ENVIS Publication Series : 2/2002

MANGROVES OF INDIA
State-of-the-art report

ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEM CENTRE

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University Parangipettai - 608 502, Tamil Nadu, India 2002 Sponsored by Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India, New Delhi

Edited by Prof. T. Balasubramanian (Director & ENVIS in-charge) Prof. S. Ajmal Khan Compiled by Dr. N. Rajendran - Research Officer Dr. S. Baskara Sanjeevi - Research Assistant Assisted by Mrs. L. Vijayalakshmi - Assistant Programmer Mr. V. Swaminathan - Technical Assistant Mr. B. Senthilkumar - Information Assistant Mr. A. Subramanian - Reprography Assistant Mr. R. Nagarajan - Office Assistant
Front cover : Photo Courtesy Prof. K. Kathiresan

MANGROVES OF INDIA
State-of-the-art report

ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEM CENTRE

(for Estuaries, Mangroves, Coral Reefs and Lagoons)

FOREWORD Mangroves are the salt tolerant forest ecosystems found in tropical and sub-tropical intertidal regions of the world. They consist of swamps, forest-land and water-spread areas. These forest ecosystems support marine fisheries and protect the coastal zone, thus helping the coastal environment and economy. These ecosystems are biologically productive, but ecologically sensitive. Realizing this, the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has taken all necessary steps to conserve and manage the mangrove ecosystems. National Seminar on Ecologically Sensitive Coastal Ecosystems, held at this Centre during March 22-23, 1996, recommended the preparation of Stateof-the-art report on mangroves periodically. Ministry of Environment and Forests (Govt. of India) has published a status report for Indian mangroves up to the period of 1986. A similar report about the mangroves of India covering the works from 1987 to 1996 was published in 1997 by the ENVIS Centre. The present report is an update of the previous one covering works upto the year 2000. Care has been taken to include as many studies as we could gather, yet it is quite likely that we would have missed some. We would be grateful to all the authors and users for their suggestions and constructive criticism so that we can improve the next edition. I profusely thank Dr. Indrani Chandrasekharan, Director, and Dr. D. Bandyopadhyay, Former Director, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India for their sustained support to bring out this report. My sincere thanks are due to Prof. S. Ajmal Khan, Dr. N. Rajendran and other ENVIS staff for critical evaluation of this report. My special thanks are due to Dr. K. Kathiresan, Professor of this Centre for preparing the earlier report and for the suggestions and criticism to the present one. My thanks are also due to Prof. K. Krishnamurthy (Retd.) for critically going through the earlier report. The support rendered by Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India is gratefully acknowledged.
Prof. T. Balasubramanian Director and ENVIS in-charge CAS in Marine Biology Parangipettai - 608 502

CONTENTS
Page No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Introduction Distribution Ecology Microbiology A. Bacteria B. Fungi Planktonology A. Phytoplankton B. Zooplankton Flora A. Flowering plants B. Non Flowering plants Fauna A. Benthos B. Molluscs C. Crab D. Fish/Prawns/Shrimps E. Insects Biochemistry A. Flora B. Fauna Utilization Degradation Conservation and Development Management of Mangroves Recommendations Conclusions References 1 3 8 16 16 20 23 23 26 32 32 36 39 39 42 44 47 51 70 70 77 83 88 93 98 101 102 104

5.

6.

7.

8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

1. INTRODUCTION Mangroves are the tidal forests of coastal wetlands, existing in the intertidal zones of sheltered shores, estuaries, tidal creeks, backwaters, lagoons, marshes and mud-flats of the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. They form an important ecological asset and economic resource of the coastal environment. The mangroves are the most productive ecosystems, which can efficiently fertilize the sea, potentially protect the coastal zone and vitally serve as the breeding and feeding grounds of fishes. The word Mangroves is used to refer to the plants and also to the forest community. To avoid the confusion, Macnae (1968) proposed Mangal as a term to refer to the habitat or the forest community and Mangroves to the plant species. The term Mangrove is used as an adjective like mangrove tree or mangrove fauna (Duke, 1992). The word mangroves is usually considered to be a compound of the Portuguese word mangue (= a type of trees) and the English word groves (= a group of trees). In French, the word manglier is akin to mangue. It is believed that all these words originated from the Malay word, Manggi-manggi(Macnae, 1968). The mangrove forests are sometimes called as tidal forests, oceanic rain forests and coastal woodlands. The mangroves exist under very hostile and inhospitable conditions. The plants which grow there have to encounter higher salinity, tidal extremes, wind velocity, high temperature and muddy anaerobic soil. No terrestrial plant can survive well under these adverse conditions (Kathiresan, 1991; Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). The plants have peculiar adaptations such as support roots, viviparous germination, salt-excreting leaves, breathing roots, knee roots, etc., by which the plants are well-adapted to water-logged, anaerobic saline soils of coastal environment. Also the mangrove plants have great potential to adapt to the changes in climate (precipitation and temperature), the rise in sea levels and to the incidence of solar ultravioletB radiation (Rahaman, 1990; Swaminathan, 1991; Moorthy, 1995; Moorthy and Kathiresan, 1996). Realising the importance of mangroves, the Government of India has introduced a scheme for conservation and protection of the mangrove ecosystem, and set up a panel of experts for the mangrove ecosystem. The first meeting of the panel was held on 12th October, 1976 at National Institute of Oceanography, Goa and subsequently on 19 th April, 1982 in New Delhi. Later, a National Mangrove Committee was set up in the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
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consisting of mangrove experts. As the first step towards the conservation and protection of mangroves, a sub-group consisting of Prof. K. Krishnamurthy of this Centre, Prof. Amalesh Choudhury, Marine Science Department, Calcutta University and Dr.A.G. Untawale, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa was set up by the Ministry which brought out a status report on mangroves in India during 1987. Several symposia/seminars/workshops on mangroves have been conducted in our Country (Table1). Two major publications viz.,1). The mangroves edited by L.J. Bhosale (1986) and 2). A training manual on conservation of mangrove forest genetic resources edited by S.V. Deshmukh and V. Balaji (1994) have been brought out. Another training manual on the identification of flora and fauna in mangrove ecosystems edited by K. Kathiresan (2000) was brought out. A lecture manual on UNU-UNESCO international training course on Coastal Mangrove Biodiversity was prepared by our staff members in 2000.
Table 1. Symposia/seminars/workshops concerned with mangrove held in India
Title of the programme National Symposium of Biology, Utilization and Conservation of Mangroves National Seminar on Mangroves Awareness in India National Symposium on Significance of Mangroves National Seminar on Conservation and Management of Mangrove Ecosystem with special reference to Sundarbans A Three Month Trainers Training Programme Training Programme on Management of Mangroves UNESCO Curriculam Workshop on Management of Mangroves Ecosystem and Coastal Protection National Seminar on Ecologically Sensitive Coastal Ecosystem International Seminar on Mangrove Conservation Assessment & Management Plan Workshop for Indian Mangrove Ecosystem All India Co-ordinated Programme on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity: Training and Capacity Building on Coastal Biodiversity (East Coast) UNU-UNESCO Sponsored Workshop on Conservation of Mangrove Biodiversity
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Year 1985 1990 1990 1991 1992 1993 1993 1996 1997 1997 2000 2000

Place Kolhapur Bombay Pune Calcutta Madras Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam Parangipettai Visakhapatnam Goa Parangipettai Parangipettai

The need was felt for updating the status report as more than a decade passed since the publication of earlier report and much work was done after that. Hence, a report on mangroves was prepared considering the research works carried out in India between 1987 and 1996 and published by this Environmental Information System Centre, Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Parangipettai. This report an update till 2000 is published now. 2. DISTRIBUTION The mangroves grow luxuriantly in alluvial soil substrate, which are fine textured, loose mud or silt, rich in humus and sulphides (Rao, 1987) and they develop in low lying and broad coastal plains where the topographic gradients are very small and the tidal amplitude is large. Their distribution is limited by temperature (Duke, 1992) and they prefer moist atmosphere and freshwater inflow, which brings in abundant nutrients and silt from terrestrial sources. The mangroves occur in sheltered shores as the mangrove seedlings are damaged by waves and currents. Repeatedly flooded but well-drained soils support good growth of mangroves, but impeded drainage is detrimental (Gopal and Krishnamurthy, 1993). Indian mangroves are distributed in about 6,740 sq.km (Krishnamurthy et al., 1987) which constituted 7% of the total Indian coastline (Untawale, 1987). The area-wise distribution of mangrove forests in India has been reviewed (Deshmukh, 1991a). Status of mangroves along the Arabian sea has been reviewed (Untawale, et al., 1992). There are three different types of mangroves in India viz., deltaic, backwater-estuarine type of mangroves existing in the west coast (Arabian), characterized by typical funnel-shaped estuaries of major rivers (Indus, Narmada and Tapti) or backwaters, creeks, and neritic inlets. The insular mangroves are present in Andaman and Nicobar islands where many tidal estuaries, small rivers, neritic islets, and lagoons which support a rich mangrove flora (Gopal and Krishnamurthy, 1993). Of the Countrys total area under the mangrove vegetation, 70% is recorded on the east coast, and 12% on the west coast. The bay islands (Andaman and Nicobar) account for 18% of the Countrys total mangrove area (Krishnamurthy et al., 1987; Kathiresan, 1995a). The mangroves have a vast existence on the east coast of India due to the nutrient-rich alluvial soil formed by the rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadhi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery and a perennial supply of freshwater along the deltaic coast. But, the deltas with
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alluvial deposits are almost absent on the west coast of India, only funnel - shaped estuaries or backwaters are present (Gopal and Krishnamurthy, 1993). The deltaic mangroves on the east coast is about 57% (2,738 km2) of the countrys total area of mangroves. The insular mangroves exist in the Bay islands (Andaman and Nicobar) on many tidal estuaries, small rivers, neritic islets and lagoons, accounting for 20% (383 km2) of total Indian mangroves. However, the extent of mangroves keeps on changing over a period in different states of the east coast and the Bay Islands. The satellite data between 1993 and 1997 revealed a considerable increase in mangrove cover : 31.13% in West Bengal; 25.4% in Bay Islands; and, 12.83% in Orissa and a reduction in mangrove cover in other states: 76.7% in Tamil Nadu; and 20.21% in Andhra Pradesh (Kathiresan, 2000). Intensive and extensive field study on species-wise distribution of mangroves in 7 estuaries viz., Terekhol, Chapora, Mandovi, Zuari, Sal, Talpona, Galgibag and the Cumbarjua canal of Goa was studied. Natural regeneration of mangrove in middle Andaman and Goa has been studied (Kumar, 1998, 2000) and various methods of regeneration of mangroves were described (Kumar, 1999). In Indian mangrove systems, 100% of mangrove species, 92% of other flowering plants, 60.8% of seaweeds, 23.8% of marine invertebrates and 21.2% of marine fish are threatened. Of 35 mangrove plant species, 9 are critically endangered, 23 endangered and 3 vulnerable (Rao et al., 1998). Five hundred species of invertebrates occur in Indian mangroves, but only 42 species have been so for assessd for their conservation status (Kathiresan, 1999a). Recent estimate has indicated that a total area 6,700 km2 has been covered by mangroves in the coastal and estuarine area of India, which shared 7% of total world mangroves (Kathirvel, 1996). The Department of Space (Govt. of India) has mapped the areas under mangroves using satellite data, with 83-90% accuracy. However, the areas under mangroves as calculated from these maps, do not match with earlier data (Table 2). According to the Forest Survey of India, Dehradun, total mangrove area is 4,827 sq.km as against 6,740 sq.km as reported earlier by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (Krishnamurthy et al., 1987). The figures for the total Indian Mangrove area varies from time to time. The low value of mangrove areas as shown by satellite data may be due to the following reasons; (a) reduction in mangrove area (b) mangrove areas smaller than 25 ha are not mapped and (c) mixing of mangroves with adjoining forest area especially in the AndamanNicobar group of islands (RSAM, 1992).
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The Sundarbans in West Bengal has the largest area of approximately 4,250 sq.km (Krishnamurthy et al., 1987; Krishnamoorthy, 1997), which forms the largest block of mangroves of the world taken together with Bangladesh. It is the only mangrove forest of the world having among its denizens, the famous Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris). The Sundarbans of India cover an area of 2,123 sq.km (FSI, 1997). The name Sundarbans may be from the Bengali name Sundari tree i.e. Heritiera fomes or beautiful (Sundar) forests or it may mean both (Krishnamurthy, 1983). The Sundarbans is famous for its richness and diversity of mangrove vegetation with dominant species viz., Avicennia spp., Sonneratia spp., Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops decandra, Phoenix paludosa etc. (RSAM, 1992). The forest is now largely confined to a number of islands situated on the east of the Matlah river (Scott, 1989). Recently, the working plan maps of mangrove forest of Sundarbans, West Bengal were updated (Sudhakar et al., 2000).
Table 2. Extent of mangrove cover in India

* Status Report, Government of India (1987) ** Forest Survey of India (1997)

Andaman and Nicobar Islands harbour a rich diversity of mangroves. Dense mangroves are found on these Islands along the creeks, near bays and lagoons with dominant species - Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Avicennia spp., Ceriops tagal etc. Mangroves occupy an area of about 770 sq. km (RSAM, 1992). Further information on acreage of mangroves on these islands, is provided by Singh et al. (1986), Rajagopalan (1987) and Dagar (1987). Mapping of mangrove has also been carried out on the Andamans and Nicobars by National Remote Sensing Agency (1988). Ranganath et al. (1989) used satellite data to map mangrove distribution on eight Islands
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(Havelock, Peal, Nicholson, Wilson, John Lawrence, Henry Lawrence, lnglish and Outram Islands) in the Middle Andaman. Bagla and Menon (1989) gave a figure of around 66,261 ha of mangroves in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands. The mangrove areas of south Andaman Islands have also been mapped through remote sensing (Krishnamoorthy et al., 1993). The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, located in the northeast Indian Ocean, occupy 966 sq. km of mangrove cover (Krishnamoorthy,1997; FSI,1997). In the Andaman Islands, mangroves occur in 1,150 km area and in the Nicobar Islands, they occur in 35 km2 area. Species of Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Aegiceras and Nypa grow widely and are well preserved in these Islands (Kannan, 1990). In Orissa, the mangroves are present on the Mahanadi delta, the Brahmani - Baitarani delta and along the Balasore coast with dominant species as Avicennia spp., Rhizophora mucronata, Excoecaria agallocha, Ceriops roxburghiana etc. (RSAM, 1992). The mangroves near the mouth of the Mahanadi river form a creek network of the Luna, the Jambu, the Kharnasi, the Khola and the Batighar jora creeks. The creeks are arranged parallel to the coast, inundated by daily tides. The Bhitarkanika mangroves are luxuriant due to the beneficial influence exerted by the Brahmani and the Baitarani rivers and their distributaries and creeks upon the terrain. On Balasore coast, there is no influence of freshwater inflow except in the Dhamra river mouth and hence the salinity level remains high except in rainy months (RSAM, 1992). The mangroves occur in an area of 211 sq.km (FSI, 1997). In Andhra Pradesh, dense mangrove vegetation is found towards coast rather than on shoreland because of the dense branching network of creeks, which exist towards the coast (RSAM, 1992). There are more mangrove vegetation on tidal flats on the western side of the Krishna delta than on its eastern side. Dense mangroves are also seen over recent sand / mud spits on the Nizampatnam bay (RSAM, 1992). Sparse mangroves are found on the eastern side of the Krishna delta. Mangroves in Tamil Nadu exist on the Cauvery deltaic areas. The total mangrove area available in this state is around 383 sq.km (Kathiresan, 1998). Pichavaram mangroves that extend between the Vellar and Coleroon estuarine areas, spread to an area of 21 sq.km (Kannan, 1990). Pichavaram has a welldeveloped mangrove forest dominant with Rhizophora spp., Avicennia marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Bruguiera cylindrica, Lumnitzera racemosa, Ceriops decandra and Aegiceras corniculatum (Kathiresan, 1998). It is a highly
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populated region, but the mangrove is relatively well preserved because it enjoys the status of a Reserve Forest since 1880. These mangroves are noteworthy for their beauty, luxuriance and diversity of species (Meher Homji, 1991). Mangroves also occur near Vedaranyam, Kodiakarai (Point Calimere), Muthupet, Chatram and Tuticorin (Meher Homji, 1991). From Muthupet to Chattram mangrove area, there is mangrove formation with Avicennia marina, growing in brackish water or shallow lagoons (Kannan, 1990). Gujarat has got the second largest area of mangroves, according to the remote-sensing data (Table 2). The mangroves on the Rann of Kachchh are poor along the Kori creek (RSAM, 1992). In the Gulf of Kachchh, dense mangroves are observed around the Patre creek, the Dide Kabet, Valsura, Navlakhi and Kandla and near Mundra jetty. Patches of sparse mangroves are observed near Okha, Poshitra, Pindhara, Dhani, Narara, Sikka, Jindra, Pirotan and near the Jakhau port (RSAM, 1992). The mangrove species - Avicennia officinalis and Rhizophora mucronata - dominate on the Gulf of Kachchh. On Saurashtra coast, mangroves occur only in sparse patches along the creeks on the intertidal mudflats along the Jafarabad creek and the Buthrani creek. In the Gulf of Khambhat, mangroves are distributed along the coast near the Mahi, the Dhadhar, the Narmada, the Kim and the Sena rivers. A small patch of dense mangroves is found on the Aliabet Island. In South Gujarat, mangroves exist near the mouth of the Kolak estuary and a small creek near Umargam. On the Konai creek, mangroves are present scattered (RSAM, 1992). The mangrove cover extends up to 991 sq.km throughout the state (FSI, 1997). In Maharashtra and Goa, mangroves exist especially in large patches along the Mandovi estuary, the Vasishta estuary, the Savithri estuary, the Kundalika estuary, the Dharamtar creek, the Panvel creek, the Vasai creek, the Thane creek and the Vaitarana creek (RSAM, 1992). The mangroves occur over an area of 124 sq.km and 5 sq.km in Maharashtra and Goa respectively (FSI, 1997). Mangroves in the Mandovi estuary of Goa have spread to an area of 2,000 ha and they have distinct zones, which differ in environment, species composition and growth. Goa once had luxuriant mangrove swamps some 20 km inland from the open sea coast during the recent geological past, when the sea level was 1 to 3 m lower than at present (Mascarenhas and Chauhan, 1998). Coastal wetland and shoreline-change mapping of the Maharashtra and Karnataka coast are carried out using IRS LISS II data on 1:15,000 scale.
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Various wetland/landform categories such as mudflat, beach, spit, mangrove, coastal dunes and areas under erosion and deposition have been delineated. The area under mangroves is 222.5 sq.km in Maharashtra and 8.7 sq.km in Karnataka. The classification accuracy of wetland maps is 86% at 90% confidence level (Shreedhara et al., 1997; Tikekar et al., 1997). Present status and management of the mangroves of Uttara Kannada, Karnataka have been reviewed (Sivabalan et al., 1991). Mangroves of Karnataka cover an area of 6,000 ha; of which 1,000 ha are in Uttara Kannada district alone. About 14 species belonging to 9 genera are extensively distributed in the district. The mangrove forest occurs along the northern coast of Karnataka, in the Kalinadi, Gangivali and Agnachini estuaries and at the confluence of the Chakra Nadi, Kollur and Haladi rivers near Gangolli (Parnetta, 1993). In general, the mangroves are only sparsely distributed along the Karnataka coast around 3 sq.km (FSI,1997). Distribution of mangroves in Kerala has been described (Basha, 1991). It is stretching for about 1,000 sq.km a century ago, but is now reduced to just about 17 sq.km in isolated bits at Kumaragom, Dharmadom, Chettuva, Nadakavu, Pappinisseri, Kunjimangalam, Chageri, Veli etc. 3. ECOLOGY Mangroves have been ecologically well-studied (Gopal and Krishnamurthy, 1993) along the Sundarbans (Naskar and Guha Bakshi, 1989), the AndamanNicobar Islands (Singh et al., 1986, 1987; Ellis, 1987; Dagar, 1987; Rao and Chakrabarti, 1987), the Mahanadi delta (Banerjee, 1987), the Krishna estuary (Prasad, 1992), the Cauvery delta (Kathiresan, 2000) and the Mumbai (Bombay) coasts (Ghosh et al.,1994). Distribution of mangroves in relation to soil characteristics has been studied. Illustrations are available for Sundarban forests with soil profile diagrams, soil maps, abundance of mangrove species, the stages of land formation from mean sea level and the siltation patterns or silting activities of the Ganges delta (Naskar and Guha Bakshi, 1989). Ninety five percentage of the river bed vegetation in Sundarban mangrove forest is dominated by Porteresia sp. This results in good primary production, turn-over time and transpiration efficiency of this salt marsh grass. The total net
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production is 426 g/m2/yr. Below ground biomass is 53% higher on an average than the above ground biomass. Turn-over times for above ground and below ground biomass are reportedly 0.55 and 0.75 yr (Jana et al., 1993). The level of nutrients is higher in leaf litter of Avicennia marina than that in other components of litter in a tidal creek of Lothian Island of Sundarbans (Ghosh et al., 1990). Physico-chemical parameters of different mangrove waters have been studied (Bava and Seralathan, 1999) more specifically at the eastern and western sides of the Sundarban mangroves (Matilal et al., 1986). The soils are basically similar on both the sides, except in conductivity, soil texture and NPK ratio. Distribution of the mangrove species in the two sides is however, different. The western side islands are dominated by Avicennia spp. and Acanthus ilicifolius, and the eastern side by Aegiceras majus (Matilal et al., 1986). Ceriops-Phoenix association occurs in elevated land areas and Excoecaria species and Ceriops decandra exist over the entire forest of the Sundarbans (Matilal and Mukherjee, 1989). In Sundarbans, tigers inhabitat the mangrove zone with predominant species of Ceriops and Excoecaria and the habitat is also high in soil salinity (Chakrabarti, 1993). The distribution of some trace metals in the mangrove flora and fauna of Sundarbans has been studied. Among metals, Zn showed high values in all species of plants and animals followed by Cu and Pb (Chakrabarti et al., 1993). Diurnal changes in temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pCO2, and ionic product of calcium carbonate have been studied in virgin and reclaimed mangrove waters of Sundarbans during monsoonal run off. Surface water of both the places are undersaturated with respect to oxygen and partial pressure of carbon dioxide remained high. Lower calcium / chlorinity values than those in the open ocean are obtained (Ghosh et al., 1987). X-ray mineralogical analyses have been made on 107 surface and vibracore samples collected from the Krishna delta to determine whether mineralogical assemblages produce distinct criteria for the recognition of modern deltaic subenvironments. Discriminant function analysis was applied to 69 samples from eight subenvironments (lagoons, river mouth bar, mudflat, barrier island, mangrove
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swamp, foreshore, tidal creek and channel) with 100% classification success when the whole-sample results included estimates of ideal clay-mineral layer types and loss-on-ignition estimate of the organic content. Most of the mineralogical changes can be attributed to grain-size sorting in the subenvironments of the delta. The major factors contributing the success of the analysis are associated with quartz enrichment in the subenvironments falling within the marine-dominated part of the delta and smectite enrichment in the riverine-process-dominated subenvironments (Ferrell et al., 1998). Sediment characteristics of the Krishna-Godavari deltas have been studied. The deltaic sediments of Godavari are finer than those of Krishna. River channel bar, beach, dunes and paleo-beach ridges consist of predominantly sand. Muddy sand is widespread in tidal channels and creeks whereas sandy mud and mud are distributed in estuary, mangrove swamp, lagoon and bay. The submerged beach ridge at a distance of 27 km off Nizampatnam from the present coast in offshore Krishna delta, contains very coarse sediments (Rao and Swamy, 1991). The silt content is high in the sediments on which mangroves grow luxuriantly, in Godavari estuary (Rao et al., 1991). Diurnal variations in hydrological variables and dissolved inorganic nutrients such as phosphate, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia and primary production have been observed in three interconnected biotopes including freshwater, marine and mangrove brackishwater of the Kakinada coastal zone. In both marine and mangrove waters the salinity shows bimodal type of oscilation and the dissolved oxygen content is high in the mangrove waters during day time but decreases rapidly during the night hours. The highest and the lowest concentrations of phosphate, nitrate and nitrite are recorded in the mangrove waters and higher in freshwater zone. The concentration of ammonia is relatively high in the mangrove water. Gross and net primary production in the mangrove water is 4 times higher than in the marine biotope (Selvam et al., 1992). The distribution of mangrove plants in the Muthupet mangrove in relation to the chemical characteristics of the soil with reference to a few important trace metal has been studied. An attempt has also been made to measure some of the ecological parameters used in species zonation. A distinct zonation pattern, in the mangrove community has been linked with the variation in edaphic factors, which are usually associated with the degree of tidal influence (Gunasekaran et al., 1992). Soil salinity is a major factor, responsible for the stunted growth of Avicennia marina along Ennore backwaters (Selvam et al., 1991).
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The grain size, organic carbon, sedimentary sulphur, calcium carbonate, Fe, Mn, Al, Cu, and Hg are analyzed in Pichavaram mangrove for the mechanisms controlling the behaviour of metals (Periakali et al., 2000). Spatial and temporal geochemical variations of various parameters in the water and sediment are examined in the Pichavaram mangrove area (Ramanathan et al., 1999). Influence of UV-B radiation on Rhizophora apiculata has been studied in terms of chlorophylls, their presence in protein complexes of the chloroplast, PSI, PSII photochemical activities, in vitro absorption spectrum of the chloroplast, in vivo and leaf fluorescence and UV absorbing compounds (Moorthy and Kathiresan, 1999b). Seasonal variations in nitrogenous and phosphorus nutrients are noted in mangrove waters of Tuticorin Bay (Manikandavelu and Ramadhas, 1991). The pattern of accumulation of heavy metals in the tissues of Scylla serrata collected from Pichavaram mangroves noticed in the laboratory is similar to that observed in the environment: gill > hepatopancreas > muscle (exposed to mercury); hepatopancreas > gill > muscle (exposed to cadmium and zinc) (Narayanan et al., 1997). Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers are used for determining the genetic diversity of Avicennia marina in India (Balakrishna, 1995). Chouldari of South Andaman is analysed for environmental and ecological parameters (Damroy, 1995a). The air, surface water, and sediment temperatures ranged from 30 to 34.5C and 29.3 to 33C and 29.3 to 33C respectively. The range of pH, dissolved oxygen and salinity are from 7.48 to 8.47, 5.69 to 9.00 ppm and 30 to 34 ppt respectively. Alkalinity and dissolved carbon dioxide ranged from 139 to 172 ppm and 15.5 to 16 ppm respectively. The average NO2-N content is 0.82 g/l and the average PO4 content is 0.31 g/l. The soil is slightly acidic (6.84) and electrical conductivity is high (14.26 milli mhos/cm). Manjeri area of South Andaman has been studied for physico-chemical parameters (Damroy, 1995b). The air and water temperatures ranged from 29.2 to 31.5C and 28 to 31C respectively. The pH ranged between 7.4 and 8.2. The dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide ranged from 5.8 to 6.4 ppm and 8.0 to 15.3 ppm respectively. Salinity ranged between 31.8 and 33.7 ppt. Alkalinity ranged from 136 to 153 ppm.
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Andaman mangroves exhibit higher biomass of 214 t/h than any other mangroves of the world (Mall et al., 1991). In Sundarbans, the biodiversity is rich in the mangrove zone, situated below the tidal level, over other zones, which are frequently inundated (Chakrabarti, 1993). To assess the biodiversity effects, a comparative study has been made in monogeneric and mixed mangrove forests of Andaman Islands. The mixed mangrove forests have high soil respiration rate, faster decomposition rate, and high standing crop biomass (Mall et al., 1991). The litter biomass beneath Rhizophora apiculata in Andamans is significantly related to rainfall and wind velocity (Dagar and Sharma, 1991). The activities of soil enzymes are important in nutrient cycling and have been assayed in 5 major mangroves of South Andaman (Dinesh et al., 1998). A comparative study of the interstitial water of the substratum with the column water as regards the parameters-salinity, temperature, pH, nitrate and nitrite and prawn is conducted in the mangrove, coconut grove and culture pond situated at Vypeen Island, Cochin (Sathyajith and Sampson Manickam, 1993). Sediment texture and size of Kannur mangroves have been carried out (Badarudeen et al., 1998). The content of sand and mud remains almost constant in landward, intermediate and shallow water profiles in the surface and core sediment of Kannur mangroves. The southern part of the Kannur mangroves shows the highest average of sand (68%). The mean size varies between 1.83 and 5.56 in surface sediments and between 2.3 and 5.6 in core sediments. The sediments are generally poorly to very poorly sorted, coarse to very fine skewed and lepto to very platykurtic in nature (Badarudeen et al., 1998). In Cochin mangrove system, Acanthus ilicifolius forms the predominant vegatation (Muralidharan and Rajagopalan, 1993) and the ecological and biological factors that control a Rhizophora dominated community in the Cochin area are also described (Pretha and Rajagopalan, 1993). The heavy metal and phosphorous fractionation geochemistry and textural aspects of sediments in a tropical mangrove ecosystem have been studied. The organic matter concentration ranges from 1.5 to 13.4% and it is controlled by the particle size of the sediments. Enhanced concentrations of heavy metals in the surficial sediments are due to the abundance of greater surface area of fine particles, high organic matter content and flocculation process (Ramanathan, 1997). The Bruguiera occurring in the Cochin estuarine system has been studied with respect to morphological characters, distribution pattern, tree density,
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phenology, germination and growth of seedlings along with physico-chemical properties of the soil, tidal water and litter decomposition rate in that area (Joseleen Jose and Rajagopalan, 1993). The textural and geochemical aspects, and heavy metal concentrations of the sediments of mangrove systems are characterized by the abundance of silt and sand with minor amounts of clay with 5-times greater level of CaCO3. This enhanced CaCO3 content of the mangrove sediments is due to the shell mining activities in the estuarine bed adjoining to the Kumarakom mangroves and it also contributes to a substantial lime muds to the mangrove area (Badarudeen et al., 1996). Soil pH and salinity influence the growth of mangrove plant species: Bruguiera gymnorrhiza is abundant in low saline area and Acrostichum aureum prefers the areas of low pH and salinity in Kerala (Thomas and Fernandez, 1993). Vertical and horizontal distribution patterns of organic carbon in the mangrove sediments have been studied. The concentration of organic carbon varied from 0.17 to 4.05% in the Cochin mangrove area. Organic carbon has a proportional and patent relationship with the finer fractions (silt + clay) of the sediment. Inconsistent pattern concomitant with the inconsistent concentration in accumulation of organic carbon in the sediment with regard to vertical as well as horizontal distribution is discernible in the tidal area of mangrove swamp (Sunil Kumar, 1996). The surface sediments of Veli consist of an average concentration of 2.75% Na and 1.02% K. The contents of Na and K in the surface (Na = 2.14%; K = 1.48%) and core sediments of Kochi (Cochin) mangroves are almost similar. Kannur mangroves exhibit an average of 2.43% Na and 5.36% of K. The mean enrichments of Na and K in the sediment cores (Kannur mangrove stations) KC1, KC 2 and KC 3 are 2.93% and 1.8%, 2% and 4.65%, 2.13% and 1.23%, respectively. The enrichment of K over Na in Kannur mangroves can be either due to the contribution from the mangrove vegetative debris or fixation of these elements in clay minerals of the sediment substratum (Badarudeen et al., 1998). Textural studies of Tellicherry mangrove sediment of Kerala indicate that silty sand is the major textural class in the allochthonous sediments followed by muddy sand, sandy mud and mud (Reghunadh et al., 1995).
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The heavy metals in the mangrove flora and sediments of three mangrove habitats along the Kerala coast have been studied. The analysis of heavy metals indicated a high level of metal pollutants such as Fe, Cu, Zn and Pb in the mangrove habitats of Quilon and Veli, as compared to the relatively uncontaminated areas of Kumarakom (Thomas and Fernandez, 1997). Distributions of organic carbon (OC) and total phosphorus (P) in the sediments of three mangrove ecosystems reveal comparatively higher concentration of OC (4%) than that of Veli (2.6%) and Cochin (3.7%). Total P records the highest concentrations in Kochi (av. 0.395%) compared to Veli (0.055%) and Kannur (av. 0.323%) mangroves (Badarudeen et al., 1998). Effects of heavy metals on growth rate, primary production and chlorophyll content of microalgae are examined. Among the heavy metals, copper is the most toxic and lead is the least toxic heavy metal to both microalgae and natural population of phytoplankton (Ithack and Gopinathan, 1995). The level of nutrients has been studied in several mangrove areas. The levels of organic matter and C, N, P in sediments are more in mangroves than in estuary and in sea (Shanmukhappa, 1987). Similarly, the levels of humic acids (dissolved and particulate) are higher in mangrove waters of Karwar than in estuary and sea (Shanmukhappa et al., 1987) and a negative relationship is reportedly noted between dissolved humic acid and salinity (Shanmukhappa and Neelakantan, 1989). The concentration of humic acids in all the three forms (dissolved, particulate and sedimentary) is reportedly highest in the monsoon (June-Sept.), when the salinity is minimum; while the concentration is reportedly lowest in the premonsoon (Feb-May), when the salinity is maximum. Sedimentary humic acids (SHA) level is relatively higher than the dissolved (DHA) and the particulate (PHA) humic acids except in the monsoon when the proportion of PHA exceeds SHA. This has been attributed to the decomposition of the litter from the mangrove swamps as well as to the freshwater inflow from the upstream region (Sardessai, 1993). In the sediments of Talapady lagoon, Dakshina Kannada, high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen are recorded due to decay of mangrove foliage (Sahoo et al., 1991). Water and sediments have been studied for distribution of organic carbon and nitrogen in Goa mangroves. Suspended matter ranged from 3 to 373 mg/l
14

while particulate organic carbon (POC) from 0.03 to 9.94 mg/l. POC value showed significant correlation with suspended matter. Particulate organic nitrogen (PON) values, however fluctuated in the range of 0.01 - 3.4 mg/l. Organic carbon in the sediment (SOC) varied from 1.7 to 54 mg/g with an average value of 45.6 mg/g organic matter. The values of total nitrogen in the sediments (STN) ranged from 0.3 to 19.3 mg/l. The data indicate that there is marked spatial and temporal variations in the distribution of organic matter in the mangrove environment. The mangroves and their associated biota contribute major portion of organic matter in the mangrove environment (Jagtap, 1987). The Avicennia species are in general more tolerant to salt and organic pollution than other species of mangroves in Ratnagiri, Maharashtra (Sathe and Bhosale, 1991). The life history and chemical composition of Monostroma oxyspermum (Chlorophyceae) have been studied at the mangrove ecosystem of Shirgao creek, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, Terekhol creek, Goa, and Kali estuary, Karwar. This alga can be easily cultivated on large scale as a food source (Geetanjali Deshmukhe et al., 1998). The trace metals Cd, Pb, Zn and Cu have been studied in the sediments of Thane creek. Cadmium is low and lead shows a positive correlation with pH of water and organic carbon of sediment. Salinity and to some extent sedimental organic carbon play a significant role in governing the concentration of copper and zinc, whose fluctations show antagonistic pattern (Athalye and Gokhale, 1989). The nitrogen dynamics of mangroves in Ratnagiri, Maharashtra has been studied by Waghmode (1987). Four mangrove biotopes such as, Cochin, Gulf of Kachchh, Killai estuary and the Andaman-Nicobar Islands, have been comparatively studied for their ecological aspects (Rajagopalan et al., 1986). A study at Thane Railway Bridge and Basseins creeks system of Mumbai reveals a lower level of dissolved oxygen (DO) (2.7 to 4.0 mg/1) and higher values of BOD and nutrients at Thane. This indicates the prevailing unhealthy water quality of the area (Asha Jyothi and Nair, 1999a).

15

4. MICROBIOLOGY A. Bacteria Mangroves provide an unique ecological niche to a variety of microorganisms (Agate, 1991). About 125 species of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, algae) have been identified (Kathirvel, 1996). It is interesting to note that the photosynthetic microorganisms behave like heterotrophs in the mangrove environment. The cyanobacteria and photosynthetic bacteria have to survive in low light or partially dark conditions by utilizing the suspended organic matter, which are available abundantly in the mangrove waters. This unique heterotrophic adaptation of photoautotrophs, is a mechanism of survival in hostile coastal anaerobic and anoxic conditions of mangrove habitat (Rao and Krishnamurthy, 1994). The nitrogen fixation by microorganisms has been investigated in mangroves. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Azotobacter species are reportedly isolated from sediments of Pichavaram mangroves and their counts are more in the mangrove habitat than in marine backwaters and estuarine systems (Lakshmanaperumalsamy, 1987). Three species of Azotobacters viz., A. vinelandii, A. beijerinckii and A. chroococcum are known and assessed for their utility as biofertilizer (Ravikumar, 1995). The counts of nitrogen fixing bacteria in the rhizosphere of mangrove plant community have been quantified in the Ganges river estuary and the bacterial counts are high in inundated swamps and low in occasionally inundated ridges and degraded areas of mangroves (Sengupta and Chaudhuri, 1991). Two halotolerant, nitrogen fixing Rhizobium strains have been isolated from root nodules of Derris scandens and Sesbania spp. growing along the mangrove swamps of Sundarbans (Sengupta and Chaudhuri, 1990). Hydrocarbonoclastic bacterial isolates have been reported from mangals of Andaman (Shome et al., 1996). Nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria such as Aphanocapsa spp., Nodularia spp. and Trichodesmium spp. have been isolated from Pichavaram mangroves (Ramachandran and Venugopalan, 1987; Ramachandra Rao, 1992). The cyanobacterium has the ability to desalinate the sea water with salinity up to 250 g/1, under laboratory conditions. The cyanobacterium, Phormidium tenue is promising for desalinization process (Balasubramanian and Kathiresan, 1999).
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The standing crop of both epiphytic and benthic cyanobacteria is much higher when compared to the planktonic cyanobacteria. Also the standing crop of epiphytic and benthic cyanobacteria is seasonally high during summer and premonsoon seasons (Ramachandra Rao and Krishnamurthy, 1994). Lipophilic extracts of five species of cyanobacteria, isolated from the mangroves, have been tested against the bacteria and fungi for their inhibitory activity. Extracts of Anacystis dimidiata inhibit 7 strains. Nostoc paludosum and Schizothrix sp. exhibit maximum activity against Bacillus subtilis. Phormidium fragile does not show any activity against B. subtilis (Ramachandra Rao, 1994). Phormidium tenue isolated from mangrove and shrimp pond ecosystems has been studied for optimal culture condition to produce high biomass (Palaniselvam and Kathiresan, 1996). Seasonal variations of antagonistic actinomycetes have been determined in selected mangrove ecosystems. The highest number of actinomycetes is present in monsoon. The antagonistic activity of the actinomycetes is shown against 14 test pathogens viz. Vibrio anguillarum, V. cholerae, V. alginoliticus, V. parahaemolyticus, Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Salmonella-I, Salmonella-II, Escherichia coli, Bacillus, Staphylococcus, Rhodotorula rubra, R. marina and Cladosporium. Out of 104 actinomycetes tested for their antimicrobial activity, about 56% exhibit antagonistic effect towards Gram-negative bacteria, 35.6% towards Gram-positive bacteria. 100% of the isolates inhibit the growth of the filamentous fungi (Cladosporium) and 90% of the isolates are reportedly antagonistic towards non-filamentous fungi (R. marina and R. rubra) (Rathna Kala and Chandrika, 1995). The cyanobacterium Phormidium tenue has a potential to enhance the growth and production of shrimp. For example, in Penaeus monodon, the food conversion ratio (FCR) is 0.25 when fed with cyanobacterial (Phormidium tenue) diet as against 0.276 with a commercial feed without the cyanobacterium. Protein content of the shrimp tissue is also increased by 17.5% in the cyanobacterium-fed shrimp. In Penaeus semisulcatus, the FCR is 2.29 when the shrimp is fed with cyanobacterium-rich diet as against 9.36 with cyanobacterium-deficient one (Palaniselvam and Kathiresan, 1998). Several types of microorganisms do exist in mangrove biota. The sulphate reducing bacteria have been isolated from the mangrove swamps of Goa (Saxena
17

et al., 1988; Lokabharathi et al., 1991). Distribution of phototrophic thionic bacteria in the anaerobic and micro-aerophilic strata of mangrove sediments of Cochin has also been studied (Chandrika et al., 1990). Phenolic compounds and bacterial counts have been studied in the Cochin mangrove swamps. The diversity of bacteria and their numbers are higher when phenol concentration is less in the sediment (Imelda Joseph and Chandrika, 2000). Purple photosynthetic bacteria are reportedly isolated from Pichavaram mangrove sediments: two major groups viz., purple sulphur bacteria (familyChromatiaceae, strains belonging to Chromatium spp.) and purple non-sulphur bacteria (family- Rhodospirillaceae, strains belonging to Rhodopseudomonas spp.) (Vethanayagam, 1991). Studies on the growth potential of the anoxygenic photosynthetic purple non-sulphur bacterium Rhodopseudomonas sp. collected from the mudflats of the Pichavaram mangroves reveal that this strain grows well in salinities normally encountered in the marine environment (Vethanayagam and Krishnamurthy, 1995). Besides sulphur bacteria, the iron oxidizing and iron reducing bacteria do exist in mangrove habitat. This type of bacteria is higher in mining areas of Goa than in non-mining mangroves areas of Konkan (Panchanadikar, 1993). The sulphate reducing bacteria reduce the activity of methane producing bacteria. These methanogenic bacteria have been studied for the first time for their distribution and ecology in mangrove sediments of Pichavaram (Ramamurthy et al., 1990). These bacteria are also abundant in marine sediments of Kodiakkarai where Avicennia spp. are predominant (Mohanraju and Natarajan, 1992). Besides all these types of bacteria, fungi-like bacteria namely Actinomycetes do exist in the mangrove sediments of Cochin (Rathna Kala and Chandrika, 1993). The microorganisms inhabiting the rhizosphere and viable counts of bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes populations have been estimated quantitatively and qualitatively. The heterotrophic bacteria identified, belong to five genera Alcaligenes, Flavobacterium, Cytophaga, Vibrio, Aeromonas under the family of Enterobacteriaceae. The fungi isolated mainly are species of Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Rhizopus along Cochin coast. The total microflora shows a seasonal cycle in their counts. The bacterial counts are maximum during the postmonsoon months and the counts of the fungi and actinomycetes are maximum during the monsoon months (Mini Raman and Chandrika, 1993).
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The bacterial load is higher in sediment and water samples than in the gut contents of the polychaete, Ceratoneries costae, the amphipod, Paracalliope fluviatilis (Devi et al., 1986). The hind gut of Telescopium telescopium harbours more heterotrophic bacteria (13.37 x 103 CFU/g) than the fore gut (4.42 x 103 CFU/g) and mid gut (12.65 x 10 3 CFU/g). The percentage contribution of amylolytic, proteolytic and lipolytic bacteria are 53.8%, 23.1% and 23.1% respectively (Prem Anand et al., 1996). Seasonal variation of total heterotropic bacteria in relation to the concentration of tannin in water and sediment samples from a mangrove environment has been studied. There is a negative correlation with tannin levels and microbial counts (Kathiresan et al., 1998). Total coliforms (TC), fecal coliforms (FC), fecal streptococci (FS), salmonellae and vibrios in estuarine, lake and mangrove biotopes of Tamilnadu, east coast of India have been enumerated (Venkateswaran and Natarajan, 1987). Epiphytic bacteria of mangroves have been studied. The bacteria are attached to the surface of green algae like Chaetomorpha crassa and C. linum (Padmakumar and Ayyakkannu, 1986) and to other plants. These epiphytic bacteria exhibit the lowest population on plant surface of Avicennia marina and Sesuvium portulacastrum in premonsoon (Feb-May) and they show the highest population during monsoon (June-Sep) and postmonsoon (Oct-Jan). Leaves of the plant species harbour high counts of Flavobacterium and root and stem of the plants exhibit high counts of Vibrio spp. (Abhaykumar and Dube, 1991). Bacterial flora of mangrove litter fall and underneath sediments from South Andaman has been investigated. Thirty eight bacterial isolates are reportedly present in the sediments of Rhizophora, Avicennia and Nypa species. The cultural, morphological and biochemical features reveal that most of the isolates belong to Bacillus spp. (50%). In addition, Aeromonas, Vibrio, Escherichia, Enterobacter, Corynebacterium, Kurthia, Staphyllococcus, Micrococcus and Listeria are also present. Most isolates are gram positive (76.3%), motile (87%) and fermentative bacteria range from 6.9% to 82.1% for dextrose. Thirty per cent isolates are pigment producers (either diffusible or cell associated). The bacterial isolates show a minimum of 50% resistance against chloramphenicol and a maximum of 100% resistance against polymixin B (Shome et al., 1995). The percentage of agarolytic bacteria is reportedly very low (<1%), though the soil samples are collected periodically from mangrove litter sediments where salinity
19

percentage and other physiochemical characters vary throughout the year (Shome et al., 2000). In another study, the bacterial counts are found to be higher on the fresh leaves of mangroves than those on leaf litters. The high bacterial counts are also found associated with higher leakiness of amino acids and sugar and lower leakiness of tannins (Kathiresan and Ravikumar, 1995a). Lytic activity of gut microflora of the prosobranch Telescopium telescopium collected from Pichavaram mangroves has been studied. Two amylolytic, proteolytic and lipolytic strains are selected for analysis of enzymatic activity when cultured at specified levels of salinity, pH, tannin, Cu and Ni. All strains showed maximum enzymatic activity at a salinity range of 10 - 25 ppt, and alkaline pH. Tannin had a clear effect on the enzymatic activity at higher concentrations. However, all strains showed difference in inhibition of activity at increasing concentrations of tannin up to 100 ppm (Prem Anand et al., 1996). The microbial interrelationship in mangrove sediments does exist between bacteria and actinomycetes, bacteria and fungi, and fungi and actinomycetes. The actinomycetes exhibit antibiotic activity against fish pathogens (Rathna Kala, 1995). B. Fungi Leaf inhabiting fungi of mangrove plants are known. Khuskia oryzae has been reported for the first time from India, among seven species of fungi that exist on mangrove leaf surface of Sundarbans (Pal and Purkayastha, 1992b). There are 2 new parasitic fungi namely Pestalotiopsis agallochae sp. and Cladosporium marinum sp. existing on infected leaves of Excoecaria agallocha and Avicennia marina (Pal and Purkayastha, 1992a). Sixteen fungi are isolated from leaves of mangrove plants of Sundarbans, West Bengal and their growth response to tannin, extracellular pectolytic enzyme (PE) activity and degree of inactivation of PE due to presence of tannin are tested in vitro. Tannin (0.2%) inhibited growth of all test fungi, but low concentration (0.05%) stimulated growth of three fungal species. Enzyme activity in culture filtrates of fungi are also assayed. Phomopsis sp. of Commelinae and P. clerodendrumii show maximum (99%) while Exserohilum rostratum exhibit minimum (13%) reduction in viscosity of their respective culture filterates without tannin. Among 16 fungi, Chaetomium globosum, Curvularia senegalensis and
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E. rostratum are highly sensitive to tannin with a very low PE activity. Significant inactivation of PE by tannin (0.2%) is recorded for all fungi which is maximum (80 - 90%) for tannin sensitive fungi (De et al., 1999). Ten fungal species isolated from the mangrove leaves of Pichavaram are Aspergillus flavus, A. ochraceus, Alternaria alternata, A. tenuissima, Rhizopus nigricans, Penicillum funiculosum, P. expansum, Humicola fuscoatra, Mucor racemosa and Fusarium oxysporum. Alternaria alternata and Rhizopus nigricans are abundant in all the mangrove leaves followed by Aspergillus and Penicillium species and there is a negative correlation found between the fungal counts and leaf tannins (Sivakumar and Kathiresan, 1990). The fungal counts are more on mangrove leaf litter than those on fresh leaves. The high fungal counts on leaf litter are associated with low content of tannins and sugars, high level of amino acids, low leakiness of tannins and sugars, and high leakiness of amino acids (Ravikumar and Kathiresan, 1993). Fungal activity has been studied in an estuarine mangrove ecosystem of Cochin and 31 fungi species isolated from sediment, 27 from decaying leaves, stems, roots and pneumatophores of the mangroves. A few isolates especially Aspergillus candidus, show phosphate solubilizing activity by solubilizing insoluble phosphorus compounds and making them available to other organisms, thus the fungi play a role in the nutrient regeneration of the ecosystem (Prabhakaran et al., 1987). Mycological examination of dead wood, prop roots and seedlings of Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata collected from Pichavaram mangroves has yielded 48 fungal species belonging to 36 genera with Ascomycotina being most prevalent. The number of fungi recorded on prop roots (44) are much greater than that on seedlings (18) and woods (16). The most common and abundant fungus on wood is Lophiostoma mangrovei. Verruculina enalia is most common on prop roots and seedlings. Some of the fungi occur on all the three substrates, but their frequency and percentage occurrence on individual substrates vary. Halocyphina villosa, the only Basidiomycete recorded is more abundant on seedlings, while Monodicty spelagica is abundant on wood, the least on seedlings (Ravikumar and Vittal, 1996). A total of 25 species of fungi, belonging to 15 genera has been isolated from rhizosphere soil of Avicennia officinalis from Alibag, Maharashtra (Nair et al., 1991). The fungal counts in rhizosphere soil are maximum in monsoon and minimum during summer (Nair et al., 1991). Thus salinity affects the fungal populations (Venkatesan and Natarajan, 1987).
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Lower groups of aquatic fungi like thraustochytrid species occur in decaying mangrove leaves (Raghukumar and Raghukumar, 1988). Schizochytrium mangrovei sp. on decaying mangrove leaves has been described from Goa (Raghukumar, 1988). The thraustochytrids (Thraustochytrium striatum and Schizochytrium mangrovei) kill bacterial cells by developing amoeba-like structures and the species also behave like fungus in the breakdown of complex organic molecules (Raghukumar, 1992). Higher groups of fungi from mangrove woods in Maharashtra coast have been reported with 41 species of ascomycetes, 2 basidiomycetes, 12 deuteromycetes with predominanace of Massarina velatospora (Borse, 1988). Massarina velatospora and a new mangrove-inhabiting species, M. ramunculicola sp. have been described from dead mangrove wood (Hyde, 1991). Massarina armatispora sp. a new intertidal ascomycete has been isolated from mangrove wood (Hyde et al.,1992). Other ascomycetes isolated from mangrove woods are Rhizophila marina, Trematosphaeria striatispora, Lineolata rhizophorae, Caryosporella rhizophorae, Passeriniella savoryellopsis and Hypoxlon ocenicum (Chinnaraj and Untawale, 1992). Most of the woodrotting fungi contain laccase, one of the major lignin-modifying enzymes (Raghukumar et al., 1994). Enzyme activity shows positive and significant relationships with organic nutrient forms like organic C, P and S, which indicate that soils with higher organic C stimulate microbial activity and therefore, provide a more conducive environment for enzyme synthesis and its accumulation in the soil matrix of the mangroves (Dinesh et al., 1998). Physiological studies on strain variations have been made in Pestalotiopsis versicolor, isolated from the mangrove plant, Ceriops decandra growing in different localities of Sundarbans (Bera and Purkayastha, 1992). Most of the fungi collected from Maharashtra coast are decomposers of mangrove plants (Ramesh and Borse, 1989). Fungal succession on decomposing pneumatophore of mangrove plants, can be divided into three groups: group1sugar digesting fungi are mainly comprised of zygomycotina which are pioneer colonizers; group-II-cellulose decomposing fungi consist of various ascomycotina and deuteromycotina, and most efficient ones are Chaetomium spp., Fusarium
22

spp., Humicola spp. Penicillium spp., and Trichoderma spp.; group III-lignin decomposing fungi include Alternaria alternata, Graphium spp., Preussia spp., Trichoderma lignorum, Trichurus spiralis and Truncatella truncata. Laboratory studies on decomposition of leaves of Rhizophora apiculata have been carried to assess the role of thraustochytrid fungi in the marine detrital systems. There are two phases of fungal dynamics in the first phase between 0 and 21 days; in the first phase, cellulase producers are formed (Cladosporium herbatum, Fusarium moniliforme, Cirrenalia basiminuta and Halophytophthora vesicula); in the second phase between 28 and 60 days, Xylanase producers (hypomycetes) are formed; and in all ages of detritus, pectic enzymes, amylase and protease are uniformly produced by the fungi (Raghukumar et al., 1994). The thraustochytrid, Schizochytrium mangrovei grows well on both phases of detritus. Fusarium moniliforme and Halophytophthora vesicula cause an increase in detrital protein. All the fungal species enhance the amino acids and Halophytophthora vesicula reduces the phenolics of the decomposing organic matter (Raghukumar et al., 1994). Cirrenalia pygmea, a mangrove fungus, has been grown at various salinities and analysed for its amino acid composition (Ravishankar et al., 1996). 5. PLANKTONOLOGY A. Phytoplankton

The mangrove waters are more productive than the backwaters and estuaries (Bhattathiri, 1992). In Kakinada coast, the productivity is four times higher in mangroves than that in the adjacent marine waters (Selvam et al., 1992). This is attributed to high production of plankton in the mangove waters as the phytoplankton are one of the initial biological components, from which energy is transferred into higher organisms through food web. Biomass and production of phytoplankton of various sizes are important factors, which regulate the availability and diversity of organisms at higher trophic levels. Statistical methods to obtain diversity indices, richness indices and evenness of phytoplankton and zooplankton separately have been used and related them to the ecological parameters in mangrove ecosystems in Cochin area (Shajina and Balan, 1993).
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Marine phytoplankton of the mangrove delta region of West Bengal have been investigated. They show a taxonomic account of 46 taxa of bacillariophyceae, dinophyceae and cyanophyceae (Table 3). The predominant genera found almost round the year are Coscinodiscus, Rhizosolenia, Chaetoceros, Biddulphia, Pleurosigma, Ceratium and Protoperidinium (Santra et al., 1991).
Table 3. Plankton species reported in Sundarban mangrove areas

Source : Santra et al. (1991)

In Pichavaram waters, the phytoplankton of 5-10 m size are important contributors to the primary production (Kawabata et al., 1993). There are 82 species of phytoplankton in Pichavaram which constitute 67 species of diatoms, 12 species of dinoflagellates and 3 species of blue-green algae. The diatoms form the bulk with 72% of the census followed by the dinoflagellates with 15% (Kannan and Vasantha, 1992). Another estimate for the same area reports totally 84 species of phytoplankton comprising 74 species of diatoms, 5 species of dinoflagellates, 4 species of blue green algae and 1 species of green algae. The phytoplankton popuation density has ranged from 25 to 15,84,893 cells/l during 1980-81 and from 12 to 50,11,872 cells/l during 1981-82. Generally, the density
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is high during summer and post-monsoon seasons and low during monsoon periods (Chandrasekaran, 2000). A positive relationship exists between the phytoplankton and the finfish and shrimp juveniles. This indicates that phytoplankton could be one of the major factors influencing the temporal fluctuations of the populations of fish juveniles in this mangrove biotope (Table 4) (Chandrasekaran, 2000).
Table 4. Checklist of phytoplankton collected during the study period at Pichavaram mangrove

Source : Chandrasekaran (2000)

Amongst phytoplankton, Ceratium sp., Coscinodiscus sp., Pleurosigma sp., Chaetoceros sp. and tintinids are predominant. Among the zooplankton,
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copepods are the most dominant, followed by nauplius, protozoea and zoea of crustaceans, lucifer, Oikopleura sp. chaetognaths, planktonic gastropods, fish eggs and siphonophores in Manjeri area of South Andaman (Damroy, 1995b). The phytoplankton analysis has been made on the native species (autochthonous) and migrants (allochthonous). Species which occurred more than 90% are considered as autochthonous species and the rest of the occurrences are related to allochthonous species. Such autochthonous species are Biddulphia mobiliensis, Coscinodiscus jonesianus, Bacteriastrum delicatulum, Chaetoceros lorenzianus, Coscinodiscus centralis, C. eccentricus, Gyrosigma balticum, Navicula rostellata, Pleurosigma elongatum and P. directum (diatoms) and Ceratium furca, Peridinium depressum and Provocentrum micans (Dinoflagellates) (Chandrasekaran, 2000). The dominant allochthonous consitituents are Chaetoceros compressus, Eucampia zodiacus and Rhizosolenia setigera among diatoms; and Ceratium tripos and Dinophysis caudata among dinoflagellates. Freshwater species such as Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillataria, Spirogyra, Navicula and Synedra are seen only during the freshwater influence in the biotope associated with monsoonal floods (Chandrasekaran, 2000). B. Zooplankton The population density of zooplankton varies from 11 to 22, 13,094 organisms/1 for the year 1980-81 and from 15 to 22, 84,020 for the year 198182. Major peaks of abundance are noted during post-monsoon and summer seasons and the lowest population density during monsoon (October-December) (Chandrasekaran, 2000). Totally 47 species/groups of zooplankton have been recorded in the Pichavaram mangrove area. Calanoid and cylopoid copepods are the main constituents of the macroplankton and the dominant species are Acropora southwelli, Eucalanus elongatus, Oithona rigida, O. brevicornis and Pseudodiaptomus aurivilli. The major components of microzooplankton are tintinnids represented by 10 species. Of these, Dictyocysta seshaiyai, Tintinnopsis tubulosa, T. tocantinensis, T. cylindrica, T. minuta, T. uruguayensis, Tintinnidium primitivium are most common numerically. The larval population consists mainly of polychaete larvae, nauplii of copepods, prawn larvae, nauplii and cypris of cirripedes and veligers of gastropods and bivalves and
26

fish larvae. Besides the above forms, rotifers, ctenophores, chaetognaths, siphonophores, hydrozoan medusae and pteropods are also recorded (Chandrasekaran, 2000). Natural phytoplankton communities in Pichavaram have been documented with predominance of Nitzschia closterium, Pleurosigma spp., Thalassionema nitzschioides and Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii (Mani, 1989, 1992). Thirty one species have been identified as bloom formers with a predominance of Rhizosolenia alata f. gracillima in Pichavaram mangrove waters (Table 5) (Mani, 1994). Phytoplankton in Chorao (Goa), west coast are higher in bottom layer than on the water surface and they also show alkaline phosphatase activity (Desai, 1988). Zooplankton constitute one of the important intermediate steps in the food pyramid of mangrove waters. Distribution and abundance of zooplankton have been studied in Hooghly and Saptamukhi river waters, West Bengal (Kundu et al., 1987). Zooplankton in Godavari mangrove ecosystem are composed of 27 groups. In Krishna mangroves, maximum number of groups (22) are observed in summer period and minimum number of groups (6) are recorded in flood period (Ramanamurthy and Kondala Rao, 1993). Community structure of zooplankton at 4 locations, 2 in the coastal waters off Bombay and 2 in interior Thane-Bassein creek system has been studied (Vijayalakshmi et al., 1999). Copepods are the major herbivore community, contributing 76-83% of total zooplankton population. Decapods are relatively more in the outer (av.11%) than in interior zone (av.7%). Population density of carnivores are 2-4 times more in the polluted interior segment. Metal concentrations in the zooplankton have been studied. Among the metals, Cu and Zn contribute 60-89% of the total elements accumulated. In general, concentration of Zn is higher than Cu in different groups. Also levels of Zn in polluted locations are 2 times higher than in the outer zone. The concentrations of metals are higher in gelatinous organisms, which include a variety of carnivores. Metal concentration in copepods is lower than carnivores. The lowest concentration of metals in decapods is attributed to the effective elimination of a part of the concentrated metal through periodic moulting (Vijayalakshmi et al., 1999).
27

Table 5. Bloom-forming phytoplankton species and their cell surface area (m 2 ), number of cells required to attain bloom level and the maximum bloom concentration recorded at Pichavaram mangroves during 1984-86

Source : Mani (1994)

The daytime planktonic composition is rich with phytoplanktonic community and detritus, which is the main source of food for the organisms living in the mangrove ecosystems. The temperature and salinity reflect the conditions of the habitat, while the plankton have direct relationship with the nature of tide, strength of the current and direction of flow. Higher displacement volumes of about 0.73, 0.75, 0.85 ml/m3 are recorded during night with numerical abundance of 27053, 17401 and 18688 no./m3 respectively. The detritus constitute about 50-60% during the low tide period. Among the zooplankton, copepods, larvae of molluscs and polychaetes contribute to the bulk of zooplankton component (Mohan and Sreenivas, 1998).
28

Zooplanktonic larval recruitment of Coleroon estuary occurs due to the influx of Pichavaram mangrove waters during low tide and to the influx of coastal waters at hightide (Ayyakkannu, 1989). There are 35 species of rotifers (Table 6) belonging to 17 genera in Pichavaram mangrove waters with three predominat species viz., Brachionus angularia, B. calyciflorus and B. forficula (Govindasamy and Kannan, 1991).
Table 6. Species composition of rotifers encountered from the Khan sahib canal of the Pitchavaram mangrove area

* New distributional records to Porto Novo; # New distributional record to India Source : Govindasamy and Kannan (1991)

The population density, species diversity, species evenness and species richness of zooplankton have been studied in the Pichavaram mangroves. The zoo-plankton density varies from 200 to 61650 individuals/litre, with the maximum in summer season. Out of 55 species of zooplankton recorded, the copepods are the dominant group (36.5%) (Table 7) (Karuppasamy and Perumal, 2000). A planktonic larvacean tunicate has been recorded for the first time from the mangrove waters of Sundarbans (Singh and Choudhury, 1992a). Zooplankton community of the fringing mangroves along the upper reaches of Mandovi and Zuari estuaries of Goa has been studied. This reveals that the standing stock (biomass) values in the mangroves are low as compared to estuarine and neritic biotopes (Goswami, 1992).
29

Table 7. Zooplankton species recorded in different stations at Pichavaram mangrove waters

Source : Karuppasamy and Perumal (2000)

Forty six species of copepods have been identified, of which, 40 belong to Calanoida with an overall dominance of Acartiidae. Acartia spinicauda, A. centrura and Centropages dorsispinatus are the common species throughout the year at all locations (Table 8). Eucalanus subcrassus and Paracalanus aculeatus are more abundant in the outer zone, while A. tropica is very common in the interior region. Hyposaline species, Pseudodiaptomus binghami malayalus exists
30

from the interior locations particularly during the monsoon months (JuneSeptember) (Neelam Ramaiah and Nair, 1997).
Table 8. Copepod species reported at the mangrove waters of Goa

Source : Neelam Ramaiah and Nair (1997) 31

Microzooplankton of Parangipettai with special reference to Tintinnida (Protozoa: Ciliata: Tintinnida) have been documented (Krishnamurthy et al., 1995). Species composition and abundance of tintinnids and copepods have been studied in Pichavaram mangroves. Tintinnids are the dominant microzooplankters with 50 species and densities ranging from 60 to 44,990 invididuals/m 3. The most important genera are Tintinnopsis and Favella (Godhantaraman, 1994; Krishnamurthy et al., 1995). They also found 40 rotifer species in 17 genera. Except for rotifers, whose populations peaked in the premonsoon and monsoon months, the microzooplankters are most abundant in the summer, corresponding with highest phytoplankton abundance. Copepods are the most abundant group in the mangrove mesoplankton. In the Pichavaram mangrove waters, copepods densities reach 80740 individual/m 3. The genera Acartia, Acrocalanus (Calanoida), Macrosetella and Euterpina (Harpacticoida) and Oithona (Cyclopoida) are the most abundant (Godhantaraman, 1994). 6. FLORA A. Flowering Plants The Indian mangroves comprise approximately 59 species of higher plants belonging to 41 genera and 29 families (Deshmukh, 1991a). Of these, 32 species belonging to 24 genera and 20 families are present along the west coast. The species viz., Sonneratia caseolaris, Suaeda fruticosa, Urochondra setulosa have been reported only from the west coast. An annotated check list of Indian mangroves has been prepared by this ENVIS Centre in 1999. The mangrove flora in the Cochin backwater consists of 10 species belonging to 9 genera and 7 families. Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia officinalis, Acanthus ilicifolius, Derris trifoliata and Acrostrichum aureum occur widely. Rhizophora mucronata is the most dominant species, followed by Avicennia officinalis and Acanthus ilicifolius (Sunil Kumar and Antony, 1994). The east coast of India and Andaman Nicobar Islands have high species diversity. There are 45 species in 27 genera of mangroves in the bay islands (Deshmukh, 1991b). The species like Ceriops decandra, Xylocarpus spp., Lumnitzera littorea, Nypa fruticans, Phoenix paludosa and Cerbera manghas are limited to east coast. The common species in Indian coastline are Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia apetala, Acanthus ilicifolius, Avicennia marina,
32

A. officinalis, Excoecaria agallocha and Acrostichum aureum (Deshmukh, 1991b). Manjeri mangrove area of Andaman is dominated by species of Rhizophora, Avicennia, Bruguiera, Lumnitzera and Sonneratia. The mangroves area that is facing the seafront is less influenced by influx of freshwater (Damroy, 1995b). Totally thirty-seven species of exclusive mangroves and about 25 species associated with mangroves occur in the coastal and inland regions in India (Dagar, 1995). Thirty two species of mangrove and mangroveassociate species belonging to 26 genera and 18 families are reportedly present in Godavari and Krishna mangrove ecosystems (Ramanamurty and Kondala Rao, 1993). Another survey reports 45 species coming under 37 genera belonging to 6 families (Venkanna, 1991). It is interesting to note that Prosopis chilensis, grows in association with Sonneratia and Acanthus (Venkanna, 1991). The typical mangroves, such as, Lumnitzera racemosa, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Rhizophora apiculata are rarely found in the Godavari Delta (Umamaheswara Rao and Narasimha Rao, 1988). Mangrove flora of Andaman Islands has the dominat species of Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata and Avicennia marina (Mall et al., 1985; Jagtap, 1985). The Nicobar Islands of Andaman sea have 10 major species with predominance of Rhizophora stylosa and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Jagtap, 1992). There are 47 species of mangroves and 37 species of other angiosperms in the deltaic regions of the Ganges, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rivers, situated along the east coast of India alone (Untawale and Jagtap, 1991). A rare mangrove species, Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea (Rubiaceae) is reportedly existing in Andhra Pradesh (Venkanna, 1991). Acanthus ebracteatus has been recorded only from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Deshmukh, 1991a). In Andaman Islands out of 32 principal species of Indian mangroves, 13 species are found in the west coast, 23 species are in the east coast and 27 species are found in Andamans, contributing 87% of the total species of Indian mangroves flora (Singh et al.,1990).
33

The fallen leaves from the trees are colonized by microbes which in turn are eaten by protozoans. The enriched biomass of microbes along with organic detritus, gives rise to rich particulate organic matter and this forms 90% of the food for crabs, worms, shrimps and small forage fishes, which in turn form prey to juveniles of large fishes of Pichavaram mangroves (Kathiresan, 1991). A new species, Rhizophora x annamalayana, has been described, as a hybrid between R. apiculata and R. stylosa from Pichavaram mangroves (Kathiresan, 1995b, 1999b). Previously this species was called as R. lamarckii, a hybrid between R. stylosa and R. apiculata (Lakshmanan and Rajeswari, 1983; Muniyandi and Natarajan, 1985). But the Rhizophora stylosa is not existing in Pichavaram (Kathiresan, 1995b). Bruguiera cylindrica (Rhizophoraceae) has been recorded for the first time from the west coast, while it is common on the east coast (Bhat and Untawale, 1987). For evaluating baseline status of mangroves and halophytes around the thermal station in Mumbai, studies have been carried out during construction phase of the power plant at banks of three creeks, namely Dahanu, Danda and Savta. Altogether 7 species of vegetation are recorded, of which Avicennia marina and Aeluropus sp. are widely present. Average height and density of different plants vary between 0.34 and 1.65 m and 8 and 125 per 100 m2 respectively. Diversity indices of the plants vary from 0.67 to 1.47, indicating presence of less number of species and their uneven distribution in different study zones. Plantation and survival of mangrove seedlings on both banks of Savta creek have also been recorded (Ghosh et al., 1996). A few unusual morphological features have been observed in Avicennia alba, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. cylindrica and Ceriops decandra, in mangroves of the Karnataka coast. The features are the aerial roots on trunk up to 65 cm above the ground level, regular dichotomous branching system and not penetrating the mud or becoming prop like structures as in other mangrove taxa (Rao et al., 1987). Studies of leaf anatomy for 13 species of mangroves, belonging to 11 genera and 9 families have led to construct a taxonomic key (Seshavathram and Srivalli, 1989). Besides leaf anatomy, chromosomal diversity has also been studied in three species of Heritiera, H. fomes, H. macrophylla and H. littoralis from Bhitarkanika on the Mahanadi delta of Orissa. The chromosome number is 2n = 38 with minute variation in chromosomal length among the three species.
34

These minutes structural alterations in chromosomes, with regard to chromosome length and chromosome volume play an important role in establishment and adaptability of the species (Das et al.,1994). Twelve true halophytic plants have been studied for their unique foliar anatomical organizations. All of them have thick cuticular, leaf surface covering with sunken stomata in seven species. The stomatal frequency (no/sq.mm) and the pore size (sq. m) are comparatively lower in halophytes than mesophytes. All the species have distinct salt glands over leaf surface as desalination mechanism. The carbon fixation mechanism is typical C3 type with distinct photorespiration (Aloke Brahma and Santra, 1993). Forest structure has been studied in terms of canopy height, tree diameter, mean stand diameter, basal area, basal cover, relative density, relative dominance and stand density in Pichavaram (Kathiresan et al., 1994) and in Coringa mangrove forest, Godavari delta. There is a definite trend in the distribution of mangroves from the mouth of the estuarine region to the inland waters (Azariah et al., 1992). Phenology of mangroves from the west coast of India has been studied (Jagtap, 1986; Mulik, 1987; Mulik and Bhosale, 1989). The flowering in mangroves is controlled by an interaction of temperature and photoperiod condition besides longitudinal differences. In all the mangrove species along the Goa coast, extensive flowering is noticed from March to June and extensive fruiting from April to July. Flowering and fruiting are generally poor or absent from September to January (Mulik and Bhosale, 1989). The floral biology has been examined in relation to pollinators in five mangrove species of the Godavari estuary in southern India (Aluri, 1990). In Aegiceras corniculatum and Lumnitzera racemosa, flowers self pollinate and their pollen and nectar serve as food resource to the insects; whereas Avicennia officinalis and Acanthus ilicifolius need pollen vectors for their reproduction through outcrossing (Aluri, 1990). The members of mangrove vegetation produce large quantities of pollen grains that are liberated into the ocean where the conditions are favourable for their preservation and fossilization. Therefore, the pollen studies reveal the conditions of the mangrove vegetation in the past (Kumaran, 1991).

35

Pollen studies have been made in marine quaternary sediments of Chilka Lake (Gupta and Khandelwal, 1992) and in the Andaman sea (Venkatachala et al., 1992). From the pollen studies, the climatic evolution and sea level changes can also be understood in any region (Caratini, 1992). Pollen studies indicate that the species like Rhizophora existed in Muthupet swamp of Tamil Nadu, some 200 years ago and today this area is monospecific with Avicennia marina (Azariah et al., 1992). There has been a decline in pollen representation of the arborescent genera-Sonneratia and Rhizophora and an increase in the herbaceous taxa such as Suaeda due to selective wood cutting, grazing in the mangrove forest and the widespread development of freshwater damming. Tertiary sediments of landlocked areas of India have yielded core mangrove plants, which indicate the existence of seashore, still more inland than the present coastline at Rajahmundry, Kachchh and Rajasthan (Bonde, 1991). The chemical composition and productivity of the grass Porteresia coarctata from intertidal zone of Cheemaguri creek in western part of Sundarbans have been studied. Average total biomass production of the grass in a tidal creek is 260 g/m2/year (dry wt.). Of the total production, leaves, stems, understems and roots contribute 29.6, 40, 23.9 and 6.4% respectively. Throughout the season, maximum rate of production is during monsoon (0.86g/m2/year) and is higher than the below ground production (79g/m2/year). About 666-kcal/m2/year solar energy is utilized by the plant to produce 177g/m2/year organic carbon (Ghosh et al., 1991). B. Non Flowering Plants Marine algal resources from mangroves have been studied. A total of 32 taxa of benthic algae - 13 species belonging to Cyanophyceae, 12 to Chlorophyceae, 6 to Rhodophyceae and only 1 to Xanthophyceae - are recorded from Sundarban delta (South 24-Parganas) of West Bengal (Table 9) (Pal et al., 1988). Survey and distribution pattern of 67 blue-green algal species in various saline habitats of West Bengal have been studied (Table 10) (Santra et al., 1988). The number of cyanobacteria varies in the same area of mangroves : 13 species (11 genera; Ramachandran, 1982), 19 species (14 genera, 4 families; Ramachandra Rao, 1992) and 24 species (Palaniselvam, 1995; Krishnamurthy et al., 1995) in Pichavaram mangrove forests.
36

Table 9. Species of algae reported in the Sundarban delta

Source : Pal et al. (1988)

Phormidium tenue isolated from mangrove and shrimp pond ecosystems has been studied for biomass production. This species grows well under laboratory conditions in the marine nutrient (MN) medium incorporated with urea (92 g/l), superphosphate (24.7 g/l) and potash (4.94 g/l), maintained at a salinity of 40 x 10-3, pH 8 and light intensity of 160 J/s. Under field conditions, the species does not require any addition of nutrients to the MN medium, but only shaded condition and 15 cm of water depth for better biomass production (Palaniselvam and Kathiresan, 1996). During the culture period, the levels of pigments and photo-chemical activities have also been studied. The trend is similar between the fluorescence excitation of pigments and the production of biomass and that is also similar between the fluorescence emission and the level of pigments such as, phycocyanin and phycoerythrin; but the pattern is not alike between the levels of pigments, their capacity to transfer energy and biomass production are higher in salinity 40x10-3 than in 18 and 100x10-3 grown cultures. Thus biomass and pigment characteristics are highly dependent on salinity and age of culture (Palaniselvam et al., 1998).
37

Table 10. Blue-green algal species reported in the mangrove and coastal

areas of Sundarbans

Source : Santra et al. (1988) 38

Sixteen genera and 22 species have been listed from Bhitarkanika mangroves, Paradeep port area, estuaries of Subarnarekha, Debi, Kusabhadra, Rushikulya and the backwaters of Konarka and Gopalpur coast of Orissa state. The common species are Enteromorpha compressa, E. intestinalis, Ulva fasciata, Chaetomorpha aerea and C. antennina, Rhizoclonium kerneri occurring commonly attached to pneumatophores in the mangroves, Cladophora uncinella in the littoral sandy beds of all the estuaries and Gracilaria verrucosa in restricted patches in the estuaries of Mahanadi and its distributaries. Cyanobacterial species are Aphanocapsa, Chroococcus, Hydrococcus, Dermocarpa, Microcoleus, Lyngbya, Oscillatoria and Calothrix from the coastal mud flats (Adhikary, 2000). 7. FAUNA Mangroves support rich faunal resources (Rao, 1987). The importance of mangrove ecosystems for its potential for fisheries and aquaculture in Sundarbans has been described (Chakraborty, 1995). Among invertebrates, more than 500 species of insects and Arachnida, 229 species of crustacea, 212 species of molluscs, 50 species of nematodes, and 150 species of planktonic and benthic organisms are known from Indian mangroves (Gopal and Krishnamurthy, 1993). Vertebrate fauna is represented by 300 species of fish, 177 species of birds, 36 species of mammals. Twenty two species of molluscs, 50 species of nematodes, and 150 species of planktonic and benthic organisms are also known from Indian mangroves (Gopal and Krishnamurthy, 1993). Forty one species of invertebrates and 52 species of fishes have been assessed, and four species of the invertebrates and only one species of fish are categorized as endangered (Anonymous, 1997). The fauna of Sundarbans has been investigated in detail (Naskar and Guha Bakshi, 1987; Mandal and Nandi, 1989; Ghosh et al., 1990). In the Sundarbans, faunal biodiversity is higher in the vegetational complex situated below the tidal level than other zones, which are above the tide level or occasionally inundated (Chakrabarti, 1986). A. Benthos Fifty three species of macrozoobenthos from six different intertidal biotopes of Sagar Island in Sundarbans through six consecutive seasons have been
39

measured by using Shannon-Weavers method of diversity index and correlated with the major ecological parameters of the study sites viz., salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, organic carbon and texture of the substratum (Chakraborty et al., 1992). There are 17 species of stylet-bearing nematodes in Sundarban mangroves (Sinha et al., 1987; Sinha and Choudhury, 1988). Studies of meiobenthos of mangrove mudflats of Thane creek, south of Bombay Harbour Bay have revealed a dominance of nematodes (78.35%) with insignificant seasonal variations (Goldin et al., 1996). Acanthamoeba rhysodes is a predominant intertidal benthic gymnamoeba in the mangrove ecosystem of Sundarbans of lower deltaic Bengal (Bhattacharya et al.,1987). Macrobenthos in the Sundarban mangroves have been studied. The most common forms are polychaetes, sipunculids, crustaceans, molluscs, nemarteans, gobiids and actiniarians. Polychaetes are the dominant taxa in the creek environment, whereas in the mangroves, sipunculids are the most abundant group (Patra et al., 1988, 1990). Meiofaunal studies have been carried out in mangroves. The meiofauna reduces with increasing depth in the sediment (Ansari et al., 1993). The reducing environment is characterized by high population of nematodes, turbellarians and harpacticoids. The meiofaunal taxa are significantly correlated with interstitial water of the sediment and to the microbial density in mangrove mudflats (Ansari et al., 1993). There are 13 groups and 22 species of harpacticoid copepods (18 genera and 8 families) of meiofauna in the Kakinada Bay (Gautami-Godavari estuarine system) (Kondala Rao and Ramanamurty, 1988). There are 11 major faunal taxa, of which nematodes are dominant in the Bhitarkanika mangrove sediments (Sarma and Wilsanand, 1994). Surface sediment samples, collected within 4 to 13.5 m water depth from Kharo creek Kachchh have been studied for their foraminiferal content. There are 47 foraminifera species, of which 44 are benthic and 3 planktonic. The fauna shows a positive relationship between angular-asymmetrical form and clay fraction in the sediments (Nigam and Chaturvedi, 2000). Depth-wise distribution of macro-invertebrates in sediments of intertidal areas of Cochin mangroves has been studied. The fauna is mainly composed of
40

polychaetes, crustaceans and molluscs. At all tidal levels, the macro-fauna tends to concentrate at the top 0-5 cm layer substratum (65%) and to substantially decrease towards deeper levels. The polychaete, Marphysa gravelyi is abundant below 10 cm depth. The aggregation and coexistence of organisms are perceptible in the top layer (0-5 cm) of soil (Sunil Kumar, 1997). Community structure and distribution of macro-zoobenthos in aquaculture pond in relation to environmental factors have been compared with the macrofauna of mangroves in the surrounding area. Macrofaunal density is 8918/m2 and 5254/ m2 in the pond and mangrove habitat respectively. Polychaetes dominate in the pond (43.91%) and mangroves (41.23%) followed by molluscs and crustaceans. The rich population density and species composition in the prawn ponds, compared to mangroves, is related to the variability in substrate characteristics (Sunil Kumar, 1998). Structure, composition and seasonal distribution of macrobenthic fauna in the intertidal areas of the mangrove ecosystem of Cochin backwaters have been studied. The benthic fauna is mainly represented by polychaeta, crustacea and mollusca. The diversity is higher at Cochin barmouth than at interior areas. Maximum macrofaunal density and dry weight recorded are 8970/m2 and 567.86 g/m2 respectively. Polychaete constitutes the bulk quantity in all the stations studied. Detritivorous benthos are found to be common at all stations and well adopted mangrove habitats (Sunil Kumar, 1995b). Ecological studies on the polychaete fauna of the mangrove areas of Cochin have been made. There are 33 species of polychaetes belonging to 20 genera, and 10 families (Table 11). Among the polychaetes, Marphysa gravelyi, Paraheteromastus tenuis, Nereis glandicincta, Dendronereides heteropoda and Dendronereis aestuarina are found to be the more dominant species. Faunal distribution in relation to the type of sediment shows high species diversity and richness in the sandy substratum, followed by clayey sand (Sunil Kumar and Antony, 1993; Sunil Kumar and Antony, 1994; Sunil Kumar, 1995a). Studies on biodiversity of soil dwelling organisms in Indian Mangroves have been reviewed (Sunil Kumar, 2000). In Pichavaram mangroves, there are 44 macroinvertebrates mostly of estuarine fauna which includes four polychaetes, one bivalve, nine gastropods, three tanaids, four isopods, four amphipods, one cirripede, sixteen crabs, one shrimp and one hermit crab (Kasinathan and Shanmugam, 1986; Sethuramalingam and Ajmal Khan, 1991). Gastropods are getting reduced and Pythia plicata is an
41

endangered species in Pichavaram mangroves (Balasubramanyan, 1994). Amphipods and polychaetes contribute highest percentages in the mangroves. The amphipods are more in number in the premonsoon season and the polychaetes are more in the premonsoon and postmonsoon seasons (Kasinathan and Shanmugam, 1988).
Table 11. Systematic list of polychaete species collected from the mangrove swamps of Cochin

Source : Sunil Kumar and Antony (1994)

B. Molluscs As many as 26 molluscs (15 gastropod species, 10 bivalve species, and 1 cephalopod species) are recorded in the intertidal areas of Sundarbans. The predominant species are Cellana radiata followed by Telescopium (Telescopium) telescopium, Meretrix meretrix, Enigmonia aenigmatica and Dicyathifer manni (Jahan et al., 1990).
42

The invertebrate fauna that includes polychaetes, gastropods, bivalves and sea anemones inhabit the mangrove systems at Thane creek (Athalye and Gokhale, 1998). Seven wood-boring species have been identified in the Pichavaram mangrove forest viz., 5 teredinids: Bankia campanellata, B. carinata, Dicyathifer manni, Lyrodus pedicellatus, Teredo furcifera, and 2 pholads: Martesia striata (predominant) and M. nairi. Among the 12 species of mangroves trees, Rhizophora lamarckii, Sonneratia apetala and Xylocarpus granatum, are highly affected by the borers. Dead mangrove stumps show higher infestation of wood-borers than the live ones. The occurrence of wood-borers is high during July and low in December. Most of the borers are present throughout the year. However, Martesia nairi is recorded only during premonsoon and Bankia spp., are not found in the monsoon (Sivakumar and Kathiresan, 1996). Spawning behaviour of Pythia plicata - an oviparous pulmonate snail, collected from Pichavaram mangroves has been studied under laboratory conditions. The eggs are laid in masses and about 0.5 mm long and about 0.25 mm wide (Shanmugam, 1991a). Other aspects of this species like length and growth (Shanmugam, 1996), histology of reproductive organs (Shanmugam, 1995) and salinity and dessication tolerance and distribution pattern (Shanmugam, 1997) have also been studied. The mangrove ecosystems of Godavari and Krishna support 23 species of molluscs belonging to 20 genera and 14 families (Ramanamurthy and Kondala Rao, 1993). A distinct zonation of fauna exists in mangrove areas of the Cochin estuarine system: Uca spp. in the upper littoral zone; hermit crabs and Nautica spp. in the mid-littoral zone; Cerethidium spp. and Terebralia spp. on the mud-flats; Littorina spp. on the trunks and leaves of mangroves; and the abundant occurrence of larvae and juveniles of prawns and fishes in certain seasons in conjunction with thick growth of filamentous algae in mangrove waters (Rajagopalan et al., 1986). The mangrove mud snail, Terebralia palustris, has been studied in the mangroves of Nizampatnam, in the Krishna estuarine region (Rambabu et al., 1987a). This snail species prefers substrata with mangrove plants. The salt-marsh snail, Melampus ceylonicus from Pichavaram mangroves, has been studied for its
43

larval development under laboratory conditions (Shanmugam and Kasinathan, 1987). Two pulmonate snailsCassidula nucleus and Melampus ceylonicus from Pichavaram mangroves have been studied for their tolerance to salinity, temperature and desiccation (Dious and Kasinathan, 1994). Studies are available on histology of the ovotestis and the reproductive cycle of Cassidula nucleus (Shanmugam, 1998) and age and growth of Melampus ceylonicus using size frequency distribution (Shanmugam, 1994). Edible oyster, Crassostrea madrasensis in and around Tuticorin has been studied in three habitats - coastal (Tuticorin Bay), mangrove (Korampallam creek) and estuarine (Punnakayal) areas. Among the different habitats, the oyster shows a high production rate in the mangrove area (Rajapandian et al., 1990). A mangrove clam, Gelonia erosa has been collected from Chorao, an island situated at the mouth of the Mandovi estuary, Goa. This is a new record from west coast of India (Ingole et al., 1994). Physico-chemical characteristics of the extra pallial fluid of a common tellinid bivalve Macoma birmanica in mud flats of Sundarbans have been studied (Saha et al., 2000). Biology and biochemistry of mangrove bivalve Geloina proxima have been studied from Maharashtra mangrove area (Kale and Pawar, 1996). Molluscs are more diverse than the crustaceans, fish and other kinds of organisms (Chakrabarti, 1986). The seasonal distribution of Saccoglossus sp. in the mangrove swamps of deltaic Sundarbans has significant relation with dissolved oxygen and burrow temperature (Singh and Choudhury, 1995a). In Sundarbans Littorina spp. are common on the trees and not on the ground. Assiminea, Cerithidea and Telescopium are generally encountered on the ground. The abundance of gastropods reaches maximum at creek bank and declines sharply towards the deep forest (Singh and Choudhury, 1995b). C. Crab Ecological studies on the zonation of brachyuran crabs have been made. There are 18 species of brachyuran crabs belonging to 11 genera and four families from Prentice Island in Sundarbans (Chakraborty and Choudhury, 1992a).
44

The mangroves of Sundarban provide a congenial habitat for the mud crab, Scylla serrata. Biology of the mud crab with special reference to sexual dimorphism, morphometrics and habitat ecology is well known (Poovachiranon, 1992; Mahapatra et al., 1996; Nandi et al., 1996). Seasonal abundance and distribution of seeds of mud crab, Scylla serrata in Pichavaram mangroves have been studied. The population of juvenile mud crabs are higher in the seagrass and algal bed areas of the mangroves. The crabs of 20-30 mm carapace width dominate the population in the shallow intertidal zone of the mangroves (Chandrasekaran and Natarajan, 1994). Some possible conservation measures which include a ban on fishing during the spawning season (October-February) and restrictions on capture of immature crab are suggested (Poovachiranon, 1992). The mud crab in the Bay of Bengal region has been reviewed for their resources, culture and marketing (Sivasubramaniam and Angell, 1992). Myopilumnus andamanicus, a new genus and a new species of pilumnid crab of the family Xanthidae, has been described from the mangrove habitat of the Andaman Islands (Deb, 1989). The mangrove crab namely Sesarma brockii, collected from Pichavaram, has been reared from hatching to first crab (Vijayakumar and Kannupandi, 1987a). Similarly with other species of crabs Sesarma edwardsi (Kannupandi and Pasupathi, 1994), Metaplax distincta (Krishnan and Kannupandi, 1987a, 1989), Macrophthalmus depressus (Pasupathi and Kannupandi, 1988a), Metaplax elegans (Pasupathi and Kannupandi, 1988b; Balagurunathan and Kannupandi, 1993). The influence of salinity on the larval development of the mangrove crab Sesarma brockii has been studied in 8 different salinities from 5 to 40 ppt with 5 ppt increment. The larval development is completed in the salinity ranging from 15 to 35 ppt with 25 ppt as optimum. In the lower (5 to 10 ppt) and higher (40 ppt) salinities, complete mortality occurs within 24 hours. Further the intermoult duration of the development is shortest (18 days 10 hrs and 5 min) in 25 ppt (Kannupandi et al., 2000). The acute toxicity and sub-lethal effects of zinc on the larval development of the mangrove crab Sesarma pictum, has been determined. The 96 hrs LC50 for first zoeae, megalopa and first crab are 142, 166 and 170 g/1 respectively.
45

Concentrations of 14.2, 1.0 and 84.2 g/1 are choosen to study their effect on survival and duration of development from first zoeae through first crab. Survival decreases with increasing concentrations and with duration of development. Furthermore, total number of days to attain first crab increases with increasing concentrations of zinc (Pasupathi and Kannupandi, 1989). Four zoeal and a megalopal stages of a mangrove crab, Sesarma andersoni have been exposed to acute and chronic level of the organophosphate insecticide, phosphamidon under laboratory conditions to study the changes in total protein, carbohydrate and lipid contents. The 96 hr LC50 value for phosphamidon is 2.025 g/1. The total protein content decreases significantly (P<0.05) in all the test concentrations in the zoeal and one megalopal stages. Similar decreasing trend is also observed in the lipid content in all the test concentrations (Vijayakumar and Kannupandi, 1989). Larvae of Sesarma bidens have been reared in the laboratory upto megalopa stage under the culture conditions of salinity 25 1 and temperature 28 1C. First zoea reaches megalopa stage in four moults after a minimum period of 10 days. Four zoeal and a megalopal stages are described and compared with other known larvae of Sesarma spp. (Krishnan and Kannupandi, 1987b). Four zoeal and one megalopal stages of the Sesarma andersoni have been reared in the laboratory in different salinities (5 to 40 ppt) to study the influence of salinity on the rate of development and survival (Vijayakumar and Kannupandi, 1987b). The complete larval development of Sesarma pictum from hatching to megalopa is described under laboratory conditions at temperature 29-32C and salinity 25 1 . The larval development includes four zoeal and one megalopa stages and the complete development process in 10 days of duration (Pasupathi and Kannupandi, 1987). The zoeal and megalopal stages of Macrophthalmus erato have been studied under laboratory conditions, and five zoeal and one megalopal stages are found at 25 salinity and temperature of 29C (Pasupathi and Kannupandi, 1988c). The effects of early lack of food on later survival and development duration in the brackishwater crab Metaplax distincta have also been studied (Krishnan and Kannupandi, 1987c).
46

Population ecology of fiddler crabs (Uca spp.) of the mangrove estuarine complex of Sundarbans, has been studied (Chakraborty and Choudhury, 1992b). The fiddler crab population is high in high tide areas, and the barnacle population is high in mid-intertidal areas. The population of barnacle is maximum in May, fiddler crab in February and gastropod in July and all these are minimum in October (Kathiresan et al., 2000) Acute toxicity test (96 hr) has been carried out to determine the toxic effects of the organochlorine pesticides and heavy metals on larvae of crab Macrophthalmus erato. The 96 hr LC50 values are 0.48, 3.2, 90.0 and 152.0 g/l of endosulfan, HCH, copper and zinc respectively for the first zoeal stage. The order of toxicity to the larvae is Endosulfan > HCH > Copper > Zinc. The calculated safe concentrations are 0.0048, 0.032, 0.900 and 1.52 g/l for endosulfan, HCH, copper and zinc respectively (Kannupandi et al., 2000). D. Fish/Prawns/Shrimps Three economically important species of shrimps exist (Penaeus monodon, P. indicus and Metapenaeus monoceros) in the mangroves of Godavari estuarine system. Their larvae migrate and dwell in the mangrove environment. The natural stable carbon isotope ratios have been analysed from the three prawn species occurring in the mangroves, and established the mangroves as primary carbon source (Mohan et al., 1997). Habitat preference of mangrove ecosystem has been strikingly observed in Penaeus merguiensis, Metapenaeus dobsoni and M. monoceros (Parulekar and Achuthankutty, 1993). Similar observation are made in Muthupet mangroves: large numbers of P. indicus, P. merguiensis and M. dobsoni show preference to the detritus-rich muddy substrate, whereas P. monodon does not show any preference and is equally abundant over different substrate types (Mohan et al., 1995). Damroy (1995b) has reported that the Penaeus merguiensis and Scylla serrata are the important species in the Manjeri mangrove area. Juvenile penaeid prawn distribution, composition and density have been assessed, along with environmental factors at three hour intervals during 24 hrs in four different seasons in a Rhizophora mangal at Pichavaram. There is an occurrence of eight species of penaeid prawns with predominance of Metapenaeus monoceros and M. brevicornis during all seasons (Rajendran and Kathiresan, 1999a).
47

Vegetation characteristics have a link with prawn seed resources in the Pichavaram forests. The prawn seed resources in mangrove waters depend on the vegetation and their structural attributes like canopy height, tree diameter and basal area (Kathiresan et al., 1994). Three species of shrimps Penaeus indicus, Metapenaeus dobsoni and M. monoceros form a major portion (99.44%) collected from Pichavaram mangrove forest. Distribution of P. merguiensis, P. monodon and P. semisulcatus are sporadic. Juveniles of M. affinis are only in meagre numbers (Chandrasekaran, 2000). The capture fishery is supported by more than 20 species of penaeids and non-penaeids in Godavari estuarine system. Penaeus monodon particularly, contributes around 4-6 % to the annual fishery in the Godavari estuarine system (Rajyalakshmi, 1991). The penaeid prawn stock of the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries (Goa) comprises 13 species with Metapenaeus dobsoni and M. monoceros, together accounting for 80% of the total harvest (Parulekar and Achuthankutty, 1993). An easy and efficient method of collecting prawn and mullet seed from the intertidal mangrove areas has been suggested (Singh, 1991). Prawn and fish seed resources have been analysed in various mangrove waters (Joseleen Jose and Rajagopalan, 1993); Sundarbans (Ghosh et al., 1987); Pichavaram (Rajaguru et al., 1988; Chandrasekaran and Natarajan, 1993; Rajendran, 1997), Cochin bar mouth area (Mathew et al., 1993), estuaries of Goa (Achuthankutty, 1988; Parulekar and Achuthankutty, 1993), Muthupet, Tamil Nadu (Azariah et al., 1992; Mohan et al., 1995), Godavari estuarine system (Rajyalakshmi, 1991) and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Tahir, 1988). It is experimentally proved that the decomposing leaves of mangroves attract the fishes. There is a greater assemblage of fin and shell-fishes, with the decomposing leaves of mangroves, in all the seasons. In general, the prawn resources increase with days of decomposition, up to around 30-50 days and decline thereafter. The association of fin-and shell-fishes is greater during premonsoon and postmonsoon than in other seasons and is higher with decomposing leaves of Avicennia than in Rhizophora (Rajendran and Kathiresan, 1999b). Mangrove vegetation trap technique has been demonstrated to enhance the catch of fish/prawns in the coastal waters. The total number of individuals per trap collected for 5 days during the experimental period, is 49 and 42 around Avicennia and Rhizophora traps, respectively as against 15 in control waters.
48

Thus there is about 3-fold increase in the number of fishes and prawns adjacent to the mangrove vegetation trap than at control waters (Rajendran and Kathiresan, 1998). Monthly catches for different species/groups of finfish and shellfish and their percentage composition of twelve species of prawns in the Pichavaram contribute over 80 % and the crabs belonging to three species (Scylla serrata, Portunus pelagicus and P. sanguinolentus) constitute 4.1 % of the total catch. The finfishes are represented by 58 species. The contribution of mullets represents 7.1 % of the total catch and 47.9 % of the total finfish catch (Chandrasekaran and Natarajan, 1992). Andaman and Nicobar Islands are rich in fishery potential. It ranges between 0.012 and 0.47 million tonnes per annum (Tahir, 1988). The mangroves of these islands provide feeding and nursery grounds for juveniles of penaeid prawns, crabs and finfishes. The fishery is dominated by catches of sardines, perches, carangids, mackerels, leiognathus, elasmobranchs, seerfish, mullets and tunas (Tahir, 1988). Dynamic behaviour of a detritus-based food chain model of Sundarban estuary has been suggested (Sarkar, 1993). Also silvipisiculture projects is successfully executed in the estuary (Angell and Muir, 1990). Quantitative variation in fish catch at Thane creek and Bassein creeks has been studied. The catch is from 2 to 93.5 kg/h (av. 24.8 kg/h) in Thane creek, and between 1 and 34 kg/h (av. 8.2 kg/h) in Bassein creek (Table 12). Maximum catch is during premonsoon and monsoon periods respectively for Thane and Bassein creeks. The catch composition shows dominance of catfish and sciaenids at Thane creek, while engraulids predominate the collections from Bassein creek (Fig. 1). The overall fishery potential of Thane creek is three times more than the Bassein creek (Asha Jyothi and Nair, 1990). The finfish belonging to the families Engraulidae, Carangidae, Nemipteridae, Gobidae, Gerridae and Chaetodontidae are reportedly present at Manjeri mangrove areas (Damroy, 1995b). Significance of mangroves to fisheries is known (Jeyaseelan et al., 1991). The marine prawn landing data of different maritime states of India correlate positively with the extent of mangrove canopy. Hence, the extent of mangrove
49

cover is vital for the maintenance and improvement of marine prawn stock round the year (Subramanian and Krishnamurthy, 1990).
Table 12. Variation in trawl catch at Thane and Bassein creeks during 1986 - 87

Source : Asha Jyothi and Nair (1990)

Fig 1. Percentage composition of different groups obtained from Thane creek (A) and Bassein creek (B) during 1986 1987 (adopted from Asha Jyothi and Nair , 1990)

50

New records of four species under four genera viz., Amblygobius albimaculatus, Illana bicirrhosus, Stigmatogobius and Oplopomus caninoides have been reported from Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Mehta and Devi, 1990). Fishery potential of the interior Gulf of Kuchchh and adjacent creek regions revealed that inner Gulf (av. 7.8 kg/h) is three times more productive than the creek (av. 2.3 kg/h) in the trawling and gill netting (Vijayalakshmi et al., 1993). In the mullet seed resources of Pichavaram, Mugil cephalus constitutes 33.66 % and Liza spp. 66.34 % (Chandrasekaran and Natarajan, 1993). Ninety per cent of the total catch is contributed by 14 most dominant species. Among these, Liza spp., Mugil cephalus, Chanos chanos, Elops machnata, Etroplus suratensis, Megalops cyprinoides and Lates calcarifer are commercially important ones in Pichavaram. The peaks of abundance of finfish juveniles are observed during summer and postmonsoon seasons with the lowest values during premonsoon (August) or monsoon (October). Juveniles of freshwater species such as Puntius conchonius, P. amphibius, Mystus gulio and Cirrhinus mirgala make their appearance during monsoon and early postmonsoon periods (Chandrasekaran, 2000). Also mangrove waters provide nursery grounds for juveniles of marine flat-fishes (Pseudorhombus arsius, P. elevatus, Brachirus orientalis and Cynoglossus puncticeps) in Pichavaram (Rajaguru et al., 1988). E. Insects Many insects especially honey bees (Apis dorsata and Apis mellifera), weaver ants (Oecophylla sp.) and mosquitoes (Anopheles sundericus, A. indigo, Culex fatigans, C. quinquefasciatus, Aedes butleri and A. niveus) inhabit the mangroves of India (Gopal and Krishnamurthy, 1993; Subramonia Thangam and Kathiresan, 1993a). Dragonflies of the Sundarban mangroves have been reported for the first time, most of the 28 recorded species are common and widespread in the Indias lowlands (Table 13) (Mitra, 1992). A total of 101 species of insects belonging to 9 orders and 42 families have been identified from the Pichavaram mangrove forest. Among the species, 52 species of insects exist in herbs, 23 species in trees, 17 species in soil, 8 species in grasses, and only one species from aquatic habitat (Table 14). A maximum number of 28 species of beetles and 25 species of scale wings followed by 14 species of ants, bees and wasps, 11 species of bugs, 7 species of orthopterans, 7 species of flies, 3 species of dragonflies and only one species of ant lion are found to exist in the forest area. Fifty per cent of the insects are pests of plants or
51

parasites on trees, insects and other animals, while the remaining are beneficial insects (Senthil and Varadharajan, 1995).
Table 13. Species of insect reported to exist in mangrove systems

Source : Mitra (1992)

Table 14. List of insects collected at Pichavaram mangrove forest

S. No. Order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Orthoptera Family Acrididae Species Acridiuma sucinutum A. peregidium A. calanacorne Hieroglyphus farcifer Gryllotalfa africana Necroscia pholidotus Hierodula coarclata Rhyotherns varigata Acisoma panorpoides Aeschinid sp. Murgantia luptescens Pyrops sp. Dysderus cingulatus Salda dixoni Nezuura vurudula Eusarcoris ventralis Manido histero Chrysocoris stolli 52 Herb Grass Grass Grass Soil Herb Herb Grass Plains Plains Grass Herb Plains Wet vegetation Plains Plains Plains Plains

Odonata Homoptera Hemiptera

Phasoidae Mantidae Anisopteridae Fulgoridae Pyrrcohoridae Saldidae Pentatomidae

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Coleoptera

Neuropotera Lepidoptera

HebuciceogakududaeHenicocephalis basalis Damp soil Coreidae Aschishus breviconis Plains Leptocorisa varicornis Grass Scarabaedae Oxytonisia versicolor Grass Heliocopris bucephalus Surface soil Onthophagus longicornis Surface soil O. onitis Surface soil Carabidae Dicrononcus amabilis Herb Phersophus lineiforms Soil Dynastidae Oryctes rhinoceros Tree Cerambicidae Batocera rufomaculata Tree Curculionidae Rhyncophorus feruginus Tree Myllocerus viridanus Tree Calandra sculpturata Tree Tenebriodinae Tribolium castaneum Tree Gonocephalum hfomanseggi Tree Cossyphus depressus Tree Tribolium confusum Tree Mesomorpha villiger Tree Alphitobius piceus Tree Amarygmus cuparius Tree Coccinellidae Ileus cincta Herb Coccinella septempunctata Herb Chrysomelidae Aspidomorpha sanctaecrussisHerb Haltica sp. Herb Lampyridae Lamprophorus sp. Grass Malacodermidae Platerious sp. Tree Buprestidae Sphnoptera arachid Herb Cicindellidae Cicindella octonata Soil Mylabridae Mylabris pustulata Herb Hemerobiidae Myrmeleonid sp. Herb Papilionidae Polidours hector Herb P. arisotolchae Herb Paplio polytes Herb Pieridae Delias eucharis Tree Leptosia nina Herb Terisas hecabe Herb Catcopsilia florella Herb Colotis etrida Herb Appias albina Herb Nymphalidae Ergolis aradine Herb Atella phalantha Herb Precis iphita Plains P. almana Herb P. lemonias Herb Satyridae Melantis leda Herb Yphtima baldus Herb 53

66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79

Danaidae

Acraeidae Noctuidae Sphingidae Hymenoptera Sphegidae

Multillidae

Danais meliss D. chrysippus D. pixippus D. nilgiriensis Euploeca core Telchinia violae Otheries masterina Herse sonluvuli Lethe europa Ammophila levigata Bembex sulphurescens Scliphron madraspatunam Stizus prismaticus Mutilla sexmaculata

Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree Tree Tree Tree Soil Tree Tree Tree

Source : Senthil and Varadharajan (1995)

According to Oswin and Kannadasan (1998) Muthupet mangrove ecosystem shelters 112 species of insects and 13 species of spiders (Table 15). Among the total, 95 insects have been identified up to species level, 12 insects up to genus and 5 insects up to order. The maximum number of 27 species are identified from the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera (26 + 1 species) followed by Hymenoptera (18 species), Hemeptera (11 species), Orthroptera (10 + 1 species), Odonata (7 + 3 species), Diptera (6 species) and Isoptera with the minimum number of two species. Insects belonging to the orders Lepidoptera (11 families) and Coleoptera (4 families) are dominant in the mangrove area studied.
Table 15. List of insects collected at Muthupet mangroves
Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Order Coleoptera Family Tenebrionidae Species Calosoma scrutafor Tenebroides mauritanicus Gorocephelum hotnanseggi Amarygmus caparium Cicindilla ocdonota Pherasophus lineforms Brachynus americanus Chlaenus circumdatus Phyllophaga crassima Macrodactylus subspinosus Canthom virida Onthophagus longicornis Elaster sp.

Carabidae Scarabicidae

Elateridae 54

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58

Chrysomelidae Silphidae Mylaridae Cuculiondae Cerembycidae Scolidae Lampyridae Coccinellidae Hemeptera (Bugs) Oedemeridae Dynastidae Fulgoridae Pentatomidae

Hymenoptera (Wasps, bees & ants)

Tingidae Hemicocephalidae Reduviidae Coreidae Corixidae Nepidae Eumeridae Sphegidae Chalicocidae Megachilidae Andrenidae Mutillidae Apidae Dryinidae Formicudae Vespidae

Chaetochema pulicaria C. continis Systena balanda Necrophorus marginetus Mylabris pustulate Trichobaris trinotata Saperda calcarata Chion cinctus Melanotus fossilis Photinus pyralis Coccinella septempuncata Chilocorus biralnerous Oedemerid sp. Oryctes rhinoceros Murgantia luptescens Zezura viridule Easarcories ventralis Brochymena araborea Chrysocoris stolli Lygus linecolaris Hemicocephalis basalis Triatoma sanguisuga Leptocorisa varisuga Perillus bioculatus Loccotrephes sp. Moobia quadridens Ammophila levigata Sceliphram mandrospatatnam Stizus prismaticus Challa crule Megachile latimanus Andren wilkella Ceratine sp. Mutilla sexmaculata Apis florida A. dorsata Xylocopa aestuans Dryinius trifascians Irdomyrmex humilis Polistes annularis Componotus sp. Sclenopsis sp. Oecophylla sp. Tabanus striatus Promachus sp.

Diptera

Tabanidae Ascilidae 55

59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104

Culicidae Lepidoptera Muscidae Danaidae

Pappillionidae

Pieridae

Apacidae Nymphalididae Arctiidae Crambidae Noctuidae Tortricidae Pyrrilidae Odonata (Dragonflies)Anisopteridae

Orthoptera Mantidae (Grasshoppers & crickets) Acrididae

Aedes sp. Culex sp. Anaphelus sp. Haematobia tritans Danais plexipus D. limance D. mellisa D. chrysippus D. eucharis Danae fab Mesonsemia croesas Polidours hector P. polyxenes P. aristolochiae Papilio polytes Catopsila horella Anteas florilla Terlas hacabe Heptosia nina Telechinae violae Precis lemonias Ergolis aradine Unidentified Estigmena acrae Halisodota caryace Crambus mutabilis Planthypena scabra Alabama aggillaceae Carpocopsa pomonella Paralobesis viteana Loxostege similalis Rhyothenus varigata Acisoma panorpoides Aeschnid sp. Aris vivida Crocothemis erytbraea Orthetrum brunneum Libellula luctuosa Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Mantis religiosus Neoconocephalus exilisconorus Gryllotalpha hexadactyla Melanoplus differentialis M. femurrubrum

56

105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

Phasmidae Grillidae Isoptera

Paratettix cuculatus Microcentrum rhombifolium Camnula pellucidae Unidentified Necrosia pholidofus Gryllus assimilus Zyorotypus lubbari Recticulitermus flavipes

Source : Oswin and Kannadasan (1998)

The holothuroid, Protankyra similis, has been reported for the first time in the Sundarbans from India (Singh and Choudhury, 1992b). The sea anemone, Acontiactis gokhaleae, exists as a biofouler in the mangrove mudflats along Thane creek (Mishra et al., 1994). The mangroves serve as wildlife sanctuaries especially in Sundarbans (Gopal and Krishnamurthy, 1993). Sundarbans are well-known for the Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris). About 200 km2 area of Indian Sundarbans is protected as a Tiger Reserve in the context of its fast decline in population. Chital deer (Axis axis) which is found only in Sundarbans is being protected. Food habits and activity pattern of the common otter (Lutra lutra) have been studied in Coleroon and Uppanar rivers, in Pichavaram mangrove forest. Gut analysis reveals that fish is the major food item in the diet, followed by crustaceans. Two spraints have been collected from brackish waters and 176 from the adjoining freshwater habitats (Umapathy, 2000). Another important animal in Indian mangroves is crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), which occurs in the Mahanadi delta (Orissa) and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The olive Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivaceae) also nests on adjacent beaches. Other important animals are: dolphins (Platenista gangetica), mangrove monkey (Macaca mulatta), and otter (Lutra perspicillata). The endangered species like wild ass (Asinus hemionus) occurs only in Kachchh. The Coringa mangrove forests in Andra Pradesh create important living habitat for amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. In Coringa mangroves, a total number of 54 species have been identified; of which 25 are common, 14 rare, 10 vulnerable and 5 are endangered, and most of them are at critical danger due to habitat loss (Table 16) (Raja Sekhar and Subba Rao, 1993).
57

T able 16. List of major vertebrate fauna (amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals) and their present status in Coringa mangrove forests
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Species Class : Amphibians Rana hexadactyla R. cyanophylyctis Bufo melanostictus Microhyla ornata Class : Reptiles Lepidochelys olivacea Eretmochelys imbricata Kachuga tectum tentorica Hemidactylus broki Calotes versicolor Varanus benghalensis Amphiesma stolata Natrix piscator Dryophis pulverulentes Naja naja Bangarus caeruleus Vipera russelli Class : Birds Anhinga rufa Phalacrocorax niger Egretta garzetta Babulcus ibis Ardeola grayii Grus antigon Anthropoides virgo Milvus migrans Larus brunnicephalus Psisttacula krameri Tringa glariola Numenius arquata Eudynamus scolopacea Upupa epops Alcedo atthis Halcyon pileata H. smyrnensis Ceryle rudis Bubo bubo Coracious benghalensis Dicrurus adsimillis Alcippe poioicephala Common name Frog Frog Toad Tree Frog Olive Ridley sea turtle Hawks bill sea turtle Terrapin Gecko Garden lizard Monitor lizard Fresh water snake Land snake Green snake Cobra Banded krait Russels viper Darters Little cormorant Little egrets Cattle egrets Pond heron Sarus crane Demoiselle crane Pariah kite Sea gulls Parrot Sand pipers Curlew Koeal Hoopoe Small kingfisher Black capped kingfisher White breasted kingfisher Pied kingfisher Indian horned owl Blue jay Black drango Quacker babblers 58 Present status C C C R E E C C C R C C C V V V V V C C C V C C C C R R C R C R V V V R C R

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Corvus splendens C. macrorhynches Passer domesticus Class : Mammals Macaca mulatta M. radiata Lutra vulgaris Felis chaus Herpestes benghalensis Canis aureas Valpes bengalensis Funambulus pennati Tupia ellioti Pteropus giganteus Mus buduga Rattus rattus Lepus nigricollis

Crow Jungle crow House sparrow Rhesus monkey Bonnet macaque Water otters Fishing cat Mongoose Jackal Indian fox Squirrel Tree shrew Flying bat, fox Bandicoot Field rat Hare

C R C E V E E R R R C C R C C R

Status code : C = Common; R = Rare; V = Vulnerable, E = Endangered Source : Raja Sekhar and Subba Rao (1993)

Avifauna includes herons, storks, sea eagles, egrets, kingfishers, sandpipers, whistlers and flamingoes which are abundant in most of the mangrove areas (particularly Kachchh). Many migratory birds visit Kumarakom and mangalvan in Kerala, as winter migrants (Sunil Kumar and Antony, 1994). Among the total, 57 species are resident and common, 32 species are migrant and common, 26 are local migrants and occasional, 19 are migrant and occassional, 12 are migrant and uncommon, 9 are resident and uncommon, 8 are local migrant and uncommon, 6 are resident and occasional, 4 are local migrant and common, 3 are migrant and rare, and only one species is migrant and local. Studies have been made on the coastal birds of mangroves of Mandapam and the neighbouring islands (Balachandran, 1990) and of Vedaranyam swamp and Pichavaram mangroves of Tamil Nadu (Sampath, 1989). In Pichavaram mangroves and adjacent areas, there are 177 species of birds (Table 17). The migratory season for the birds starts from October with the onset of monsoon, and it lasts till March (Sampath, 1989; Sampath and Krishnamurthy, 1993).

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Table 17. List of bird species recorded from the Pichavaram mangroves
Sl. No. Common name Species Podiceps ruficollis Phalacrocorax carbo P. fuscicollis P. niger Anhinga rufa Ardea cinerea A. purpurea A. alba Ardeola striatus A. grayii Bubulcus ibis Egretta intermedia E. garzetta E. gularis Nycticorax nycticorax Ixobrychus cinnamomeus I. flavicollis Mycteria leucocephala Anastomus oscitans Ciconia ciconia Threskiornis aethiopica Plegadis falcinellus Platalea leucorodia Phoenicopterus roseus Anas acuta A.. crecca A. poecilorhyncha A. platyrhynchos A. strepera A. penelope A. querquedula A. clypeata Nettapus coromandelianus Elanus caeruleus Milvus migrans 60 Status LM, O LM, O LM, O LM, O LM, O R, C R, C R, C R, C R, C R, C R, C R, C R, U LM, C R, U R, U LM, O LM, O M, O LM, O LM, O LM, O LM, O M, O M, O LM, O M, O M, O M, O M, O M, O LM, O R, C R, C

Family : Podicipedidae 1 Little grebe Family : Phalacrocoracidae 2 Large Cormorant 3 Indian shag 4 Little cormorant 5 Darter Family : Ardeidae 6 Grey heron 7 Purple heron 8 Large egret 9 Little green heron 10 Pond heron 11 Cattle egret 12 Median egret 13 Little egret 14 Indian reef heron 15 Night heron 16 Chestnut bittern 17 Black bittern 18 Painted stork 19 Openbill stork 20 White strok Family : Threskiornithidae 21 White ibis 22 Glossy ibis 23 Spoonbill Family : Phoenicopteridae 24 Flamingo Family : Anatidae 25 Pintail 26 Common teal 27 Spotbilled duck 28 Mallard 29 Gadwall 30 Wigeon 31 Garganey 32 Shoveller 33 Cotton teal Family : Accipitridae 34 Blackwinged kite 35 Pariah kite

36 Brahminy kite 37 Shikra 38 Sparrow-hawk 39 Basra sparrow-hawk 40 Whitebellied sea-eagle 41 Egyptian vulture 42 Pale harrier 43 Montagus harrier 44 Pied harrier 45 Marsh harrier 46 Osprey Family : Falconidae 47 Peregrine falcon 48 Redheaded merlin 49 Kestrel Family : Phasianidae 50 Grey patridge 51 Jungle bush quail 52 Common bustard-quail 53 Blue-breasted banded rail 54 Banded crake 55 Whitebreasted waterhen 56 Water cock Family : Haematopodidae 57 Oystercatcher Family : Recurvirostridae 58 Blackwinged stilt 59 Avocet Family : Burhinidae 60 Stone curlew 61 Great stone plover Family : Glareolidae 62 Small Indian Pratincole Family : Charadriidae 63 Red-wattled lapwing 64 Yellow-wattled lapwing 65 Grey or Blackbellied plover 66 Eastern golden plover 67 Large sane plover 68 Little ringed plover 69 Ringed plover 70 Kentish plover 71 Lesser sand plover 72 Whimbrel 73 Curlew 74 Blacktailed godwit

Haliastur indus Accipiter badius A. nisus A. virgatus Haliaeetus leucogaster Neophron percnopterus Circus macrourus C. pygargus C. melanoleucos C. aeruginosus Pandion haliaetus Falco peregrinus F. chicquera F. tinnunculus Francolinus pondicerianus Perdicula asiatica Turnix suscitator Rallus striatus Rallina eurizonoides Amaurornis phoenicurus Gallicrex cinerea Haematopus ostralegus Himantopus himantopus Recurvirostra avosetta Burhinus oedicnemus Esacus magnirostris Glareola lactea Vanellus indicus V. malabaricus Pluvialis squatarola P. dominica Charadrius leschenaultii C. dubius C. hiaticula C. alexandrinus C. mongolus Numenius phaeopus N. arquata Limosa limosa 61

R, C LM, O M, U M, U LM, O LM, O M, O M, O M, O M, C M, O M, O LM, O LM, U R, C R, C R, U R, C R, C R, C R, C M, U LM, C M, O R, U R, U LM, O R, C R, C M, C M, C M, U R, C M, U R, C M, C M, C M, C M, C

75 Bartailed godwit 76 Spotted redshank 77 Common redshank 78 Marsh sandpiper 79 Greenshank 80 Green sandpiper 81 Wood sandpiper 82 Terek sandpiper 83 Common sandpiper 84 Turnstone 85 Asiatic dowitcher 86 Fantail snipe 87 Little stint 88 Temmincks stint 89 Dunlin 90 Curlew sandpiper 91 Broadbilled sandpiper 92 Ruff and reeve Family : Laridae 93 Herring gu1l 94 Great blackheaded gu1l 95 Brownheaded gu1l 96 Blackheaded gull 97 Whiskered tern 98 Gu1lbi1led tern 99 Caspian tern 100 Common tern 101 Little tern 102 Indian lesser crested tern 103 Large crested tern 104 Indian river tern Family : Columbidae 105 Blue rock pigeon 106 Indian ring dove 107 Spotted dove 108 Little brown dove Family : Psittacidae 109 Roseringed parakeet Family : Cuculidae 110 Pied crested cuckoo 111 Common hawk-cuckoo or Brainfever bird 112 Koel 113 Crow-pheasant Family : Strigidae 114 Barn owl 115 Spotted owlet

L. lapponica Tringa erythropus T. totanus T. stagnatilis T. nebularia T. ochropus T. glareola T. terek T. hypoleucos Arenaria interpres Limnodromus semipalmatus Gallinago gallinago Calidris minuta C. temminckii C. alpina C. testacea Limicola falcinellus Philomachus pugnax Larus argentatus L. ichthyaetus L. brunnicephalus L. ridibundus Chlidonias hybrida Gelochelidon nilotica Hydroprogne caspia Sterna hirundo S. albifrons S. bengalensis S. bergii S. aurantia Columba livia Streptopelia decaocto S. chinensis S. senegalensis Psittacula krameri Clamator jacobinus Cuculus varius Eudynamys scolopacea Centropus sinensis Tyto alba Athene brama 62

M, Ra M, L M, C M, C M, C M, C M, C M, U M, C M, C M, Ra M, C M, C M, O M, O M, C M, U M, O M, C M, C M, C M, C M, C M, C M, C M, C R, C M, C M, U LM, O R, C R, C R, C R, O R, C LM, O LM, O R, C R, O R, U R, C

Family : Apodidae 116 House swift 117 Palm swift Family : Alcedinidae 118 Lesser pied kingfisher 119 Common kingfisher 120 White breasted kingfisher 121 Blackcapped kingfisher Family : Meropidae 122 Chestnutheaded bee-eater 123 Bluetailed bee-eater 124 Green bee-eater Family : Coracidae 125 Indian roller Family : Upupidae 126 Hoopoe Family : Capitonidae 127 Crimsonbreasted barbet Family : Picidae 128 Lesser golden backed woodpecker Family : Pittidae 129 Indian pitta Family : Alaudidae 130 Bush lark 131 Redwinged bush lark 132 Ashycrowned finch lark 133 Crested lark 134 Eastern skylark Family : Hirundinidae 135 Eastern swallow 136 Redrumped swallow 137 Indian cliff swallow Family : Lanidae 138 Baybacked shrike 139 Rufousbacked shrike 140 Brown shrike Family : Artamidae 141 Ashy swallow shrike Family : Oriolidae 142 Golden oriole Family : Dicruridae 143 Black drongo Family : Sturnidae 144 Brahminy myna 145 Rosy pastor 146 Common myna

Apus affinis Cypsiurus parvus Ceryle rudis Alcedo atthis Halcyon smyrnensis H. pileata Merops leschenaulti M. philippinus M. orientalis Coracias benghalensis Upupa epops Megalaima haemacephala Dinopium benghalense Pitta brachyura Mirafra assamica M. erythroptera Eremopterix grisea Galerida cristata Alauda gulgula Hirundo rustica H. daurica H. fluvicola Lanius vittatus L. schach L. cristatus Artamus fuscus Oriolus oriolus Dicrurus adsimilis Sturnus pagodarum S. roseus Acridotheres tristis 63

R, C R, C R, C R, C R, C R, C LM, U R, C R, C R, C R, C R, U R, C LM, O LM, U LM, O LM, U LM, U R, C M, C LM, C M, U LM, U LM, O R, U R, C R, O R, C R, C M, C R, C

Family : Corvidae 147 Tree-pie 148 House crow 149 Jungle crow Family : Campephagidae 150 Common wood-shrike Family : Irenidae 151 Common iora Family : Pycnonotidae 152 Redvented bulbul 153 Whitebrowed bulbul Family : Muscicapidae 154 Common babbler 155 Brown flycatcher 156 Brownbreasted flycatcher 157 Paradise flycatcher 158 Plain wren-warbler 159 Tailor bird 160 Thickbilled warbler 161 Blyths reed warbler 162 Lesser whitethroat 163 Largebilled leaf warbler 164 Magpie robin 165 Indian robin Family : Motacillidae 166 Paddyfield pipit 167 Forest wagtail 168 Yellow wagtail 169 Grey wagtail 170 Pied or white wagtail 171 Large pied wagtail Family : Dicaeidae 172 Tickells flowerpecker Family : Nectariniidae 173 Purple rumped sunbird 174 Purple sunbird Family : Ploceidae 175 House sparrow 176 Yellow throated sparrow 177 Spotted munia

Dendrocitta vagabunda Corvus splendens C. macrorhynchos Tephrodornis pondicerianus Aegithina tiphia Pycnonotus cafer P. luteolus Turdoides caudatus Muscicapa latirostris M. muttui Terpsiphone paradisi Prinia subflava Orthotomus sutorius Acrocephalus aedon A. dumetorum Sylvia curruca Phylloscopus magnirostris Copsychus saularis Saxicoloides fulicata Anthus novaeseelandiae Motacilla indica M. flava M. cinerea M. alba M. maderaspatensis Dicaecum erythrorhynchos Nectarinia zeylonica N. asiatica Passer domesticus Petronia xanthocollis Lonchura punctulata

R, O R, C R, C R, O R, C R, C R, C R, C M, U M, O LM, O LM, U R, C M, O M, C M, U M, U R, C R, C LM, U M, Ra M, C M, C M, C LM, C R,C R, C R, C R, C LM, O R, O

LM - Local Migrant, M - Migrant, R - Resident, C - Common, O - Occasional, U - Uncommon, Ra - Rare Source : Sampath and Krishnamurthy (1993)

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About 160 species of birds belonging to 50 families that use Muthupet mangroves for feeding, nesting, roosting or other activities are listed (Table 18). Among the total, 53 species are local, common and year - round residents; 18 species are migrant, rare and winter - resident; 16 species are migrant, common but winter - resident; 12 species are local migrant, common and winter resident; 10 species are winter visitor and common; 9 species local migrant, rare but winter resident; 9 species are local, rare but year - round resident; 8 species are local, common but winter resident; 5 species are local rare and winter residents; 3 species are local migrant, very common but winter migrants; 2 species are local migrant, rare, but year round found; 2 species are rare, winter visitor and winter resident; 2 species are local, very common but year - round resident; 2 species are common, winter - visitor but winter resident; 2 species rare, winter visitor and winter resident; 2 species are migrant, rare but year round resident; 5 species are year - round resident and common except one species. The maximum species are represented by the families Scolopacidae (15), Laridae (11), Anatidae (9), Ardeidae (9), Charadriidae (9) and Corvidae (9). Herons, egrets, ibises, bitterns and spoonbills are the most conspicuous group of birds that are found in mangroves (Oswin, 1999).
Table 18. Checklist of birds sighted at Muthupet Reserved Forest area
Common name Scientific name Abund -ance Status Season Nesting* No. of of occurrence nests

Family : Podicipedidae 1 Little Grebe Family : Pelecanidae 2. Spot-billed Pelican Family : Phalacrocoracidae 3. Great Cormorant 4. Little Cormorant Family : Anhingidae 5. Darter Family : Ardeidae 6. Black-crowned Night-Heron 7. Cattle Egret 8. Great Egret 9. Grey Heron 10. Indian Pond Heron 11. Intermediate Egret 12. Little Egret 13. Western Reef-Egret 14. Purple Heron

Tachybaptus ruficollis Pelecanus philippensis Phalacrocorax carbo P. niger Anhinga melanogaster Nicticorax nycticorax Bubulcus ibis Casmerodius albus Ardea cinerea Ardeola grayii Mesophoyx intermedia Egretta garzetta E. gularis Ardea purpurea

WV LM LM LM WV L L LM LM L LM LM L WV

C VC VC VC C C C C R C R C C VR

Yr W W W W Yr Yr W Yr Yr W Yr W W

Y ,V U* U* Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V -

15 98 51 31 52 53 -

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Family : Ciconiidae 15. Asian Open-billed Stork 16. Painted Stork Family : Threskiornithidae 17. Asian White Ibis 18. Eurasian Spoonbill Family : Phoenicopteridae 19. Greater Flamingo 20. Lesser Flamingo Family : Anatidae 21. Bar-headed Goose 22. Common Pochard 23. Cotton Pygmy-Goose 24. Common Teal 25. Gadwall 26. Garganey 27. Northern Pintail 28. Northern Shoveller 29. Spot-billed Duck Family : Accipitridae 30. Black Kite 31. Black-shouldered Kite 32. Brahminy Kite 33. Eurasian Marsh Harrier 34. Osprey 35. Pallid Harrier 36. Shikra Family : Falconidae 37. Common Kestrel Family : Phasianidae 38. Grey Francolin 39. Indian Peafowl 40. Jungle Bush-Quail Family : Centropodidae 41. Greater Coucal Family : Rallidae 42. Common Coot 43. Common Moorhen 44. Purple Swamphen 45. White-breasted Waterhen 46. Watercock Family : Jacanidae 47. Pheasant-tailed Jacana Family : Charadriidae 48. Blackwinged Stilt 49. Common Ringed Plover 50. Greater Sand Plover 51. Kentish Plover 52. Little Ringed Plover 53. Pacific Golden Plover 54. Pied Avocet 55. Red-wattled Lapwing

Anastomus oscitans Mycteria leucocephala

L L

C C R C C R R R R C R R C R C VC R VC R R R R R C VR C R C C C C R R C C R C C C VR C

Yr Yr Yr W W W W W W W W W W W W Yr W Yr Yr Yr W Yr Yr Yr Yr Yr Yr W W W W W W Yr Yr W W Yr W W Yr

U* Y ,V U* U* Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V

75 43 7 2 7 8 47 51 102 9 56 47 43

Threskiornis melanocephalus LM Platalea leucorodia LM Phoenicopterus rubber Phoenicopterus minor Anser indicus Aythya ferina Nettapus coromandelianus Anas crecca A. strepera A. querquedula A. acuta A. clypeata A. poecilorhyncha Milvus migrans Elenus caerulcus Haliastur indus Circus aeruginosus Pandion haliaetus Circus macrourus Accipiter badius Falco tinnunculus Francolinus ponticerianus Pavo cristatus Peridicula asiastica Centropus sinensis Fulica atra Gallinula chloropus Porphyrio porphyrio Amaurornis phoenicurus Gallicrex cinerea Hydrophasianus chirurgus Himantopus himantopus Charadrius hiaticula C. leschenaultii C. alexandrinus C. dubius Pluvialis fulva Recurvirostra avosetta Vanellus indicus M LM M M L M M M M M LM L L L L L L L L L L L L WC LM LM LM LM L L L M LM L M M L

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56. Yellow-wattled Lapwing Family : Scolopacidae 57. Bar-tailed Godwit 58. Black-tailed Godwit 59. Common Green Shank 60. Common Red Shank 61. Marsh Sandpiper 62. Wood Sandpiper 63. Common Sandpiper 64. Common Snipe 65. Eurasian Curlew 66. Little Stint 67. Pin-tailed Snipe 68. Ruddy Turnstone 69. Ruff 70. Terek Sandpiper 71. Whimbrel Family : Glareolidae 72. Crab-plover 73. Small Pratincole Family : Rostratulidae 74. Greater Painted-Snipe Family : Burhinidae 75. Stone-Curlew Family : Laridae 76. Brown-headed Gull 77. Common Black-headed Gull 78. Great Black-headed Gull 79. Lesser Black-backed Gull? 80. Yellow-legged Gull 81. Caspian Tern 82. Common Tern 83. Little Tern 84. River Tern 85. Gull-billed Tern 86. Whiskered Tern Family : Columbidae 87. Eurasian Collared Dove 88. Spotted Dove 89. Rock Pigeon Family : Psittacidae 90. Rose-ringed Parakeet Family : Cuculidae 91. Asian Koel 92. Blue-faced Malkoha 93. Grey-bellied Cuckoo 94. Indian Hawk-Cuckoo 95. Large Hawk-Cuckoo 96. Pied Cuckoo Family : Tytonidae 97. Barn Owl

V. malabaricus Limosa lapponica L. limosa Tringa nebularia T. tetanus T. stagnatilis T. glareola Actitis hypoleucos Gallinago gallinago Numenius arquata Calidris minuta Gallinago stenura Arenaria interpres Philomachus pugnax Nenus Cinereus Numenius phaeopus Dromas ardeola Glareola lactea Rostratula benghalensis Burhinus oedicnemus Larus brunnicephalus L. ridibundus L. ichthyaetus L. fuscus? L. cachinnans Sterna caspia S. hirundo S. albifrons S. aurantia Gelochelidon nilotica Chlidonias hybridus Streptopelia decaocto Streptopeiia chinensis Columba livia Psittacula krameri Eudynamys scolopacea Phaenicophaeus viridirostris Cacomantis passerinus Hierococcyx varius H. sparverioides Clamator jacobinus Tyto alba

L M LM M LM LM M L L LM M L M WV M LM WV L M WV M WC WV WV WV WV L WV L M WV L L L L L L M LM LM L L

C R R R R C C C C C C C R C C R R R R R C C C C C C C C C R C C C C C C R R R C R C

Yr W W W W W W Yr W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W Yr Yr Yr Yr Yr Yr W W W Yr Yr

Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V A* Y ,V Y ,V

42 18 17 51 49 207 6 5

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Family : Strigidae 98. Little Owl Athene noctua 99. Spotted Owlet A. brama Family : Caprimulgidae 100. Indian Nightjar Caprimulgus asiaticus Family : Apodidae 101. Asian Palm-Swift Cypsiurus balasiensis 102. House Swift Apus affinis Family : Alcedinidae 103. Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis Family : Dacelonidae 104. Black-capped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata 105. White-throated Kingfisher H. smyrnensis Family : Cerylidae 106. Lesser Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis Family : Meropidae 107. Blue-tailed Bee-eater Merops philippinus 108. Green Bee-eater M. orientalis Family : Coraciidae 109. Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis Family : Upupidae 110. Common Hoopoe Upupa epops Family : Picidae 111. Black-rumped Flamebacked Woodpecker Dinopium benghalense 112. Eurasian Wryneck Jynx torquilla Family : Pittidae 113. Indian Pitta Pitta brachyura Family : Alaudidae 114. Ashy-crowned Sparrow-LarkEremopterix grisea 115. Crested Lark Galerida cristata 116. Eastern Skylark Alauda gulgula 117. Rufous-winged Bush-Lark Mirafra assamica Family : Hirundinidae 118. Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica Family : Laniidae 119. Bay-backed Shrike Lanius vittatus 120. Brown Shrike L. cristatus 121. Long-tailed Shrike L. schach Family : Sturnidae 122. Brahminy Starling Sturnus pagodarum 123. Chestnut-tailed Starling S. malabaricus 124. Common Myna Acridotheres cristis Family : Corvidae 125. Ashy Wood-Swallow Artamus fuscus 126. Asian Paradise-Flycatcher Tersiphone paradisi 127. Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus 128. Common lora Aegithina tiphia 129. Eurasian Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus 130. House Crow Corvus splendens 131. Jungle Crow C. macrorhynchos 132. Lesser Woodshrike Tephrodornis pondicerianus

L L L L M L L L L M LM L L L WV WV M M L L L M M M L M L L M L L LM L L M

C C C C C C R C C C C C C C VR C R R C C C C C C C C C C R C C R C C C

Yr Yr Yr Yr Yr Yr Yr Yr Yr W W Yr Yr Yr W W Yr Yr Yr Yr Yr W W W Yr W Yr Yr W Yr Yr W Yr Yr W

Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V -

7 9 7 15 14 22 2 15 8 5 2 7 8 6 42 11 5 47 11 8 213 196 -

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133. Rufous Treepie Family : Pycnonotidae 134. Himalayan Bulbul 135. Red-vented Bulbul Family : Muscicapidae 136. Asian Brown Flycatcher 137. Indian Robin 138. Orange-headed Thrush 139. Pied Thrush 140. Oriental Magpie-Robin 141. Pied Bushchat 142. Red-throated Flycatcher 143. Tickells Blue Flycatcher Family : Sylviidae 144. Blyths Reed Warbler 145. Common Tailorbird 146. Lesser White-throat 147. Pale-capped Babbler Family : Cisticolidae 148. Zitting Cisticola Family : Passeridae 149. Baya Weaver 150. Grey Wagtail 151. Yellow Wagtail 152. House Sparrow 153. Long-billed Pipit 154. Paddyfield Pipit 155. Scaly-breasted Munia Family : Nectariniidae 156. Purple Sunbird 157. Purple-rumped Sunbird 158. Tickells Flowerpecker Family : Ploceidae 159. Black-headed Munia Family : Fringillidae 160. Rose Finch

Dendrocitta vagabunda Pycnonotus leucogenys P. cafer Muscicapa dauurica Saxicoloides fulicata Zoothera citrina Z. wardii Copsychus saularis Saxicola caprata Ficedula parva Cyornis tickelliae Acrocephalus dumetorum Orthotomus sutorius Sylvia curruca Turdoides affinis Cisticola juncidis Ploceus philippinus Motacilla cinerea M. flava Passer domesticus Anthus similis A. rufulus Lonchura punctulata Nectarinia asiatica N. zeylonica Dicaeum erthrorhynchos Lonchura malacca Carpodacus erythrinus

L L L M L M M L LM M M WV L LM L L L M M L L L L L L L L L

R C C R C R R C R R R C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C

Yr Yr Yr W Yr W W Yr W W W W Yr W Yr Yr W W W Yr Yr Yr W Yr Yr Yr W Yr

Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V Y ,V -

71 67 3 5 37 4 8 74 39 43 11 9 3 -

L Local; C Common; VC Very Common; R Rare; VR Very Rare; M Migrant; LM Local Migrant; WV Winter Visitor; Yr Year round resident; W Winter resident; Y Species breeds in Mangroves; U* - Species breeds at Uthayamarthandapuram; V Species breeds at the village of Muthupet; A* - Breeds in crows nest Source : Oswin (1999)

There is a book concerned with Sundarbans ecology of wild life, breeding biology of the tigers, deer, honey bees, crocodiles, fish and birds with clear picture on the behavioural patterns of the wild animals in relation to human behaviour, which are useful to scientists, biologists and tourists (Chaudhuri and Chakrabarti, 1989).
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8. BIOCHEMISTRY A. Flora Indian medicinal plants have been screened in vitro against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) on MT-4 cells. HIV-1 infected MT-4 cells were cultured for five days in the presence of the plant extracts at various concentrations. Anti-HIV activity was evaluated by using tetrazolium-based colorimetric assay. Of the 20 plants, four are effective (Premanathan et al., 1997). The mangrove plant extracts have been tested in vitro against New Castle disease (Premanathan et al., 1992; Premanathan et al., 1993), Vaccinia (Premanathan et al., 1994a), Encephalomyocarditis (Premanathan et al., 1994b), Semliki forest virus (Premanathan et al., 1995), Human Immunodeficiency virus (Premanathan et al., 1996) and Hepatitis B viruses. A few of the extracts are effective against all the viruses. A broad spectrum antiviral activity is exhibited in bark of Rhizophora mucronata and leaves of Bruguiera cylindrica. In general, plants belonging to the family-Rhizoporaceae are the source of potential antiviral substances (Premanathan et al., 1999). The bark of Rhizophora mucronata shows the highest antiviral activity against Vaccinia virus, Encephalomyocarditis and Semliki forest virus with selective indices of 4.71, 15.4 and 17.59, respectively. Stilt roots of Rhizophora mucronata exhibit a maximum activity against New Castle disease virus with 100% inhibition of haemagglutination. The bark of Ceriops decandra, Bruguiera cylindrica and stilt root of Rhizophora mucronata show anti-HIV activity at 92.16, 91.70 and 90.89%, respectively (Kathiresan et al., 1995, Premanathan et al., 1993). Seventy three marine plant extracts have been tested in vitro in chick embryo fibroblast cell culture and their anti-vaccinia virus activity is evaluated in terms of reduction in number of plaques by the extracts. Only seven extracts show the acitivity. Sargassum wightii, a seaweed has the highest activity, reducing 65 per cent of plaques by Vaccinia virus (Premanathan et al., 1994, 1994a). Sixteen mangrove plant extracts have been tested against a plant virus (Tabacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) and two extractsBruguiera cylindrica and Excoecaria agallocha show significant anti-TMV activity (Padmakumar and Ayyakkannu, 1994).
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Plant extracts have been tested in vitro against New Castle disease virus (NDV) in CAM culture and their gross antiviral activity is evaluated in terms of percent inhibition of haemagglutination. The extracts have also been tested in vitro in CEF cell culture against Vaccinia virus (VV) and their antiviral activity is evaluated in terms of reduction in number of plaques. Of the 51 extracts, only 10 are effective against NDV and four against VV. The plant extracts have been tested in vitro against Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) in LM cells and their antiviral activity is evaluated in terms of inhibition of cytopathic effect (CPE). Thirteen extracts show anti-EMCV activity when assayed along with the virus (Premanathan et al., 1999). Indian medicinal plants have been screened in vitro against Human Immunodeficiency virus activity (HIV). Of the 69 plants species screened, 16 are effective against HIV-1 and 4 are against both HIV-1 and HIV-2. The most effective ones against HIV-1 and HIV-2 are respectively Cinnamomum cassia (bark) and Cardiospermum helicacabum (shoot + fruit) (Premanathan et al., 2000). A polysaccharide extracted from the bark of Rhizophora mucronata shows anti-viral activity against Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in an in vitro cell culture system (Premanathan et al., 1999). Lignin extracted from leaf of Ceriops decandra exhibits antibacterial action due to its O2- scavenging activity, protecting the mice from pathogenic Escherichia coli (Sakagami et al., 1998). Biotoxicity of the blinding tree, Excoecaria agallocha on marine organisms has been studied. Latex from the plant shows a knock-down effect on marine organisms including phytoplankton productivity (Kathiresan and Subramonia Thangam, 1987a; Kathiresan et al., 1987). The toxicity of the latex is counteracted by light treatments (Kathiresan and Subramonia Thangam, 1987b). Phytoplankton productivity as influenced by latex of Excoecaria agallocha has been studied in Pichavaram, Vellar and Agniar estuaries. The latex strongly inhibited the productivity of Agniar estuary and the effect is less pronounced in other two biotopes. In general, increasing concentrations of the latex decrease the photosynthetic rate and increase the respiratory activity (Kathiresan et al., 1990). The soil bacteria and yeasts degrade the latex but not fungi (Reddy et al., 1991). The latex causes metabolic depression of the rice field
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crab, Oxiotelphusa senex in terms of oxygen consumption. The latex also inhibit ATPase system in the gill and hepatopancreas tissues of the crab (Ramamurthi et al., 1991). Lipids and waxes in leaves of some mangroves of Sundarbans show a similarity. Mangrove leaves have low triglycerides and simple fatty acids. Fatty acids with C16 and C18 chains are common. Presence of C18 chain in wax esters is an important character. This similarity in fatty acid composition maintains the water economy and helps in the adaptation of mangroves in physiologically dry soil (Bagchi et al., 1988). Considerable loss in wet weight, ash content, carbohydrate, lipid and organic carbon contents, and increase in protein and total nitrogen content take place with the progress of decomposition of Ulva lactuca. The carbon : nitrogen ratio decreases from 16.6 to 4.8. Readily leachable carbohydrates are completely lost from the thalli by 12 days (Vasantha et al., 1998). The seagrass Porteresia coarctata grown in Prentice and Chuksar Islands of Sundarban mangroves has been studied for biochemical components. Major sterols are sitosterol and stigmasterol, and other components are campesterol and cholesterol. Major pentacyclic triterpenoids are lupeol and oleanolic acid; other components are -amyrin, -amyrin and ursolic acid. Considerable quantitative differences are observed in the sterol and triterpenoid compositions. Among the triterpenoids, betulin occurs only in the sample of Chuksar Island (Misra et al.,1987). In Aegiceras majus leaves, major triterpenoids are lupeol, amyrin, elenolic acid and ursolic acid. In Sesuvium portulacastrum, major fatty acids are myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids. Major sterols found in leaves of this plant are campesterol, stigmasterol and sitosterol. These typical components are biotransformed by benthic animals like mudskippers, bivalves and gastropods and thus entering into the food chain of this ecosystem (Chattopadhyay et al., 1990). Seasonal variations in protein, polyphenol, and tannin concentrations in leaves of nine mangrove species of Rhizophoraceae are reported. Protein concentration varied from 0.108 g/g dry wt in Bruguiera cylindrica to 0.231 g/g dry wt in B. sexangula. The polyphenol concentration ranged from 0.111 g/g dry wt in B. sexangula to 0.488 g/g dry wt in C. decandra and the tannin concentration
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from 0.088 g/g dry wt in B. parviflora to 0.408 g/g dry wt in B. sexangula. Concentrations of these organic constituents in leaf tissues are highest during the rainy season (Basak et al., 1998). Chemical examination of Suaeda maritima and S. monoica shows the presence of octacosan-1-ol, 8-hydroxydotriacontan 3-one and beta sitosterol. In addition, S. maritima yields lupeol (Subrahmanyam et al., 1992). An unusual secondary metabolite-2-nitro-4-(2nitroethenyl) phenol has been isolated from the leaves of Sonneratia acida (Bose et al., 1992). Penaeus indicus when fed with cholesterol extracted from leaves of Rhizophora sp. shows promotion in growth, conversion efficiency and increased levels of biochemical constituents of the shrimp (Xavier Ramesh and Kathiresan, 1992). Leaf behaviour pattern of some mangrove species, with their environment has been studied. The transpiration rate is high in all the species from lower surface. The diffusive resistance is more for the upper surface and the variation do exist between and within the species. The stomata are amphistomatic except in two species where they are hypostomatic type. Diffusive resistance for CO2 is much higher in Heritiera and Xylocarpus than the other species (Mulik, 1996). Analysis of biochemical constituents shows that the leaves are rich in carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. They also have a high caloric value and hence they form a source of nutrition to the animals feeding on decaying leaves of mangroves. Levels of chlorophyll a, b, a+b, a:b, carotenoids, TAN (Titrable Acid Number), proteins, polyphenols, and tannins in 14 species of mangroves found in the Bhitarkanika mangrove forest and Mahanadi delta have been estimated. Total chlorophyll content varies from 0.21% in Aglaia cucullata and Ceriops decandra to 0.56% in Aegiceras corniculatum. The chlorophyll a:b ratio is minimum (1.55) in Avicennia officinalis and maximum (3.50) in Bruguiera sexangula. The carotenoids vary from 0.04% in B. sexangula to 0.17% in A. corniculatum. TAN values range from 20 to 45 in A. officinalis and Heritiera littoralis respectively. The TAN values show negative correlation with chlorophyll b and or carotenoids, and positive correlation with chlorophyll a:b ratio, among the species. Total leaf protein content significantly varies from 12.21% in Heritiera macrophylla to 29.22% in H. fomes. Tannin and polyphenols from the leaves of mangroves show significant variation, ranging from 8.39 to 44.27% in
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A. cucullata and B. sexangula and from 11.39 to 52.89% in A. officinalis and C. decandra respectively (Table 19) (Basak et al., 1996). Pigments have been quantified in 11 plant species for one year period along with measurements of solar radiation and UV-B radiation, atmospheric ozone, atmospheric temperature, water temperature, salinity and pH (Moorthy and Kathiresan, 1997b). The pigments are high in species of Rhizophoraceae members from May to July. Accessory pigmentsflavonoids and anthocyanin are high respectively during July-September and OctoberNovember (Oswin and Kathiresan, 1994). The highest concentration of fatty acid in the decomposing leaves is palmitic acid (16:0). Unsaturated fatty acids such as, 18:1 w7c and 18:1 w9c are present in decomposing leaves of both Avicennia and Rhizophora (Rajendran and Kathiresan, 2000).
Table 19. Variation in photosynthetic pigments, secondary metabolites, protein and titrable acid number (TAN) in 14 mangrove species. TAN values expressed as ml of decinormal NaOH required to neutralize the acid in the extract of 100 g fresh weight

Source : Basak et al. (1996)

Photosynthetic pigments have been studied in leaves of different age of 12 species of mangroves, collected from sun and shaded conditions of Kali estuary, Karnataka. The contents vary between leaf types and plant types. There is significant relationship between attenuated light and total chlorophyll content (Menon and Neelakantan, 1992).
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Determination of different forms of inorganic P and their relationship with available P extracted with different extractants in the acidic Entisols and Sulphaquepts of Andaman under tropical deciduous and mangrove trees has been undertaken (Mongia and Bandyopadhyay, 1996). Steviol and five new diterpenes have been isolated from the outer layer of the root bark of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza collected from Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are ent-kaur- 16-en- 13-hydroxy- 19-al; 15(S)-isopimar-7en-15,16-diol, ent-kaur- 16-en-13, 19-diol, methyl-ent-kaur-9(11)-en-13, 17epoxy-16-hydroxy-19-oate; 1 beta, 15(R)-ent-pimar-8(14)-en-1,15,16-triol (Subrahmanyam et al., 1999). A novel beyerane diterpenoid has been isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of Rhizophora mucronata and its structure is established as ent-3, 20-epoxy-3, 18-dihydroxy-15-beyerene 2 by physical and spectral (1H, 13C, DEPT, 1H-1H COSY, 1H-1H NOESY, HMQC, HMBC & MASS) data and chemical reactions (Anjaneyulu et al., 2000). The energy content ranges between 2875 and 4161, and from 3182 to 4688 g cal/g dry weight of the litter (Table 20). The energy released from the litter during one year period is 67.2 and 77.3% in the decomposing leaf litter of A. marina and R. apiculata respectively and the absolute energy content is declined from 77.2 to 25.2 and 117.2 to 26.6 K.cals (Karunanithi and Saravanamuthu, 1995).
Table 20. Variation in the energy content of the leaf litter at different stages of decomposition in the mangrove habitat

EC Energy Content; AE Absolute Energy; E: - Energy Loss Source : Karunanithi and Saravanamuthu (1995) 75

Mangroves have physiological modifications (in photosynthesis and in synthesis of carbohydrate and polyphenols) to establish water and salt economy (Bhosale and Mulik, 1992). The effect of water quality has been studied by analysing the leaves of Avicennia officinalis. The levels of chlorophylls and carbohydrates in the leaves raise with lowering of BOD and salinity. However, polyphenols do not show this trend (Kadam and Bhosale, 1987). The foliar spray - alanin and betanin increases salt excretion in Acanthus ilicifolius, which has a protective role through altering metabolic process such as ion regulation (Mulik, 1987; Mulik and Bhosale, 1995). Proline accumulation in plants viz., water, saline, freezing, heat, light and chemo-stress conditions has been reviewed. The metabolic causes of proline accumulation and its role in stress resistance of plants are disscussed (Kathiresan,1987) The photosynthetic efficiency of four rhizophoracean mangroves, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Bruguiera cylindrica and Ceriops decandra has been studied in randomly collected propagules from Pichavaram mangrove forest by estimating the concentration of photosynthetic pigments in protein complexes of the thylakoid membrane. Reaction center chlorophyll (RCchl) is maximum in B. cylindrica and minimum in R. mucronata. Of the total amount of chlorophylls, RC-chl constitutes about 50%. The light harvesting complex chlorophyll (LHC-chl) is highest in C. decandra and lowest in R. mucronata. Net photosynthesis is found to be higher in B. cylindrica and lower in R. mucronata with the respective CO2 fixation of 20.52 and 10.83 mol/m2/s. A positive correlation is obtained between RC-chl and net photosynthesis. The stomatal conductance to CO2 influx is also found to be high and low in B. cylindrica and R. mucronata respectively (Moorthy and Kathiresan, 1999a). Seedlings of Rhizophora apiculata exposed to UV-B radiation at four doses equivalent to 10, 20, 30, and 40 % ozone depletion have been experimentally studied. The seedlings irradiated with high doses of UV-B has characteristic decline in contents of specific proteins with molecular masses of 33, 23, and 17 kDa. On the contrary, proteins of 55, 33, 25, 23 and 17 kDa accumulate in the seedlings exposed to low doses of UV-B. The UV-B, in general, enhances formation of saturated fatty acids and reduces unsaturated fatty acids, to a maximum extent of 88 and 26%, respectively. The low dose of UV-B increases content of oleic acid in reaction centre chlorophylls and the activities of
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photosystem (PI and PII), and the high dose reduces it by 34%. The high dose of UV-B enhances the lipid peroxidation by 48%, whereas the low doses of UV-B do not show any significant effect. The contents of amino acids such as aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, serine, glutamine, threonine, and histidine are increased in low UV-B doses by 53, 86, 142, 72, 3, 119 and 32 %, respectively; while in high doses they are reduced significantly (Moorthy and Kathiresan, 1998). Effect of ultraviolet-B (UV-B) irradiation on Rhizophora apiculata seedlings in terms of biomass and nutrient accumulation show an increase of biomass in the seedlings exposed to low dose of UV-B. The Na/K ratio is lower in leaves, but higher in stem and root of seedlings exposed to UV-B. The degree of nutrient accumulation is in the decreasing order - root > stem > leaves (Moorthy and Kathiresan, 1998). Changes in photosynthesis and biochemical constituents have been studied in Rhizophora apiculata seedlings grown under solar and solar enhanced UV-B radiation, equivalent to 10, 20, 30 and 40% stratospheric ozone depletion. The seedlings grown under 10% UV-B radiation show an increase of 45% net photosynthetic rate (PN) and 47% stomatal conductance, while seedlings grown under 40% UV-B radiation exhibit a decrease of 59% PN with simultaneous elevation of 73% intercellular CO2 concentration. Effects of UV-B on contents of lipids, saccharides, amino acids and proteins are significant only at high doses of UV-B radiation. The concentration of anthocyanin is reduced with increasing doses of UV-B. The reverse is true with phenols and flavonoids (Moorthy and Kathiresan, 1997a). B. Fauna Toxicity Technical grade heptachlor, phosalone and carbaryl have been tested for acute toxicity to the edible crab Scylla serrata. The 96 h LC50 values of the three pesticides are 322, 406 and 466 g/1 respectively. Heptachlor produces instant hyperactivity, hyper-excitability and finally death due to exhaustion. Phosalone and carbaryl also induce similar effects resulting in gradual death. Profuse defaecation is observed in crabs exposed to phosalone and carbaryl (Subba Rao and Kannupandi, 1990).

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The ethanol extracts of different parts of 7 mangrove species have been tested against fingerlings of Liza macrolepis. The total free sugar, protein and cholesterol of muscle tissue of the tested fishes indicate that in all cases of lethality by different extracts, there is a considerable reduction (Madhu and Madhu, 1997). The larvicidal activity of nine macrophytes extracts prepared in petroleum ether (PE) and chloroform (C) has been tested against Artemia salina nauplii. The LC 50 values for the PE-fraction of Microdictyon pseudohapteron and Acanthophora muscoides and C-fraction of S. isoetifolium are 11.75, 42.5 and 41.5 ppm respectively (Devi et al., 1998). The 24hr LC50 of marine plant extracts against Ceratonereis costae has been studied. The fruit and leaf of Aegiceras corniculatum and leaf of Rhizophora mucronata are more toxic to C. costae by showing the LC50 of 0.24, 0.26 and 0.28 mg/ml respectively. The extracts which are not found effective against C. costae are Padina gymnospora, Excoecaria agallocha and Lumnitzera racemosa (Premanathan et al., 1988). The extracts of Caulerpa scalpelliformis, Dictyota dichotoma, Enteromorpha clathrata and E. intestinalis are effective against the larvae of Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus giving rise to LC50 values less than 100 mg/1. The extracts of Caulerpa peltata and C. racemosa are effective only against the larvae of Aedes aegypti but not against Culex quinquefasciatus (Subramonia Thangam and Kathiresan, 1993a). Fifteen mangrove species extracted in acetone and petroleum ether separately, have been tested for their activity against the larvae of mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus. Petroleum ether extract of R. apiculata is most effective with LC50 of 25.7 mg/1. The extract further shows synergistic larvicidal activity with pyrethrum. The synergism and the synergistic factor is 0.81 at 5 mg/1 (Subramonia Thangam and Kathiresan, 1997). Marine plant extracts have been screened against Anopheles stephensi, a mosquito vector of malaria and Tanais stanfordii, a wood fouling marine organism. Out of 100 plant extracts tested only 9 plant extracts are effective in causing mortality with a concentration of 100 ppm. The stilt root extract of Rhizophora apiculata and the seaweed Dictyota dichotoma are effective with 24 hr LC50 values of 17 and 22 ppm respectively (Kathiresan et al., 1990).
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Mosquito larvicidal activity has been studied on three insecticides (DDT, BHC and Malathion). These chemical insecticides show synergistic effect with leaf and flower extracts of Bougainvillea glabra on Culex sitiens (Subramonia Thangam and Kathiresan, 1990). Mangrove plant extracts also exhibit smoke repellency and killing effect on Culex quinquefasciatus (Thangam and Kathiresan, 1992a) and Aedes aegypti (Thangam and Kathiresan, 1992b). Nine species of marine plants have been tested against mosquito larvae. The seaweed Microdictyon pseudohapteron is most effective with LC50 values of 50 mg/l followed by Acanthophora muscoides (62.5 mg/l). The Petroleum ether extract of Syringodium isoetifolium is effective at 450 mg/l. All other fractions show activity between 800 and 2000 mg/l. The Chloroform extracts fractions of Derris heterophylla, Sonneratia caseolaris, Acanthophora muscoides, Halophila ovalis, Syringodium isoetifolium and Umbilicaria aprine are ineffective even at 2000 mg/l (Devi et al., 1997). Light-induced effects of latex on a salt marsh mosquito Culex sitiens have been studied. The effect is more pronounced at high concentration (400 mg/l) of the latex, and this mortality effect is reversed by 19%, 24%, 37% in blue, yellow and red lights respectively, and a total mortality is noted in dark, white, Indico and green lights within 24hr of exposure. At low concentration (50 mg/l) 20% mortality is observed in white light and dark conditions, and the effect is reduced by 2%, 15%, 8% and 10% in Indico, Blue, Yellow and Red respectively and while the green light accelerates the negative effect, caused by latex by 20% (Table 21; Fig. 2) (Kathiresan and Subramonia Thangam, 1987b).
Table 21. Light induced effects of latex of Excoecaria agallocha on salt marsh mosquito

Source : Kathiresan and Subramonia Thangam (1987b)

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Fig 2. Effect of extracts from latex, leaf and root of Excoecaria agallocha on estuarine mosquito Culex sitiens (adopted from Kathiresan and Subramonia Thangam, 1987b)

Metal accumulation in mangroves and fauna Levels of Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb and Ni in shrimps and crabs from Thane-Bassein creek system have been evaluated for a period of one year and reported as baseline data future monitoring of this vital ecosystem. The pattern of concentration is in the order of Zn>Cu>Cd>Ni>Pb. In shrimps, maximum levels of Cu (av 41.3 ppm dry wt.) and Zn (av. 164 ppm dry wt.) are observed in Metapenaeus brevicornis from Thane creek and in Exopalaemon stylifera from Bassein creek. The crab, Scylla serrata from Thane creek shows maximum concentration of Cu (av. 73 ppm dry wt.) and Zn (av. 376 ppm dry wt.). Cd, Pb and Ni contribute very little to the percentage contribution of the metals estimated (Table 22, 23) (Asha Jyothi and Nair, 1999a). Concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb and Ni in different tissues of 10 species of fish from Thane and Bassein creeks have been estimated for a period of 15 months. In general, fish from Bassein creek show higher concentration of metals than those collected from Thane creek (Asha Jyothi and Nair, 1999b).

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Table 22. Concentration of metals (ppm dry wt.) in shrimps and crabs collected from Thane creek (values given are range and average in parentheses)

Source : Asha Jyothi and

Nair (1999a)

Table 23. Concentration of metals (ppm dry wt.) in shrimps and crabs collected from Bassein creek (Values given are range and average in parentheses)

Source : Asha Jyothi and

Nair (1999b)

Biochemical changes The biochemical components such as total protein, carbohydrate and lipids have been measured during larval development of the mangrove crab Metaplax
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elegans from first zoea to first crab stage. Protein content per larva increases from first zoea to fifth zoea, but decreases in megalopa, again increases in first crab stage. Carbohydrate content increases from first zoea to third zoea, decreases in fourth and fifth stage, and increases in megalopa and first crab stage. The total lipid shows upward trend from first zoea to first crab (Balagurunathan and Kannupandi, 1995). The major biochemical constituents like total protein, carbohydrate, lipid and water of a pulmonate snail, Pythia plicata have been studied seasonally. The minimum protein value of 15.71% is recorded in July when the snail starts laying eggs. The minimum carbohydrate content of 0.89% is observed during the advancement of the male gonad in October, while the maximum value of 3.04% is recorded during the post development of gonad after egg-laying in September. The minimum lipid value of 0.0052% is registered in December during spermatogenesis. The water content is minimum (61.79%) in June when the snails start egg-laying; while it is maximum (78.86%) in February during the gonadal development (Shanmugam, 1991b). The mullet, Liza parsia of Sundarbans has highly unsaturated fatty acids with chain length of 18, 20, 22 carbon atoms (Chattopadhyay et al., 1990). The annual biocalcification of aragonite by Macoma birmanica is 314.3 g/m /year which is 2.5 times higher than biomass production and almost is equal to the elimination rate, 311.4 g/m2/year. Rapid response of this biogenous aragonite to the process of neutralization of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide through its dissolution is observed, which is almost close to its maximum capacity (Saha and Jana, 1999). The chemical composition of the extrapallial fluid of Macoma birmanica has also been examined in order to understand the process of calcification. Concentrations of inorganic ions Na+, K+, Ca2, C1- and SO42- are in higher proportion in the pallial fluid than those in the ambient medium (Saha et al., 2000).
2

Food conversion efficiency and growth in the white shrimp Penaeus indicus fed with decomposed mangrove leaves of Avicennia marina show higher assimilation efficiency (87.96%), gross growth efficiency (10.82%), net growth efficiency (12.3%) and relative growth rate (0.0603 g/day) than those fed with A. officinalis (Table 24). This is attributed to its high calorific and protein content in the leaves of A. marina (Athithan and Ramadhas, 2000).
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Table 24. Food conversion efficiency and growth in Penaeus indicus fed with the decomposed leaves of A. marina and A. officinalis*

* - Calculations made on the dry weight basis with standard deviation values in parentheses Source : Athithan and Ramadhas (2000)

The cyanobacterial strain, isolated from Pichavaram mangrove forest maintained and cultured with marine nutrient medium in the laboratory, when incorporated with basal feed increase the growth of two penaeid prawns (Palaniselvam and Kathiresan, 1998). Sediment Chemistry In the sediments of the mangrove swamps of Cochin, phenolic compounds and total microbial counts range from 0.018 to 16.75 ppm, and 25 x 104 to 110 x 104/g respectively with distinct seasonal variations. Phenol concentration is highest (16.75 ppm) during monsoon month (Imelda Joseph and Chandrika, 2000). The organic carbon estimated in mangrove sediment shows higher values during summer and premonsoon and lower values during monsoon. This higher organic carbon content in mangrove sediments during summer together with the high standing crop of benthic cynaobacteria indicate that these organic compounds would be utilized by cyanobacteria (Ramachandra Rao and Krishnamurthy, 1994). 9. UTILIZATION Mangrove ecosystem is a natural resource providing benefits to mankind in many ways. Owing to their high productivity and sheltered nature, mangroves serve many ecological functions that make the mangroves as one of the most
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productive coastal marine ecosystems. In the recent years, land use activities encroach into the coastal mangrove areas. These activities in many ways are in direct conflict with the objectives of conservation and sustainable traditional use of the mangroves (Ramachandran, 1993). The status regarding the utilization and conservation of mangroves in India, has been outlined (Rao, 1991; Ramdial, 1991). Significance of mangroves has been documented in a symposium volume edited by Agate et al. (1991). The mangroves are considered wasteland in most parts of the world and are either ignored or abused, until the late 1960s (Snedaker, 1987). Beginning in 1960s and extending through the early 1970s, the ecological and economic values of mangroves began to be documented. Among the cited values, the roles of mangrove forests in coastal protection (against storms and erosion), the perpetuation of coastal water quality, and in the maintenance and production of coastal fishery resources (Snedaker, 1987) are worth-mentioning. Various international organizations such as UNESCO (United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris), FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome), UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi), USAID (United States Agency for International Development), IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), ISME (International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Japan), ITTO (International Tropical Timber Organization, Japan), Ramsar Convention for Wetlands, and MAP (Mangrove Action Project, Washington) initiated a variety of programmes on the conservation and management of mangrove resources. Mangroves produce nutrients and enrich the coastal sea. Mangroves also help in recycling of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur. It is perhaps the only biotic system that recycles sulphur in nature and makes it available in an assimilable form to other organisms. Thus, mangrove waters are rich in organic and inorganic nutrients. For example, Pichavaram mangrove waters (Tamil Nadu) contain 4 times more of nitrate, 20 times more of suspended organic matter and inorganic phosphates as compared to adjoining seawater of the Bay of Bengal. When the nutrient-rich mangrove waters mix with the sea, results in increased fertility of the sea (Kathiresan, 1994). The organic detritus enriched with biomass of bacteria, fungi and protozoans, gives rise to protein-rich particulate organic matter and this forms the energetic food of crabs, worms, shrimps and small fishes, which in turn, form prey to large fishes. The mangrove leaves also produce secondary metabolites as chemical weapon to fight against pathogenic microorganisms (Kathiresan, 1996).
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Importance of the mangrove ecosystem in fisheries has been discussed (Purushan, 1991; Agate, 1991; Jeyaseelan et al., 1991; Rajendran and Kathiresan, 1999b; Kathiresan, 2000). With a high rate of primary production, the mangroves are able to sustain populations of fish, shellfish and wildlife. They serve as prime breeding and nursery grounds for many animal species especially for prawns so it is often called No mangroves, no prawns (Macnae, 1968). They serve as custodians of their juvenile stock and as natural wealth (Kathiresan, 1995a). Small scale fisheries in mangrove waters produce nearly one million tons of finfishes, molluscs, crabs and shrimps annually, that is equivalent to about 1.1 per cent of the world fishery catch (Kepetsky, 1985). Mangroves provide direct employment for about 0.5 million fisherfolk. A total of about one million jobs the worldwide is dependent on mangrove-associated fisheries. The density of population dependent on mangroves is estimated about 5.6 persons/km2 (FAO, 1988). Besides the capture fishery, culture fishery is also prevalent in the mangrove-rich area. Prospects of aquaculture have been outlined in a mangrove ecosystem in Pichavaram in terms of biotic problems such as seed resources, recruitment failure, menace by predators, threat posed to mangrove vegetation through siltation, by farm construction and deforestation (Krishnamurthy and Jeyaseelan, 1986). The mangroves help the socio-economic development of the coastal communities by supplying seeds for aquaculture industries as well as providing the traditional sources of medicines, honey, firewood, fodder and timber. Details of a pilot project on forestry-cum-fish culture in the Sundarbans have been given (Madhu, 1987). Culture potentiality of Kali estuary and adjoining brackishwater system are assessed based on water quality, soil fertility and biotic components (plankton and benthos) (Neelakantan et al., 1987). The potential of coastal aquaculture in Andamans has been studied and guidelines for the establishment of prawn fish farms in low lying marshes are given (Sundararajan and Dorairaj, 1987). The reclamation of areas affected with acid sulphate soil is suggested by liming, repetitive flushing, etc. to reduce pressure on currently available fertile areas (Silas, 1987a). A study on the interactions of capture, captive and culture fisheries in Sundarbans has been made for the management of mangrove associated fisheries and aquaculture (Silas, 1987b). A silvipisiculture project in the Sundarbans has been implemented by the forest department of the West Bengal Government, with technical assistance given
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by the Bay of Bengal Programme and funds provided by SIDA (Swedish International Development Authority), between 1983 and 1988. It is necessary to develop high yielding aquaculture techniques, and construction of appropriate cost-effective sluice designs and a social feasibility study to stimulate peoples participation in the project (Angell and Muir, 1990). Pioneering investigations have shown that some of the mangrove vegetation can serve for a variety of purposes:-(i) as a source of tea, (ii) as a cholesterol-feed for prawn, (iii) as potential sources of mosquitocides, (iv) for antiviral drugs formulation - especially against AIDS and Jaundice, (v) as source of UVabsorbing compounds, (vi) as a source of bacterial biofertilizers (Subramonia Thangam, 1990; Kathiresan and Pandian, 1991; Premanathan, 1991; Xavier Ramesh and Kathiresan, 1992; Moorthy and Kathiresan, 1993; Moorthy, 1995; Ravikumar, 1995; Palaniselvam, 1995; Kathiresan, 1995a). Studies on these aspects have proved the efficacy of the mangrove plants in the aspects of therapeutic, preventive and clinical medicines as well as in agriculture. The bark of the Barringtonia asiatica is used to stupefy fish and to capture them especially by the Nicobar tribes. The bark is used as a fish poison and the fruit is eaten in Indo-China. The potency of B. asiatica is compared to mohua oil cake, which is frequently used in India to remove unwanted fishes from nursery and stocking ponds (Roy, 1996). Mangrove plants have been reported for the first time to control the activity of mosquitoes (Subramonia Thangam, 1990). Plant extracts kill mosquito larvae of Aedes aegypti (Thangam and Kathiresan, 1988, 1991 and 1994), Culex tritaeniorhynchus (Thangam and Kathiresan, 1989) and Anopheles stephensi (Thangam and Kathiresan, 1988). The stilt root extract of R. apiculata kills mosquito larvae (Kathiresan, 1991). The plant extracts show repellent activity against Aedes aegypti when the extracts are applied on the human skin (Subramonia Thangam and Kathiresan, 1993b). The plant samples have been tested for mosquito larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti. The stilt root of Rhizophora apiculata and of R. mucronata and leaf of Avicennia marina are most effective in providing protection time of 70.0, 54.5 and 46.0 min, respectively against the mosquito bite. Even the commercially available repellent compounds like dimethylphthalrnate give protection for less than a hour (Subramonia Thangam and Kathiresan, 1993c).
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The bark of Rhizophora and Bruguiera spp. is used for tannin extraction. Leaves of the Avicennia are good fodder, while the fruits of Sonneratia form part of the local diet. Mangrove plants are being used in folklore medicine for treatment of several diseases. Rhizophora mucronata bark is a powerful astringent and is also used as a cure for diabetes, haemorrhage and angina. The extract of the Acanthus ilicifolius leaf is used to treat rheumatic disorders, while that of the Bruguiera species is used for high blood pressure. In addition, the bark and the leaves of Excoecaria agallocha are used to treat a variety of ailments (Krishnamoorthy, 1997). Tannins which are commercially important plant products, have been studied for their seasonal changes in 14 mangrove species, and the tannins range from 2.41 to 21.42 mg/g dry weight (Kathiresan and Veera Ravi, 1990). The mangroves have also been studied for gallotannins (which are used in leather, medical, pharmaceutical, food and in beverage industries) and the gallotannins range from 0.013 to 3.555 mg/g dry weight (Veera Ravi and Kathiresan, 1990). Among the mangrove Rhizophora species shows rich content of tannins especially commercial gallotannins (Kathiresan, 1991). The tannin content is reported to decrease very rapidly during decomposition (Rajendran and Kathiresan, 2000). The content of proline has been estimated in some mangrove plants and found in high concentrations (Kathiresan and Visveswaran, 1990). For centuries, people in India have been gathering honey made from the nectar of mangrove species. Honey extraction, to date, has been a cottage industry but there is a large potential of a larger industry that would not have a negative impact on mangrove systems (Krishnamurthy, 1990). As these mangroves are rich in polyphenolic compounds, the leaves have been attempted for making a beverage with same qualities as black tea. The mangrove tea as a beverage is proved to have better quality and no mammalian toxicity (Kathiresan, 1995c). Further attempt has been made to improve the quality of mangrove tea by UV-in addition treatments (Kathiresan and Pandian, 1991, 1993). By the presence of secondary metabolites such as anthocyanian and flavonoids, the mangrove leaves appear to absorb solar UV-radiation and make the environment less hazardous (Moorthy, 1995). Impact of UVirradiation on the quality of black tea in Ceriops decandra has been studied. The quality of black tea is maximum (2.229%) in leaf samples collected during summer and withered under UV for 90 min. and the quality is
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also maximum (3.464%) in monsoon samples withered under UV for 120 min. The quality of black tea is high (0.75%) in leaves sampled during summer and fermented under UV for 120 min. and the quality is also high (5.846%) in monsoon samples fermented under UV for 150 min. (Kathiresan and Pandian, 1991). 10. DEGRADATION Mangroves are endangered by hostile habitat and human abuse (Kathiresan, 1995a). Our country has lost 40% of mangrove area of what existed a century ago (Krishnamurthy et al., 1987). The general factors that affect the mangrove ecosystems are loss of habitat, human interference, trade and overexploitation etc. Several specific issues, which deserve immediate attention are (1) prawn farming practices, (2) cattle grazing, (3) tree felling, (4) reduced freshwater supply, (5) hypersalinity, (6) heavy sedimentation, (7) natural calamities, (8) pest problems, (9) unsustainable fishing practices, and (10) lack of peoples participation. The above - mentioned issues specific to mangrove areas have to be taken into consideration in evolving remedial or alternative measures (Kathiresan, 1999a). The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) recorded a decline of 7,000 ha of mangroves in India within six-year period from 1975 to 1981. The fast destruction and degradation of the mangroves have already caused coastal erosion and fall in fishery resources. A coastal place in Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam) lost 40% of its mangrove area with a reduction of 18% of fishery resources within a 13 year-period from 1976 to 1989 (Padmavathi, 1991). If the trend is not reversed, mangroves will get completely wiped out (Kathiresan, 1995a). It is feared that most of our shorelines will be denuded of forests and vegetation cover. This is realized as the most serious problem for the reason of explosion of the human population-75% of which occupy the coastal area imposing heavy pressures on coastal resources. Hence, non-sustainable use and overexploitation of mangroves have to be controlled immediately, besides taking the measures on regeneration, restoration and afforestation of the mangroves (Kathiresan, 1995a). It has been estimated that approximately 1,00,000 ha of barren intertidal mangrove area are available for afforestation programme along the Indian coast (Untawale, 1987). Our mangroves suffer under various forms of pressures viz. the agriculture, aquaculture, industry, fuelwood extraction and diversion of water for irrigation,
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which lead to a reduction in freshwater inflow and increased salinity that affect mangroves (Ranganath et al., 1989). Prawn culture is often carried out at the expense of mangroves (Franklin and Palanivelu, 1989). In India, there is severe pressure to convert mangrove forests for agriculture, industries, aquaculture and upstream river-water diversions for irrigation and other purposes. Such encroachments severely disturb mangrove ecosystems by diminishing freshwater inflows, increasing soil salinity and interfering with nutrient supply. In general, the mangrove forests in India are categorized as degraded, due in part to illicit felling and cattle grazing, which put enormous pressure on this fragile coastal environment (Krishnamoorthy, 1997). The decline of mangrove vegetation at Pichavaram inspite of it being a Reserved Forest since 1880 might be ascribed to heavy anthropogenic pressures (collection of fire-wood, grazing and fishing). The Coleroon river linked to the mangrove lagoon has been dammed for providing irrigation, thus depriving the mangroves of freshwater supply at critical stages, resulting in an increase of salinity (Meher Homji, 1991). Damage to the Sundarbans has been summarized by Scott (1989). In the western part large areas are settled and cultivated by people and very little natural mangrove forest remains. Further more, there has been a major reduction in the inflow of freshwater into this part as a result of the construction of the Farakka Barrage in 1971 designed to divert freshwater southwards and to alleviate the rapid siltation in the port of Calcutta. The freshwater inflow in estuaries is necessary for seed germination and establishment of mangrove seedlings (Scott, 1989). The forest is almost without Heritiera fomes due to the decline in freshwater supply (Karim, 1988). Large scale destruction of estuarine fish and prawn seed resources in Hooghly-Matlah estuarine system of the Sundarbans has been reported (Das et al., 1987). The destruction of seeds of brackishwater fin fish and shell fish has been estimated in Sundarbans. The seed collectors destroy about 181.4 million seeds of economic and uneconomic varieties of brackishwater fin fish and shell fish after retaining only the seeds of tiger shrimp during January to September. The seed collectors are interested in the seed of tiger shrimp only as it has trade value and the fishermen intend to intensify effort towards collection of tiger shrimp for more monetory return although their knowledge level towards fin fish and shell fish conservation has been found to be medium to high (Bhaumik et al., 1992).
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Due to different Government policies, Sagar island gradually became almost completely settled with a population of 149,222 (1991), naturally growing at 3.99% per year. Coastal erosion, that reduced the total supratidal area of Sagar by about a quarter within 144 years (from 284.55 km2 in 1851-55 to 219.26 km2 in 1997), forms the most important natural environmental hazard affecting the island. Among other things, the erosion can primarily be related to the disturbance of morphological steady state of the Hugli estuary due to reclamation of its intertidal areas. Most of the erosion takes place episodically during tropical cyclones (Bandyopadhyay, 1998). Mangrove destruction in the Andamans and Nicobar is described by Bagla and Menon (1989). About 10,000 ha had reportedly been cut since 1960, mainly for fuel. Mangroves and coral reef of South Andaman Islands have been mapped through remote sensing data to identify the degraded areas due to human activities (Krishnamoorthy et al., 1993). Human activities disturb the structural and functional aspects of mangrove forests of Andaman Islands. Species are very sensitive to anthropogenic pressures. The intensive cutting and browsing have resulted in almost total elimination of the species (Singh et al., 1990). In Orissa, large area of mangroves are cleared in the Hatamundia Reserved Forest for aquaculture purposes. Mangroves are degraded and cleared near Karanjmal and near Paradip port on the mouth of the Mahanadi river (RSAM, 1992). Mangrove ecosystem in the Mahanadi delta (201 5 to 20 70 N and 87 to 87 40E) spreads over the southern part of the two districts, Cuttack and Balasore, and the mangroves constitute most significant mangal formation in India supporting over 60 mangrove species. This highly productive ecosystem is an ideal base for pisiculture, crocodile farming, feeding ground for birds, and valuable forest based industries. Besides natural calamities, human exploitation, especially forest operation, land reclamation, resettlements, diversion of freshwater, rapid deforestation and developmental activities are impoverishing this unique ecosystem (Banerjee, 1992). Palynology of 4.30 m deep soil profile from Rambha has provided clues of two phases of mangrove development since mid-late Holocene. The first phase between 3,800 and 2,000 years B.P. has revealed the existence of core mangrove
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forest with a maximum development of rhizophoraceous members. This feature of vegetation mosaic is suggestive of typical deltaic environment with consistency in sea-level rise, leading to constant seawater depths in the estuary. Thereafter, in second phase, traumatic decline in Rhizophoraceae, disappearance of Heritiera, sporadicity of Aegialitis, Sonneratia, etc. and overall degradation of core mangroves vis-a-vis uprise in the values of hinterland taxa has been recorded. This shift in the vegetation from frontline core mangroves to the peripheral mangrove components has been brought about by the lowering down of sea-levels and plentiful freshwater discharge in the estuary since 2,000 years B.P. Another important feature of this study relates to the introduction of Casuarina and member of Anacardiaceae in the mangrove areas around 700 years B.P. due to man-made activities (Khandelwal and Gupta, 1991). In Andhra Pradesh, the mangroves are destroyed for prawn culture, salt manufacturing, domestic uses, and also by cyclonic effects and due to replacement of Casuarina plantations by farmers (Jayasundaramma et al., 1987). Cattle grazing is a major problem for destruction of mangroves especially in Pichavaram of Tamil Nadu. In Muthupet, the siltation, indiscriminate cutting and heavy human pressure are the problems. Elangovan (1993) has studied the ecology, phenology, heavy metal distribution and sociology of the Pichavaram and Muthupet mangroves and has emphasized the need to educate the people about various aspects of mangroves. The factors responsible for degradation of mangroves in Arabian sea are agriculture, constructions, urban development and industrialization (Untawale et al., 1992). In Gujarat State, there is an excessive grazing by camels in the Great Rann (Scott, 1989) while in the Gulf of Kachchh, loss of mangroves is as a consequence of cutting for fuel and timber. In the past, trees are taller and denser; but many areas are now reduced to shrubby vegetation by grazing and cutting; 95% of mature trees have been cut in the last 20 years (Chavan, 1985; Scott, 1989). The mangroves are severely degraded and reduced from 275 to 218 sq.km in the part of Gulf of Kachchh and 138 to 33 sq.km in the core area of the Marine National Park, from 1975 to 1986. Near the mouth of the Gulf, the mangroves along with the marsh vegetation are drastically reduced from 730 to 180 sq. km. from 1975 to 1982. The destruction is mainly because of their use as fuel and fodder, and the proliferation of the salt works. The analysis of the satellite data, thus helps in planning proper conservation measures and ultimately to its better management (Nayak et al., 1988).
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In the Gulf of Khambhat, mangroves are heavily exploited and reduced to open scrubby forest (Scott, 1989). There are formerly extensive tracts of mangrove in the Gulf of Khambhat, but now there are probably less than 20,000 ha (Scott, 1989; IUCN, 1993). Mangrove destruction proceeds almost unhindered in Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra. Mangroves on the Karnataka coast are being seriously damaged by pollution and felling. Mangroves in Goa are polluted by oil. The oil has affected Sonneratia spp. near Elephant Island, Mumbai (Bombay). Arsenic content in mangroves from Goa coast is reportedly more in young leaves than in mature and yellow leaves (Rao, et al., 1991). The mangrove lands are privately owned in almost all parts of Maharashtra. These people have raised the level of mangrove land after clearing the vegetation to stop the inflow of high tide water for farming or construction of buildings (Bhosale and Mulik, 1991a). In some areas of Maharashtra, roads are being constructed right in the mangrove areas (Bhosale and Mulik, 1991a). The major impacts of domestic sewage and industrial effluents on destruction of mangroves are much felt (Bhosale and Mulik, 1991b), Physicochemical features of Thane creek of Maharashtra reveal that the pollution decreases the acreage of mangrove on the banks (Kadam, 1992). The large coastal lagoons of Kerala suffered from uncontrolled urban development. Mangroves are felled for agriculture in large areas of coastal lands and that drastically altered the ecology of the swamps (Scott, 1989). Kerala once had over 7,000 hectares of mangroves fringing its unique estuarine systems (Ramachandran and Mohanan, 1987). Because of exploitation, indiscriminate land use, reclamation activities etc., it has now become reduced to few discrete stands, confined to some small pockets of the Kerala backwaters. A mangrove location that demands immediate attention is at Kumarakom, located nearer to Kottayam town on eastern bank of the Vembanad estuary. The impacts of tourism and replantation of the coconut and rubber on the mangroves and the bird sanctuary have been critically evaluated based on simple biocybernetic principles (Ramachandran and Mohanan, 1987). At Cochin, mangroves have been destroyed for fuel, agriculture, aquaculture and for development of roads, industries and housing complexes (Sunil Kumar and Antony, 1994). Biodeterioration of mangrove vegetation by marine organisms has been well-documented along Indian coast (Santhakumaran and Sawant, 1991). The wood borers belonging to the genera of Bactronophorus, Teredo, Lyrodus, Bankia, Dicyathifer, Martesia and Sphaeroma damage mangroves in the Krishna estuarine areas (Rambabu et al., 1987b). Marine wood-borers have been studied
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for their distribution along the east coast of India that include Andaman and Nicobar islands. There are 11 species of wood borers viz., Bankia campanellata, B. gracilis, B. rochi, Nausitora dunlopei, N. hedleyi, Nototeredo edax, Spathoteredo obtusa, Dicyathifer manni, Lyrodus pedicellatus, Teredo furcifera and Mertesia striata. Of these species, Bankia gracilis and Spathoteredo obtusa are new records (Santhakumaran and Srinivasan, 1988). Destruction of mangrove vegetation by Sphaeroma terebrans has been recorded along Kerala coast in Cochin backwaters (Santhakumari, 1991). In Pichavaram, ten species of molluscan wood-borers cause damage to mangrove wood and they are five teredinids viz., Bankia campanellata, B. carinata, Dicyathifer manni, Lyrodus pedicellatus and Teredo furcifera; two pholads viz., Martesia striata and M. nairi (Sivakumar, 1992; Sivakumar and Kathiresan, 1995). Besides wood borers, wood fouling marine organisms like bryozoans do occur in mangrove vegetation especially in the stilt roots of Rhizophora species in Pichavaram (Nair, 1991). A dangerous pest, Aspidiotus destructor (belonging to the phylumArthropoda, class-Insecta, order-Hemiptera and family-Diaspidiae) damages the seedlings of Rhizophora. This pest can be controlled by using monocrotophos, dimethoate and demeton (Kathiresan, 1993). The problem of foliovory has been studied in 10 species of mangroves, damaging from 1 to 12% of leaf area. Avicennia species are highly damaged and Ceriops decandra, Excoecaria agallocha and Rhizophora annamalayana are least affected, and the damage is negatively correlated with tannin content of mangrove leaves (Kathiresan, 1992). Another serious problem identified in Pichavaram is that a large amount of propagules, which are produced in the canopy just above the waterways, are washed into the sea and wasted. A special care, therefore, is suggested to collect the mature hypocotyls from the canopy and to plant them in appropriate places, which seems worthwhile in the present conditions of fast disappearance of mangrove forests (Kathiresan and Moorthy, 1992a). 11. CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT Mangroves are mostly degraded except at few places. The total wetland area which has been converted for other uses is about 40 million hectares in India,
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as compared with 10 million hectares in Indonesia and about 2 million hectares in Malaysia (Untawale, 1992). The rate of deforestation in India is around 1.5 million hectares per year. This deforestation had led to soil acidification, loss of nutrients, soil erosion and decline in fishery potential. Rehabilitation programmes for these degraded marsh areas have been suggested (Untawale, 1992). It is necessary to undertake management plans to conserve the mangroves (RSAM, 1992; Jagtap et al.,1993). The luxuriant mangrove area needs more of protection and active management. A partially degraded area requires either natural regeneration (if propagules are available abundantly) or rehabilitation (if propagules availablility is low). A seriously degraded area needs reforestation. The most successful mangroves used for restoration of degraded areas are Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Sonneratia caseolaris, Rhizophora mucronata and R. apiculata (Kathiresan, 1999a). The entire country has been mapped for her wetlands and shoreline, using satellite data by the Department of Space (RSAM, 1992). Hence, the classification for each mangrove area is known. For instance, the area classification of Pichavaram mangroves has been given in the Table 25 below, as per the revised satellite imagery and field census plots undertaken by the Institute of Remote Sensing, Anna University, Chennai (Madras).
Table 25. Area classification of Pichavaram Mangroves

The dense mangrove forest exists in 241 ha and the remaining ones may be potential areas for mangrove plantation (RSAM, 1992). IRS-IA and IB data are useful in providing information on the extent and condition of coastal habitats. These inputs have formed major elements for preparing coastal zone management plans. IRS-IC data have improved spatial resolution (5.6 m PAN data), extended spectral range (inclusion of middle infra-red band in LISS III), increased repetitively (5 days for WiFS data) and opened up new vistas of applications in the coastal zone. IRS-IC data indicate that coral reef zonation, identification of tree and shrub mangroves, seaweed/seagrass beds, improved delineation of coastal features such as fringe mangroves, mudflats, beach, dune vegetation, saline areas
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etc., as well as better understanding of suspended sediment patterns are now possible. These additional information will certainly form vital remote-sensingbased input for preparing coastal zone management plans (Nayak et al., 1996). Methods of conservation including afforestation of selected sites are suggested (Jayasundaramma et al., 1987). The impact of human activities and environmental changes on mangroves have been analysed. Detailed guidelines are also given for the rehabilitation of degraded marine ecosystems (Ahmad, 1990). The guidelines for the selection of mangrove areas for preservation, conservation and declaration of forest reserves and areas for agricultural and aquacultural use have been proposed for the Bay Islands (Bandyopadhyay, 1991). A booklet entitled How to grow mangroves has been prepared in the National Institute of Oceanography, Goa (Untawale, 1986). Mangrove genetic resource centers for further research, development and management studies have been proposed (Deshmukh, 1991b). A tentative National Mangrove Plan for India is proposed for the implementation of research and development programmes (Untawale, 1991). Regeneration and growth performance have been studied in two species, Rhizophora mucronata and R. apiculata (Kulkarni and Bhosale, 1991). The afforestation trials made in large scale at two sites in Goa and six sites in Maharashtra as a part of the UNDP/UNESCO regional mangrove project for Asia and the Pacific are described (Kogo, 1987). Similar attempt has been made in areas near Ratnagiri and Kalbadevi estuary with large scale plantation of Rhizophora mucronata (Kulkarni and Bhosale, 1992) and also in the Sundarbans, on an experimental basis (Banerjee and Choudhury, 1987; Lahiri, 1991). In the subsequent year with improved seed drill, better result has been obtained. This method has opened up a possibility of large scale afforestation of blank areas in mangrove swamp within a limited period (Lahiri, 1991). Planting has been tried with Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata in the Pichavaram mangroves (Sekar et al.,1989) as well as at Porto Novo at Tamil Nadu and Ariyankuppam area in Pondicherry of southeast coast of India (Kathiresan, 1995a; Kathiresan et al., 1996, 2000). Aerial seeding of Avicennia and Sonneratia has been tried during August-September (1989) on the mud-flats of Sundarbans and has achieved a 50% success (Lahiri, 1991). The Indian Sundarbans extend over an area of 4,264 sq. km and is the only Mangrove Tigerland of the world. Owing to a neotectonic movement, Bengal-basin tilted eastward during 12th to 16th Century, resulting in large scale reduction of freshwater flow, increase of salinity and accelerated tidal action of
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sea. This has caused progressive extinction of wild animals like Javan Rhino, Water Buffaloe, Swamp Deer, Barking Deer, Gharial, Sweet Water Turtles like Chitra etc., from the Indian Sundarbans. The top predator, the Bengal Tiger roams unabated in the mangroves forests. Along with the normal terrestrial prey like wild boar, cheetal and monkey, mangrove tiger also gets a portion of food from fish, crab, water monitor and turtles. Sundarbans Tiger Reserve has been formed with a total conservation approach. Apart from declaring core area as National Park restoring strong legal protection, the management has also been taken into account, (a) catering to the needs of peripheral human population, (b) reducing the age-old tiger-human conflict; and (c) special conservation efforts to save the threatened species (Sanyal, 1992). Mangroves and most of the halophytes prefer glykic conditions for their seed germination. Different modes of seed germination in mangroves and their significance has been studied (Bhosale and Mulik, 1991b). Mangrove seedlings have been extensively investigated. Some chemicals enhance the root growth of Rhizophora and Avicennia and the chemicals are NAA, IBA, Keradix, IAA, phenolics, GA3, methanol, boric acids, triacontanol etc. (Kathiresan et al., 1990, 1995; Kathiresan et al.,1993; Kathiresan and Moorthy, 1994b, 1994c). Viviparous hypocotyls of Rhizophora mucronata treated with ascorbic acid, KCl, KMNO4 and MgCl2 for 24, 48 and 72 hours at different concentrations exhibit initiation and elongation of roots (Kathiresan and Moorthy, 1994a). Some of these chemicals-triacontanol and methanol-enhance many fold of photosynthetic activity and biomass production in Rhizophora species (Moorthy and Kathiresan, 1993; Kathiresan and Moorthy, 1994d; Kathiresan et al., 1996). Boric acid enhances the rooting at lower concentrations. For example, the boric acid improves rooting of Rhizophora apiculata hypocotyls when treated with 0.001% for 24 hours and 0.0001% for 48 hours (Kathiresan and Moorthy, 1992b). Most mangroves are now shrubby, with an average height of 2 m. while Avicennia marina attains moderate height along creeks and towards the sea. Heights of dominant trees in the Gulf of Kachchh are normally 5 to 7 m, rarely exceeding 9 m in western mangroves (Singh, 2000).
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Exposure of mangrove seedlings to electric current has been studied at an intensity of 10, 20 and 30 mA for 0.5, 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 hrs in different combinations, either to plumule or radicle or both parts of the propagules of Rhizophora mucronata. The root elongation is significantly influenced by duration of exposure, site of propagule treated and combined effects of current intensity x site of propagule treated. Leaf number and area are significantly influenced by intensity of electric current and duration of exposure; whereas shoot elongation is affected by the duration of exposure. The root number is significantly affected by duration of exposure (Kathiresan and Rajendran, 2000). Root growth of R. mucronata has been studied in seedlings, which are grown in estuarine water with leaf litter of nine mangrove and associate species, separately under laboratory conditions. The root growth is inhibited by the leachates of leaf litter remarkably by Suaeda monoica, Lumnitzera racemosa, Ceriops decandra and Rhizophora apiculata (Kathiresan et al., 1993). Effect of effluent from a shrimp pond on shoot biomass of five species of mangroves has been studied. It is suggested that atleast 70% of diluted effluents is required for growing vigourous seedlings (Rajendran and Kathiresan, 1996). The rooting performance of Rhizophora mucronata exhibits a wide range of salt tolerance. Rooting takes place even in freshwater and in salinity of 45 g/1. However, the rooting potential is reduced by 28% in 40 g/1 as compared to that in freshwater. Better rooting is recorded in salinity ranging from 15 to 35 g/1 (Kathiresan, 1996). The silt clay loam and clay loam favour the shoot growth by 22.7% and 138.9% and leaf area expansion by 69% and 116.6% in R. apiculata and R. mucronata respectively when irrigated with freshwater (Kathiresan et al., 1996, 1997). The optimal conditions favourable for growth of Rhizophora species have been standardized, such as propagule length, plantation depth, soil depth, soil type, salinity, leachates, pH and light intensity (Kathiresan and Thangam, 1989; Kathiresan and Thangam, 1990; Kathiresan and Xavier Ramesh, 1991; Kathiresan and Moorthy, 1992a, 1993; Kathiresan et al., 1993; Kathiresan et al., 1995). Performance of mangrove seedlings has been studied under natural field conditions. The seedlings easily get adapted in the natural soil habitats when planted after chemical treatments. The Rhizophora apiculata seedlings grow more rapidly in lower intertidal zones than those in upper intertidal ones of the Vellar
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estuary in Tamil Nadu. The growth is also rapid towards the monsoon month of December associated with low salinity and high levels of nutrients (Kathiresan et al., 1996). The mangrove species show better growth performance while grown in soil substrate inoculated with cyanobacterial mat (Palaniselvam and Kathiresan, 1998). The seedlings of Rhizophora apiculata exhibit better growth performance in the Vellar estuarine area, which is rich in potassium (Kathiresan et al., 1994). The artificial pruning of shoot apices of seedlings of Rhizophora species (R. apiculata and R. mucronata) has resulted in increased branches upto 5 (Kathiresan, 1989). All these investigations have developed the techniques beneficial for raising vigorous seedlings of mangroves in nursery and filed conditions (Kathiresan, 1995d). A large scale plantation of the mangroves in degraded shorelines is an immediate need to protect coastal economy. But, conventional type of mangrove propagation is difficult due to some physiological constraints. In this context, tissue culture appears to be promising as a number of propagules can be produced by this technique in a short span of time in many non-mangrove species (Kathiresan, 1990). The techniques of tissue culture and vegetative propagation have been attempted to regenerate endangered species of mangroves (Kathiresan, 1990; Kathiresan and Ravikumar, 1993, 1995b). Tissue culture has been successful to induce callus formation in leaf explants from five species of marine halophytes viz., Salicornia brachiata, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Sonneratia apetala, Suaeda monoica and Xylocarpus granatum (Kathiresan and Ravikumar, 1997). As the mangrove seeds are available mainly in summer months along west coast of India, a method for storage of these seeds upto 4 months has been proposed. The technique involves wrapping of the seeds in blotting paper or a coarse cloth 3 to 4 fold to cover its 1/3 portion or radicular end by keeping the paper/coarse cloth always moist by sprinkling water from time to time, without allowing the propagules to dry out (Gaykar and Bhosale, 1990). 12. MANAGEMENT OF MANGROVES The Government of India has committed for the conservation of forests and wildlife. This is evidently demonstrated by a 1976 amendment to the Indian
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Constitution, which states that it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife. Realizing the importance of mangroves, the Government of India set up the National Mangrove Committee in the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1976 to advise the government about mangrove conservation and development. In its first meeting, the panel, which consists of scientists, researchers and experts on the mangrove ecosystem, emphasized the need to conduct a survey of the extent of existing mangrove areas within the country. The government subsequently introduced a scheme for mangrove conservation and protection, consisting of : (i) identification of selected mangrove areas for conservation; (ii) preparation of a management plan; (iii) promotion of research; (iv) adoption of a multidisciplinary approach involving state governments, universities, research institutions and local organizations. In 1979, the National Mangrove Committee recommended areas for research and development and for management of the mangroves, which included the following: nation wide mapping of the mangrove areas, preferably by remote sensing techniques coupled with land surveys, and time series to assess the rate of degradation of the ecosystems; quantitative surveys of area, climatic regime, rate of growth of forests trees and seasonal variations of environmental parameters; assessment of suitable sites for reserve forests; conservation programmes; afforestation of degraded mangrove areas; study of management methods, the ecology of mangroves, their flora and fauna, their microbiology and the biochemistry of organic matter and sediments.

The government also supports research by academic institutions for development of mangrove ecosystems on a sound ecological basis. In 1987, the
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National Mangrove Committee identified 15 areas (Table 26) to start with for conservation and preparation of management action plan and the committee also identified the nodal academic/research institutions. The action plan for the concerned areas are drawn up by the state level Steering Committees. Now, more than 32 areas are under active conservation and management. The action plans broadly cover natural regeneration in selected areas, afforestation and protective measures. These plans have been implemented with the financial assistance of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Simultaneously many research projects related to mangrove conservation are carried out in academic institutions, with the financial assistance of Ministry of Environment and Forests and various State and Central Governmental agencies.
Table 26. The areas selected for the management of the mangroves by the National Mangrove Committee (1987)

M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai initiated a project on conservation of mangrove genetic resources with an assistance from International Tropical Timber Organization, Japan, in 1991. The center identified 23 sites from nine countries: Papua New Guinea, The Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, India, Pakistan, Cameroon and Senegal, as potential sites for establishment of mangrove genetic resources conservation centers. In India alone, 4 sites have been identified viz., Chorao Island (Goa), Pichavaram, Coringa and Bhitarkanika (Swaminathan et al., 1994). Also, a Mangrove Ecosystems Information Service (MEIS) is functioning in the Foundation. Similar Environmental Information System Centre (ENVIS) has been established in the Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology in 1992 with the financial assistance of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi.
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In India, a legislative framework for the conservation and management of mangroves is already in place. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 and the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 provide protection to flora and fauna. There is mention about mangroves, but these Acts can also apply to the conservation of mangrove ecosystems. Since 1927, the Indian Forest Act has been applied to the mangrove forests of the Sundarbans, which have been declared as a reserved area (Naskar and Mandal, 1999). The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 states that no forest area shall be diverted for any non-forestry purpose without prior approval of the Government of India. This Act has proved very effective in preventing diversion of mangrove forest areas for non-forestry purposes. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 has had a crucial role in the conservation and management of mangrove ecosystems. It declares a Coastal Regulation Zone in which industrial and other activities such as discharge of untreated water and effluents, dumping of wastes, land reclamation and bunding are restricted in order to protect the coastal environment. Coastal stretches are classified into four categories and mangroves are included in the most ecologically sensitive category. The National Forest Policy, 1988 lists effective conservation and management of natural forest ecosystems (including the mangrove ecosystem) as a priority area for forestry research. 13. RECOMMENDATIONS In order to conserve the mangrove ecosystem the following steps to be taken into account. To findout the alternatives to the local community who are depending on mangroves for their fuelwood, timber and fodder requirements. To stop the development activities such as aquaculture, agriculture, land reclamation activities for human settlement, mining, and industrialization in the mangrove area. Biological parameters should be monitored through research to facilitate natural regeneration and further growth of mangroves. Reasons for degradation of the mangrove area should be analyzed.
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Artificial planting should be taken up in all the suitable places including degraded areas. Efforts should taken to revegete rare and endangered species and save them from extinction. Much research on problems related to management of the mangrove ecosystems. Training should be given to forest officials and other related staff for better conservation and management. More funding should be provided to carryout research on mangrove ecosystem for better resource management. A strong enforcement of rules and regulations regarding conservation of mangroves be implemented. Incentives to be given to the staff members who are involved in the better conservation and management. To engage the local people in all the mangrove management programmes. Awareness programmes should be organized to import knowledge about the importance of mangrove ecosystems to people who dwell in the mangrove ecosystem for better management. Also the people should be educated through films, exhibitions, newspapers, magazines, posters, stickers, brochures, banners, seminars, nature camps, birdwatching, study tours in the mangrove forests and establishment of mangroves.

14. CONCLUSIONS Estuaries of India are biologically rich in fishery resources due to mangrove vegetation. Any damage or destruction to this ecosystem can destroy coastal fisheries (Achuthankutty, 1990). In the tropical and subtropical coastal countries, millions of people have their livelihood from fisheries in the mangrove estuaries. Afforestation of denuded areas should be given top priority with participation of the local people. Much more research is required for the fast development and better diversification of mangrove vegetation in our Country. The results of these
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investigation have to be reviewed from time to time. More awareness programmes on mangrove conservation with scientific base are necessary. Over 453 research papers on Indian mangroves have been published in a 13 year period from 1987 to 2000 (Table 27). Ecology and faunal aspects have been well-studied as evident through the 40% of total research papers on there. About 30% of papers pertain other mangrove - related aspects such as microbiology, biochemistry and plankton. The papers on pollution, toxicity and management aspects constitute about 14% of publications. The aspects which received poor attention are on degradation, geology, flora and utilization. All the studies mentioned above are lying scattered. A lot of scientific information is unpublished and lying as grey literature. A integrated approach in mangrove research is highly warranted to publish much more reports in order to formulate concrete policies and practices for better conservation and management of Indian mangroves.
Table 27. Research papers published for Indian mangroves in a 13 year period from 1987-2000

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INDIA
Mangrove Forests

PA KI ST AN

NE PA L

Gulf of Kachchh

Gulf of Khambat

AN S E A

Bhitarkanika Mahanadi Delta

Coringa

Sundarbans

Ratnagiri

ARAB I

Goa Kundapura

Krishna estuary

LAKSHADWEEP (LACCADIVE) ISLANDS

SRI LANKA

Vembanad

Pichavaram Muthupet

ANDAMAN ISLANDS

10 Channal

NICOBAR ISLANDS

I N D IAN O C EAN

100

100

200

300

Kilometers

Published by the Environmental Information System Centre, Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Parangipettai - 608 502, Tamilnadu, India.

BUR MA

BA NG LA DE SH