senapati and Sahu, 1991). Table 4 shows population density (nos/m2) and biomass (g live wt}m2)
of earthworms in different tropical ecosystems of India reported by several workers. Sahu et al.
(1988) have reported the highest popQ.lation density of earthworms of 12617/m2 in dung deposit site
whereas maximum live biomass of 122 glm2 occurred in plain grassland of Sambalpur (Sahu and
Senapati, 1991). However population density and biomass values by most of the Indian workers
have been reported on the basis of handsorting method.

Table 3. Dynamic. of different age cia.. density (~ol!m2/fortnlght) of D. bollud, D. willsi and
P. elonglltlJ earthworms in pasture ecosystems of Orissa, India

Month Year D. bolaui D. willsi P. elongata

(week) J I A Total J I A Total J I A Total
wonn wonn wonn

Jul. (IV) 1984 1193 1466 372 30.31

Aug.(ll) 1582 5585 871 80.38
Aug. (IV) 120.8 2571 644 4423 17 56 74 147 165 23 22 210.
Sep.(ll) 78 3242 1132 4452 0. 63 73 136 149 55 16 220.
Sep.(IV) 238 120. 676 10.34 46 10.2 97 245 169 40. 22 231
Oct.(ll) 118 473 474 10.65 23 40. 95 158 86 45 16 147
Oct.(IV) 0. 40. 80. 120. 6 -45 85 136 56 74 16 146
Nov.(ll)
Nov. (IV) 0. 0. 39 39 17 45 62 124 114 54 22 190.
Dec.(ll) 17 17 11 45 130. 44 16 .190.
Dec. (IV) 0. 39 0. 39 0. 29 51 80. 84 58 16 158
Jan. (II) 1985 6 23 56 85 74 29 11 114
Jan. (IV) 0 0 39 39 0 29 50 79 80 2~ 11 114
Feb.(ll) 68 62 74 204 34 34 11 79
Feb. (IV) 0 0 39 39 11 34 29 74 40. 27 11 78
Mar.(ll) 6 17 17 40. 23 44 11 78
Mar. (IV) 0 0 0 0 0 12 17 29 10.7 40 16 163
Apr.(ll) 0 0 12 12 61 34 10 105
Apr.(IV). 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28 27 5 60
May.(ll) 0 0 0 0 11 28 10. 49
May. (IV) 0 0 0 0 0 6 23 29 34 32 10 76
Jun.(ll) 0 40 80 120. 6 34 17 57 45 38 10. 93
Jun. (IV) 118 473 119 710 17 34 34 85 57 56 11 124
Jul.(ll) 28 22 56 106 80 5.1 16 147
Jul. (IV) 1985 34- 29 51 114 76 62 17 155

J = Juvenile I = Immature A = Adult - =. Sampling not done

64 B. K. Senapati & S. K. 8ahu
~.or---------------~~~~~------------------------~~~

- Co
.~ 3.6
o O.BOLAU'
A O. WILLSI
1.0 g
.....
~
c 7.0 r-
L. P. E LONGATA
.E 3.2 Ift
~
"- :a
N -4
~ 2.8

%

N 5.0 0
2 :a
2.~ ~
.~
4.0 z
o
~ 2.0 ~
z J.O _
~
~ 1.6
o
~
:I: 1.2
t-
~
411(
LLI
-J
<C
t-
O
t-

II IV II IV II IV II IV II IV 11 IV U IV U fI 11 IV
N OTFMA MJ J
YEAR 1984 1985 1115
Fig. 2 SAMPLING OCCASION

PERCENTAGE OF OCCURENCE

40~~~~.r~oTo~o~o~o~o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
'" UI '" UlO UI '"

:v
l5
'"
r-
o
z
10 (i)
~
5
~
o

?
CD
o
r-
~
5
WEEK l~ a:....!" l~ l~ 1~ U IV U IV 11 IV II IV II IV II IV II IV II IV
MONTH J A SON 0 J F M A M J J
YEAR 198~ 1185 1985
Fig. 3 SAMPLING oce ASION
Fig. 2. Fortinightly dynamics of t~ta1 earthworm population of D. bolaui, D. wills; and p~
elongata in pasture ecosystems of Orissa, India
Fig. 3. Vertical distribution of D. bolaui, D. willsi and P. elongata earthworm population in
pasture ecosystems of Orissa India.
PopWaticm. BiolllUS and Scoondary Production 65

TbiI Blipt be the reason,of low density and biomass in comparison to the works repQrted 'by
Scaaped and UIOCiates (Table 4),. Details of the population and biomass of earthworms in Indian
ecosyJteIU are dealt in respective papen. DaSh and Patra (1977) in natural grassland. Senapati and
Dub (19,81) aDd 8ahu .t .,. (1988) in or,game 'waste deposit site, Mishra ,and Dash '( 1984) in
,J IItUq) forest ecosystem, Bbaduria and Ramakris~ (198'9) in shifting agriculture sy.stem have
do. pioneerins work in the respective ecosystems (Table 4).
Vertical distribution of D. .bolaui. D. wU1s1 ,and P. elongata ,earthworm population in pasture
..,..... of Orissa have been ,shown in Fig. :3. Vertical distribution is distinct in post rainy and
PllDIDcr than in eomparison to rainy seasO:D. Stllmes on horizontal and vertical distribution have
aIIO been made by Dash and Patra (1977), Senapati and Dash (1981), Kale and Krishnamoorthy
(1'82), 'Kris.hnamoorthy (198S), Sahu et a/. (1988) and Ismail et 8/. (1990), Worm body ,size (dry
'Wl.) showed a significant positive correlation (r < O.8~, P < 0..02) with average depth of occurrence
iDdicatiQI puler probability of epigeic nature in small sized wonn and endogeio natUre ,in large
size worm. There has been reports of earthworm migration upto 3 meter depth in sea:r~h of suitable
IOU moisture(Bdwards and Lofty, 1972). Survival of organism und~r adverse conditions through
aatural adaptatiOD is one of the .nhereDt mechanism for its successful continuation. Seasonal
fluctuation of climatic and edaphic facto,r like .rainfall, solar radiation, ,air temperature, soil
moisture, evaporation from the soil surface and soil nutrients limit the activity 'of soil org,anisms.
Too dry and too cold or too warm soil is unfavourable for soft bodied poikilotherms like
earthworms which are devoid of any ,exoskeletal protective cover. Correlation ,coefficient values
between different environmental parameters and population de~ity of earthworms have ,been
preseatcw1 in TableS. Total wonn nwnber showsbigh positive correlation with that of soil moi~e.,
relative humidity and soil organic matter and .1egative QOrrelation with that of sOlar radiation and
actual (MlpOtranspiratio,n (fable S). Similar ,correlation and r~gression models, are also available
from different agroecosystems (Dash and Patra, 197')~ Dasb ,and Senapati. 1980~ Senapati and
Dash. 198 ; Kale and Krishnamoortby, 19,82; Krishnamoorthy ,and RamaChandra, 198,8; Sahu fit
.,. 1988; Bhaduda and Ramakrishnan, 1989). During hard ,summer and winter, earthworms
1IIldcqo suspended metabolic stage for energy coDSelVation. It may be fonnatio,n of a diapause
coililll of the worm in the soil cavity ,coated with ooUodial mucus to prevent desiccation (Fig. 4)
(Duh and Sen8pati. 1980) or quiescence where no coiling of the body is .fonned. Quiescence is a
tmper phue of non-diapausing and is considered comparatively asa less significant phenomenon
of IUIpODded metabolism than in oomparison to diapause (AndJewartha, 9.'2)..

Fig. 4. Diapausing of D. wills; earthWODD.

66 B. K. Senapati & S. K. Sahu

Table 4. Population density (nos/m2) and bioma (g live wUm2) of earthworm.

Habitat Population density Population biomass

(A) Grasslands and pastures

(a> Natural graliland.
(i) Upland 12-387 20-78
(i) Lowland 64-800 6-60
(iii) Plain grassland 322 58.74
53.5 7.5
49-1364 34-122
(b) Human interfered grasslandl
(i) Grazed pasture (Upland) 75-272 12-70
(ii) Upland grazed pasture 0-140 0-26
(iii) Arable land
Paddy-rice field (Upland) 32-1399 2-62
Paddy-rice field (Lowland) 0-246 0-25
(iv) Kitchen garden site 236-4964 1.02-14.87
(v) COWltryard site 0-4496 0-31.80
(B) Organic waste deposit sites
(i) Pasture receiving kitchen waste 0-8038 0-66.2
(ii) Farmyard manure garden 15-625
(iii) Dung deposit site 012617 O-SI.4
(iv) Kitchen waste deposit site 600
(v) Wash basin waste receiving site 50..500
(vi) Straw thatched roof 800
(C) Foresu
(a) Natural Foresu
(.i) Deciduous forest 24-131 7.0-28.5
(ii) Deciduous forest 73 9.8
(iii) Deciduous forest 83-247
(iv) Deciduous forest 273 63.94
(v) Deciduous forest 226-545
(b) Human interfered forest
(i) Eucalyptus planf.ation 112-461
(ii) During fanow phases developed after
shifting agriculture (Jhum)
After 5 years 543
After 10 years 634
After 15 years 884
(iii) During cropping phases of shifting
agriculture (Jhum)
After 5 years 585
After 15 years 907

11 = Handsorting. Hand W.S. = Handsorting and Wet Sieving

Population, Biomass and SecondaIy Production 67

ID different troplca. eco.ystem. of India

Locality Extraction method Reference

Sambalpur. Orissa Hand W.S. Senapati and Dash (1981)

BerhamplU'. Orissa H Dash and Patra (1977)
Banplore, Kamataka H Krishnamoorthy (1985)
MadrIl, Tamilnadu H Ismailet a/. (1990)
SambalplU'. Orissa HandW.S. Sahu and Senapati (1991)

Sambalpur. Orissa HandW.S. Senapati and Dash (1981)

Jyoti Vihal'. Orissa H Pradhan and Mishra (1986)

SambalplU'. Orissa Hand W.S. Pani and Senapati (1986), Pani (1987)
Sambalpur. Orissa HandW.S. Pani (1987)
Jyou Vihal'. Orissa Hand W.S. Mohanty (1987)
Jyoti Vihar. Orissa Hand W.S. Senapati (per. Com.)

Sambalpur. Ori... HandW.S. Sahu and Senapati (1986)

BlDpJore. Karpataka H Kale and Krishnamoorthy (1982)
Sambalpur. Orissa HandW.S. Sahu et a/. (1988)
~pngpur. Orissa H Julka and Senapati (1987)
Jyou Vihar. Orissa H Julka and Senapati (1987)
Ladukhai. Orissa H Julka and Senapati (1987)

Sambalpur. Orissa H Mishra and Dash (1984)

Madras, TamiJnadu H Ismail et a/. (1990)
Bangalore, Kamataka H Krishnamoorthy and Ramchandra (1988)
Bangalore, Kamataka H Krishnamoorthy (1985)
Bargarh, Orissa Hand W.S. Dash and Senapati (1991)

Bargarh, Orissa Hand W.S. Daslrand Senapati (1991)

Shillong, Megbalaya H Bhadwia and ~shnan (1989)

Shillong, Megbalaya H Bhadwia and ~shnan (1989)
Shillong, Megbalaya H Bhadwia and Ramakrishnan (1989)

Shillo1l& Megbalaya H Bhaduria and Ramakrishnan (1989)

Shillong, Megbalaya H Bhadwia and Ramakrishnan (1989)

H = Handsorting, Hand W.S. = Handsorting and Wet Sieving

68 B. K. Senapati &, S. K. Sahu

Table 5. Correlation coefficient between environmental parameter. and total number of tropical
earthworm. from pasture ecoly.tem of Orl.l., India

Parameter D. bolaui D. willai P. elongata

Solar radiation (103 kj/m2/month) - 0.458 -0.662 - 0.612d

Rain fall (mm) + 0.177 -0.038 -0.014
Relative humidity(%) + 0.598 +0.547b +0.447d"
Actual evapotranspitation (nun) - 0.369 -0.559b -0.604
Air temperature COC) + 0.091 - 0.0336 -0.292
Soil moisture (g%) + 0.719b + 0.782a + 0.751a
Soil temperatureCOC) + 0.324 -0.103 -0.145
Soil organic matter (golo) + 0.643 c + 0.827a +0.887&

a, b, c, d, e Significant at 0.001,0.01, 0.02, 0.05 and 0.2 respectively

Biomass and Secondary Production

Biomass relates to the organismal tissue expressed in terms of unit of weight per unit area and
time. Biomass could be represented as live weight, dry weight, ash free weight, carbon weight and
as energy content. Organismal biomass is the medja for production. But production indicates the
role of an animal population as a continuing resource for its own population and for other members
of the community. Production can indicate the strategy of the population in directing differentially
mass and energy to other parts of the community and ecosystem.
Live biomass refers to live weight of the erthwormlworms available per unit area and time. Live
biomass should be expressed as gut free live weight. It makes lot of difference to express live
biomass with gut content and without it. Dry biomass of the worm could be quantified from gut
cleaned and oven dried worm tissue kept at 85C for 24 hours. Gut cleaning of the worm could be
made by keeping them in wet filter paper and time period for gut evacuation depends on age group,
species and other factors like temperature etc. However it is not always possible to calculate gut free
live weight of the sampled worm. For this an alternative method is suggested for calcu1~g dry
worm tissue from preserved samples. Dry weight of the worm = [Formalin preserved weight +
weight loss due to formalin preservation (Senapati and Dash, 1980) - gut content of the Wbrm as
calculated from the preserved worm - moisture content of the worm as calculated from the gut
cleaned lh-e worm tissue]. Moisture content of the live wonn tissue has to be quantified by taking
intact and live earthWOIIDS at each age group, species, season and habitat. This collection should be
outside the sampling area. Secondary production (P) is the sum total of tissue utilised in growth
(pg) and tissues invested in reproduction (pr) (p = Pg + Pr) (petrusewicz and Macfadyen, 1970).
Tissues production (tissue utilised in growth) is estimated by AlIens graphical method utilising the
formula: Pg [Vi + Vi + 1]/2 x (Wi + 1 - 'tJi) where Pg = tissue production, Vi = number of
individuals at a particular stage (attainig the successive size class at time ~), Vi + 1 = number of
individuals of successive stages (attaining the successive size class in time ~ + "i)' Wi = mass of
individuals at a particular stage and Wi + I + ~s of individuals of the successive stages. Tissue
Papulation, Biomass and Secondary Production 69

Table 6. Dynamics of earthworm Ullue (total production and tillue utilised In reproduction) la:'1d
.lbDate of lecondary production of D. bolluU, D. wilLri and P. elolig1lt4 from pallure ecosystems G'~
OriISa, IDdlL

Month (week) Year D. bolaui D. willsi P. elongata

Total Tissue Tissue Total Tissue Tissue Total Tissue Tissue

live Prod~ utilised live produc- utilised live produc- utilised
tissue tion in repro- tissue tion in repro- tissue tion in repro-
duction duction duction

Jul. (IV) 1984 4.08 0.00

1.66
Aug. (II) 13.23 0.04
0.00
(IV) S.06 0.32 2.47 0.01 12.43 0.11
6.97 0.00 0.00
Sep.(II) 12.0S 0.36 1.92 1.60 0.01 11.02 0.12
(IV) 2.94 0.40 2.17 0.10 12.29 0.13
2.23 0.59 4.29
Oct. (II) S.28 0.04 1.8S 0.02 11.76 0.05
0.00 0.03 2.41
(IV) 0.36 0.00 1.63 0.01 13.47 0.05
0.19 0.00 0.00
Nov. (II)

(IV) 0.21 0.00 1.28 0.02 12.48 0.08

0.00 0.00 0.00
Dec. em 0.33 0.00 12.11 0.03
0.09 0.00
(IV) 0.07 0.00 0.69 0.01 9.19 0,05
0.00 0.01 2.64
Jan. em 1985 0.74 0.00 8.84 0.08
0.00 0.00
(IV) O.OS 0.00 0.66 0.01 7.12 0.04
0.02 0.04 3.35
Feb. (II) 1.76 0.06 7.66 0.06
0.31 0.49
(IV) 0.07 0.00 0.80 0.01 8.05 0.01
0.00
Mar. (IT) 0.29 0.01 6.31 0.05
0.15 0.00
70 B. K. Senapati & S. K. Sahu

Month (week) Year D. bola"i D. wilhi P. elongata

Total Tissue Tissue Total Tissue Tissue Total Tissue Tissue

live Produc- utilised live produc- utilised live produc- utilised
tissue tion in repro- tissue tion in repro- tissue tion in repro-
duction duction duction

(IV) 0.00 0.33 0.00 7.97 0.15

0.00 0.05 2.56
Apr. (ll) 0.16 0.00 7.15 0.03
0.00 0.52
(IV) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.46 0.00
0.00 0.00 1.95
May en) 0.00 0.00 5.38 0.00
0.20 0.53
(IV) 0.00 0.00 0.39. 0.00 8.99 0.03
0.18 0.00 0.00
JWl. (ll) 0.37 0.00 0.57 0.00 8.20 0.03
0.00 0.02 0.00
(IV) 2.04 0.02 0.86 0.00 9.66 0.03
0.00 0.34 0.02
JuI. (ll) 0.00 0.33 1.45 0.01 11.48 0.08
0.00 0.00 1.58
(IV) 3.03 0.32 1.10 0.01 13.74 0.08
0.00 0.00
Aug. (ll)

(IV) 0.95 0.02 12.15 0.20

(a) - Average
biomass 2.87 0.96 9.62
BSSEM 0.98 0.15 0.57
(b)
-- Tissue
produetion(pg}
11.60
(224.39)
1.82
(35.19
21.06
(407.24)
(e)
-- Tissue utilised
in reproduction (Pr)
2.74
(53.05)
0.29
(5.67)
1.28
(24.83)
(d)
-- Total secondary
Production (b + c)
14.35
(277.44)
2.11
(40.86)
22.34
(432.07)

Values in g dry wtlm2/fortnight

Values in g dry wtlm2/yr (kJ/m2/yr)
After Sahu and Senapati (1988), Sahu (1989), Senapati (1990), Senapati and Sahu (1991)
Population, Biomass and Secondary Production 71

utiliHd in reprotuction has to be calculated from sum total .of cocoon produced per unit area and
per year.. Generally secondary production is quantified on annual basis. The energy value of
earthworm,tissue and cocoon could be quantified by Bomb Calorimetry or from previously reported
value (19.34 kj/g dry worm tissue by Golley, 1961), Biomass turnover value has been calculated
from the rate of secondary production to average biomass (Senapati and Dash~ 1981).
Table 6 giyes the dynamics of earthworm tissue and estimate of secondary production of D.
bolaul. D. willsi and P. elongata from pasture ecosystems of Orissa. Average worm biomass (g dry
wtlm2/fortnight) of about 2.87 + 1.10 for D. bolaui. 0.96 + 0.16 for D. willsi and 9.6 + 0.58 for P.
,longata have been reported during 1984 - 1985 period (fable. 6) (Sahu, 1989). Annual secondary
production of 14.35 (277.44), 2.11 (40.86) and 23.04 (432.07) g dry wtlm2/yr (kj/:m2/yr) have been
reported for D. bolaui, D. willsi and P. elongata earthworm respectively during 1984-1985 study
period. Analysis of individual components of secondary production shows that about 81%, 86%
and 94% of total secondary production was contributed by tissue production and tissue utilised in
reproduction contributed about 19%, 14% and 6% for D. bolaui, D. willsi and P. elongata.
respectively. This indicates more than three times energy investment in r~production in D. bolaui
than in compasrison to P. elongata which is expected in epigeic life strategy to enhance
reproduction for compensation of mortality (Senapati and Dash, 1981, saliu and Senapati, 1988~
Senapati and Sahu, 1991). Highest biomass turnover value .of about five has been reported for D.
bolaui earthworm. Lakhani and Satchell (1970), Satchell (1971) are the pioneering workers on
secondary production of earthworm (Lun,bricus terrestris) population from European temperate
ecosystem. Dash st al, (1974), D?.sh and Patra (1979) and Senapati and Dash (1981) are the
pioneer workers to report about secondary production in Indian earthwonns and to signify their
relationship to primary production. Secondary production in earthworms ranges from 50 to 250
19/m2/yr in temperate ecosystems whereas in tropical ecosystems it ranges from 70 to 700 kj/~Iyr.
thus tropical earthworms seem more productive than temperate worms. This inference very well
supports the hypothesis by Pianka (1970) that: organisms inhabiting a variable (unpredictable)
habitat are more productive than organisms occurring in fairly constant (predictable) environment.
Intra habitat comparison reveals that epigeic species like D. bolaui. epianecic species like D. willsi
are more productive per unit biomass per day than the endogeic P. elongata worm, indicating their
relative importance. D. bolaui and D. willsi thus could very well thrive in man interfered
environments. D. bolaui abundance and role in cow dung deposit sites (Senapati st al, 1987~ Sahu
st a/. 1988) and D. willsi abundance and role in paddy rice system (pani and Senapati, 1986; Pani,
1987) support the above hypothesis. Pioneering work of Bhaduria and Ramakrishna (1989) on the
population biology of earthworms under shifting agriculture indicated' high resistance of
Tonoscolex horai (Stephenson) and thus a hardy species suitable for application in higher
elevations of North eastern India to promote biological soil fertility in low input shifting
agricultural system. Managemet processes responsible to enhance earthworm population and to
decrease it have been streamlined (modified after Edwards, 1981) for manipulation of proper
population level so as to expect their positive role towards soil conservation, fertility and plant
production (Fig. S).

Future Prospects and Problems

About 374 species of earthworms have been reported in India from different habitats. However
population biology has been reported for about 40 species of earthworms and the details (population
density, biomas and productivity) are known in about 10 species. It is important to know the
organismal activity in its natural habitat before utilising it for any academic and economic interest.
 Management Process

I
J
Positive impact to enhance
!
Negative impact to decrease
earthwonn population earthwonn population

I I
Application of Little or no continuous Agrochemicals
If Deprivation Heavy Continuous Agrochemicals
organic matter, cultivation cereal or grass like lime and of organic cultivation crop rotation like Ammoniwn
fannyard cropping calcimn nitrate materials using disc and nongrass sulphate .
manure like crop plo~ cropping Benzimidazole
removal and and soil and FWlgicides
straw compaction

1
Leads to soil building, conservation and fertility
I
Leads to soil degradation, erosion and nutrient deficiency

Fig. S. Positive and negative impact of environmental management on earthworm population and soil conservation
Population, Biomass and Secondary Production 73

Auteco1ogica1 studies are thus very important to reveal the professional status of the organis~l.
Since hldia has wide variety of habitat, species and climate it is never possible to certify a single
species either for class room or for vermiculture based biotechnology. There is variation of the
biological strategy of the organism at intra species and interspecies level which has already been
reported by Senapati and Dash (1981), Pani (1987), Senapati et ale (1987), Sahu (1989), Sahu et
aI. (1988) and Bhaduria and Ramakrishnan (1989). Predictive models are always to be based upon
large number of data. In India alongwith great variability in habitat condition, large number of
species occurrence, with variety of biological but with few detail studies, it might not be possible to
develop a really predictable model and thus it needs in depth study of different earthworm
populations and communities. Because of extreme climates it is also equally important to know the
biokinetic limit of different earthworm species particularly in relation to diapause and quiescence
process to assess their impact and to understand the compensation mechanism. Alongwith natural
stress, various physical, chemical and biological impacts of man's activity should also be looked
into for their incorPoration into the predictable models and for management.

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Publisher: Zoological Swvey ofIndi, Calcutta.

Earthworm Resources and Vermiculture : 79-96, 1993

Reproductive Biology (Cocoon Morphology, Life Cycle

Pattern and Life Table Analysis) in Earthworms

B. K. Senapali
Scalogy Section. School of Life Sciences.
Sambalpur University, Jyoti Vihar-768 019. Orissa, India
and
S. K. Sahli
DepL of Environmental Sciences
Sambalpur University, Jyoti Vihar-768 019, Orissa, India

Synopsis
Information on the reproductive biology of Indian earthworms is very much scanty and is
absolute for the growth and development of venniculture based biotechnology and for academic
interest. Majority of the work done in this line relate to less than 5% of the total number of
species so far reported. Authors and their associates have largely contributed in this aspect during
the last decade. This paper summarizes the basic principles of reproductive biology in earthworms
and has been dealt in eight sections including methodology, present state of information and future
line of work to be done. The objective of this paper is mainly to introduce the subject to the
students and research workers interested in this line.

Understanding the organisms through reproductive biology

The process of-producing young ones is the subject matter of reproduction. Reproductive
process occupy the central position in the biomanagement programmes. Organisms pould either be
a pest (harmful) or a benefactor (useful) to man. Knowledge on the reproductive biology could help
to curtail pest organisms and to enhance benefactors. Reproduction in earthworms is not only
peculiar because of hermaphroditism but also there is a great paucity of information in this regard.
More than 95% of zoologists have not seen eaithworm cocoon. No standard text book describes
details of reproductive biology in any single species of Indian earthworms although it serves as
one of the basic biological specimen for introductory biology. Presently earthworm is not
restricted as a basic biology material but is being established as a basic material for biotechnology
(vermitechnology). Because of vast number of species available in India and because of their
academic and economic value, understanding of reproductive biology of earthworms has becpme
very important. This may help for: (i) understanding the organism, (ii) cocoon is most suitable
for inoculation, storage and transport for vermiculture based biotechnology, (iii) bioindication and
biocide tests and (iv) prediction of the population characteristics in captivity or in nature regarding
impact of environmental variables. This paper deals with some aspects of reproductive biology in
earthworms mostly available in Indian ecosystems.

Reproduction in earthworm
Olive and Clark (1978) have distinguished three basic Inodes of reproduction in annelids (Fig.
1). Monotelic - in which a species breeds only once durin ~ whole life cycle. Polytelic - in which
breeding occurs at several times during their life cycle. Both monotelic and pol ytelic species have
discrete reproduction and are 'big bang' strategists. Fronl physiological point of view one could
80 B. K. Senapati & S. K. Sahu

Reproduction
in Annelids

Discrete
l - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~I----~

f'.1onotel ic Polytelic Semicontinuous Continuous

I I
( S erne 1 parou s ) (Iteroparous)

Fig. 1 Diagramatic representation of reproduction in Anne!ids

distinguish discrete breeders which undergo reproductive crisis or crises during. a year, from thoSe
who breed steadily over a period without such crisis. The third category is semi-
continuous/continuous where the species breed several times during life and release gametes in a
number of broods over an extended breeding season within one or more years. Earthworms were
grouped among semi-continuous/continuous breeders (Lee, 1985). Cole (1954), Gadgil and Bossert
(1970) have classified species that reproduce only once in their life time and die as 'semelparous'
and those that reproduce repeatedly as 'iteroparous' (Fig. 1).
Earthworms are hermaphrodite and each worm produces both ova and spermatozoa. Exchange
of sperms occur during copulation of two mature worms and results in the production of cocoon.
-Biparental mode of reproduction is more common method of cocoon production. Copulation has
been observed in only few earthworms. Each spccies has a number of spermathecae in its anterior
segments. A little behind the last pair of spermathecae is the female pore which opens to the
.ventral side. In Metaphire poslhuma (previously Pheretima posthuma) clitellurn remains in 14-16
segments. Genital papillae arise on each segment of 17 and 19 and the male generative apertures
remain in 18th segment. The female pore is connected to the oviduct which brings the ova from
the ovaries (situated on the posterior surface of septum ~2/13) as w~ll as other secretions to it.
Each male pore is connected to a thicker tube which incorporates the tube from the testis (the vas,
deferens) and from the prostate gland (Prostatic duct). Sequence of copulation has been given in
Fig .. 2 as observed in Metaphire sp. The copUlating' animals lie with anterior ventral surface facing
Reprocluctive Biology in Earthworms 81

each otbel' but each head pointing in opposite directions. The male pores of one come in contact
with the spermatbecal pores of the other. The sperms and the prostatic fluid are mutually
discharged into the posteriormost pair of speannathecae, where they are nourished by some fluids
(Tembe and Duhash, 1961). Each partner move backwards in sequential manner so as to discharge
into the spennathecae in sucCessive manner until all spermathecae are 'charged' The partners-then
separate after about an hour. The clitellum of each copulating pair gets enclosed in a colloidal
secretion from the clitellum. The three layered wall of a cocoon is secreted by a type of clitellar
gland cell containing large granules (Grove and Cowley, 1926). It contains protein and a chitinoid
material which is probably chitin (Needham, 1969). Because of the presence of chitin, initially
formed colurless cocoon darkens with exposure to air. Uniparental parthenogenesis with self
fenilization is also known in ~ome earthworm species where there is absence or retrogression of
some secondary sexual organs like spermathecae, prostates etc. Methods of reproduction in some
earthwonns found in India is given in Table 1.
Reproductive biology of Indian earthworm
Of the earthworms, the reproductive biology of the Lumbricidae is by far the beSt known from
the reviews of Stephenson (1930), Satchell (1967), Edwards and Lofty (1972) and Lee (1985). But
sufficient information was not available on Indian earthworms except in P heretima (now
Metaphire) a representative of the important tropical family Megascolecidae, to allow comparisons
to be made with lumbricids. Pioneering works on the reproductive biology has been reported by
Evans and Guild (1948 a & b), Gavrilov (1948), Michon (1954), Phillipson and Bolton (1977).
First obsezvation on the reproductive biology of Megascolecidae worm has been made by B~l
(1927, 1950), Oishai (1930) and Tembe and Dubash (1961). Ecology of reproductive biology of
Indian wonns was rust reported by Senapati and Dash (1979), Senapati et ale (1979), Dash and
Senapati (1980,1982). This was followed with a series of publications dealing with cocoon
morphology, emergence patterns, growth, life cycle, life table, energy allocation to reproduction
by Senapati and his associates (1980; Senapati and Dash, 1984; Sahu and Senapati, 1986, 1988,
1991; Sahu et ale 1988). Other works relating to the reproductive biology of Indian earthwonns are-
by Kale et ale (1982) and Kale and Bano (1985).
Table 1 Methods of reproduction In some earthworms -found in India

Species Type of Reference

reproduction

POIfIotlrilus bermudensis S Gates (1972)

Bllllrihu e"leniae S Gates (1972)
POIIloscolu cOTelhrurus P Gates (1972)
Bimtutos parvus P Gates (1959)
Eisenitl fetida P, SP Gates (1972)
Lmnpito nuuuitii S Gates (1972)
Puiolt,% ucavatus S Gates (1972)
Polyplaeretima elongata P Gates (1972)
Metopla;re posthuma S Gates (1972)
OateTodrilus occideialalis P Gates (1959)
Dichogaster bolaui pp Gates (1972)

Abbreviations :
S = amphimictic, reproduction sexual and biparental
SP = generally amphimictic with parthenogenesis in some individual
P =' Parthenogenetic, reproduction uniparental
PP = Possibly parthenogenetic
82 B. K. Senapati & S. K. Sahu

Cocoon collection and characteristics

Cocoons of earthworms are in general ovoid capsules, prolonged into short processes at both
poles, when fresh they are whitish in colour and very soft jelly like and later become harder and
colour varies from lemon yellow to olive green to pinkish red. Collection of the cocoon is a
tedious affair of wet sieving and handsorting from the habitat soil. Selection of the sieve depends
on the size of the cocoon and generally a sieve having pore size 500Jl is preferred (Senapati and,
Dash, 1979, 1984; Dash and Senapati, 1980). Cocoons may ~ stored at low or high temperature
inside an incubator with and without soil medium (Dash and Senapati, 1980). Preservation of the
cocoon is same as that of the worm and could be kept in 5% formalin. However for chromosmal
study, live cocoons may be fixed in 1:3 acetoalcohol (Senapati per. cum.). From the field
sampling generally three types of cocoons are collected. Live cocoons having variable colours and
when examined under microscope or magnifying lens show live embryo at different stages of
development. Dead cocoon which is generally black. contain putrefied material. Empty cocoon
which is the cocoon case 'having a hollow space might be occupied by foreign organisms like.
nematodes, enchytraeids etc. or foreign materials like soil etc. (Senapati et ale 1979; Dash and
Senapati 1980). Earthworm cocoons might possess different types of ornamentation at the tapering
ends. The ornamentation might be short as in.Drawida willsi, Lampito maurtii or may be long
thread like structure as in Drawida calebi, Glyphidrilus tuberosus or may be flattened structure as
in Perionyx excavatus (Senapati per. cum.). The cocoons of Criodrilus are spindle shaped with the
ends drawn out to about 1.5 to 7 cm long corresponding to the length of the clitellum in this
worm (about 32 segments) (Stephenson, 1939). Cocoon of Megascolides australis, the largest
known earthworm is 75mm in length and 20mm in diameter and contains a single embryo which
when hatched is as long as one fOOL Cocoon of Metaphire posthuma is small and is about 2.0
mm in length and 1.5 mm in width. Comparative characteristic features of earthwonns and their
cocoon from temperature and tropical habitats of the world is given in Table 2.
Earthworm cocoon after undergoing incubation, produces young worins called juveniles which
lack genital papillae and clitellum. Incubation period of cocoon vary in different species and also
with environmental parameters. Incubation period ranges from 3 to 30 wee~ in temperate worms
whereas it is 1 to 8 weeks in case of tropical worms (Table 2.). Incubation period of O. surensis (4
weeks at about 25C and 15 g% soil moisture) could be extended to more than 12~eeks at 20C
with 15 g% moisture level.
Low incubation period in tropical worms might be an, adaptive strategy to cope with
environmental drasticitY,(Senapati et aZ. 1979). Incubation period could be determined in laboratOry
condition by keeping fresh laid cocoons on moist filter paper spread over habitat soil. Young
worm/worms hatch from the cocoon at the end of the incubation period. Dichogaster bolau; worm
is reported to have the shortest incubation period of about one week duration at 20 2g% soil,
moisture and 25 2C of soil temperature (Sahu and Senapati, 1986). Incubation period of about
four weeks has been reported for Octochaetona surensis, Lampito mauritii, Perionyx excavatus,
Ponotoscolex corethrurus, Metaphire posthuma and PoZypheretima elongata (Dash and Senapati,
1980; Kale et aZ. 1982; Senapati and Dash, 1982, 1984; Kale and Bano, 1985; Sahu and. Senapati,
1986, 1988, 1991; Sahu et af. 1988). Usually a single worm emerges out of each cocoon .. But in
some cases two to three worms hatching from a single cocoon has also been reported (Dash and
Senapati, 1980).

Quantification of reproduction in earthworms

Rate of reproduction in earthworm is generally calculated from the ratio of total cocoons
produced by the number of adults present within a particular time period and habitat/culture. Here
it is presumed that the worm might be producing cocoon either sexually or parthenogenetically.
To be more particular to consider sampling interval, the rate of reproduction may be calculated as :
[(C x (SIIIP)]/A. Second situation might be where information on cocoon production is not
 Reproductive Biology in Earthworms 83

available but incubation period of cocoon and number of juveniles hatched per cocoon are known
from laboratory studies. So the formula for calculated rate of reproduction may be modified as :
[(JIN x (SI/IP)]/A. Third situation might be where no information is available about the cocoon
but quantitative data are known for juvenile and adult worms. The rate of reproduction may be
quantified from a simple formula : J/A. In a situation where the the investigators are unable to
distinguish between juvenile and immatures the formula for quantification may be modified as :
NAJA. Where A = average number of adults available per sampling occasion, C =average number
of cocoon available in the samples per occasion, J = average number of juveniles available in the
samples per occasion, IP = incubation period in days, N = average number of juveniles hatched per
cocoons, NA = average number of non-adults available in the samples per occasion, SI = time
interval between two successive sampling occasions in days. Utility of the above formulae have
been verified on a peregrine earthworm, Dichogaster bolaui. Dynamics of cocoons, different age
class density and rate of reproduction in D. bolaui from an upland grazed pasture has been presented
in Table 3. Statistical analyses between (by 't' test) and among (by analysis of variance (Anova)
different alternative formulae have been made in Table 4. Analysis of variance among foUr different
ratios of reproductive rate at respective situations shows that they are"not significant at 0.05 level
(F = 1.73) indicating the possibility of utilising any of these quotients for qualifiC?ation of
reproduction. Further details of these alternatives could be known from the publication of Sahu and
Senapati (1988). Cocoon production (number/adult/year) varies with species and environmental
condition (Satchell, 1967; Edwards and Lofty, 1972; Dash and Senapati, 1980; Lavelle, 1981;
Krishnamoorthy, 1987; Sahu and Senapati, 1991). Considering both temperate and tropical
earthworms it has been found that size of the worms bears a negative relationship with that of the
number of cocoons produced per adult per year (Table 2). Worm diameter to cocoon diameter,
worm biovoluine to cocoon biovolume, wonn dry weight to cocoon dry weight all bear significant
positive correlation (r> 0.8, p < 0.001). It is possible to predict the characteristic features of the
cocoon by utilising present regression models (Table 2).

Seasonal dynamics of cocoons, emergence pattern" and reproductive strategy in

earthworms
Biological rhythmicity regulates the reproductive activity in earthworms. Accordingly
availability of the cocoon in field condition is largely dependent on the species and the
enyironment. 'Ecological category of earthworms very much depends on the species specificity and
niche segregation (Senapati et at, 1979; Dash and Senapati, 1980; Sahu and Senapati 1991;
Senapati and Sahu 1991). MacArthur and Wilson (1967) coined the term 'r'- selection and 'k'-
selection to describe different ways in which the population might function to survive in non-
competitive and competitive environments. Details of this aspect has been dealt in other papers of
thiS volilme. Here the discussion has been made with respect to three earthworms: Dichogaster
bolaui, Drawida willsi and Polypherelima elongata belonging to the three distinct ecological
category. Most of the earthworms available in India belong to one of these categories. Fortnightly
dynamics .of total cocoons, juveniles and adult earthworms of D. bolaui, D. willsi and P. elongata
is given in fig. 3,4 and 5, respectively.
D. bolaui is a small (Table 2), surface living, epigeic earthworm belonging to 'r' selected
species restricted mostly to the .liuer horizon and is phytophagous (plant eating) in nature (Sahu
and Senapati, 1986,1988,1991; Sahu et al 1988). Cocoons of D. bolaui earthworm are available
from end of July till October in upland grazed pasture. A peak number of about 5000 cocoons has
been. reported per square meter area during mid September when the adult worms were about
1 ISO/m2. Rate of total cocoon to adult worms during peak cocoon production came to be 4.5. D.
bolaui worm showed single peak (discrete monotelis or semel parous) of cocoon production with
unimodal. emergence pattern of juvenile worms. Juvenile peak has been observed during IHid
August (Fig. 3). Thus exhibition of juvenile peak prior to cocoon peak justify the survival of
D. bolaui worm through cOCQon during hard summer (soil temperature> 400 and soil moisture
 00
Table 2 Comparative characteristic features' of earthworms and their cocoon from temperate and tropical habitats of ~

the' world along with regression analysis

A. Characteristic features of worm and cocoon

Climate Ecological Worm Cocoon

Worm type type Dia- Length Bio- Dry Dia- Length Bio- Dry Incuba- Number Refe-
meter volume* weight meter volume* weight tion of rence
(mm) (mm) (mm3) (mg) (mm) (mm) (rnm3) (mg) period cocoonsl
(week) adult/yr
-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Temperate
E. telraedra Epigeic 3.0 45 318.09 1.3 2.0 2.66 (1)
D. rubida Epigeic 3.5 55 529.16 1.7 3.7 8.40 (1)
D. octaedra Epigeic 3.0 40 282.74 1.7 2.3 5.22 8.5 (1)
D. subrubicunda Epigeic 4.0 80' 100'5.31 62.0'0 2.0 3.1 9.14 1.14 8.5 42.00 (1)
A. chlorotica Endogeic 4.5 55 874.73 72.0'0 2.3 3.7 15.37 1.72 12.5 26.0'0 (1)
A. rosea Endogeic 3.5 45 432.95 78.0'0 2.6 3.1 16.46 2.00 25-30 8.00 (1)
A. caliguinosa Endogeic 5.0 110' 2159.85 126.0'0 2.3 4.6 19.11 2.58 25-30 26-42 (2)
B. eiseni Epigeic 3.0 40' 282.74 2.7 5.1 32.64 (1)
L. rubtlllus Epigeic 5.0 110' 2159.85 264.00' 2.6 3.4. 18.05 2.06 16.0 92.0'0 (1)
O. CYCl1lltUtn Endogeic 6.0' .150' 4241.15 662.00' 3.4 6.0' 54.48 7.34 13.00 (1)
L. terrestris Epianecic 12.0' 350 39584.07 1046.0'0 4'.3 6.0' 81.13 11.42 25-30 (1) tx1
E1oetida Epigeic 3.5 15 121.59 156.00 2.9 6.0 39.63 3.12 3-4 11.00' (1) ~
A. Zonga Anecic 7.5 140 6185.0l 430.00' 3.1 6.9 14.19 12:00 10.0 8.0'0' (1) en
L. cast~"s Epigeic 10.0'0 1.02 14.0 65.00 (1)
9
~
D.1IIIl1II11Ullis Epigeic 18.0'0 0'.86 11.00 (1) .......
S

Tropical ~
~
D. agilis Epigeic 5.0' 70' 1374.45 140' ..00 2.5 3.3 16.20 1.50 10'.10 (3)
~
D. tDTae-nigrae Endogeic 18.0 70'0 178128.30 5600.00 9.0 12.5 795.21 63.00 1.90 (3) en
M~ lamtDiana Epfanecic 26.0 4S~ 238918.12 6400.00 9.0 12.5 795.21 50.50 3.10' (3) ~
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
i
n
c.
<
fa
tD
2.0 70 219.91 36.00 1.0 1.0 0.79 (3) is"
C. zielae
S. perifera
Endogeic
Endogeic 2.0 70 219.91 40.00 1.0 1.0 0.79
0.43
0.40
13.00
13.00 -
0
(3) OQ
M. anomala Endogeic 9.0 170 10814.93 610.00 5.0 5.0' 98.17 20.00 3.0 6.20 (3) ..
'<
:3
M. ghanensis Endogeic 9.0 300 19085.18 3200.00 6.0 10.0 282.74 26.50 1.30 (3) rr.I
A. multivesiculatus Endogeic 6.0 330 9330.5'3 800.00 6.0 15.0 424.12 32.60
e:
(3) 50
A. opisthogynus Endogeic 4.0 200 2513.27 600.00 4.0 10.0 ~25.66 10.80 1.30 (3) 0$!
D. bolaui Epigeic 1.3 33 44.30 8.10' 1.3 2.0 2.65 0.65 1.0 46.59 (6) 3rn

D. willsi Epianecic 1.8 54 137.20 15.20 2.3 2.3 9.55 1.40 2.0 14.53 (6)
D. calebi Epianecic 3.4 59 534.80 43.80 3.0 3.0 21.21 2.40 8.0 11.52 (4)
O. surensis Anecic 3.8 92 1651.30 145.60 3.0 4.5 31.~1 5.25 4.0 19.21 (5)
L. mauritii Anecic 4.3 142 2057.80 185.30 .3.5 5.0 48.10 6.10 4.0 14.25 (5)
P. elongata Endogeic 4.5 192 5296.10 333.00 4.0 5.5 69.12 7.35 4.0 19.07 (6)

B. Correlation and regression analysis

.Parameter Sample size Correlation Level of Regression equation

(n) coefficient (r) significance (p) y = a + bx

Worm diameter (mm)/cocoon diameter (mm) 28 + 0.881 0.001 Y = 1.290 + 0.349x

Worm biovolume biovolume*
(mrn 3)/cocoon (mm3) 28 + 0.910 0.001 y = 32.61,0 + 0.OO4x
Worm dry weight (mg)/cocoon dry weight (mg) 26 + 0.920 0.001 y = 3.323 + O.009x
Worm dry weight (mg)/incubation period (week) 17 + 0.400 0.2 y = 4.710 T 0.310x
Worm dry. weight (mg)/number of cocoons produced
per adult per year '23 - 0.341 0.2 y = 24.552 + O~004x

(1) Evans & Guild (1948, a), (2) Nowak (1975), (3) Lavelle (1978), (4) Senapati et al. (1979), (5) Dash & Sem~pati (1980),
(6) Sahu (1989). * Biovolume = 1t r21, r = diameter, I = length
00
u.
 00
0'\
Table 3 Dynamics of cocoons (nos/m 2 /fortnlght),
different age class density(nos/m 2 /fortnight) and rate of
reproduction of D. bolaui earthworm In an upland grazed pasture

Month (week) Year Cocoons Juvenile Non-adult Adult Total Rate of reproduction

(C) worms worms (NA) worms worms

(1) (NA = J + I) (A) (fW)
SI J SI
TC x IP -x -
N IP J NA
A A A A

JuI. (IV) 1984 0 1193 2659 372 3031 0.00 4.28 3.21 7.15
Aug. (ll) 76 1582., 7167 871 8038 0.17 2.43 1.82 8.23
(IV) 645 1208 3779 644 4423 2.00 2.51 1.88 5.87
Sep. (ll) 4956 78 3320 1132 4452 8.76 0.09 0.07 2.93
(IV) 915 238 358 676 1034 2.71 0.47 0.35 0.53
Oct. (II) 78 118 591 474 1065 0.33 0.33 0.25 1.25
(IV) 0 0 40 80 120 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50
Nov. (II)
(IV) 0 0 0 39. 39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dec. (II)
(IV) 0 0 0 39 39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Jan. (II) 1985
(IV) 0 0 0 39 39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Feb. (II)
(IV) 0 0 0 39 39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
t:J:'
Mar. (II)
(IV) 0 0 ,0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 ?=
til
Apr. (II) (')
::s~
(IV) 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 "'d
May (II) ...
~
~.

(IV) 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 ~

til
Jun. (II) O. 0 40 80 120 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50
(IV) 39 118 591 119 710 0.66 1.32 0.99 4.97 ?=
en
* Sampling not done ~
c::
Table 4 Anova and 't' values of rate of reproduction, calculated on the basis of proposed formulae considering whole
year data
A.
Sources of variation Sum of Degree of Mean Calculated Tabulated value Significant (S)/Not
square freedom square value of 'F' of 'F' at 0.05 level significant (NS)

Between sample 20.63 3 6.88 1.73 2.8 NS

Within sample 238.67 60 3.98

B.

Parameters considered It' test between

C x SI J SI SI C x SI
-x - C x IP
IP N IP J IP NA J N"-
and and and and
A A A A A A A A

Sampling occasion (n) 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16

Mean value (X) 0.91 0.71 0.91 0.54 0.91 2.00 0.54 2.00
Standard deviation (Sd) 2.24 1.28 2.24 0.96 2.24 2.89 0.96 2.89
Calculated value 0.31 0.35 0.46 1.92
Tablulated value at 0.05" level 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04
~ignificant (S)/not-significant (NS) NS NS NS NS

00
-.l
Table 5 Demographic character.lstics of some tropical earthworms from S. Africa and India in field condition

Worm type Duration of Nwnber of Expectation Demographic Ecological Reference

the growth cocoons of life at index (D.I.) index (R.I.)
period produced/ hatching
(in months) adult/yr (in . months )
(G) (F) (ex) (0.1. = I()3F/G.ex) (W.p)

s. Africa
C. zieliJe 18.0 13.0 3.3 219.0 3.2 Lavelle (1983)
D. agilis 15.0 10.7 3.4 210.0 3.0 Lavelle (1983)
M. anomala 20.0 6.2 6.2 50.0 32.0 Lavelle (1983)
M. lamtoiana 24.0 3.1 7.5 17.0 210.0 Lavelle (1983)
D. te"ae-nigrae 36.0 1.9 11.6 4.5 575.0 Lavelle (1983)
A. opisthogynus 24.0 1.3 11.1 4.9 87.0 Lavelle (1983)
M. ghanensis 42.0 L3 10.6 2.9 512.0 ~velle (1983)
India
D. bolaui 2.8 46.6 1.7 9789.9 0.2 Sahu (1989)
O. occidentalis 2.5 25.0 0.7 14285.7 0.4 Sahu (1989)
D. willsi 4.0 14.5 2.4 1510.4 2.0 Sahu., (1989)
~
O. surensis 7.7 19.2 5:7 437.5 22.1 Senapari (1980)
~
L. mauritii 7.7 14.3 7.8 238.1 23.9 Senapati (1980) C'n
Melongata 8.5 19.1 5.5 408.6 112.0 Sahu (1989) 9
~
~
a.
Calculated on the basis of juveniles and assuniing similar status as that of D. willsi PIa
~
~
rn
~
 89

MALE
GENERATIVE APERTURE
MALE

sp'E~I:T HECAL
SEGMENTS

ellIllITIilluf[rnITJ
CAPSULE
FORMATION
)~ ~
..'f~'... .
. '. \ i .. I t ; .
~ I ~ t ~.. f ;I; ; i i . I;
'.

Fig. 2~

G COCOONS

-
~ f
..
1\
JUVENILE WORM

i \ A AOULT WORM
.~ 3_8~
c: I.
t
~
D
3.2~
Z. r
~ 2.6 ~
e. i

~ 2_0+
I
c I
1.6~
wi
0
t I
z 1.2 ~
-'
I
~
t- 0.8~
O
~

WEEK l.L!v ILJ.V ILlY ILl.V ILlY I!....!V II IV II tv II IV ILlv Ii IV U IV II IV

. Ad I
MONTH J A SON 0 T T N A M T T
yEAR 1984 1985 U)IS
Fig. 3 S AM-PlING OCCASION
Fig.. 2. Sequence of copulation resulting cocoon formation in M elaphire sp.
Fig. 3. Fortnightly Dynamics of Total Cocoons, Juveniles and Adult Earthworms of D. bolaui.
90 B. K. Senapati & S. K. Sahu

3.01

_ 2.6~
t (l) COCOON
~ I
JUVfHILE WOR""
Ol
c 2.2 ...; 4 ADUL T WORM
L:
o t
- LBr
............. I
N
,
E 1. .t,~
:
~ I
o ~

-c 1.0'1'-i
I
,;, I
0 0.8 ~
z
~ I
4( 0.6~
t- I
I
0
i
~
o.~ r
I
t
0.2

0
,u,.v IL!Y
WEEK

MONTH J
IL!V II IV II IV II
A S 0
IV II IV II IV 11
N 0 J
IV n
F M
-
IV D IV II IV II IV
A M J J
yEAR 1984 1985 1985
Fig. 4 SAMPLING OCCASION

I:;
2.0~
"S r
,
;
CI

~
COCOON
JUVENILE WORM

ADULT WORN
l I
~.-
0\
c
'-
1.6r-
! \/\ I

-
~
0 1.4~
t
E t.2~
~
0

~
1.0:..
c i
O.8~
en
0
:z O.st-

~
~
4(
t-
0
O.4~
I
l
I

~
\
O.2~

VEAR 1984 tl85 1915

Fig. 5 SAMPLING OCCASION

Fig. 4. Fortnightly Dynamics of Total Cocoons, Juveniles and Adult Earthworms of D. willsi.
Fig. S. Fortnightly Dynamics of Total Cocoons, Juveniles and Adult Earthworms of P. elongata.
Reproductive Biology in Earthworms 91

c -

l
c
,>t lomrrt
Fig. 6

'OIAGRAMATIC IHPRESfNTAliOU OF D. nOll.UI lirE CYCLE

IN UPLAND GRA7.fO PAstURE. AT BURLA, ORISSA p'DIA .
ADULT, = IMMATURE, 0 flC rlv ~'E. RrOO , lID NO WO~M
JUVENILE. 0 COCOON PEAK NUMBER,. MONni,**WEEK
l!l INACTIVE PE RIOD.
Fig. 6. Cocoon, just hatching and hatched juvenile of D. willsi earthworm C 1 Cocoons of D.
willsi; C2 Just hatching juvenile of D. willsi; C3 Hatched juvenile of D. wills;..
Fig. 7. Diagrammatic Representation of D. bolaui Life Cycle In Upland Grazed Pasture At
Burla, Orissa, India.
92 B. K. Senapati & S. K. Sahu

DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF D. WILLSI lIff. CYCLE

IN PL A IN PROTECTED PASTURE AT SABALPUR, ORISSA ,INDIA .
ADULT, =' IMMATURE,. JUVENll E ,0 coeoou,

PEAl( NUMBER, MONTH, **

o ACTIVE PERIOD Im1 INACTIVE PERIOD.IIJ NO WORM,
* WEEK.

OJAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF P. ELONGAT A LIfE CYCLE

IN PLAIN PROTECTED PASTURE AT SAM8AlPUR ORISSA .INDIA.
ADULT. CI IMMATU~E JUVENILE. 0 COCOON,
a ACTIVE PERIOO,A PEAK NUMBER . . . MONTH,tt WEEK.

Fig. 8. Diagr~matic Representation of D. willsi Life Cycle in Plain Protected Pasture at

Sabalpur, Orissa, India.
Fig. 9. Diagrammatic Representation of P. elongata Life Cycle in Plain Protected Pasture at
Sambalpur, Orissa, India.
R.eproductive Biology in Earthwonns 93

< 3 gtf,). D. willsi is a small medium sized (Table 2) epianecic earthwonn mostly found at the
top lOcm of soil depth and is phytogeophagous (plant and soil eating) in nature. Figure 6 exhibits
cocoons and just hatched juveniles of D. willsi earthworm. Cocoons of D. willsi were available
from end of August till mid of March. D. willsi showed two cocoon peaks on~ during September
(rainy season) aRd another during February (post rainy season) (Fig.4). Total cocoon per square
meltZ area was almost double during rainy season than in comparison to post rainy period. Rate ,of
reproduction of D. willsi worm has been reported to be maximum of about 2.6 (Sabu, 1989).
D. willsi showed double cocOOn peak (discrete polytelic or interoparous) with bimodal emergence
pauem of worms. P. elongala is a large (Table 2) deep dwelling endogeic earthworm belonging to
'K' seleCted species mostly found below 40cm of soil depth and is geophagous (soil eating) in
nature. Cocoons of P. elongata were available throughout the year. It has eJ.hibited five cocoon
peaks (polytelic or interoparous) with multimodal emergence pattern of worm which breeds almost
continuously (Fig. 1 and 5). In lumbricids, single peak or prolonged emergence has been reported
in surface living sPecies whereas deep burrowing species showed either single pe~ or multiple
peak of emergence (Satchell, 1967; Rundgren, 1977). Megascolecid earthworms exhibit almost a
similar manner as that of lumbricids. Interspecific variation and their functional importance with
respect to respective strategy has been studied by- Lavelle and his coworkers on South African
earthworms (Lavelle 1978,1981,1983). SOOu and Senapati (1986,1988,1991) working on Indian
earthworms have shown that variation in the reprOductive strategy of 'r' selected D. bolaui and 'K'
selected P. elongata is an adaptation to cope with unpredictable and predictable environments
respectively, indicating better adjustment of D. bolaui to the changing environment of habitats
disturbed by man such as compost pits, croplands, kitchen gardens etc.

Life Cycle Study a~d Life Table Analysis in Earthworms

The probable duration for completion of life cycle could be quantified as per the method
developed by Senapati el al (1979,1980), Dash and Senapati (1980). This is done by determining
the time interval between two similar life stages, the latter derived from the former through the
process of development. For example, cocoon produced' during a particular time .period will
undergo incubation period, then juvenile will hatch and grow into adult worm through immature
stage and rmally resulting in cocoon produc.tion. The probable time period upto which the young
hatched worm is expected to live is kriown as the expected life span. Life cycle of any earthworm
to live is known as the expected life span. Life cycle of any earthworm could be determined in
Culture pots or from the field information. Diagrammatic representation of D. bolaui, D. willsi and
P. elongata life cycle has been given in figure 7,8 and 9, respectively. Life ,cycle of about 3 to 4
months in D. bolaui at upland grazed pasture, 5 to 6 months. in D. willsi and about more than a
year in P. elongata at plain protected pasture has been reported, by Sahu and Senapati
(1986,1988,1991) (Fig. 7,8 & 9). Laboratory culture study has indicated life cycle'period of around
1.S months for D. bolaui, 3 months for D. willsi and 7 months for P. elongata (Sabu, 1989). Life
cycle period iii field and laboratory condition has exhibited significant positive correlation (r =
0.98, p < 0.01; r =0.93, p < 0.01) with worm body size.
Life table parameters could be quantified as per Deevey (1947) ~d Southwood (1966)
COnsidering the following columns:
x = the pivotal age for the age class in units of time; Ix = the number surviving at the
beginning of the age class x (out of a thousand originally born); dx = the number dying during the
age intervstl x; Lx = the number of animals alive between age x and x+1 is calculated from the
formula : Ix + Ix + 1 fl.; Tx = total number of animal of x age units which survive beyond the age
x and. is quantified from: Lx + Lx + 1 + ......... + Lw where w' = the last age, this is found ~y
=
summing the Lx column from the bottom upwards; ex 'the expectation of life remaining for
individuals of age x is calculated by using the formula: Tx/1x. Demographic index (D.I.) could be
calculated using the formula I()3F/Gex where G = duration of growth period (interval between
94 B. K. Senapati & S. K. Sahu

juvenile to adult), F = number of cocoons produced per adult per year, ex: expectation of life at
hatching using above formula. Demographic characteristics of some tropical earthworms from S.
Africa and India has been given in Table 5. Ecological category of these worms is mentioned in
Table 2. Duration of growth period in some Indian earthworms varies minimally from 2.5 to 8.5
months whereas in South African worms it ranges from 15 to 42 months. Maximum number of
about 47 cocoons could be produced by epigeic D. bolaui earthworm whereas it is about 15 to.19
cocoons in epianecic and endogeic earthworms (Table 5). Expectation of life at hatching is
minimum for epigeic species. Demographic index is maximum in D. bolaui than in comparison
to endogeic species like P. elongata. So it is possible to distinguish different ecological category
of earthworm on the basis of the life table analysis and to predict the activity (Senapati and Dash,
1991; Lavelle, 1983).

Future line of work

Out of about 374 species of earthworms reported in India, information on the reproductive
biology of about 20 earthworms are only known. It is important to study the reproductive biology
of each earthworm species available in different parts of the country. This will be helpful not only
for biology teaching but also for application of biology for human welfare. Vermiculture b~ed
industries could manipulate repro<luctive activity for greater benefit. Some of the important tasks
before the earthworm research workers in reproductive biology study are : (i) species wise
characterisation of reproductive status (ii) possibility of utilising reproductive structure and cocoon
for earthworm identification and classification (iii) selection of prolific breeders (iv) intraspecific
variation of reproductive status basing on environmental factors, (v) biology of cocoon
development and chromosdlnal analysis, (vi) identification of food additives and hormonal
treatment for production of giant earthworm, (vii) development of methodol9gy for utilization of
earthworm cocoon for toxicity tests and cocoon production for stress impact, (viii) identification of
acute, chronic and sublethal toxic agents for earthworm growth and reproduction, (ix)
quantification of energy cost of reproduction and (x) process of cocoon storage and transport.

References
Bahl, KN. (1927). On the r~productive process of earthworms: Part I. The process of copulation
and exchange of sperms in E-utyphoeus waltoni. Q.J.micros. Sci., 71 : 479-502.
Bahl, K.N. (1950). The Indian Zoological Memories, I.Pheretima. (4th Edition), Lucknow Publ.
House, Lucknow, 84 pp.
Cole, L.C. (1954). The population consequences of life history phenomena. Quart. Rev. Bioi.,
29: 103-137.
Dash, M. C. & Senapati, B. K. (1980). Cocoon morphology, hatching and emergence pattern in
tropical earthworms. Pedobiologia, 20 : 317-324
Dash," M. C. & Senapati, B. K. (1982). Environmental regulation of Oligochaete reproduction.
Pedo~iologia, 23 : 270-271.

Deevey, E. S. (1947) Life tables for natural populations of animals. Quart. Rev. Bioi., 22 : 283-
314.
Evans, A. C. & Guild, W. J. Mc.L. (1948a). Studies on the relationship between ~worms and
soil fertility. IV.. On the life cycles of some British Lumbricidae. Ann. apple Bioi., 35 :
471-484.
Evans, A. C. & Guild, W. J. Mc.L. (1948b). Studies on the relationships between earthworms
and soil fertility. V. Field populations. Ann. apple Bioi., 3S : 485-493.
Reproductive Biology in Earthworms 95

Edwards, C. A. &. Lofty, J. R. (1972). Biology of earthworms, Chapman and Hall, London,
283 pp.
GadgU, M. &. Bossett, W. (1970). Life history consequences of natural selection. Amer. Nat.,
104 : 1-24.
Gates, G. E. (1959). On the taxonomic puzzle and the classification of the earthworms. Bull.
Compo Zool. Harv., 121 : 229-261.
Gates, G. E. (1972). Burmese Earthworms. An introduction to the systematics and biology of
megadrile oligochaetes with special reference to South East Asia. Trans. Am. Phil.
Soc., 62 (7)~ 1-326.
Gavrilov. K. (1948). Sobre La Reproduction Uni Y Biparental De Los Oligoofuetos. In .' Acta
Zoologica, Lilloana dellnstituto, Miguel Lillo tomo V. Paginas, pp. 221-331.
Grove, A. J., & L. F ..Cowley (1926). Quart. J. Microscop. Sci. 70 : 559 In : Chemical Zoology,
, ChI Growth and Development, (Eds.) M. Plorkin and B. T. Scheer. Vol. IV. Academic
Press London.
Kale, R. D. & Bano, K. (1985) Laboratory propagation of some indigenous species of
earthworms. J. Soil Bioi. Ecol., 5 (1) : 20-25.
Kale, R. D., Bano, K. & Krishnamoorthy, R. V. (1982) Potential of Perionyx excavatus for
utilizing organic wastes. Pedobiologia, 23 : 419-425.
Krishnamoorthy, R. V. (1987). Reproductive strategies of some megascolecid earthworms of
South India. In : Proc. 5th Indian Symp. of Invertebrate Reproduction .(Ed.) s.
Palanichamy, 285-293.
Lavelle, P. (1978) Les vers de terre de Ia Savana de Lamto (Cote d' Ivoire) : peuplements,
populations et functions dans I ec~systems. Pub. Lab. Zoo1. E.N.S. 12: 301 pp.
Laelle, P. (1981). Strategies de reproduction chez les vers de terre. Acta Oecologica, 2(2): 117-133.
Lavelle, P (1983). The soil fauna of trepical savannas. The earthwonns. In .' Tropical Savannas,
. F. Bourliere, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam (The Netherlands)
pp. 485-504.
Lee, K. E. (1985). Earthworms. Their ecology and relationships with soils and Land use.
Academic Press, New York. 411 pp.
Mac Arthur, R. H. & Wilson, E. O. (1967). The theory of Island biogeography. Princeton
University Press. New Jersey.
Michon, J. (1954). Influence de r - isolement a partir de la maturite sexuelle sur in biologie des
Lumbricidae. C. r. hebd. Seance Acad. Sci., Paris, 238 : 2457-2458.
Needham, A. E. (1969). Growth and development. In .' Chemical Zoology (Eds.) M. Floricin and
B. T. Scheer, Vol. IV. Academic Press London. p. 371-441.
Nowak, E. (1975) Population density of earthworms and some elements of their production in
several grassland environments. Ecol. Pol. 23, (3) : 459-491.
Oishi, M. (1930). On the reproductive process of the earthworm Pheretima communissima. Sci.
Rep. Tohoku. Imp. Univ., S.
Olive, P. J. W. & Clark, R. B. (1978). Physiology of reproduction In .' Physiology of Annelids.
(Ed.) P. J. Mill. Academic Press. London. pp. 271-368.
Phillipson, J. & Bolton, P. J. (1,977). Growth and cocoon production by Allolobophora rosea
(OligocJtru:ta : Lurribrioidae). Pedobioiogia, 17 : 70-82.
96 B. K. Senapati & S. K. Sahu

Rundgren, S. (1977). Seasonality of emergence in Lumbricids in South Sweden. Oiko$, 280(1) :

49-55.
Sabu, S. K. (1989). The ecological implications of interspecific var~ation in some tropical
earthworms from pasture ecosystems of Orissa, India. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to
Sambalpur University. B. K. Senapati (Guide), pp. 289.
Sabu, S. K. & Senapati, B. K. (1986). Population density, dynamic~, reproductive biology and
secondary production of Dichogaster bolaui (Michaelsen). Proc. Nat. Sem. Org. Waste
Utilize and Vermicomp., M. C. Dash, B. K. Senapati and P. C. Mishra (Eds.) Five Star
Printing Press, Burla. pp. 97-110.
Sabu, S. K. & Senapati B. K. (1988). Alternative proposals for quantification of reproduction in
tropical earthwonn. Trop. Ecol. 29 : 6-14.
Sabu, S. K. & Senapati, B. K. (1991). Reproductive strategy of a 'r' selected and 'K' selected
earthworm from tropical pastures of Orissa. India. In : Advances in Management find
Conservation of Soil Fauna. (Eds.) O. K.' Veeresh, D. Rajagopal, C. A. Viraktamath,
Oxford and IBH Publ. Co. PvL' Ltd. New Delhi, 665-669.
Sabu, S. K., Misbra, S. K. & Senapati, B. K. (198'8). Popub~ti~n biology and reproductive
strategy of Dichogaster bolaui (Michaelsen) in two trOpi~agroecosystems. Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci. (Animal Sci.), 97(3) : 239-250.
Satchell, J. E. (1967). Lumbricidae, In : Soil Biology, A. Burgess and F. Raw (Eds.)., Academic
Press, London., pp. 259-322.
Senapati, B. K. (1980). A note on hatching of 'two tailed' earthworm from India. Int. J. Invertebr.
Reprod.., 1 : 271-277.
Senapati, B. K. & Dash, M. C. (1979). Laboratory observation on the rate of cocoon production
of Drawida willsi (Oligochaeta). Compo Physiol. Ecol., 4(2) : 110-112.
Senapti, B. K. & Dash, M. C. (1982). Earthworm as a waste conditioners. Ind. Eng. J., XJ(2):
53-57.
Senapati, B. K. &. Dash, M. C. (1984). Influence of soil temperatm:e and moisture on the
reproductive activity of tropical pasture earthworms of Orissa J. Soil Bioi. Ecol., 4 :
13-21.
Senapati, B. K. & Dash M. C. (1991). Energetic study and life table 8nalysis of two peregrine
Indian earthworms. In : Advances in Management and Conservation of Soil Fauna,
(Eds.), O. K. Veeresh, D. Rajagopal, C. A. Viraktamath, Oxforcf and IBH Publ. Co.
PvL Ltd. New Delhi, 677-682.
Senapati, B. K., Dash, H. K. & Dash, M. C. (1919). Seasonal dynamics and emergence pattern of
a tropical earthworm drawida calebi(Oligochaeta). Int. J. Invertebr. Reprod., 1 : 211-
277.
Senapati, B. K., Dash, M. C., Rana, A. K.. & Panda B. K. (1980)., Observation on the effect of
earthworm in the decomposition process in soil under laboratory conditions. Compo
Physiol. Ecol., S : 140-142.
Southwood, T. R. E. (1966). Ecological methods (with particular reference to the study of insect
populations). Methuen & Co. Ltd. London. 391 + XIV pp.
Stephenson, J. (1930). The Oligochaeta : Oxford University ?ress, 978 pp.
Tembe; V. B. & Dubash, P. J. (1961). The Earthworms: a review. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
S8 : 171-201.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

Earthworm Resources and Vermiculture: 97-99, 1993

Earthworm Gut Contents and Its Significance

B.K. Senopoli
School of Life Sciences, Sambalpur University,
Jyoti Vihar, Orissa., India

.Earthworms play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter and soil
metabolism. Their contribution is mainly through : physical participation by feeding,
fragmentation, aeration, turnover and dispersion; chemical participation by digesting organic
subsb'8te and contributing nutrients to soils; biological participation by grazing over microflora
An ecosystem functions through material cycling and energy flow. Trophic function of the
heterotroph is important in regulating the ecosystem. On the basis of feeding habits, Evans and
Gujld (1947) were the first to distinguish .earthworms into two distinct ecological categories of
litter and soil feeding worms. Morphological information is available in support of ecological
groupings of earthworms. Litter feeding group possesses active gizzard/s and soil feeding group
has a well-developed active typhlosole. There is variation in the gut contents which could be
utilised as tools for determining functional establishment of worms. Knowledge about different
types of enzymes and microflora in the gut of earthworms is very essential to understand precise
role of worms in the decomposition of organic matter and soil formation.

Earthworm Gut Morphology and Contents

The earthworm gut is basically a straight tube extending from the mouth to the anus, its
different regions are a muscular pharynx, oesophagus, intestine and associ~ted digestive glands.
The -oesophagus may be further differentiated into two bulbous chambers, a muscular gizzard and
thin-walled crop. There may be more than one gizzard depending upon the species. Various
modifications in the digestive system in different worms depend upon the food taken by them.
Gizzard is generally absent or rudimentary in earthworms which thrive on liquid or semi-liquid
dieL Litter feeding species lack a typhlosole whereas it is well-developed in soil feeding worms.
The gut contents usually comprise mucus, organic and mineral matter and organismal components
(microflora and microfauna). A variety of digestive enzymes have also been reported from the
alimentary canal of earthworms. These enzymes are usually correlated to the preferred diet of an
organism (Wallwork, 1984). For example, many soil saprophages, such as oribatid mites, that
feed on fungi possess trehalase. Earthworms, which feed on plant material other than fungi, do not
have trehalase.
Analysis of gut contents in earthworms has revealed the occurrence of different kinds of
symbionts like microfungi, bacteria, protozoans, etc. Maximum number of microfungal species
are found in the foregut, gradually decreasing in number in the mid and hind gut with a minimu~
number in freshy laid casts (Dash et al., 1985). The microfungal composition varies between
species. It is well established that the earthworm gut provides suitable condition for the
development of bacterial colonies since earthworm castings contain significantly higher counts of
bacteria than in the slDTOunding soil. According to Atlavinyte and Lugauskas (1971), earthworms

Expanded by J. M. Julka
98 B. K. Senapati

increased the number of micro-organisms in soil as much as five times. Earthworms are, therefore,
important in inoculating the soil with micro-organisms and their casts are foci for dissemination
of soil microbes. The feed selectively on microflora by grazing over soil particles, thereby
affecting the condition of soil (Senapati el al., 1980). Different kinds of nematodes have also ~n
recorded in their gut contents.

Trophic Habits of Ea~thworms

Based on trophic functions, earthworms have been distinguished into three distinct ecological
types by Bouche (1977), which represent different responses to soil contraints and possibly
successive steps in earthworm evolution. Epegeic worms are small in size with limited period of
activity and high mortality but balanced by high rate of reproduction. They subsist on high qualjty.
resources (litter and' other organic matter). Endogeic worms are soil dwelling where they find
buffered and predictable condi~ons with low quality of food. The third category of worms. ~e
aneciques and are intermediate between the litter and soil dwelling fonns. They come tothe surface.
for feeding and defacation but live in soil burrows. They have strong' anterior muscles which help
in burrowing, and maintain an extensive burrow system.
Earthworms in general are saprophages. They feed mainly on organic matter, usually the
decomposed parts of plants, although micro-organisms of various kinds may also be ingested.
Certain lumbricid species prefer food rich in nitrogen and sugar and low in polyphenols. Conifer
needles. and oak. leaves with higher carbon/nitrogen ratios and polyphenol contents are not
preferred. The intake of mineral soil alongwith organic matter may vary. Both epigeic and endogeic
species ingest organic and mineral particles in an advanced state of decompOsition (Wallwork,
1984). Deep bmrowing aneciques emerge at night and draw down fragments of decaying leaves into
their burrows where they are stored for sufficient decomposition before ingestion.

Digestion
The ingested food in pharynx is subjected to acid mucus containing an amylase which is
secreted by ductless pharyngeal glands. Muscular giziard helps in fragmenting and grinding the
food into small particles. In some species, calciferous glands discharge amorPhous calcium
carbonate particles coated with mucus into oesophagus. The function of this secretion is unknown
but possibly it influences the pH of the intestinal fluid. Chemical changes in the degradation of
organic material is carried through the enzymetic digestion, enrichment by nitrogen excreme~ts,
transport of organic and inorganic materials. Presence of digestive .enzymes like amylase, cellulase,
protease, lipase, chitinase and lichenase in the intestine signifies digestive ability of earthworms.
These enzymes operate in a medium with a remarkable stable pH ranging between 6.3 and 7.3
throughout the length of the intestine which encourage the growth of bacterial colonies
(Wallwork, 1984). Possibly, certain species of actinomycetes in the earthworm gut participate in
the chemical transformation of organic materials, formation of clay/humus complexes, and
production of cementing substances which improve the crumb structure of the soil. The gut
communities of earthworms, therefore, play an important role in the decomposer system of the
soil.

References
"
Atlavinyte, O. & Lugauskas, A. 1971. The effect of Lumbricidae on soil microorganisms. Ann.
Zool. Ecol. Anim. Special Publ., 4 : 73-80.
Bouche, M. 1977. Strategies lombriciennes. Ecol. Bull. (Stockholm),2S : 122-123.
BlI'thworms Guts Contents and Its Significance 99

Dash, M.C., Behera, N. & Dash, H.K. 1985. Earthworm and microfungal interaction in soil.
Proc. Soil. Bioi. Symp . Hissar : 77-83.
Evans, A.C. & Guild, W J. Mc. L. 1947. Studies on the relationships between earthwonns and
soil fertility. 1. Biological studies in the field. Ann. appl. Bioi., 34 : 307-330
Senapati, B.K., Dash, M.C., Rana, A.K. & Panda, B.K. 1980. Observation on the e~fect of
earthworm in decomposition process in soil under laboratory conditions.Comp.
Physiol. Ecol., S : 140-142.
Wallwork, J.A. 1984. Earthworm Biology. 1st Indian edition. Amold~Heinemann,London.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

tII'Ihworm Resources and Vermiculture : 101-103, 1993

Regeneration, Predators and Parasites of Earthworms

R.II,", D. Kal,
Department of Zoology,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore

The architectural complexity achieved by an organism in structural organization in the

evolutionary process has brought about limitation in the regeneration capacity of lost parts. The
plaDarians, which are the simplest organisms with organ grade of organization have the maximum
regenerative capacity and maintain an anteroposterior gradient dming regeneration of lost parts.
Annelid worms, being the first group of coelomates with me~eric segmentation and simple
body plan possess a high degree of regeneration capacity. Various factors including intrinsic and
.extrinsic are involved in the regeneration process. Just as in planarians, an anteroposterior gradient
may exist in these worms. The posterior segments when lost are replaced at a faster rate than the
anterior ones. In the posterior region, newly regenerated segments to begin with are narrower than
older segments. Only after addition of all the lost segments, they increase in diameter. During
regeneration of the posterior end, the tip of the body remains open. Normally, anterior regeneration
is a delayed process with the formation of wound tissue. The worm tolerates loss of only a few of
anterior segments. Beyond this limit it fails to regenerate lost segments (Edwards and Lofty,
1977).
Earthworms that undergo obligatory or facultative diapause are termed "amphodynamic" These
worms regenerate lost segments only during diapause. They have to enter into diapause state for
regeneration of lost segments. Most of earthworms respond to dehydration and become quiescent.
At this stage, they stop feeding, loose plenty of body water and regression of sexual characters
takes place. Species that enter into quiescence state but not diapause are termed "homodynamic" In
these species there is temporary sexual regression during the loss of caudal segments. The
existence of inverse relationship between sexual reproduction and regeneration may be due to a
single hormone regulating the phenomenon. Regeneration is mostly inhibited by secretions of
supra-oesophageal ganglion. In case of homodynamic species, the release of this hormone depends
on environmental conditions and the presence or .absence of caudal injury. In amphodynamic
group, the release of hormone determines the physiological state of worms (Mill, 1978).
The existence of an anteroposterior axis gradient for regeneration is an electrically controlled
mechanism (Moment, 1953). Earthworms have voltage differences from one end to another and
when a worm is cut, the voltage decreases sharply, which returns to original level in three weeks.
The regeneration or growth stops after addition of a few segments because each segment
contributes certain voltage and segment contributes certain voltage and as soon as voltage
stabilises the growth ceases. Conclusive evidence to show the electrical stimulation or inhibition
of growth is not available.
The capacity of regeneration of lost segments varies with the species. Nonnally, the epigeic
fonns have higher rate of regeneration then the endogeic species. This may again explain the
environmental and physiological status of involved organisms. Epigeic worms, which are more
prone to predatory attacks and do not enter diapause, may readily regenerate lost segments by
altering levels of neurosecretions. Endogeic worms have to make major changes in their
physiology to enter into diapause to regain lost segments.
102 Radha D. Kale

The coelomocytes of earthworms are known to have a role in regeneration, immunity and
wound healing. The greater number of cells in coelomic fluid rather than in blood has been
attributed to the immune mechanism existing in the worms (Hostetter and Cooper, 1974).
Depending upon the intensity of amputation, coelomocytes .are forced through the wound ~y
coelomic pressure and a plug appears by the production of pseudopodia, which are overgrown by
epidermis and a scar tissue is formed. The scar tissue is later destroyed by phagocytosis of
coelomocytes. These degraded tissues are called "blown bodies" (Mill, 1978). The epidermis is
highly vascularised and like coelomocytes, hoemocytes also contribute to plugging of walls of
broken vessels. Thus, different types of free moving cells in the coelomic fluid and blood pl~y
significant role in wound healing mechanism.

Predators of Earthworms
A large number of invertebrates and vertebrates are known to prey upon earthwonns (Edwards
and Lofty, 1977). Invertebmtes Ptclude giant flat worms, carnivorous slugs, carabid and staphylinid
beetles and centipedes. A carnivorous earthworm, Agastrodrilus sp., is reported to feed upon ,other
earthworms. Frogs, toads, apodans, rodents, badgers, foxes, shre"Ns, moles and birds are the major
vertebrate predators. Though a long list of predators are known none of these live exclusively on
worms~ Quantitative data on the amount of earthworms eaten and their significance in the diet of
predators are not available. Apodans, Ichthyophrys sp., are being maintained exclusively on worms
for some other investigations at two laboratories in Karnataka. But no importance has been given
to study food intake, assimilation and energetics of the predatory apodans. Fifty to sixty per.cent
of dry weight of a worm is protein and is found to contain all essential amino and fatty acids to
meet the requirements of vertebrates. Observations on prey-predator associations and predation
pressure on worm biomass under laboratory and field conditions are required. ;
Beng~on et ale (1976) recorded that predation of golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria) on worms
in a hayfield in Iceland brought down the prey pOpulation to less than 50% when the grass cover
was short. Similar observations on predation of glills and "starlings, on worms have also been
conducted in New Zealand. Predatory pressure is more for surface livtng species and as such they
have high: productivity. Most of the carnivorous and omnivorous birds prey upon worms which
constitute at least 5-7% of their dieL
Among mammals, some of insectivores have been recorded to prey upon worms. Most of the
shrews feed on worms, though frequency of occurrence of worms in their gut contents may vary.
Moles ~e the other group which feed largely on worms, the latter constituting 100% of their diet
in winter and 50% in summer. Moles store worms in their burrows in paralysed condition by
cutting off a few anterior segments (Macdonald, 1976). He has also dealt with detailed studies on
the foraging behaviour of foxes on worms. They capture wonns on small patches during the night
with the help of their auditory senses mresponse to sound produced by worms while moving in
soil crevices.
Earthworms are of secondary importance to the amphibians. Toads prey upon them as they
surface at nights. Pieces of worms have been recorded from the gut contents of some toads
collected from coastal areas of Karnataka (Man galore). A few species of garter, grass and blind
snakes are also known to feed on earthworms (Macdonald, 1983).

Parasites and Pathogens

A large numl>er of protozoans, nematodes, rotifers, flatworms, mites and dipteran larvae are
found' in the tissues and body fluids of worms (Edwards and Lofty, 1977). Among Diptera, a
cluster fly (Polienia rudis) parasitises the lumbricids. The other parasitic fly reported is Onesia
suvalpina. Histostoma murchiei, a mite, is parasitic on the cocoons of Allolobophora chlorotica.
Leeches are known to attack worms in vermeries. Some nematodes were found emerging from the
Repneration, Predators and Parasites of Earthworms 103

cocoons of Eudrilus eugeniae which affected their viability. Incidence of parasitism increased with
the age of the host. Different species of worms have been reported to be susceptible to attacks of
larvae of Capillaria annulata. A rotifer Albertia vermicularis was isolated from Allolobophora
caliginosa by Rees (1960). There are records of different species of parasitic nematodes from the
coelomic cavity of worms.
Many ciliate and sporozoan parasites have been isolated from the body fluid and various tissues
of W1hworms (Edwards and Lofty 1977; Segun, 1978). Earthwonns are also agents for the spread
of parasites, acting as reservoirs Qr intermediate hosts for many parasites and pathogens.
E1Ilerobacter aerogenes bacterium isolated from the clitellar region of Hoplochetella sp. is found to
be ratal to this octochaetid worm (Rao, et al., 1983). Bacillus thurengiensis, which is used as 'a
biocide, appears to effect the life of worms at a slightly higher dose than is recommended for
insects (Smirnoff and H~impel, 1961).
For a detailed understanding of the role of earthworms as carriers of diseases of plants and
aniIIals, it is very important to undertake an in depth study on soil borne pathogens and parasites
of mrthworms and other higher animals.

Rererences
Bengtson, S. A. Nilsson, A., Nordstrom, S. & Rundgren, S. 1976. Effect of bird predation on
lumbricid population. Oikos,27 : 9-12.
Edwards, C. A. & Lofty, J. R. 1977. Biology of Earthworms. 2nd edition. Chapman and Hall,
London.
Hostetter, R. & Cooper, E. L. 1974. Earthworm coelomocyte immunity 91-107.
In :Contemporary topics in Immunology. Invertebrate Immunology. (Ed.) E. L.
Cooper. Plenum Press. New York.
Macdonald, D. W. 1976. Food catching by the red fox and other carnivores. Z. Tierpsychol, 42 :
. 170-185.
Nacdonald, D. W. 1983. Predation on earthworms by terrestrial vertebrates. In : Earthworm
Ecology from Darwin to Vermiculture, 393-414. (Ed.) J. E. Satchell. Chapman and
Hall, London.
,Mill, P. J. 1978. Physiology of Annelids. Academic Press, London.
Moment, G. B. 1953. The relation of body level, temperature and nutrition to.re~erative growth.
Physiol. Zool., 26 : 108-117.
Rao, B. R., Karuna Sagaar, I. & Bhat, J. V. 1983. Enterobacter aerogenes infection of
Hoplochaetella suctoria. In : Earthworm Ecology from Darwin to Vermiculture, 383-
391. (Ed.) J. E. Satchell. Chapman and Hall, London.
Rees, B. 1960. AlberRa vermicularis (Rotifera) parasitic in earthwonn Allobobophora caliginosa.
Parasitol., SO : 61-66.
Segun, A. O. 1978. Monocystid gregarine parasites of Nigerian earthworms. J. Protozool., 2S :
157-162.
Smimoff, W~ A. & Heimpel, A. M. 1961. Notes ~n the pathogenecity of Bacillus thuringiensis
var. thuringiensis for the earthworm, Lumbricus te"estris Linnaeus. J. Insect Pathol.,
3 : 403-408.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

EarllrwormResources and Vermiculture: 105-108, 1993

Vermiculture : Scope for New Biotechnology

RadluJ D. Kale
Department of Zoology,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore

An indiscriminate growth of cities, increase in human population and vast industrialisation

have led to an increased accumulation of waste materials. In turn these resulted in the vanishing of
fertile lands which used to produce food and raw materials. Under such situations the main
objectives of modem civilization is to make any available patch of land to be more resourceful. It
is also essential to detoxify the environ which is exposed to hazards of chemical toxicants, and to
hasten degradation of organic wastes for their recycling through biological agents. Alongwith the
growth of industry, there is a demand for intensifying the animal husbandry, which again leads to a
problem of disposal of animal effluents (Hartenstein and Bisesi, 1989).
Earthworms in Nutrient Fixation
Soil improvement is very important to make use of even the less productive land to increase
food production for ever increasing human population. Mineral aggregates are' more stable in the
presence of organic particles. Deficiency in organic carbon reduces storage capacity of soil for
nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus and leads to atmospheric acidity and reduction in soil fertility.
The world's labile source of carbon has to be incorporated into soil before it escapes into
atmosphere as methane and carbon dioxide. This requires economically and environmentally
managed sound procedures. The worm cast in nature is found to contain the highest organic matter
content than in those of other major soil fauna like ants and termites. Joshi and Kelkar (1952)
have reported a higher electrical conductivity of casts that denotes an increase in the level of
soluble salts in soil. They have also observed the casts to have greater nitrifying power than soils.
The increased stability of casts and considerable amount of carbon and nitrogen than in the parent
soil have been observed (Dutt, 1948; Bhaduria and Ramakrishna, 1989). The water stable
aggregates make the soil more aerobic which is considered to be one of the main factors
responsible for nitrogen fIXation. Though the worm cast is considered to be a strong aggregate, its
stability depends on concentration and type of organic matter, bacterial and fungal polysaccharides
(Lee, 1985). These findings suggest that earthworms form one of the agents in organic matter
breakdown and for rapid incorporation of detritus into the soil strata.
Vermicompost a Bio-organic Fertiliser
Aristotle called earthwonns, "The intestines of earth", and considered them as agents to restore
soil fertility. Voracious feeding habits of selected species of earthworms on rich source of organic
matter and their high reproductive potential are now being exploited in ~mperate countries. The
nature of food and its availability and other physical parameters like temperature, light and
moisture content, biological parameters like the density pressure, environmental conditioning
created by their own activity influence their growth and fecundity (Evans and Guild, 1948; Mba,
1978, 1983; Neuhauser et al., 1980). Evans and Guild (1948) and Kale and Bano (1985) also
showed that the earthworms preferring nitrogen rich diet grow faster and produce more cocoons
than those feeding on mineralised soil. Even litter feeding worms show an order of preference for
certain leafy matter (Kale and Krlshnamoorthy, 1981). The knowledge on the biology, food habits
and habitat selections of worms are important factors for encouraging culturing of worms for
degradation of animal waste, plant residues and wastes from the food processIng units. Biomass
106 Radha D. Kale

production of worms on one hand helps to enhance process of waste degradation and on the other
hand residue free woims can be used as an alternate source of protein for poUltry birds and fish.
Some earthworms such as Eudrilus eugeniae, Eiseniafetida and Perionyx excavatus are found
to be very efficient and adoptable in cultures under semi-natural conditions in our country. Various
agricultural wastes like post-harvest stubbIes, sugar cane thrash, coir waste and paper pulp, and
faecal matter of cow, sheep, horse, and biogas ~ludge of poultry droppings have been tried as food
source for these worms. It was found that the breakdown of these materials was enhanced
considerably in the presence of worms (Kale et al., 1982, in press-1988; Bano and Kale, 1986;
Kale and Bano, 1988). Disintegrable plant remains form a good source of manure on exposing
them to earthwonn activity.
The degraded organic matter by worm activity is called 'Vermicompost' which can be used as
top soil or organic manure in fields to prevent organic carbon deficiency and soil erosion. The
worm cast is a better source of organic manure over other anaerobically degraded compost because
of the following facts. The worm cast is loosely packed granular aggregates of semi-digested
matter that provides energy for establishment of various microorganisms. Some of microbes
which are found in association with the cast are responsible for deoderising excrements derived
from organic wastes with obnoxious odour (Watanabe, et ale 1982). The cast also forms suitable
base for free living beneficial microbes whose activities are essential for releasing of nutrients to
higher plants (Atlavinyte et al., 1971; Atlavinyte and Vanagas, 1982). Thus an establishment of
microenviron takes place in the presence of worms in a given media. Specially in tropical
countries, earthworms cannot remain active throughout the year. The prevailing environmental
conditions and type of soil bring about leaching of nutrients at a rapid rate. The existing microbial
population fails to remain active due to lack of energy requirements for their activity. Under such
circumstances, regular application of worm casts to fields improves the physico-chemical and
biological properties of soil (Kale, et al., 1990 - in press).
The worm activated soil or worm cast provides essential nutrients in available form to plants.
Besides bio-chemical activities of established microbes and worm exudates ~ve stimulatory effect
on plant growth. Presence of earthworms in culture pots have positive effect on germination,
growth and yield of crops. Atlavinyte et al., (971) have also shown an influence of worm activity
on the density of microbes an in vit B12level in soil. Springett and Syers (1979) showed increase
in the herbage production on application of worm cast. The yield influencing substances are
released into soil by earthworms, which is a specific character. Irrespective of the species of
worms, growth and yield of crops show a definite increase in wormed worked soils than in
controls. An increase in protein synthesis of Agaricus bisporus and radish Raphanus sativus has
been reported when grown in the presence of worm cast (Galli et ale 1990; Tomati et ale 1990).
Increase in uptake of nutrients in the level of available nutrients in symbiotic microbial
association with cereals and some ornamental plants were observed in our studies (Kale et al.,
1987, 1990). These findings authenticate possibility of ameliorating soils by application of worm
cast or wdnn worked soil wherever introduction of wonns is not feasible. The culture maintenance
and vermicompost production form an independent bio-technological unit for mass production of
compost.

Species Recommended for the Technology

Of many species of earthworms tested for mass cultivation allover the world, including the
tropical and temperate regions, Eiseniafetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excavat'..tS come in
the order of preference for their ability to degrade the wastes. Their high biomass production may
attain an increase of 40 to 90 times in a period of 3 to 6 months with adequate space and food
(Neuhauser et al., 1980; Kale et al., 1988;.Kale and Bano 1988; Viljeen and Reinecke, 1989; Mba,
1978. 1983; Reinecke and Hallatt, 1989). Frequent harvesting of worms brings down density
pressure and enables continuous growth of worm population. An increased demand for fIsh meal in
Venniculture: Scope for New Biotechnology 107

livestock' fanns has resulted in a continuous escalation of the cost of fish meal. With proper
management of vermiculture, the worm protein can supplement fish meal ,and the demand for
animal protein can be subdued (Gurrero, 1983; Kale, 1986; Nandeesha et al., 1988).
Edwards and Thompson (1973) and Ireland (1977) reviewed the effect of various pesticides and
heavy metals on earthworms. In is found that worms can act as "bioconcentrators" of heavy metals
and other toxic organic compounds. This quality of worms can be made use of to minimise toxins
from sewage sludge before applying the same as fertiliser to fields. This will bring down the risk
of miry of these pollutants into plant system and then into sequential food chain. When worms are
used for this purpose, they should be prevented from entering into foo4 chain as they are found to
concenttate very high levels of these toxins in their tissue. '
Mass rearing and maintaining, worm cultures and tapping of organic wastes' for their
maintenance has a good scope for developing it as a cottage industry in our country where there is
no dearth for organic wastes, congenial climatic conditions and required man power. The tapping of
resourceful. technology is of utmost importance for the present day as "soil is the placenta of life,."
References
Atlavinyte, O. & Vanagas, J. 1982. The effect of earthworms on the quality of barley and rye
grain. Pedobiologia, 23 : 256-262.
Atlavinyte, 0., Daciulyte, J. & Luganska, A. 1971. Correlation between the number of
earthworms, microorganisms and vitamin B12 in soil fertilized with straw. Liet. TSR
Molesl". A/cad. Darb., sere B, 3 : 43-56.
Bano, K. & Kale, R. D. 1986. Conversion of poUltry resources into protein. In : Proc. Nat. Sem.
Org. Waste Utilize Vermicomp., Part B : Verms anti' 'Vermicomposting : 137-145.
(Eds=) M. C. Dash, B. K. Senapati and P. C. Mishra. Sri Artatrana Rout for Five Star
'Printing Press, Burla, Orissa.
Bbaduria, T. & Ramakrishnan, P. S. 1989. Earthworm population dynamics and contribution to
nuttient cycling during cropping and fallow phases of shifting agriculture (Jhum) in
Northeast India. J. Appl. Ecol., 26 : 505-520.
Dult, A. K. 1948. Earthworms and soil aggregation. J. Am. Soc. Agron., 48 : 407.
Edwards, C. A. & Thompson, A. R. 1973. Pesticides and soil fauna. Residue Rev., 4S : 1-79.
Evans, A. C. & Guild, W. j. McL. 1948. Studies on the relationship between earthworms and
soil fertility. IV. On the life cycles of some British Lumbricidae. Ann. Appl. Bioi.,
35 : 471--484.
Galli, E., Tomati, V., Grappelli, A. & Di Lena, G. 1990. Effect of earthworm cast in protein
synthesis in Agaricus bisporus. Bioi F.ertil. Soil, 9 : 1-2.
Gurrero, R. D. 1983. The culture and use of Perionyx excavatus as a prqtein resouce in the
Philipines.ln : Earthworm Ecology from Darwin to Vermiculture : 309-313. (Ed.) J. E.
Satchell. Chapman and Hall, London.
Hartenstein, R. & Bisesi, M. S. 1989. Use of earthworm biotechnology for the management of
effluents from intensively housed livestock. In : Outlook on Agriculture: 72-75.
Pergamon Press, Great Britain.
Ireland, M. P. 1977. Heavy worms. New Sci., 76 (1076) : 486-487.
Joshi, N. V. & Kelkar, B. V. 1952. Role of earthworms in soil fertility. Indian J. Agric. Sci.,
72: 189-196.
Kale, R. D. 1986.. Earthworm feed for poUltry and aquaculture. In : Proc. Nat. Semi. Org. Waste
Utilize Vermicomp., Part B, Verms and Vermicomposting : 137-146. (Eds.) M. C.
Dash, B. K. Senapati and P. C. Mishra. Sri Artatrana Rout for Five Star Printing
Press, Burla, Orissa.
108 Radha D. Kale

Kale, R. D. & Bano, K. 1985. Laboratory propogation of some indigenous species of earthworms.
J. Soil Bioi. Ecol., S : 20-26.
Kale, R. D. & Bano, K. 1988. Earthworm cultivation and culturing technique for production of
'Vee compo 83 E UAS' 'and 'Vee meal 83P UAS' Mys. J. Agri~ Sci., 22 :
Kale, R. D. & Krishnamoorthy, R. V. 1981. Litter preference in earthworm Lampito mawitii.
Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 90 : 125-128.
Kale, R. D., Bano, K. & Krishnamoorthy, R. V. 1983. Potenial of Perionyx excavatus for
utilization of oranic wastes. Pedobiologia, 23 : 419-425.
Kale, R. D., Bano, K., Sreenivasa, M. N., Vinayak, K. & Bagyaraj, D. J.. (in press). Incidence of
cellulelytic and Lignolytic organisms in the earthworm 'worked soils. In : Proc. X Int.
Zool. Co.llq., Bangalore, 1988 : (Eds.) O. K. Veeresh, D. Rajagopal and Virekhthamath.
"Kale, R. D.,.Bano, K., Sreenivasa, M. N. & Bagyaraj, D. J. 1987. Influence of worm cast (Vee
compo E, UAS, 83) qn the growth and micorrhizal colonization of two ornamental
plants. South Ind. Hort., 3S : 433-437.
Kale, R. D., MaHesh, B. G., Bano, K. & Bagyaraj, D. I. (in press). Influence of vermicompost
application on the available macronutrients and selected microbial populations in a
paddy field. In : Proc. IV Int. Symp. On Earthworms, Avignon, France, June 1990.
Lee, K. E. 1985. Earthworms. Their ecology and relationships with soils and land use. Academic
Press, Sydney.
Mba, C. 1978. Influence of different mulch treatments on the growth rate and activity of,.the
earthworm E.udrilus eugeniae (Kinberg). Z. pjlanzenernachr. Bodenkd., 141 : 453-468.
Mba, C. C. 1983. Utilisation of Eudrilus eugeniae for disposal of cassava peel. In .' Earthworm
ecology, from Darwin to Vermiculture". (Ed.) I. E. Satchell. Chapman and Hall,
London.
Nandeesha, M. C., Srikant, G. K., Basavaraja, N., Keshavanath, P., Verghese, T. I., Bano, K.,
Roy, A. K. & Kale, R. D. 1988. Influence of earthworm meal on growth and flesh
quality of common carp. Biological Wastes, 26 : 188-198.
Nauhauser, F., Hartenstein, R., & Kaplan, D. L. 1980. Growth of earthworm Eisenia /etida in
relation to population density and food rationing. Oikos, 3S : 93-98.
Reinecke, A. J. & Hallat, L. 1989. Growth and cocoon production of Perionyx excavatus
(Oligochaeta). Bioi. Fertil. Soil, 8: 303-306.
Springett, J. A. & Syers, J. K. 1979. The effect of earthworm casts on rye grass seedlings. In :
Proc.ll Australasian Con/. Grassl. Invert. Ecol. : 44-47. (Eds~) T. 1(. Crosby and R. P.
Pettinger. Govt. Printer, Wellington.
Tomati, 0., Galli, E., Grappelli, A. & Dilena, G. 1990. Effects of earthworm cast on protein
synthesis in radish (Raphanus sativum) and lettuce (Lactuga sativa) seedlings. Bioi.
Fertil. Soils, 9 : 1-2.
Viljoen, S. A. & Reinecke, A. J. 1989. The number, size and growth of hatchings of the African
Nightcrawler, Eudrilus eugeniae (Oligochaeta). Rev. Ecol. Bioi. Sol., 26 : 1-12.
Watanabe, H., Hatteri,-!., Yamazaki, K., Takai, R. & Hasegawa, H. 1982. Effect of excrement of
earthworm. on deodorization of ammonia. J. Tokyo Univ. Fish., 69 : 11-18.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Earthworm Resources cl Vermiculture : 109-111, 1993

Vermitechnology in India

B.K.. S, napa Ii
School of Life Sciences, Sambalpur University,
Jyoti Vihar

The availability of nutrients for sustained crop production has become a serious constraint in
agriculture with the increased cost and shortage of fertilisers. The utilisation of organic wastes
through the agency of earthworms is important for developing vermicomposting techniques.
Earthworms could be made use of to meet needs for plant nutrients, recycling of biodegradable
organi; wastes and in solving problems of deteriorating soil conditions. Vermitechnology, is the
method of converting wastes into useful products through the action of earthworms. It comprises
tIb--ee main processes :
1. Venniculture-Rearing of earthworms.
2. Vemnicomposting-Biodegradation of waste biomass in earthwonnic way.
3. Venniconservation-Mass maintenance of sustainability of waste lands through earthwonns.
Utilisiable products and bene{iUr of vermitechnology are waste biomass management, anjmal
protein production, organic pollution abatement, waste land conservation, and land reclamation,
production of. worm-worked manure, soil fertility and enhancement in plant production.

Prospects and Problems of Waste Management and Vermicomposting

Environmental improvement is an accepted national goal. Because of low population and

availability of inexpensive energy and enough raw materials, recycling of used material was not
considered necessary in the past. Moreover, the amount of waste produced was within optimal
,imit and taken care of by nature. Under the present conditions of acute energy crisis and
environmental degradation due to steep rise in population, it is very essential to develop suitable
technology foi' recovery of energy from non-conventional sources like organic wastes which were
once thought to be of no use. The concept of resource recycling is particularly relevant to
agricultural production. The problem of organic recycling in soil improvement and crop production
may be tackled by : (i) improvement in the process of composting by reduction in the processing
pmod and enrichment in quality and (ii) utilisation of av~ilable organic residues and .inorganic
wastes in the natural plant production cycle. Waste biomass from domestic, agriculture, urban and
industrial sources are the main cause of organic pollution in developing countries. A major portion
of refuse, more than 60 per cent, constitutes decomposable materials. In fact, nothing is really
waste and much of the W.lSte is "vegetable matter in wrong place." Today's waste may be a raw
material in the future and waste of one organism may be energy source for another. India produces
about 3,000 million tonnes of organic wastes annually which could be utilised for recovering
important resources like fertiliser, fuel, food and fodder. This huge amount of waste has also the
potentiality to produce 400 million tonnes of plant nutrients besides biogas and alcohol (Dash and
Senapati, 1986).

Expanded by J.M. Julka

110 B ~K. Senapati

There are several way of organic waste biomass treatment and composting is one of the best,
suitable and acceptable way for quality environment. Organic manure utilisation is useful in :
1. Narrowing the fertiliser gap upto about 25 per cent
2. Improvement in water retention capacity and quality of soil by increasing humus content.
3. Besides N .P.K., supply of other essential nutrients,.
4. Reduction in leaching of nutrients.
5. Abatement of organic pollution.
Appropriate disposal of waste is most essential and beneficial from ecological and economical
point of view. Decomposers like earthworms are also "rate-regulators and bio-catalysts at
organismallevel. They stimulate composting both in enhancing manwial value and decreasing
time. Application of vermicomppst and earthworms increases the yield of paddy crops ranging
upto 95% in grains and 128% in straw and root [Senapati et al., (1985)]. Earthworm is physically
an aerator,. crusher and mixer, chemically a degrader and biologically a stimulator in the
decomposition subsystem (Senapati and Dash, 1984). Epigeic (surface dwelling) worms, depending
upon high quality nutrient, are good biodegraders. Vermicomposting, broadly speaking, involves
three main phases :
1. Collection of wastes, shredding, mechanical separation of metal, glQSs, ceramics, etc. and
storage of organic wastes.
2. Composting of organic wastes by earthworms. OrgaIiic wastes may be first utilised for
production of biogas and residual slurry added to vermicomposting beds.
3. Sorting of large undecomposed wastes which can be used for land filling or reprocessing.
Earthworms are harnessed for protein production and vermicompost is used as a
biofertiliser.

Prospects and Problems of Waste Land Management and Vermiconservation

There is no simple and shart term answer to complex and long tenn problem of agriculture.
Long tenn strategies and food security cannot only depend upon industrialised agricultUre which is
energy-wise inefficient and unable to preserve the quality of an ecosystem. Waste lands are
increasing through lack of proper management and amount to about 20 per cent of land surface. If
implications of high doses of fertilisers and pesticides, industrial wastes, irrigation and
deforestation are considered, the proportions of waste lands will increase significantly. This needs
biological ways of improving soil system. Endogeic earthworms are potential conservators of
these systems through their high efficiency of harvesting energy in nutrient poor soil. On the
contrary, epigeic worms do not play any role in soil fonnation "and are of no use in reclamation of
waste lands.
It is well known that earthworms enhance soil fertility, and attempts have been made to
introduce worms in poor soil or to increase their population by adding organic matter or fertiliser.
Earthworms have been used in reclaiming flooded areas that are subsequently drained and put into
cultivation (Edwards and Lofty, 1977). These w.orms have been successfully introduced to newly
established areas of artesian irrigation in U.S.S.R. for improving soil formation.

Vermitechnology Development at Global and National Levels

T.he concept of vermitechnology was started from the middle of the twentieth century. First
vermicomposting plant was set up at Hollands Landing, Ontario, Canada. Since then,
Vermitechnology in India 111

vermicomposting has been earnestly undertaken in the United States of America, Italy, Japan, and
now being initiated in ~rance, Israel, etc. Alongwith success stories, there are also instances like
the Philippines where vennicomposting industries have collapsed because of lack of social
acceptance and extension education. Japan procures about 3000 million tonnes of worms from
U.S.A. to take care of huge paper and spinning mill wastes. Another 180,000 tonnes/year is
required by thousands of eel fanners in that country. Venniconservation of waste lands is of recent
origin and there is a great scope for its development all over the world .
Wonn fanning does not involve a very skilled technology. Women, young, old, handicapped,
literate and iWterate can easily take it up. In India, vennitechnology is still in 'the developing
stage. Dash and Senapati (1988) compared the vennicultural characteristics of 7 Indian ~ies
(including two peregrine and commonly cultured spectes, Eiseniafetida and Eudrilus eugeniae).
Kale and Bano (1986) employed an African wonn, Eutfriluseugeniae, for degradation of organic
wastes. The casts thus obtained were used as bio-organic fertiliser.
Vennitechnology has a bright future in India. Vast resources of unskilled labour and huge
quantities of organic wastes could be tapped for. this purpose. But important problems of
vennitechnology are :
1. Proper species selection.
2. Development of procedure depending on local resources and needs.
3. Integrated agriculture programme alongwith vermitechnology.
4. Land useconsttain and marketing, etc.

References
Dash, M.C. & Senapati, B.K. 1986. Vermitechnology, an option for organic waste management
in India In : Proc. Nat. Sem. Org. Waste Utilize Vermicomp .. Part B. Verms and
Vermicomposting, 157-172 (Eds.) M.C. Dash, B.K. Senapati & P.C. Mishra. Sri
Artattana Rout for Five Star Printing Press, Burla, Orissa.
Edwards, C.A. & Lofty. J.R. 1977. Biology of earthworms. 2nd edition. Chapman & Hall,
London.. .
Kale, R.D. & Bano, K. 1986. Field trials with vermicompost (Vee compo E. 83 USA) an organic
fertiliser. In : Proc. Nat. Sem. Org. Waste Utilize Vermicomp., Part B. Verms &
Vermicomposting, 151-156. (Eds.) M.C. Dash, B.K. Senapati & P.C. Mishra. Sri
Artattana Rout for Five Star Printing Press, Burla, Orissa.
Senapati, B.K. & Dash M.e. 1984. Functional role of earthwonns in decomposer subsystem.
Trop. Ecol., 25 (2) : 54-73.
Senapati, B.K., Pani, S.C. & Kabi, A. 1985. Effects of earthworms and green manuring on paddy
production in pot culture. In Proc. Nat. Sem. current Trends in Soil biology, 71-75,
(Eds.) M'.M. Mishra & K.K. Kapoor, Haryana Agriculture University, Hissar.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

BGI'tlawoqn Resources & Vermiculture : 113-115, 1993

Selection of Suitable Vermicomposting Species under

Indian Conditions

B.K. SIlItJpall
School of Life Sciences. Sambalpur University, Jyoti Vihar

and
J.M. Julia
Zoolopcal Survey of India. High Altitude Zoology Field Station, Solan

Waste materials are increasing enonnously with the growth of human population, agriculture
and industrialisation. ~e disposal of these materials has become imperative for a healthy and
quality environment. In this regard recycling of utilisable wastes is feasible. Preparation of organic
manure from wastes can immensely help in rural based economy. It has been demonstrated that
earthworms can process household garbage, city refuge, sewage sludge and waste from paper,
wool, -and food industries (Hartenstein et al., 1979; Appelbof, 1980; Senapati and Dash, 1982).
~wonns dominate the soil invertebrate biomass (more than 80 per cent) in different ecosystems
of the world. Varions studies on energy channelisation through earthworms in tropical environs
and effect of earthwClrm gut enzymes on the reduction of carbon/nitrogen ratio in soil show that
earthworms can be utilised in the decomposition of waste organic biomass (Dash and Patra, 1977;
Senapati and DasI11982). These organism are able to process 10 to 20% of the net energy input
into an ecosystem which is an indication of their impOrtance in the decomposer subecosystem
(Senapati and Dash 1984). Vennicomposting is earthwormic way of sanitation measure for waste
biomass. More than 500 species of earthworms occur in India. Out of these, vermicomposting
potentiality of only 3-4 species is known. It is therefore, very necessary to tap such potentialities
of sevezal other species for the development of indigenous vermitechnology. It may be possjble to
select suitable vennicomposting species for different Inqian regions with distinctive climates.

Biological Scaling Metbod of Selection

Functional capability of an organism can be measured by biological scaling procedure.
Analysis--of interspecific variations in earthworms, determination of their life cycle strategy~
selection pressure and niche segregation will provide useful information for vermiculture,
vennicomposting and vennifeed preparation.
1. Allometry: This relates to relationship between the body size and various biological
tunc.lions. Byzova (1965) reports an allometric relationship between the bOdy size and rate of
respiration among 6 species of earthworms. A hiSh correlation between oxygen consumption and
size of pigmented species of earthwonns has been observed. On the contrary, this correlation for
the unpigmented species is insignificant Further, small sized pigmented worms with higher
metabolic level show a horizontal rpigration in surface soil as compared to large sized
unpigmented ones. Size relationship of earthworms with pH tolerance, sensitivity to ultraviolet
rays, nitrogenous excretion and resistence to desiccation have also been demonstrated. Allometric
scaling of poikilotherms like earthworms could be made use of in predicting their potentiality and
application.
114 B.K. Senapati & J .M. Julka

2. Trophic study: Decomposers have ~enerally been classified as carnivores, microbivores,

and saprovores. They are also subdivided into necrotrophs, biotrophs and saprotrophs. This
classification refers to dynamic relationship between a decomposer and its food. Necrotrophs
include some herbivores, plant parasitic microbes, predators and microtrophs, and have a strategy
of short term exploitation of living organisms which results in rapid depletion of food resources.
BiotrophS (root feeding nematodes, etc.) have a long term exploitation of their living food sources
that is dependent on continuous existence of the host. Saprotrophs utilise dead food and majority
of decomposers fall under this category. Trophic charncteristics of different forins of earthworms as
categorised by Bouche (1977) can be recognised. Epigeic worms are phytophagous, endogeic
worms are geophagous and aneciques being phytogeophagous.

3. Niche segregation: Niche was first viewed as the ultimate distributional unit.
Ecologically, it was defined as the functional role and position of the organism in its community.
Recently, Pianka (1978) has defined the niche as 'all the various ways in which a given
organismatic unit conforms to its particular environment (an organismatic unit is an individual, a
population or a species).' Studies on niche segregation of phytophagous, geophagous and
phytogeophagous earthworms are useful in identifying suitable species for vermiculture.

4. Selection pressure: Ecological studies show two types' of distinct population growth
equations. Firstly , the populations with unlimited resources and least or no competition, and
restricted to a limited favourable time period having maximum population followed by zero or
minimum population. Secondly, the populations relate to limited resources and severe
competition, and pave "continuous occurrences. The evolution of earthworms and their present day
continuation, recolonisation and establishment are associated with. selection pressure of yarious
environmental parameters. Selection pressure seems to have initially favoured the short life cycle
of surface feeding worms, and must have swung as the climate ameliorated to favour the slow and
resource conserving life style of the soil dwellers.

Ir' - and 'K' - Selection

Several ecologists in rec~nt years tend to determine the life styles of an organism as the
product of one or two kinds of selection, termed 'r' - selection and 'K' - selection (pianka, 1970). 'r'
selection is associated with patchy, heterogeneous, and unpredictable environments with erratic
changes in popUlation size, high mortality counteracted by Iligh reproductive rate, small body size
and rapid development to maturity. 'K' - selection operates in predictable conditions, where
population size is not much influenced by climatic changes, competition is intense and
reproductive rates are low and development to maturity is long as individual body size tends to be
large.

Epigeic or endogeic earthworms are expected to exhibit many of the attributes associated with
'r' selection, e.g. high productivity and fecundity, short life span and high metabolic rate with
small body size. 'r' selected worms are usually early coloniser.s in newly-created environments.
Deep burrowing anecique worms show characteristics of 'K' - selection, e.g. low fecundity, long
life span and low metabolic rate with large body size. 'K' - selection worms rarely leave their
burrows.

Implications of Biological Scaling in Vermitechnology

The small body size of epigeic worms associated with high population density, tum over and
reproductive rate, and exploitative bioenergetics with low duration of incubation and life cycle, and
thriving on high energy substrate are most suitable for vermicomposting. These are also some of
the characteristics of 'r' selection species.
Selection of Suitable Vermicomposting Species 115

An African species, Eudrilus eugeniae, and an European worm, Eisenia fetida, are being
cultured in several parts of the world. These species have also been transported to India, and
Eudrilus eugeniae is being cultured in South India for producing biofertiliser. Initial studies show
that indigenous compost worms like Perionyx excavatus, Perionyx s(lnsibaricus and Dichogaster
bolaw could also be taken up for vermicomposting. Some species of Hoplochaetela,.Drawida,
Lampito and Moniligaster may also be considered for utilisation in vermicomposting. These
species are surface dwellers and deeply pigmented, and morphology of their alimentary canal
(reduced or absence of typlosole) indicated epigeic way of their life. Certain litter dewlling species
of Perionyx, Amynthas and Megascolex may also be used in the degradation of organic wastes.

References
Appelbof, M. 1980. Vermicomposting on a household scale. In : Soil biol.ogy as related to land
use practices: Proc. Vlllntn. Colloq. Soil. Zool., 157-160. (Ed.) E.L. Dindal EPA,
Washington.
Bouche, M. 1977. Strategies lombriciennes. Ecol. Bull. (Stockholm), 25 : 122- 132.
BYZOV8, J.A. 1965. Comparative role of respiration in some earthworms (Lumbricidae,
Oligochaeta). Rev. Ecol. Bioi. Sol., 2 : 207-216.
Dash, M.C. & Patra U.C. 1977. Density biomass and energy budget of a tropical earthworm
population from a grassland site in Orissa, India. Rev. Ecol. Bioi. Sol., 14 : 461-471.
Hartenstein, RN., Edwards, N.F. & Kaplan, D.L. 1979. A progress r~port on the potential use of
earthworms in sludge management. In : Proc. VIII-Natn. Sludge Con! Information
Transfer Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland. .
Pianka, E.R. 1970. On r - and K - selection. Am. Nat.~ 104 : 592-597.
Pianka, E.R. 1978. Evolutionary Ecology. 2nd edition. Harper and Row,New York.
Senapati, B.K. & Dash, M.C. 1982. Earthworm as waste conditioner.lntn. Engin. J., 11 : 53-57.
Senapati, B.K. & Dash, M.e. 1984. Functional role of earthworms in the decomposer subsystem.
Trop. Ecol., 2S (2) : 54-73.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Btlnltworm ResollTces and Vermiculture : 117-121, 1993

Soil Organisms and Their Role in Humification of Organic

Matter

A. K. SII II,.,
Zoological Survey of India. Calcutta

Soil is the portion of loose materials which covers the earth's surface on which the plants can
grow. The organic nutrients, essential for the growth of plants and animals, are derived ftom soi1~
These inorganic constituents occur in the parent rock and dwing formation of soil these are
recombined .into forms useable by large number of diverse organisms (Burges and Raw, 1967;
Kuhnelt, 1976).
The solid phase of soil has two main constituents, namely mineral material, derived from
some parent' material by weathering and organic matedal. Both of the components undergo a
process of decomposition under the action of various physical, chemical and biological agents
(Wallwork, 1970). .

Soil Organisms - the Living Community

me faunal community in soil is essentialy formed of the following elements :
Produers
The proper soil does not have the producer which can ~ui1d up organic material out of
inorganic matters. The soil surface and the top layers contain autotrophic plants ~uch as .green
algae,. blue-green algae and other micro forms.
Primary consumers
Herbivores: They are poorly represented in the soil. However, some Protozoa (Amoeba,
thecamoebae), snails of the genus Carychium and some mites are essentially recognised as alg~e
feeders. The tardigrades feed on moss~ Some hemipteran insects and nematodes are efficient root
suckers. There are other insects like mole crickets, fly and beetles larvae, wire worms and
myriapods which are considered as root nibblers.
Fungus1eeders : The mycelia are eaten by a variety of animals like nematodes, some snails and
slugs, some myriapods, collembola; a few beetles and oribatidmites.
Bacteria1eeders : Many soil Protozoa and nematodes prefer defmite species of bacteria.
DetritiJlores
Primary decomposers: The bacteria, fungi, Protozoa, some dipteran larvae, Isopoda, Mites,
nematodes, etc. play very important role as detritivores.
Secondary decomposers : The droppings of all the digesters of fresh plant litter are f~er
decomposed by the secondary decomposers. This group includes earthworms, enchytraeids,
diplopods, Collembola and some Diptera-larvae.
Secondary consumers
Carnivores: A number of soil organisms are carnivores. The most important of these are
predaceous Protozoa, enchytraeids, nematodes, mesostigmatid mites, tabanid larvae, snails, beetles,
pseudoscorpions, spiders, etc.
118 A. K. Sanyal

Organic Matter in Soil

The organic matter, the plant and animal materials, ranges from bacteria, fungal hyphae, soft
leaf tissues to tough woody substances, single celled Protozoa, nematodes, soft-bodied worms and
insect larvae, arthropods with tough exoskeletons to large vertebrate animals and excreta. These
complex substances are usually made up of carbohydrates, simple sugars, starch, cellulose,
hemicellulose, pectins, gums, mucilage, proteins, fats, oils, waxes, resins, alcohols, aldehydes,
ketones, organic acids,lignin, phenols, tannins, hydrocarbOns, alkaloids, pigments and many other
products.

Decomposition of Organic Matter

Decomposition may be defined as the mechanical disintegration of dead plant or animal
remains leading to the formation of humus, when the gross cell structure is no longer
recognisable. It may otherwise be clarified as breaking down of complex organic molecules to
carbohydmtes, water and mineral components.
Processes of Decomposition :" The decomposition of organic matter depends on the physico-
chemical conditions of the sub-soil as well as on the nature of the organic matter (Dickinson and
Pugh, 1974). In wet spOngy ground where water prevents access of suft;icient air, the process of
decomposition is very slow and incomplete resulting in the formation of peat and undecomposed
residues accumulate over parent rock. In other case where the condition is opposite to that of peat
formation, the process is known as decay. It is carried out by various organisms like bacteria and
beetles. The"third category of decomposition is known as putrefaction and occurs in a condition
where water is abundantly present and air has little or no access. The fourth and the most effective
process of decomposition is humification where organic matter decomposes in the presen~e of
adequate water and air. The end product of the transfonnation is a complex substance called humus.
. Phases of Decomposition : The plants and small animals having soft tissues are usually
decomposed by soil microflora. The tougher and chemically stable tissues are broken down by the
action of both soil fauna and microflora (Seastedt, 1984)" The organic matter may be decomposed
at the soil surface or incorporated directly into the soil for decomposition.
Decomposition of Plant Organic Matter: The chemical constituents of plant litter are
generally categorised into ce~ulose, hemicellulose, lignin, water soluble sugars, amino acids and
aliphatic acids, ether and alcohol-soluble fats, oils, waxes, resins, pigments and proteins.
The phyIIoplane fungi attack easily decomposable sugars in the leaf surface. As a result the
leaf becomes senescent, the fungi containing cutinase, pectinase and cellulase penetrate the cuticle
and disintegrate the cell walls. Micro-organisms like'bacteria (Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter,
Clestridium, Bacillus, Aerobacter, etc.) and fungi (Aspergillus, Mucor, Penicillium, Trichoderma.
Cladosporium, etc.) attack the accumulated leaf litter on the forest floor which darkens and
becomes weathered. The wQter soluable substances, mainly sugars, organic acids and polyphenols
are leached into the soil.
As the amount of water soluable polyphenols becomes less due to weathering, the litter
becomes more palatable to other decomposers. The palatability varies greatly among the soil
invertebrates. Increase in polyphenolic materials precipitate protein complexes in leaves and make
them less digestable to the soil fauna. If the tannin content is minimum, the phytophagous insects
and earthworms become more active. The microbial activity is followed by mechanical
disintegration of organic matter through the action Qf dipteran larvae, Isopoda, mites, nematodes,
tardigrades, etc. The carbohydrates like starch are broken down chemically to produce earbondioxide
or methane, alcohol and organic aids. rhe lignins are transformed into smaller substances by
bacteria. The protein is split into amino acids which are either utilized by the organisms as food or
are further acted upon by microorganisms giving rise to ammonia and carbondioxide, alcohols and
Role of Soil Organisms 119

organic acids. Oaher ni~geneus substances are also converted by microorganisms into ammonia
and C8Ibondioxide.
The second phase of decomposition starts in the presence of earthworms, enchytraeids,
millipedes, Collembola, some Diptera larvae, rotifers and oribatid miteS. The major role performed
by these soil invertebrates is in the form of fragmentation of litter. During the initial stages of
liuer fragmentation, these organisms provide a inore suitable physical substrate for m,icrobial
growth. However, certain chemical changes occur during litter fragmentation. The enzymes
secreted by the symbiotic gut flora in some invertebrates breakdown cellulose. Some animals
synthesize humic substances in their digestive tract.
The fragmentation of litter further accelerates microbial invasion and tissue breakdown initiated
by the microflora which in turn favours further attack by other soil animals. The microbes again
disintegrate the remaining organic material and a complex substanee, the humus, is fonned and
this process is known as humification (Edwards et al., 1970).
The activities of the fauna and micro-flora are complementary and intricately interrelated. The
number of microbes is high in soils with earthworms. The breakdown of organic matter into
simpler forms and its incorporation into soil largely depends on the feeding by soil animals
alternating with grqwth of ~icroorganisms.

Breakdown of Cellulose, Hemicellulose and Lignin

Cellulose: Nearly 20-40% of litter ~s cellulose (holocellulose), structurally organised in
microfibrils made up of long polymer chains of glucose. Only a few cellulolytic saprophytes can
decompose native cellulose. In the beginning an extra-cellular catalyst, Cit converts native
cellulose to sHorter chains of glucose units, which are hydrolysed by a second extracellular
enzyme, ex, and changed to celloliose, cellotriose or 'cellotetraose. These glucosides are then
further hydrolysed by P-glucosicJase to simple sugars which are metabolised to carbondioxide by
aembes or to organic acids and alcohols bY,anaerobs.
Hemicellulose: There is no structural relationship between cellulose and hemicellulose.
Hemicellulose is named from their occurrence as an amorphous mass around the cellulose strands.
The hemicellulose is broken down by hemicellulose deploymerizing enzymes, secreted by the
microbes.
Lignin : It is considered as the third major constituent of plant litter fonning about 5 % of
succulent plant material and about 15-35% of the woody parts of trees. In fresh plant litter, lignin
occurs in the secondary layers of the cell wall and to some extent in the middle lamella. It is quite
resistant to microbial attack, as it is surrounded by polysaccharides. In the decomposition of
lignin, extensive demethylation occurs forming hydroxyl benzene derivatives which ultimately
produce organic acids and can be utilized by the fungus as an energy substrate. The basidiomycetes,
ascomycetes, actinomycetes and several groups of bacteria are the main decomposers of lignin.

Decomposition of Woody Material

The fresh wood is attacked by the beetles (scolytids, buprestids, cerambycids and curculionids)
and later by dipteran larvae. Some of the beetles carry fungi which proliferate in the wood. The
fungal mycelia move through cracks and often tissues and then insect larvae, especially of the
Scarabaeidae, millipedes and isopods attack the moist tissues. The faeces of these animals provide
physical substrate for microbial growth. Gradually the wood becomes soft, fragmented and
incorporated into the humus layer.
120 A.K. Sonya!

Decomposition of Animal Material

The decomposition of animal material (carrion) is initiated by bacteria which is followed by
the action of flies. the fly larvae bore into the interior and become abundant. They feed on the
materialliquified by the bacteria and the larval skin secretes a bactericidal chemical which inhibits
the bacterial process. The smell emitted from the material attracts other organisms (Protozoa,
nematodes, beetles, etc.) present in the soil. The fly larvae leave the materialbefore.pupa~on. The
other animals also leave the decomposed material and distribute organic residues into the
sUrrounding soil through their droppings.

Contribution of Soil Organisms to the Breakdown of Organic Matter

Soil microorganisms and animals contribute to the breakdown of organic matter in various
ways:
1-. The microorganisms degrade the organic matter through the action of enzymes
secreted by them.
2. Animals disintegrate plant and animal tissues -and provide suitable substrate for
invasion by microorganisms.
3. Animals selectively decompose and chemically change the organic residues.
4. Animals mix th~ organjc matter thoroughly.
5. Animals transfoon plant residues into humid substances.
6. Animals fonn complex aggregate of organic matter with the mineral part 0. soil.

Role of Earthworms in Humification or Organic Matter

Earthworms play an important role iQ the breakdown of plant _litter and incorporate it into -the
soil.
Their contribution may be summarised by the following points :
1. Removal of leaf litter : The lumbricid earthworms (Lumbricus te"estris) are capable of
removing upto 90% of leaf and other litter material through consumption from the soil surface in
temperate regions.
2. Litter burial: The castings of many species of earthworms cover the litter, bringing it
closer to litteI: decomposers. .
3. Fragmentation: The earthworms and enchytraeids fragment the litter material, increasing
the surface area on which others may feed.
4. Incorporation: The burrowing activities help in incorporating fragmented and decomposed
plant material throughout the soil horizons.
5. Effect on the C : N ratio: While passing through the gut of earthworms, the ratio of
carbon to nitrogen in the ingested plant material is lowered, so that it can be directly assimilated
by plants.
6. Effect on the soil microflora : The faeces of earthworms contain more microflora than the
surrounding soil.

Major Factors Influencing Decomposition

Temperature: It greatly affects the growth and activity of soil organisms. It is apparently more
important as an ecological factor for soil fauna as they can respond to temperature changes. Most
of the soil microflora are mesophiles and require maximum and minimum temperature for growth
and activity., The thermophilic organisms also need particular range of temperature for growth.
Role of Soil Organisms 121

There are many observations which indicate that seasonal changes in temperature are related to
decomposition rates.
Moisture : The decomposition process is influenced by the amount of moisture in the organic
mauer as well as in the air. During the drought, decomposition of mull and mor litter is. retarded
8Qd the number of saprophagous animals are reduced. Several groups of organisms depend on
moisture for maintenance of their activity and movement through the soil.
Soil Atmosphere : The aero.1;lic organisms require oxygen for respiration and oxidative
assimilation. Carbondioxide regulates the pH of microhabitats which influences the growth of
many organisms.
pH : 1bere are remarkable differences in. the microflom and fauna of acid and alkaline soils. It is
also obscned that many potential decomposer organisms are less active or inactive when the pH is
below S.O.
LiS ht : This factor is certainly imponaDt for heating the soil but it also direCtly affects the
distribution of soil organisms. The negatively phototactic soil animals are generally absent from
the suiface layer of soil. The growth of some fungi is also affected by light.
Nitrogen content: The decomposers use carbon as an energy source while nitrogen is
assimilated into cell-proteins and omes compounds. Thus in early stages of decomposition high
nitrogen content in the organic matter prompts the process.
Polyphenol content : In plant litter decomposition, the polyphenols play a major role. The
polybydroxy phenols in plants comprise from 5-15% of their dry weight.
References
BlD'ges, A. and Raw, F. 1967. Soil Biology. Academic Press, London & New York.
Dickinson, C. H. &. Pugh, G. J. F. 1974. Biology of plant litter decomposition. Vols. 1, 2.
Academic Press, London & New York.
Edwards, C. A., Reichle, D. E. &. Crossley, D. A. J. 1970. The role of soil invertebrates in turn
over of organic matter and nutrients.. ln : Ecological studies, Analysis and Synthesis, 1,
147-172. (Ed.) D. E. Reichle.
Kuhnelt. W. 1976. Soil Biology. Faber and Faber, London.
Seastedi. T. R. 1984. The role of mioroarthropods in decomposition and mineralization processes.
Ann. Rev. Ent.,. 29 : 25-46.
Wallwork, J. A. 1970. Ecology of soil animals. Mcgraw-hill, London.

Publisher : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

EQ11ltworm Resources and Vermiculture: 123-128, 1993

Myriapods in Relation to Soil : Their Identification,

Collection and Preservation

Villod Khalllla
Zoological survey of India,
Northern Regional Station. Debra Dun

The myriapods form an important group of soil animals comprising mainly centipedes and
millipedes, which occur in association with soil mites, termites, isopods, earthworms,
pseudoscorpions, cockroaches, nematodes and molluscs. They have a tendency to .remain near the
moist surroundings, although - excessive moisture may lead to desiccation and death due to end-
osmosis.
The millipedes cause damage to crops only under forced condition of drought and not by choice
and are, therefore, known as secondary pests. Nevertheless, like earthworms, they have a definite
role in upturning the soil by ingestion followed by defecation, as well as in the disintegration of
humus and decomposition of leaf - litter in agricultural fields. In the absence of vegetable matter
the millipedes consume soil which is rich in decaying organic matter.

Millipedes - As Humus Decomposers

Diplopods are vegetarians and saprophagus. The litter feeding forms are pillmillipedes, Iulids
and flat-back millipedes. The polydesmids or the flat-back millipedes feed on moist decaying leaves
along With soil, while some species feed on dead worms, molluscs, insects and vertebrates. The
humus and the rotting substances in soil have a texture which is preferred by the millipedes to that
of living plant tissues and the animals are attracted to dilute concentration of sugars. Undoubtedly,
the use of farmland manure in humid conditions or growing of some humus producing crops
greatly increases the population of millipedes in soil, particularly if the soil is not disturbed by
ploughing.

Chemical Basis for Consummation of Humus

The preference of decomposing matter by millipedes is co-related with the nitrogen,
carbohydrate and moisture contents of the humus. The micro-biota acts to release available food
substances and decrease the polyphenol and tanning concentrations. The polyphenol and tanning
contents of leaves counters the effect of sugars upon palatability (Sakwa, 1974). The release of
simple sugars in the decomposing tissues serves to increase the palatability of leaf-litters and also
act as an index for the nutritiveness of the food. The millipedes are, therefore, able to assess the
nutritive value of their food in relation to its palatability.

Millipedes Attack Crops Under Forced Condition

The millipedes, like centipedes, remain centered around moist places. The excessive moisture
is, however, dangerous because it causes desiccation and death due to end-osmosis. Under
conditions of drought these animals may attack the tender growing crops for their moisture
requirement, and a return to their normal diet of decomposing matter and humus is most unlikely
due to attraction of sugars in plant sap. This is the reason why the myriapods do not normally
migrate but remain concentrated around moist place or in case they do not fmd vegetable crops of
124 Vinod Khanna

their choice fulfilling their moisture requirements they burrow deep into the soil exhibiting
positive geotaxy.

Millipedes as Soil Turners

While some of the species of millipedes are surface roamers and subsist on top soil, the others
are deep burrowers. Nevertheless, both the categories of species playa vital role in turning over
the agricultural soil, thereby making it more fertile. The presence of organic, matter in the soil
greatly influences the surface or burrowing activity of the millipedes. The burrowing activity is
extensive in poor soils, while higher surface activity' has been reported in soils rich in organic
matter. They assimilate most of the organic matter and defecate the soil al()ng with nitrogenous
excretory products. Like those of earthworms (Kale and- Krisnamoorthy, 1976), the castings of
millipedes are rich in humus, urea and ammonia salts. The excrements contain more humus than
in the ingested' soil. Defecation also dissociates the mineral organic matter complexes from
unavailable form into available form (Bano and Krlshnamoorthy, 19'77).

Classifies tion
Chilopoda, Diplopda, Pauropoda and Symphyla were formerly included under a single class
Myriapoda (Myrias - thread like; pedes . . feet) on the basis of their possessing many legs and the
body presenting two major subdivisions, the head and the trunk. These are now recognised widely
divergent phylogenetically so as to merit the status under separate classes, which alongwith the
Hexapoda are placed in the subphylum Mandibulata with a pair of jaw - like trophic appendages,
the mandibles.

Class Diplopda
The name diplopoda means 'double footed' and most of ,the. segments in these animals are
provided with two pairs of legs, a condition arising to from the confluence of two adjacent tergal
segments. A majority of diplopods are included in the subclass Chilognatha and their integument
is hard and horny,

Subclass 1. Chilognatba Order Oniscomorpha

Family Glomeridae
Family Sphaerotheridae
Order Limacomorpha
Family Glomeridesmidae
Family ~phromiodesmidae
Family Polyzoniidae
Order Colobognatha
Family Pseudodesinidae
Family Platydesmidae
Family Siphonophoridae
Order Ascospennomorpha
Family Chodeumidae
Family Brachychaetomnidae
Family Craspedosomidae
Family Heterochodeumidae
Myriapods in Relation to Soil 125

Order Proterospennomorpha
Family Polydesmidae
Family Cryptodesmidae
Family Strongylosomidae
Order Opisthospermophom
Family Stemmiulidae
F~ily Blaniulidae
Family Iulidae
Family Spirostreptidae
Family Spirobolidae
Subclass Pselognatha , Order Penicilliata
Family Polyxenidae

Class Chilopoda
The centipedes resemble insects more than any other group of land arthropods. They have their
body demarcated into two sub sections - the head and the trunk. The head bears a pair of
multisegmented antennae and tJu:ee pairs of mouth parts. Behind the head is the fIrSt segmen\ of
the body called Basilar Seggtent - containing appendages called,maxillipede or Toxicognaths - a"
name so given for bearing a pair of poisonus claws. The animal captures its prey with the
mandibles, apparently injects the poison through the toxicognaths, immobilisesthe prey. and kills
it At the tip of strong piercing terminal claws are the orifices of the paired venom glands, situated
at the base of the maxillipedes. '
On the basis of the number of body segments and paired legs, the centipedes are differentiated
into four orders belonging to two subclasses. These are :

Subclass Epimorpha Body segments complete at 'hatching time.

Order Geopbilomorpha Body long, thread-like, segme~ts 31-17.1 with
equal number of paired legs.
Order Scolopendromorpha Body long and strong, segments 21-23 with
equal n~ber of paired legs.
Subclass Anamorpha Body segments incomplete at hatching time.
Order Lithobiomorpha" Body not very long, segments 15 with equal
number of paired legs.
Order Scutigeromorpha Body short, segments 15 with 12 pairs of fragile
legs.

In the present communication the author discusses mainly about the centipedes belonging to
the order Scolopendromorpha which is further divided into two families, the Scolopendridae and
Cryptopidae. The members of the family Scolopendridae have four ocellii on each side of the
cephalic plate below the base of ante~ae, while those of the family Cryptopidae are blind.
The centipedes are bisexual but copulation in these animals does not seem to occur in strict
sense. The males deposit their spennatophores on the ground which later. find, attachment to the
female orifice, accidently passing over them. Since the seminal receptacles of the adult females are
always found to contain spemultozoa, the females have repeatedly produced offspring in captivity. ,
126 Vinod Khanna

It, therefore, appears that the centipedes once inseminated carries excessive quantity of sperms,
which may probably last for the life time. Whereas millipedes are known to have internal
breeding. All the centipedes are oviparous and the females exhibit a tremendous amount of parental
care - in guarding their young ones. The eggs are laid in cluster held together by a sticky solution
and female keeps the brood spore enclosed by he.r body and lifted up from the ground within the
legs. If the brooding females are disturbed beyond a certain point the female reacts sharply by
leaving the area immediately to a safer place or failing in attempt would devour the brood hurriedly
but very seldom yielding to the captor. The cannibalism, therefore, is by force and not by choice.

Methods of Collection and Preservation of Centipedes

Collecting centipedes and locating their possible hide-outs/niches requires a bit of skill coupled
with experience. The. centipedes though beautiful in looks and colour are .repulsive in total
appearance. They are found singly under stones, logs, leaf litter, cow dqng, flower pots, bark of
trees, sheath of banana stems, etc.
The most suitable habitat where one can expect to fmd them is an area with optimum moisture
and temperature conditions near a forest patch, around ponds, lakes or river banks or on the hill
slopes, inside termite mounds, etc. They are nocturnal and the most appropriate time for their
collection is either early in the morning or in the evening hours. However, in hills it can 'be
collected throughout the day special.ly on the hill slopes, the area which receives filtered sunlight
through tall trees and the floor is covered with leaf litter and the soil is gravel. The stones or the
other objects when upturned or removed disturb the animals and being photo-negative and
nocturnal they retreat underground and escape in the loose damp soil or leaf litter. They run very
fast in a zig.. zag manner using pebbles, grass roots or humus as cover for their defence.
Cormocephalw dentipea Pocock which is very common in Western Himalaya makes a network of
fme galleries under stones for its activities and escape.

Preservation for the Taxonomic Studies

While collecting centipedes, extreme care is required to be taken to hold the animal gently
through its trunk but fmnly with the help of a long forceps to prevent damage to its body.. If not
properly handled, its walking legs, antennae or anal legs may be damaged or broken; 'thereby
rendering it unfit for taxonomic studies. The centipedes are preserved in 70% alcohol or 2%
formalin. The size of the container should be big enough so that the captured animal can move
freely within the killing reagent before it dies, and it should not get curled up or coiled. The
disadvantage of preserving in small tubes is that it gets coiled, crumpled and when drawn out for
study, the specimen may be damaged.
Specimens preserved in 2% formalin should be washed with running water immediately after it
is brought to the field laboratory, if possible, within 4-5 hours after collection because the animal
preserved in fonnalin for long becomes hard, brittle and difficult for study. These should be
transferred to 70% alcohol for permanent preservation. It is also recommended that a few drops of
glycerine should also be added in each collection tube so that the specimens remain soft and in
perfect or in more or less fresh state at the time of study. To avoid jumbling of specimens due to
shrinking or coiling not more than 2-3 centipedes are preserved in a tube or container.
.
Some Non-Conventional Methods of Preservation
Besides the routine methods of preservation, it is recommended to preserve centipedes by some
non-conventional methods, which though time consuming but are convenient for storage and
economical in the use of preservatives and also cause least damage to the specimens. These
methods are as follows :
Myriapods in Relation to Soil 127

Freshly killed animal is dfawn out of the killing jar and placed singly on one side of the
liiicroscopic slide (if the animal is small in size), stretched straight and longitudinally placed,
keeping the antennae anteriorly, walking legs laterally and anal legs posteriorly directed. On the
other side of the slide the collection label is placed and the slide is gently tied with sewing thread.
In this manner a number of ~pecimens collected from the same or different locality, can be placed
in one large jar filled with 70% alcohol in undamaged and stretched condition for a number of
years. Addition of a few drops of glycerine to the preservative is recommended.
The second method for preservation of material collected in the field is more practical because
large catches from different localities can be placed together but in a slightly different manner. The
freshly killed specimens after being brought to the laboratory are taken out of the killing bottle as
early as possible and straightened with the help of forceps (because it is easy to straighten a freshly
killed one) and placed on a suitably cut square shaped butter paper sheet, which are then again
placed on a thin layer of absorbent cotton also cut squared. It is advised to keep 3 or 4 or even
more specimen on each sheet parallely. The cotton is then rolled along with collection data, like
finger rolls. Several such finger-like rolls, soaked in alcohol can then be conveniently put in any
polythene bag or jars with more preservative in a routine manner. It is also recommended that such
bags or containers be sealed till such time when they are required for study.
Collection for Study in Captivity
For the study of behaviour, ecology or biology in captivity undamaged live" material is
required. They can be kept alive in a container having damp earth and humus also collected from
the actual habitat The animal can be kept alive for a long time in captivity in a large sized gmss
trough half filled with soil as abOve. A wire mesh or a perforated plastic 1id, a sieve or a black
linen cloth tied with thread round the rims of the glas~ trough may be used to prevent the animal
to escape. The soil is then periodically moistened to its optimum requirement. It may be noted
that excessive moisture may lead to fungal infection whereas the lack of it to desiccation. .It is also
advisable to replace the soil periodically. The best food that the centipedes easily take are the
tennites. However, earthworms can also be given. Cannibalism exhibited by the centipedes in
captivity hampers studies on these animals. Due care is, therefore, to be taken in selecting the si2e
of the glass trough as well as the number of specimens and proper amount of food.
Some Interesting Facts and Fallacies About Centipedes
The Name Centipede - A misnomer: 'Centum' means hundred and 'Pedes' means feet i.e.
bundred legs but the number of legs in centipedes varies from 12-171 pairs. All the centipedes do
not have hundred pairs of legs and similarly all the millipedes do not have thousand pair of legs.
The name centipede, therefore, is a misnomer.
Centipede Enters The Human Ear - A Myth : As it is evident from the various vernacular
names that the most common myth about them is that the centipede enters a human ear or a nasal
passage. This is not a fact. the fact is that the animal is nocturnal in habit and photo-negative in
nature. It, therefore, tends to keep itself away from the light to retire in dark places. Then it may
be any dark place, why not a human ear or a nasal passage.
Economic Importance: Their economic importance has not been appreciated despite the fact
that these animals are poisonous and their bite is dangerous. Because of being carnivorous in habit
tile centipedes are predators on many species of pests of crops such as some millipedes, grubs of
some harmful beetles and moths. Even small birds and snakes are reported to have been eaten by
the centipedes. On account of retiring habits the centipede tends to esc,ape notice using poison as
an organ of defence. There are numerous scattered accounts of the ill e~fects of their bite. The
centipede bite may cause oedaema, lymphangites with inflammation of skin and sub-cutaneous
tissue, ulceration and in some cases a localised narcosis takes place. If no first aid is given "a
gangrenous sloughing may also form."
 128 VinodKbanu

Since no vaccine or anti-serum against the venom is available application of Tincture Iodine or
rubbing in of the crystals of Potassium permanganate or Liquid ammonia after making a nick
between the two punctures, is recommended to serve as a fIrst aid. Dressings of Hydrogen peroxide
and fomentation or a hot compression, if necessary, is also advised. Anaesthetics used by dentists
and Asprin and Cortison may be given (Jangi, 1984).
Since the local infection associated with bite is not uncommon, a routine treatment should
include anti-tetanus serum and procaine penicillin (600,000 units). The centipedes otherwise are
not naturally vicious. They will not hann the human being and will try to escape than bite. Even
the largest among them seldom bite unless molested. The best prevention is, perhaps, to stay out
of their way.

References
Bano, K. & Krishnam oorthy , R. V. 1977. Changes in .the composition of soils due to defecation
by the millipede Jonespeltis splendidus (Verhoeft). Mysore 1. agric. Sci., 11 : 561-566.
Jangi, B. S. 1984. Centipede Venoms and poisoning. In : Insect poison.s, allergens, and otht
invertebrate venoms. Handbook of Natural Toxins, Mercel Dekker Inc., New York. pp.
333-368.-
Kale, R. D. & Krishnamoorthy, R. V. 1976. Enrichment of water soluble calcium and carbonates
of soil by the earthworm Pontoscolex corethrus. Soil Biology and Biochemistry.
Sakwa, W. N. 1914. Chemical basis of food preference in millipedes: Myriapodology. Symp.
Zool. Soc., London, 32 : 331-343.

Publisher: Zoological Survey of India, CalcuttL