Research Trends in

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/352439132
Risk Assessment of Hazards Safety in Paper Mills
Chapter · June 2021
CITATIONS READS
0 3,138
1 author:
Chinnakannu Jayakumar
A. C. TECH, Anna University, Chennai
60 PUBLICATIONS 299 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Chinnakannu Jayakumar on 16 June 2021.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Research Trends in
MULTIDISCIPLINARY
RESEARCH
Volume - 14
Chief Editor
Dr. R. Jayakumar
Associate Professor, Siga College of Education, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu,
India
AkiNik Publications
New Delhi
Published By: AkiNik Publications
AkiNik Publications
169, C-11, Sector - 3,
Rohini, Delhi-110085, India
Toll Free (India) – 18001234070
Phone No. – 9711224068, 9911215212
Email – [email protected]
Chief Editor: Dr. R. Jayakumar
The author/publisher has attempted to trace and acknowledge the materials

reproduced in this publication and apologize if permission and
acknowledgements to publish in this form have not been given. If any material
has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so that we may rectify
it.
© AkiNik Publications
Publication Year: 2020
Pages: 176
ISBN:
Price: ` 635/-
Contents
S. No Chapters Page No.

1. Comparative Analysis of Protozoan Diversity in Deepor Beel
According to Disturbance Gradients 01-13
(Pubali Dey, Sabira Nissa and Syed Rizaul Karim Ahmed)
2. Habitat, Height and Hardship: Determinants of Elephant

Railroad-Crossing across Kampur-Khotkhoti Railway Line,
Assam, India 15-38
(Rekib Ahmed)
3. Use of Electronic Resources by the Research Scholars of

Gauhati University 39-49
(Silpisikha Devi)
4. Hazards of Heavy Metal on Human Health 51-67

(Dr. Ali Abid Abojassim and Rua R. Munim)
5. Risk Assessment of Hazards Safety in Paper Mills 69-83

(Dr. C Jayakumar and U. Sundheep)
6. Emerging Trends in Indian Tourism Industry: Challenges

and Strategies 85-101
(Dr. Shikha Bhatt)
7. Utilization of Tree Stump Dimension in Forest Modelling

and Management 103-121
(Onyekachi Chukwu and Jacinta Ukamaka Ezenwenyi)
8. ICT-Information and Communication Technology and Tools

used in ICT 123-137
(Kalidasan T and R. Sathishwaran)
9. Event Management: An Overview 139-157

(Dr. Kavita Dua)
10. Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Plants from Southern

India: A Critical Appraisal 159-176
(A. Stephen and S Kumaresan)
Chapter - 1
Comparative Analysis of Protozoan Diversity in
Deepor Beel According to Disturbance Gradients
Authors
Pubali Dey
Department of Zoology, University of Science and Technology,
Meghalaya, Ribhoi, Meghalaya, India
Sabira Nissa
Syed Rizaul Karim Ahmed
Page | 1
Page | 2
Chapter - 1
Comparative Analysis of Protozoan Diversity in Deepor
Beel According to Disturbance Gradients
Pubali Dey, Sabira Nissa and Syed Rizaul Karim Ahmed
Abstract
The treatment of sewage disposed in different water bodies is of great
concern lately due to the rapid increase in over exploitation of such
resources. Deepor Beel, the only Ramsar site of Assam is no exception and
as such needs attention on the treatment process for its preservation. The
location of a dumping ground of the Guwahati Municipality Corporation
(GMC) at Boragaon covering 108 bighas of land at lease for 20years (2008-
2028) has gradually developed into a health risk. The pollution created by
the wastes dumped and also the nearby industries are increasing at an
alarming rate and are directly or indirectly effecting the giant Deepor beel as
well as the life forms associated with it. Sewage disposal treatment plants are
a way to deal with the increasing rate of pollution of the water body which in
turn can benefit the other organisms as well as the local communities that
drive their livelihood from the Deepor Beel. Protozoans are one such
component of these water bodies whose composition in it can influence the
rate of sewage treatment. The work was done to check the availability of
different Protozoans that are beneficial as well as if there has been any
impact of the disposal on them in recent years. The entire Deepor Beel was
divided into two sites-The disturbed (the area near the dumping ground,
GMC) and the Undisturbed (the area in exception to the dumping ground,
GMC). Water samples were collected separately from the respective sites
and Protozoans were cultured under laboratory conditions. A number of 16
identified Protozoans species were found, of which there were 6 cilitates, 3
flagellates and 7 amoeba.
Keywords: wetland, Ramsar site, Deepor beel, sewage disposal, protozoa
Introduction
Wetlands, defined as land consisting of swamps and marshes are an
integral part of the major riverine systems around the globe and deserves
Page | 3
special attention for its rich biotic production potential and aquatic diversity
(Odum 1978, Mitsch and Gosselink 1986). The contribution of wetlands
include water storage, water purification, processing of nutrients like carbon,
stabilizing of shorelines and supporting of plants and animals within and
around it (USDA-Natural Resource Conservation Centre). Unfortunately,
today wetlands are one of the most threatened parts of the ecosystem.
Ramsar Sites are general wetlands found to be of utmost international
importance under the intergovernmental environmental treaty on wetlands
which was established by UNESCO in the year 1971 (Accessed 03.10.2016).
In India, this convention came into full force from 1st February 1982 and
designated a total of 27 Ramsar sites in the whole country. Among them
three are from Northeastern part of India (Deepor Beel in Assam, 2002;
Loktak Lake in Manipur, 1990; Rudrasagar Lake in Tripura 2005) (Kosygin,
L., 2009). Deepor Beel present in South-west of Guwahati city is one of the
most threatened among the other three due to its location and other
anthropogenic disturbances (sewage disposal) ("Ramsar Wetlands
Information Sheet-Deepor Beel").
Sewage or untreated water that is directly or indirectly leaked into such
water bodies have always come up with negative consequences. The
pollution and contaminations lead to adverse human health diseases and an
imbalance in the aquatic ecosystem (Arvaniti and Stasinakis, 2015).
Such aquatic ecosystems consists of organisms like Protozoa which is
an informal term for single-celled organisms either free-living or parasitic
which feed on other microorganisms tissues or debris and as such are found
under the domain Eukarya (Panno 2014).
Studies have shown us different results relating the chemical alterations
in wetlands due to anthropogenic activities which lead us to a outcome
where we can see a considerable downfall in the diversity of protozoans,
whether it be the change in pH of the water or the increase or decrease in
dissolved Oxygen, etc. (Anderson, 1988; Al-Rashid and Sleigh, 1995).
Protozoans which are generally idealized as harmful organisms
(Fairbrother & Renshaw 1922) are defended by some authors to be rather
helpful in reducing the effects of sewage disposal (Curds et al. 1968). Infact,
protozoans are known are the most effective bacteriovorus grazers (Bloem et
al. 1988, 1989). Nonetheless, the primary job of protozoans in waste water
treatment remain clarification of the affluent (Curds et al. 1968). Moreover,
Protozoans are also found to release certain organic and inorganic
compounds which are the recycled nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus
and organic carbon (Jurgens & Matz, 2002).
Page | 4
Methodology
Fig 1: Physiological location of Deepor Beel
Fig 2: Showing satellite view of Deepor Beel

The rich biodiversity of Deepor beel, the only Ramsar site in the state of
Assam, been under constant exposure to anthropogenic sewage disposal for
quite a long time now was the major attraction of the study. For specific
study, the entire Deepor beel (26 ͦ 7’48”N and 91 ͦ 39’36”E), ecosystem
including the peripheral habitat was categorized into two different sites,
based on anthropogenic effects as- Disturbed and Undisturbed. The
Disturbed sites comprised of the Southern boundary of Deepor beel,
Page | 5
adjoining the disposal ground, described as the inlet from Gorchuk. The
Undisturbed ones comprised of the other parts of the wetland with minimal
human interference. Data collection was done by random sampling from
both the sites.
The samples were collected from two zones- one from the surface for
protozoa study; another from about 4-6 inch beneath the water surface at
different sampling points. Within 24hours of the collection, the samples were
inoculated into different culture medias- Hay media, Rice grain media and
Yeast media (Haddad et al. 2008; Altermatt, Schreiber & Holyoak 2011),
(Sonneborn 1950; Fellous et al. 2012a; Fellous et al. 2012b), for the proper
growth of the Protozoans which were later observed under microscope.
Results
The study revealed facts about the diversity that was found in the
disturbed zone which had less variety of protozoa in comparison with that of
the undisturbed zone, but striking difference was observed in the water
sample4 collected from the disturbed zone which showed characteristics that
were similar to the samples collected from later. During the protozoan
culture observation, it was found that the samples collected from the
disturbed region had Amoeba sp., Volvox sp. and Polytoma sp. of which
Amoeba sp. was found in abundance. Interestingly, Sample4 had
comparatively more number of species than the other samples of the
disturbed zone which included Amoeba sp., Polytoma sp., Euglypha
tuberculata, Vorticella and Dileptus sp. from this a conclusion can be
derived that the site from which the sample4 of water was collected has less
impact of the anthropogenic practice.
Table 1: List of encountered species of Protozoa
Sr. No. Class Family Genus Species Also mentioned by

Sharma and
1. Tubulinea Amoebidae Amoeba sp.
Sharma, 2013
Sharma and
2. Lobosea Arcellidae Arcella Discoides
Sharma, 2013
Sharma and
3. Lobosea Arcellidae Arcella Vulgaris
Sharma, 2013
Sharma and
4. Sillicofilosea Agelenidae Assulina Muscorum
Sharma, 2013
Sharma and
5. Sillicofilosea Agelenidae Assulina Seminulum
Sharma, 2013
Sharma and
6. Tubulinea Centropomidae Centropyxis Ecornis
Sharma, 2013
7. Sillicofilosea Eulophidae Euglypha Tuberculata Sharma and
Page | 6
Sharma, 2013
Sharma and
8. Oligohymenophorea Frontoniidae Frontonia Acuminate
Sharma, 2013
9. Oligohymenophorea Parameciidae Paramecium sp. Saikia, P.K., 2005
Sharma and
10. Euglenoida Euglenaceae Euglena Acus
Sharma, 2013
Tyagi and
11. Euglenoida Peranemaceae Entosiphon sp.
Subramanyam, 2008
Viswanath and
12. Chrysophyceae Chromulinaceae Oikonomos sp.
Pillai, 1977
Sharma and
13. Oligohymenophorea Cyclidiidae Cyclidium sp.
Sharma, 2013
Sharma and
14. Litostomatea Trochilidae Trachelius sp.
Sharma, 2013
15. Oligohymenophorea Vorticella Vorticella sp. Saikia, P.K., 2005
Sharma and
16. Litostomatea Dipeptide Dileptus sp.
Sharma, 2013
Discussion
Right after bacteria, the next more significant organisms in the treatment
of wastewater are Protozoans. It has been seen for better understanding about
the role of Protozoans in the system of treatment for waste water, certain
characteristics are to be considered, which include-type of their movement,
their process and source of nutrition, etc. (Pauli, Wilfried & Jax, Kurt &
Berger, Sandra, 2005). Various microfaunal studies suggest that all of the
three main groups of protozoa-ciliates, flagellates and amoebae are found to
used and are capable in freshwater treatments in which ciliates cover the
largest part in species number as well as biomass. Another fact that must be
taken into account is that the protozoan composition and also it's total
biomass involved in the process of purification is dependent on the
composition of the wastewater mainly, along with other abiotic conditions.
Saikia, 2005 reported 16 species and Sharma, 2011 reported 21 species
of protozoans from Deepor beel which is almost similar to the results
reported in my study.
In my study, there were six ciliates (Frontonia acumulata, Paramecium
sp., Cyclidium sp., Trachelius sp., Vorticellidae sp., Dileptus sp.), three
flagellates (Euglena acus, Entosiphon sp., Oikonomos sp.) and seven
amoebae (Amoebae sp., Arcella discoides, Arcella vulgaris, Assulina
muscorum, Assulina seminulum, Centropyxis ecornis, Euglypha
tuberculata). In certain types of conventional plants cilitates are found to be
dominant over the other protozoa. An improvement in the treatment is seen
as they feed on bacteria which lowers the organic load in the resulting water
Page | 7
output of the wastes that are already treated. They are also studied as
indicator organisms (V.M. Luna-Pabello). On the other hand, flagellates too
are of the first indicator microbes in the treatment system of waste water.
They are also known to consume the bacteria found to free float and also
absorb the soluble inorganic components for their own nutritional growth.
Their sudden appearance indicate that there is an increase in the organic
loadings or it follows some sort of toxic event which has killed a portion of
the living bacteria found in it (Erik Rumbaugh). The Amoebae are found in
treatment plants which have lower organic load and nutrification. They have
the capacity to grow on particulate matter and have the quality to tolerate
low DO concentration. Unlike these not just there are several experiments
that brings out the working process of the three different groups of
protozoans but also experiments were done to see the effect that sewage has
on protozoa. It is found that the toxicity of Cu (Copper) reduces specific
diversity of ciliates by reducing their mean total number (Gracia et al.,
1994). Also crawling cilitates are found d to have high sensitivity towards
heavy metals like Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn and Cr (Madoni et al. 1992, 1994, 1996;
Madoni 2000; Madoni & Romeo 2006). Other than heavy metals, a sudden
load of salt (NaCl) also effects the Protozoans community (Salvado et al.
2000). Such evidences, lead us to the fact that even if a water body has the
required composition of microorganisms (protozoa in this case), the effect of
the anthropogenic activities matter to a significant extent when it comes to
wastewater treatment process with the help of these organisms. In our case,
the sewage does not only creates an unhealthy environment but also restricts
its biological treatment process.
Conclusion
There were no significant differences found in the results if the water
collected form the two significantly different regions of the Deepor Beel,
hence this work needs to expanded for more fruitful results.
Photo gallery
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Page | 8
(E) (F) (G) (H)
(I) (J) (K)
(L) (M) (N) (O)

Fig 3: (a) Amoeba sp. (b) Arcella discoides (c) Arcella vulgaris (d) Assulina
muscorum (e) Assulina seminulum (f) Centropyxis ecornis (g) Euglypha tuberculata
(h) Frontonia acuminate (i) Paramecium sp. (j) Euglena acus (k) Entosiphon sp. (l)
Oikonomos sp. (j) Polytoma sp. (k) Cyclidium sp. (l) Trachelius ovum (m) Dileptus
sp.
Acknowledgement
I am thankful to the Department of Zoology, University of Science and
Technology, Meghalaya for allowing me to conduct the study. My gratitude
goes to our Head of the Department, Dr. Dipankar Dutta for providing us
with all the materials and facilities required. Also I would like to express my
deepest thanks to Dr. Dhirendra Kumar Sharma, Dr. Lonkeswar Singh, Dr.
Bulbul Acharjee and Sudipta Nag, for showing the right direction towards
completing the work.
Also, I express my sincere thanks to Debasish Sir, Department of
Biotechnology, University of Science and Technology, Meghalaya, for
Page | 9
extending their helping hands. I am also thankful to Sumir Hussain and
Shahabuddin Laskar for assisting me in the lab work.
References
1. Altermatt F, Schreiber S, Holyoak M. Interactive effects of disturbance
and dispersal directionality on species richness and composition in
metacommunities. Ecology. 2011; 92:859-870.
2. Arvaniti and Stasinakis. Review on the occurrence, fate and removal of
perfluorinated compounds during wastewater treatment. Science of the
Total Environment, 2015, 524-525.
3. Al-Rashid KAS, Sleigh MA. Distribution and abundance of interstitial
ciliates in Southampton water in relation to physicochemical conditions,
metal pollution and availability of food organisms. Estuarine, Coastal
Shelf Sci. 1995; 41:61-80.
4. Anderson OR. Comparative Protozoology. Springer-Verlag, New York,
1988, 482.
5. Bloem J, Starink M, Bär-Gilissen MJB, Cappenberg TE. Protozoan
grazing, bacterial activity, and mineralization in two-stage continuous
cultures. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1988; 54:3113-
3121.
6. Bloem J, Ellenbroek F, Bär-Gilissen MJB, Cappenberg TE. Protozoan
grazing and bacterial production in stratified Lake Vechten estimated
with fluorescently labeled bacteria and by thymidine incorporation.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1989; 55:1787-1795.
7. Curds CR, Cockburn A, Vandyke JM. An experimental study of the role
of the ciliated protozoa in the activated sludge process. Water Pollution
Control. 1968; 67:312-329.
8. Fairbrother TH, Renshaw A. The relation between chemical constitution
and antiseptic action in the coal tar dyestuffs. Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry, London. 1922; 41:134-138.
9. Fellous S, Duncan A, Coulon AL, Kaltz O. Quorum Sensing and
Density-Dependent Dispersal in an Aquatic Model System. PLoS ONE.
2012a; 7:e48-436.
10. Fellous S, Duncan AB, Quillery E, Vale PF, Kaltz O. Genetic influence
on disease spread following arrival of infected carriers. Ecology Letters.
2012b; 15:186-192.
Page | 10
11. Gracia MP, Salvado H, Rius M, Amigo JM. Effects of copper on ciliate
communities from activated sludge plants. Acta Protozoologica. 1994;
33:219-226.
12. Haddad NM, Holyoak M, Mata TM, Davies KF, Melbourne BA,
Preston K. Species’ traits predict the effects of disturbance and
productivity on diversity. Ecology Letters. 2008; 11:348-356.
13. Jurgens K, Matz C. Predation as a shaping force for the phenotypic and
genotypic composition of planktonic bacteria. Antoine Van
Leeuwenhoek. 2002; 81:413-434.
14. Kosygin L. (Ed.). Wetlands of North East India: Ecology, Aquatic
Bioresources and Conservation. Akansha Publishing House, New Delhi,
2009.
15. Madoni P. The acute toxicity of nickel to freshwater ciliates.
Environmental Pollution. 2000; 109:53-59.
16. Madoni P, Davoli D, Gorbi G. Acute toxicity of lead, chromium, and
other heavy metals to ciliates from activated sludge plants. Bulletin of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 1994; 53:420-425.
17. Madoni P, Davoli D, Gorbi G, Vescovi L. Toxic effect of heavy metals
on the activated sludge protozoan community. Water Research. 1996;
30:135-141.
18. Madoni P, Esteban G, Gorbi G. Acute toxicity of cadmium, copper,
mercury, and zinc to ciliates from activated sludge plants. Bulletin of
19. Madoni P, Romeo MG. Acute toxicity of heavy metals towards
freshwater ciliated protists. Environmental Pollution. 2006; 141:1-7.
20. Mitsch MJ, Gosselink JG. Wetlands. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
York, 1986, 538.
21. Odum EP. The value of Wetlands: a hierarchical approach. In: Wetlands
functions and values: The state of our understanding. (EDs). Greeson
PE, Clark JR, Clark JE). American Water Resources Association,
Minneapolis, USA, 1978, 16-25.
22. Panno, Joseph. (14 May). The Cell: Evolution of the First Organism,
2014. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978081606736
23. Patil PN, Sawant DV, Deshmukh RN. Physico-chemical parameters for
testing of water-A review. International journal of Environmental
Sciences, 2012, 3.
Page | 11
24. Paul R Needham, James G Needham. A guide to the study of Fresh-
water Biology.
25. Premlata, Vikal. Multivariant analysis of drinking water quality
parameters of Lake Pichhola in Udaipur, India. Biological Forum,
Biological Forum-An International Journal. 2009; 1(2):97-102.
26. Pauli Wilfried, Jax Kurt, Berger Sandra. Protozoa in Wastewater
Treatment: Function and Importance, 2005. 10.1007/10508767_3.
27. Saikia Prasanta Kumar. Qualitative and Quantitative Study of Lower
and Higher Organisms and their functional role in the Deepor Beel
ecosystem. Animal Ecology & Wildlife Biology Lab. Department of
Zoology, Gauhati University. North Eastern Space Application Centre,
Department of Space, Government of India, Umium, Meghalaya,
Shillong, 2005.
28. Salvadó Humbert, Rius M, Gracia M. Effect of Chlorination on
Microfauna Communities in Activated Sludge Plants. Bulletin of
10.1007/s0012800096.
29. Sharma BK, Sharma S. Faunal diversity of Rotifers (Rotifera:
Eurotatoria) of Deepor Beel, Assam (N.E. India)-A Ramsar Site. J
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 2005a; 102:169-175.
30. Sharma BK, Sharma S. Faunal diversity of Cladocera (Crustacea:
Branchiopoda) of Deepor Beel, Assam, (Northeast India)-A Ramsar site.
J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 2008; 105(2):196-201.
31. Sharma Susmita, Sharma BK. Faunal Diversity of Aquatic Invertebrates
of Deepor Beel (A Ramsar site), Assam, Northeast India. Wetland
Ecosystem Series, (Published by the Director, Zool. Surv. India,
Kolkata). 2013; 17:1-227.
32. Smith SV, Hollibaugh JT. Annual cycle and interannual variability of
ecosystem metabolism in a temperate climate embayment,
Ecology/Ecological Monographs. 1997; 67:509.
33. Sonneborn TM. Methods in the general biology and genetics of
paramecium aurelia. Journal of Experimental Zoology. 1950; 113:87-
147.
34. Tyagi Vinay, Subramaniyan Shankar, Kazmi Absar, Chopra A.
Microbial Community in Conventional and Extended Aeration
Activated Sludge Plants in India. Ecological Indicators. 2008; 8:550.
10.1016/j.ecolind.2007.07.002.
Page | 12
35. Luna-Pabello VM, Mayén R, Olvera-Viascan V, Saavedra J, Durán De
Bazúa C. Ciliated protozoa as indicators of a wastewater treatment
system performance, Biological Wastes. 1990; 32(2):81-90. ISSN 0269-
7483.
36. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsar_site#cite_ref-ramsarhome_1-2.
Page | 13
Page | 14
Chapter - 2
Habitat, Height and Hardship: Determinants of
Elephant Railroad-Crossing across Kampur-
Khotkhoti Railway Line, Assam, India
Author
Rekib Ahmed
Research Scholar, Department of Geography Gauhati
University, Guwahati, Assam, India
Page | 15
Page | 16
Chapter - 2
Habitat, Height and Hardship: Determinants of Elephant
Railroad-Crossing across Kampur-Khotkhoti Railway Line,
Assam, India
Rekib Ahmed
Abstract
The wildlife-train collisions have brought a serious matter and
consequences in the different nations of the world and India is no in
exception. In this regard, the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) has been a
frequent victim of such wildlife-train collisions in India. Concerning
wildlife-train/vehicle collisions, most of the studies used wildlife mortality
locations to identify the causal relationships with the landscape factors, but
their crossing sites and seasons along the roads or railroads have been
overlooked, which may provide imprecise locations for optimize mitigation
investments. To collect evidences of elephant railroad-crossing, four surveys
were carried out along 148km long railway line between the Kampur station
in Nagaon district and Khotkhoti station in Karbi Anglong district of Assam,
India, during four different seasons in 2016-17. The months of the seasons
were grouped into rainy seasons (June-August), retreating monsoon or post
monsoon season (September-October), winter season (December-February)
and pre-monsoon season (March-May). Both elephant signs and mortality
showed a similar seasonal pattern however differed in space. In this research,
logistic regression was used to predict the variables of landscape structure
and topography with high probability of elephant railroad-crossing. The
model including largest patch index and edge density in forest category and
proximity to river were the highest ranked variables predicting elephant
railroad-crossing in the area. Given the influence of spatial arrangement of
habitat patches and topographic heterogeneity on the probability of elephant
railroad-crossing, knowledge of elephant-train collisions clustering could
identify the specific locations, where mitigation investment (such as
underpasses or overpasses) would be most beneficial and economical.
Keywords: elephant railroad-crossing, elephant mortality, habitat indices,
topography and distance to river
Page | 17
Introduction
Although railway transportation provides some ecological benefits, such
as less pollutant and less land occupancy than roads (Borda-De-Água,
Barrientos, Beja & Pereira 2017), it negatively affects wildlife (Dorsey,
Olsson & Rew 2015), most notably through direct mortality of wildlife due
to wildlife-train collisions (Forman 2003; Davenport & Davenport 2006; van
der Grift 2013). The wildlife-train collisions have brought a serious matter
and consequences in the different nations of the world (Andersen, Wiseth,
Pedersen & Jaren 1991; Child, Barry & Aitken 1991; Kusta 2014) and India
is no in exception. In this regard, the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) has
been a frequent victim of such wildlife-train collisions in India (Singh,
Kumar, Mookerjee, & Menon 2001; Sarma, Easa & Menon 2006; Roy,
Baskaran & Sukumar 2009). The habitat areas of elephants are being
interfered with railway tracks in several Indian states, including Assam,
West Bengal, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, Odisha, Kerala and Tamil Nadu,
which caused 200 deaths of elephants during the period 1987-2015 (Roy &
Sukumar 2017) and Assam placed at the top. Concerning wildlife-
train/vehicle collisions, most of the studies used wildlife mortality locations
to identify the causal relationships with the landscape factors (e.g. Dasgupta
& Ghosh 2015; Found & Boyce 2011), but their crossing sites and seasons
along the roads or railroads have been overlooked, which may provide
imprecise locations for optimize mitigation investment (Neumann 2012).
Generally, heterogeneity in land use/cover and topography influences
accessibility and movement capabilities of wildlife to different microclimate
and it affects the presence and abundance of wildlife (Struebig 2015; Turner
2005) around the habitat of railroad. The presence and abundance of wildlife
in the habitat adjacent to the railway lines are the key factors of wildlife-train
collisions because higher abundance of the species exposes more individuals
to approaching trains (Dorsey, Olsson & Rew 2015).
When the railway lines cross through a wildlife habitat, a part of habitat
lost is often observed and a gradual degradation of the remaining habitat is
also experienced by cascade effects (Barrientos & Borda-De-Água 2017).
Habitat destruction leads to the subdivision of habitat into smaller and
isolated fragments, changes the surrounding habitat matrix and increasing
exposure to human land uses along fragment edges and all of which may
affect the landscape structure and threaten the survival of sensitive species.
Furthermore, habitat loss increases habitat inter-patch distances and
decreases habitat patch sizes (Turner & Ruscher 1988; Saunders, Hobbs &
Arnold 1993). Consequently, these effects will lead to decrease landscape
Page | 18
connectivity, because larger inter-patch distances are difficult to cross the
patches of non-habitat for wild animals (Laan & Verboom 1990; Vos &
Stumpel 1995). Furthermore, high and low landscape connectivity in terms
of animal’s movements is depending on certain composition and
configuration of matrix patches that facilitate or impede movements between
the resource patches (Taylor, Fahrig, Henein & Merriam 1993; Dunning,
Danielson & Pulliam 1992). It was observed, willingness of elephant to cross
the gaps of non-habitat (matrix), such as agricultural lands and built-up lands
(Sukumar 1989), increased landscape connectivity. Hence, elephant corridor
is only one of the means to enhance landscape connectivity. Moreover,
elephants are less resilient to the effects of habitat fragmentation (Acharya,
Paudel, Jnawali, Neupane & Köhl 2017) due to their larger body size, one of
the few remaining mega-herbivores, and low intrinsic rate of population
increase (Sukumar 1989). In Assam, human encroachment and deforestation
in the elephant habitats owing to growing human populations have
obstructed traditional migration routes and pushed elephants into shrinking
habitat patches (Wilson, Davies, Hazarika & Zimmermann 2013; Choudhury
2004).
Generally, elevation influences the distribution of soil types, vegetation
types and water availability which affecting the distribution and density of
elephants (Sukumar 2006). Moreover, railway lines often built along the
river courses, particularly in the hilly areas, where rivers provide low
gradient corridors (Blanton & Marcus 2009). Even in low relief settings,
proximity to water transportations and the locations of settlements support to
boost the network of railway transportation along rivers (Schwantes, 1993;
Forman 2003). In addition, elephants are able to trace the large water bodies
and the areas of receiving rain (Allaway 1979; Leuthold 1977; Sukumar
1989).
The research was initiated to determine how heterogeneity in landscape
structure and topography affect elephant crossing along railway line. The
major objectives of the paper are:
1. To assess spatial and seasonal patterns of elephant railroad-crossing
and mortality
2. To identify the variables of landscape structure and topography with
higher probability of elephant railroad-crossing
Study area
The study was conducted along 148km long railway line between the
Kampur station (latitude 26˚9ˊ37ˮN, longitude 92˚39ˊ28ˮE) in Nagaon
Page | 19
district and Khotkhoti station (latitude 25˚57ˊ9ˮN, longitude 93˚45ˊ16ˮE) in
Karbi Anglong district of Assam. The railway line dissects Dhansiri-
Lumding elephant reserve, one of the prime habitat of Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus) in India, and passes through other elephant ranges and
corridors in the districts of Nagaon, Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hills
(Dima Hasao) in Assam (Choudhury 1999). Given the increasing demand to
enhance connectivity with north-eastern region of India, the railway section
between the stations of Kampur and Lumding was converted from meter
gauge to broad gauge (the distance between two rails is 1676 mm) in 1994
and the other section between Lumding and Khotkhoti was converted in
1997 (NFR 2012).
Fig 1: The location o the study area
Page | 20
Eight reserved forest (Doboka, Hojai, Lutumai, Lumding, Langting
Mupa, Dhansiri, Daldali and Diphu) and one wildlife sanctuary (Morat
Longri) are encompassed around the Kampur-Khotkhoti railway track. These
forested areas provide living space and the resources to the elephants for
their survival around the track. The elephant habitats around the track are
characterized by tropical semi-evergreen and tropical moist deciduous forest
(Choudhury 1999). The climate of the study area is tropical monsoon with a
hot and wet summer and a cool and dry winter. The minimum and maximum
temperature ranges from 5 °C (December to February) to 37 °C (June to
August) (Choudhury 2009). The annual rainfall of the area ranges from 800
to 2,800 mm (Choudhury 2009). However, Hojai-Lanka-Lumding region lies
in the rain shadow area where the average annual rainfall is only 1060 mm,
which becomes the driest part in Assam (Taher & Ahmed 2005). The area is
traversed by the rivers of Kapili, Kolong, Lumding, Langcholiet,
Borlangpher, Diphu and Dhansiri (Goswami 1994). Among these rivers, the
Kapili and Dhansiri created floods annually, which largely confined to the
southern part of the railway track (Barman 2015).
Data & method
Elephant signs surveys
Indirect evidences of wildlife presence and their activities along the
railroad, such as dung/pellet, footprints, track signs and feeding signs, are
useful to determine spatial variation of the relative abundance of the species
in the co-aligning habitats (Roy & Sukumar, 2017; Dorsey, Clevenger &
Rew 2017). The presence of wildlife signs at the railroad also reflected a
positive correlation with the causalities of Asian elephants (Roy & Sukumar,
2017) and train’s strike rates for elk and deer (Dorsey, Clevenger & Rew
2017). Hence, the survey of elephant’s presence signs on railroad was
primarily based on the count method of indirect evidences of elephant
railroad-crossing instead of camera trapping. Moreover, Karbi-Anglong
district of Assam, about half of the study railroad falls in Karbi-Anglong
district, is so remote and densely vegetated that camera trapping could not be
practicable due to high field cost (Silveira, Jacomo & Diniz-Filho 2003).
Prior to elephant signs surveys, the locations of elephant crossing sites
(trackside mileposts) and elephant mortality (trackside mileposts &
coordinates) and the names of crop-raiding villages along the railway line
were collected from the office of the principal chief conservator of forest &
wildlife, Assam (PCCF-WL). To collect evidences of elephant railroad-
crossing, four surveys were carried out during four different seasons in 2016-
Page | 21
17. The months of the seasons were grouped into rainy seasons (June-
August), retreating monsoon or post monsoon season (September-October),
winter season (December-February) and pre-monsoon season (March-May).
To conduct the surveys, nine railroad sections were selected according to the
information of elephant crossing sites, elephant mortality and crop raiding
villages along the track. Selected railroad sections were confined between
the stations of Kampur-Jamunamukh, Jamunamukh-jugijan, Jugijan-Hojai,
Habaipur-Lamsakhang, Lamsakhang-Patharkhola, Langcholiet-Nailalung,
Diphu-Daldali, Daldali-Dhansiri and Lahorijan crossing gate-khotkhoti
station. The section between the stations of Rangapahar-Dimapur was
excluded for the surveys, which falls within compact human habitation areas,
where elephant interference was totally absent.
To detect elephant signs such as dung, track and footprints, I walked
along the each section of the railway line covering 10-metre sight strip on
the both side of the track (Roy & Sukumar 2017). Elephant dung, footprint
and track signs were counted separately at each particular railroad section. In
addition, trackside mileposts fell along the elephant signs and land cover
types were also recorded during the surveys. The location points of all the
signs and trackside mileposts were recorded with a hand-held global
positioning system (GPS) Garmin GPS MAP 64s device. The sites of
elephant railroad-crossing were mapped with the locations of trackside
mileposts.
Spatial scales for analysis
To analyse spatial and seasonal variation of elephant railroad-crossing,
148km railway line is split into 2km segments (n=74) to aggregating
elephant signs on each segment. In the meanwhile, 2km neighbourhood
buffers are used for each split 2 km segment of the railroad in order to
analyse spatial relationship of elephant railroad-crossing with the variables
of landscape structure and topography. These 2 km buffers correspond to the
hypothetical extent of possible impact of railroad on habitat fragmentation
(Forman 1997; Forman 1998). Two kilometres is fairly reserved estimate,
when the study species is highly mobile and often cover large distance (van
der GRIFT 1999). Asian elephants usually restrict their daily movements
from a few kilometres to 20 kilometres (Sukumar 2003). In a day, elephants
are more likely to cover large distance particularly in highly fragmented
forest areas due to presence of human disturbance factors and lesser quantity
of foods (Alfred 2012). The buffers and the railroad segments required for
this study were prepared using ArcGIS 10.2.1.
Page | 22
The conflicts points (village locations) in terms of elephant crop raiding,
which were collected during the field surveys, and other villages and towns
were mapped with the help of digitized administrative atlas within 2 km
buffer of the railway track (Administrative atlas of Assam, 2011,
www.censusindia.gov.in). The total number of population of the
villages/towns, which falls within the buffer area, was calculated for the
census years (District primary census 1991 & 2001; District census
handbook 2011).
Remote sensed data and processing
To extract the variables of land use/cover, the remote sensed data of
Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) (path/row: 136/42 and 135/42) on
December 21, 2017 was derived from United States Geological Survey
(USGS) Earth Explorer website (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/). Image
processing involved geometric registration, radiometric correction, mosaic
creation, subsetting, image classification, and recoding and accuracy
assessment. Land use/cover (LULC) was classified into forest, agriculture,
built-up, water bodies and others. 143 GPS points obtained from the field for
the LULC categories were utilized to assess the classification accuracy. The
overall classification accuracy in LULC categories was 88.81% and the
overall Kappa coefficient was 0.86.
Landscape pattern metrics provide the measures of landscape structure
(i.e. composition, configuration and connectivity), which reflect the level of
disturbances, biotic processes and environmental constraints in the landscape
(Urban, O’Neill & Shugart 1987; Leitao, Miller, Ahern & McGarigal 2006).
Hence, two important metrics of class area (CA) and percentage of landscape
(PLAND) in LULC categories were quantified to measure the spatial change
in landscape composition around the railroad. From a wildlife perspective,
landscape is a mosaic of heterogeneous habitat patches that differ in types,
size, shape and history, often within which a ‘focal’ habitat patch is
embedded (Dunning, Danielson & Pulliam 1992). Most importantly, habitat
loss and habitat fragmentation are the major threats to the viability of
endangered Asian elephant (Choudhury 1999; Sukumar 1989), where habitat
fragmentation is the product of habitat loss (Fahrig 2003). Therefore,
fragmentation indices in the forest category, most of which were used in the
habitat fragmentation studies (Sharma, Robeson, Thapa & Saikia 2017;
Hargis, Bissonette, & David, 1998; Magness, Wilkins & Hejl 2006; Nielsen
& Woolf 2002; Clark, Schmitz & Bogenschutz 1999), were quantified
around the track. Forest fragmentation indices are comprised of number of
patches (NP), the mean patch size (MPS), largest patch index (LPI) and edge
Page | 23
density (ED). Furthermore, landscape connectivity is another important
component of landscape structure, which is generally defined as the degree
to which landscape composition and configuration facilitate or impede the
movements of animals between resource patches (Taylor, Fahrig, Henein &
Merriam 1993). Increase habitat inter-patch distances and decrease habitat
patch sizes due to habitat loss will tend to decrease landscape connectivity
(Liu, Yin, Liu, Cheng, Yang, Li, and Dong & Zhu 2017). Hence, the patch
cohesion index (COHESION) was used to quantify in structural connectivity
of the habitat patches. Structural connectivity includes only the physical
attributes of the landscape without any information of dispersal ability of the
organisms (Ellis, Vaclávík & Meentemeyer 2010). All the metrics of
landscape structure were quantified using Fragstats software (McGarigal,
Cushman & Ene 2012).
To extract topographical characteristics and stream network of the study
area, ASTER GDEM Version 2 data at 30m resolution was downloaded
from the USGS website (https://gdex.cr.usgs.gov/gdex/). Average elevations
of each section between two stations and each 2 km segment of the railway
line were estimated with the help of add surface information tool of the GIS
software. To represent topographic heterogeneity, terrain ruggedness map
were prepared within 10 km buffer of the study railway line (Riley, De
Gloria & Elliott 1999). To calculate terrain ruggedness index (TRI),
minimum and maximum of the default cells size (height=3, width=3) in the
neighbourhood of the DEM were calculated by focal statistics tool of the
GIS software (Cooley 2015). Further, raster calculator was used with the
following equation: Square Root (Abs ((Square (“maximum”)-Square
(“minimum”)))) (Cooley 2015). Hydrology tool in ArcGIS spatial analyst
was used to delineate the river/stream network. Near analysis tool of the GIS
software was used to calculate the distances from the centre points of the
each 2 km railroad segments to the nearest stream/river.
Data analysis
Statistical models have frequently adopted to predict the variables of
neighbourhood localities (buffer areas) around the segments of road/railroad,
which influenced occurrences of wildlife mortality (Dasgupta & Ghosh
2015; Clevenger, Churszcz & Gunson 2003; Grilo, Bissonette & Santos-Reis
2009) and wildlife collisions (Seiler 2005; Danks & Porter 2010; Malo,
Suarez & Dıez 2004). However, the independent variables of interest
extracted from overlapping neighbourhood buffers often lead to maximise
inter-variable correlations (Popescu & Gibbs 2009; Guisan & Zimmermann
2000). In such situations, generalized linear models (GLM) or generalized
Page | 24
additive models (GAM) with quantifying spatial autocorrelation are suitable
techniques to overcome the issues mentioned above (Popescu & Gibbs
2009). In this study, logistic regression that falls in the framework of GLM
was used to predict the variables of landscape structure and topography with
higher probability of elephant railroad-crossing.
To get a binary coded dependent variable, each 2km railroad segment
with the presence of signs was coded 1 (preference) and absence of signs
was coded 0 (avoidance). Eleven predictor variables were hypothesized with
the probability of elephant railroad-crossing. Four variables were obtained
from landscape composition metrics, i.e. percentage of landscape in forest
category (PLAND_F), percentage of landscape in agriculture category
(PLAND_A), percentage of landscape in built-up category (PLAND_B) and
percentage of landscape in water body’s category (PLAND_WB). Five
variables were obtained from habitat or forest metrics, which included mean
patch size in forest (MPS_F), number of patches in forest (NP_F), edge
density in forest (ED_F), largest patch index in forest (LPI_F) and patch
cohesion index in forest (COHESION). Two variables were obtained from
topography, which included mean elevation of each 2km segment of the
railway track (ELEVATION) and distance from the centre point of each 2km
railroad segment to nearest river/streams (distance to river). However,
multicollinearity between predictor variables encumbers to assess the
individual importance of a predictor as well as threatens the statistical and
inferential interpretation (Graham 2003). Therefore, Pearson’s correlation
matrix was used to identify the highly correlated variables. The variables
having below the correlation threshold value (r<0.60) were chosen to build
the set of candidate models (Vergara & Armesto 2009; Lewisa, Rachlowa,
Hornea, Gartona, Wakkinenb, Haydenc & Zagerd 2011; David, Latham,
Latham, Boyce & Boutin 2011; Abrahms, Jordan, Golabek, McNutt, Wilson
& Brashares 2015; Dasgupta & Ghosh 2015).
To comparing relative importance of models, model fit for the a priori
set of candidate models was ascertained by corrected Akaike’s Information
Criterion (AICc), AIC difference (∆ᵢ) and Akaike Weights (ωᵢ). Burnhum &
Anderson (2002) proposed that the models with AIC difference (∆ᵢ) ≤2
receive substantial support for making inferences. The models having AIC
difference level of 4-7 have considerably less support and >10 receive no
support. Hence, only models with AIC difference ≤2 were selected in the
study. Global Moran’s I (Moran 1948) was used to investigate spatial
autocorrelation of the selected model’s residuals (Flinn, Vellend & Marks
2005; Pateman, Thomas, Hayward & Hill 2016). Moran’s index close to 1
Page | 25
indicates clustering, while close to 0 indicates randomness. Nagelkerke
pseudo r2 values of the selected models were used to compare the
explanatory power of the model. To evaluate the predictive accuracy of the
models, the predicted probability values generated by the logistic models
were compared with the observed binary dependent variable through receiver
operating characteristics (ROC) analysis. As a rough rule of thumb, Swets
(1988) proposed interpreting range values of area under curve (AUC) in
ROC analysis as following: excellent AUC>0.90; good 0.80>AUC<0.90;
fair 0.70>AUC<0.80; poor 0.60>AUC<0.70; fail 0.50>AUC<0.60 (Araújo,
Pearson, Thuiller & Erhard 2005). All the statistical analysis was carried out
using IBM SPSS (Version 23).
Result
A total of 266 elephants signs were found along the Kampur-Khotkhoti
railway track, including 43.98% signs in winter season, 6.77% signs in pre-
monsoon season, 15.04% signs in rainy season and 34.21% signs in
retreating or post-monsoon season, during the field surveys. Overall, most of
the elephant signs were found in the Habaipur-Lamsakhang section (5.06
signs/km), followed by Lahorijan crossing gate-khotkhoti section (3.57
signs/km) and Diphu-Daldali section (2.16 signs/km) of the railway track.
However, elephant signs were not encountered in the railroad section of
Kampur-Jamunamukh-Hojai during pre-monsoon and rainy season.
Between the year 1990 and 2017, 45 elephants were killed by train
accidents along the railroad. Both elephant signs and mortality showed a
similar seasonal pattern. Despite elephant signs were encountered in
Lamsakhang-Patharkhola section during all the seasons, there was not any
accident record in the past years. The area within 2 km buffer of the railway
track contains 121 villages and 8 towns. The human population of the area is
increased from 2, 02, 477 in 1991 to 3, 35, 248 in 2011. This is a rise of
65.57 percent over the population of the area in 1991. Among these villages,
human-elephant conflicts in the form of crop raiding were recorded in 25
villages (e.g. Kandhulimari, Gusai Gaon and Lahorijan Basti). Paddy and
maize are the chief crops of the area where tea gardens are a few in numbers.
In addition, shifting cultivation (Jhum) was widely practiced in North Cachar
Hills and Karbi Anglong district.
It was observed that there was not any spatial relationship of elephant
signs with mean elevation of railroad sections (from station to station) and
TRI. The reason might resided in the design of elephant sign survey that
conducted only along the railway tracks. However, topgraphy affects the
Page | 26
movements of elephants because it determine the availibility of foods and
water (Sukumar 1989a). Ruggedness varied between 0 and 586, which
represent level to highly rugged terrain. With respect to terrain ruggedness
index, about 85% of elephant signs were found in nearly level (81-116m) to
intermediately rugged terrain (162-239m). These signs were mainly scattered
between the railway stations of Habaipur and Khotkhoti. In North East India,
elephants use about 100-1000m elevation ranges for their dirunal or seasonal
movements.
The study railway track is surrounded by seven rivers i.e. Kapili,
Kolong, Lumding, Langcholiet, Borlangpher, Diphu and Dhansiri. It was
noticed that few numbers of elephants regularly used the Dhansiri river near
Khotkhoti and Dhansiri station as well as Lumding river near Lamsakhang
and Patharkhola railway station. Moreover, a large numbers of elephants
used the Dhansiri, Lumding and Kapili river durig their seasonal migration
in retreating monsoon and winter seasons. Distance from the railroad
segments to the rivers (distance to river) were most closely and negatively
related with the percentage of elephant signs (Pearson correlation coefficient:
-0.73 & p<0.01). The distance to river has significantly influenced on the
percentage of elephant signs along the railway tracks (R²=0.53).
Table 1: Model selection result shows the best performing models under AIC
difference criterion (fifth, seventh and eighth set of models).
Model No. K AIC AICc AIC (∆ᵢ) Akaike weights (ωᵢ)

1 4 81.13 81.71 43.99 0
2 3 80.13 80.47 42.75 0
3 3 79.51 79.85 42.13 0
4 6 84.23 85.48 47.76 0
5 5 38.40 39.28 1.56 0.18
6 5 38.96 39.84 2.12 0.13
7 4 37.84 38.42 0.7 0.27
8 4 37.14 37.72 0 0.39
9 7 43.08 44.78 7.06 0.01
10 7 42.33 44.03 6.31 0.02
AIC=Akaike’s Information Criterion; AICc=corrected Akaike’s Information
Criterion; AIC (∆ᵢ)=Difference between AICc of each model and the top model;
Akaike Weights (ωᵢ)=Model weight.
AIC model selection process yielded three models (fifth, seventh and
eighth set of models) which was supported under the AIC difference (≤2)
criterion (Table 4). These three models were the combinations of habitat and
Page | 27
topographic variables in which distance to river gained importance over
these models. The model including largest patch index (LPI_F), edge density
(ED_F) and distance to river were the highest ranked variables (the eighth
set of models) predicting elephant railroad-crossing across the track. The
negative coefficients for elevation, distance to river, edge density, Cohesion
and number of forest patches reflect the inverse relationship with probability
of elephant railroad-crossing. Conversely, the coefficients of largest patch
index and mean patch size in forest category reflect positive relationship
with elephant railroad-crossing. However, these unstandardized coefficients
indicate the lower impact of unit difference in the predictor variables on the
response variable (Table 2). All three models have similar proportion of
variation in site preference of elephant (Nagelkerke Pseudo R2: 0.73, 0.71 &
0.72) which can be explained by the predictor variables. There is no spatial
autocorrelation in the residuals of the models (Global Moran’s I: 0.04, 0.02
and 0.04) which indicate that there is no statistical bias in the regression
analysis. The models accuracy was also evaluated through area under curve
(AUC) in the receiver operating characteristics (ROC). The results indicated
that all three models had ‘excellent’ (AUC: 0.96, 0.97 & 0.96) predictive
accuracy.
Table 2: Parameter estimates of best-fit models for the probability of elephant
railroad-crossing
Model 5 7 8
Intercept 4.919 (1.855) 4.44 (3.422) 4.431 (1.646)
Habitat characteristics and
topography
Elevation -0.013 (0.018) NA NA
Distance to river -0.008 (0.002)** -0.008 (0.002)** -0.008 (0.002)**
MPS_F 0.043 (0.048) NA NA
ED_F 0.000 (0.012) NA -0.008 (0.009)
Cohesion NA -0.005 (0.032) NA
NP_F NA -0.001 (0.001)* NA
LPI_F NA NA 0.007 (0.019)*
Nagelkerke pseudo r2 0.73 0.71 0.72
Spatial autocorrelation of
0.04 0.02 0.04
residualsa
Unstandardized regression coefficient (standard errors).
*p<0.05; **p<0.01.
Discussion
The best-fit model revealed that higher probability of elephant railroad-
crossing is associated with less fragmented habitat and proximity to rivers,
Page | 28
which provide survivorship (Kinnaird, Sanderson, O’Brien, Wibisono &
Woolmer 2003), sufficient supply of water and increase regular inter-patch
movements (Taylor, Fahrig, Henein & Merriam 1993). Consequently,
regular elephant railroad-crossing at Habaipur-Lamsakhang-Patharkhola
railroad section, surrounded by Lumding and Langting Mupa reserved forest,
implied that the area had increased in the influx of elephants from the
impacted habitat remnant (Bowers & Matter 1997). Concerning elephant
habitats around the track, larger forest areas, such as Dhansiri and Daldali
reserved forests, have largely degraded due to encroachment and shifting
cultivation (Choudhury 2009). In fact, 1,274 km2 of forest (dense,
moderately dense and open forest) were lost in the three district (Kabi
Anglong, N.C. Hills & Nagaon) of Assam during the period 1999-2015 (SFR
1999; SFR 2015). Elephant responses to habitat fragmentation are mainly
governed by their large body size (Ewers & Didham 2006) and they are able
to compensate for habitat loss by foraging in the matrix environments
(Bierregaard, Lovejoy, Kapos, Santos & Hutchings 1992; Davies, Gascon &
Margules 2001). Elephant railroad crossing peaked from September-October
(post-monsoon) to December-February (winter) was showed that elephants
came into contact with crop fields and the railway line in the course of their
natural seasonal movement (Roy & Sukumar, 2017). Conversely, lower
railroad-crossing at the section reflects the isolation of habitat patches
around the track which increased inter-patch areas, which are generally
inhospitable due to human interferences, and decreased connectivity between
habitats patches (Bowers & Matter 1997).
All the three models revealed that topography has also associated with
the higher probability of elephant railroad-crossing. The mean elevation of
all the railroad sections is relatively low, since all the rivers including Kapili,
Lumding, Borlangpher, Langcholiet, Diphu and Dhansiri flow along the
railway line. The chance for an elephant to cross the railway line increased
with proximity to the rivers. Elephant railroad-crossing during all the
seasons in the sections implied that perennial Lumding, Kapili and Dhansiri
river adjacent to railroad provide sufficient drinking water, and they could
easily access water from their nearest habitats. It also suggests that elephants
have a strong preference for high productive forests, which are located along
the river valley (Rood, Ganie & Niiman 2010). In the elephant’s habitats of
Karbi Anglong, Nagaon and N.C. Hills, evergreen forest patches are found
only along the rivers (Choudhury 1999). It was observed that riverine forest
with mixed hardwood forest was the most preferred by elephant during
winter season (Pradhan & Wegge 2007). The prime reason is that Asian
elephants mostly breed during cool and dry season (January-March) and they
Page | 29
migrate in search of an ideal breeding ground, where they can maximize
offspring survival (Mumby, Courtiol, Mar & Lummaa 2013). Moreover,
these landscape depressions provide not only the sources of water and foods,
but also provide natural routes for their movements through the rugged
terrain (Pan, Lin, Luo & Zhang 2009). Most importantly, the railway lines
along the river courses often degraded riparian ecosystems, floodplain
habitat richness and diversity (Blanton & Marcus 2009). In fact, lowland
forest disappeared at much faster rate than the hilly forest (Kinnaird,
Sanderson, O’Brien, Wibisono & Woolmer 2003) due to increasing human
population around the railway line.
Management implication
The emerging railway ecology is a relatively new field and has
increasingly gained global importance. Nonetheless, if wildlife habitats are
being encroached by railway transportation infrastructure, then reducing
wildlife-train collision will remain a critical management challenge. The
study examined the use of predictive models in determining landscape
factors along the Kampur-Khotkhoti railway line with the highest probability
of elephant railroad-crossing. The models provide useful guidance to locate
optimal elephant crossing sites on railroad in order to maintain landscape
connectivity and optimize mitigation efforts for elephant-train collisions. In
the highly fragmented habitat around the railroad, quantifying habitat pattern
metrics can provide the initial insight into the site selection of elephants for
railroad crossing, which can relate to elephant-train collisions further. Given
the influence of spatial arrangement of habitat patches and topographic
heterogeneity on elephant railroad-crossing, knowledge of elephant-train
collisions clustering could identify the specific locations, where mitigation
investment (such as underpasses or overpasses) would be most beneficial
and economical.
Crossing structure such as underpasses or overpasses can contribute to
mitigate both wildlife-train collision and barrier effect of railroad (Dorsey,
Olsson & Rew 2015), and should construct where elephants are found or
presumed to regularly cross the railway line. Most recently, the research has
demonstrated that African bees (Apis mellifera africana) deter African
elephant (Loxodonta africana), in which elephants actively avoid the sites
when they hear (smell) honeybees sound (King, Lawrence, Douglas-
Hamilton & Vollrath 2009; Vollrath & Douglas-Hamilton 2002; Hoare
2000). In the bee sound playback experiment, elephant also responded when
they heard the sound of disturbed bees buzzing around (King, Douglas-
Hamilton & Vollrath 2007). To keep elephants away from the railroad, such
Page | 30
bee sound playback device could be installed temporally at the seasonal
crossing sites or the engine front of trains.
References
1. Abrahms B, Jordan NR, Golabek KA, McNutt JW, Wilson AM,
Brashares JS. Lessons from integrating behaviour and resource
selection: activity-specific responses of African wild dogs to roads.
Animal Conservation. 2016; 19(3):247-255.
2. Acharya KP, Paudel PK, Jnawali SR, Neupane PR, Köhl M. Can forest
fragmentation and configuration work as indicators of human-wildlife
conflict? Evidences from human death and injury by wildlife attacks in
Nepal. Ecological Indicators. 2017; 80:74-83.
3. Alfred A, Ahmad AH, Payne J, Williams C, Ambu LN, How PM et al.
Home range and ranging behaviour of Bornean elephant (Elephas
maximus borneensis) females. PLOS One. 2012; 7(2):e31-400.
4. Allaway JD. Elephants and their interactions with people in the Tana
River region of Kenya. Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, 1979.
5. Andersen R, Wiseth B, Pedersen PH, Jaren V. Moose-train collisions:
Effects of environmental conditions. Alces. 1991; 27:79-84.
6. Araújo MB, Pearson RG, Thuiller W, Erhard M. Validation of species-
climate envelope models under climate change. Global Change Biology.
2005; 11:1504-1513.
7. Barman P. Geo-environmental study of Dhansiri (south) river basin,
Assam using spatial technology. Ph.D. thesis, Gauhati University, 2015.
http://hdl.handle.net/10603/121620.
8. Barrientos R, Borda-De-Água L. Railways as barriers for wildlife:
current knowledge. In: Borda-De-Água L, Barrientos R, Beja P, Pereira
HM (Eds.), Railway Ecology, Springer, Switzerland, 2017, 43-64.
9. Bierregaard RO, Lovejoy TE, Kapos V, Santos AA, Hutchings RW. The
biological dynamics of tropical forest fragments. A prospective
comparison of fragments and continuous forest. Bio Science. 1992;
42:859-866.
10. Blanton P, Marcus WA. Railroads, roads and lateral disconnection in the
river landscapes of the continental United States. Geomorphology. 2009;
112:212-227.
Page | 31
11. Borda-De-Água L, Barrientos R, Beja P, Pereira HM. Railway ecology.
In: Borda-De-Água L, Barrientos R, Beja P, Pereira HM (Eds.), Railway
Ecology, Springer, Switzerland, 2017, 3-9.
12. Bowers MA, Matter SF. Landscape ecology of mammals: Relationships
between density and patch size. Journal of Mammalogy. 1997; 78:999-
1013.
13. Burnham KP, Anderson D. Model selection and multimodal inference:
A practical information theoretic approach. New York, NY: Springer-
Verlag, 2002.
14. Child KN, Barry SP, Aitken DA. Moose mortality on highways and
railways in British Columbia. Alces. 1991; 27:41-49.
15. Choudhury AU. Status and conservation of the Asian elephant Elephas
maximus in north-eastern India. Mammal Review. 1999; 29:141-173.
16. Choudhury AU. Human-Elephant Conflicts in Northeast India. Human
Dimensions of Wildlife. 2004; 9:261-270.
17. Choudhury AU. The distribution, status and conservation of hoolock
gibbon, Hoolock hoolock, in Karbi Anglong district, Assam, Northeast
India. Primate Conservation. 2009; 24:117-126.
18. Clark WR, Schmitz RA, Bogenschutz TR. Site Selection and Nest
Success of Ring-Necked Pheasants as a Function of Location in Iowa
Landscapes. Journal of Wildlife Management. 1999; 63(3):976-989.
19. Clevenger AP, Churszcz B, Gunson KE. Spatial patterns and factors
influencing small vertebrate fauna road-kill aggregations. Biological
Conservation. 2003; 109:15-26.
20. Cooley SW. Terrain roughness-13 ways, 2015.
www.GIS4geomorphology.com.
21. Danks ZD, Porter WF. Temporal, spatial, and landscape habitat
characteristics of moose-vehicle collisions in western Maine. Journal of
Wildlife Management. 2010; 74(6):1229-1241.
22. Dasgupta S, Ghosh AK. Elephant railway conflict in a biodiversity
hotspot: Determinants and perceptions of the conflict in northern West
Bengal, India, Human Dimension of Wildlife. 2015; 20(1):81-94.
23. Davenport J, Davenport JL (Eds.). The ecology of transportation:
Managing mobility for the environment. Dordrecht: Springer, 2006.
Page | 32
24. David A, Latham M, Latham MC, Boyce MS, Boutin S. Movement
responses by wolves to industrial linear features and their effect on
woodland caribou in north eastern Alberta. Ecological Applications.
2011; 21(8):2854-2865.
25. Davies KF, Gascon C, Margules CR. Habitat fragmentation:
consequences, management, and future research priorities. In
Conservation Biology: research priorities for the next decade (eds.
Soule´ ME, Orians GH), 81-97. Island Press, Washington, 2001.
26. District census handbook. Village and town wise primary census
abstract (PCA): Karbi Anglong NC, Hills, Nagaon, 2011.
http://www.censusindia.gov.in
27. District primary census. Department of Economics & Statistics: Karbi
Anglong, N.C. Hills and Nagaon district, Government of Assam, 1991
& 2001.
28. Dorsey B, Olsson M, Rew LJ. Ecological effects of railways on wildlife.
In Van Der Ree R, Smith DJ, Grilo C (Eds.), Handbook of road ecology,
219-227. West Sussex: Wiley, 2015.
29. Dorsey BP, Clevenger A, Rew LJ. Relative Risk and Variables
Associated with Bear and Ungulate Mortalities Along a Railroad in the
Canadian Rocky Mountains. In: Borda-De-Água L, Barrientos R, Beja
P, Pereira HM (Eds.), Railway Ecology, 135-154, Springer, Switzerland,
2017.
30. Dunning JB, Danielson JB, Pulliam HR. Ecological processes that affect
populations in complex landscapes. Oikos. 1992; 65:169-175.
31. Ellis AM, Vaclávík T, Meentemeyer RK. When is connectivity
important? A case study of the spatial pattern of sudden oak death.
Oikos. 2010; 119:485-493.
32. Ewers RM, Didham RK. Confounding factors in the detection of species
responses to habitat fragmentation. Biological Review. 2006; 81:117-
142.
33. Fahrig L. Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. Annual
Review of Ecology Evolution, and Systematics. 2003; 34:487-515.
34. Flinn KM, Vellend M, Marks PL. Environmental causes and
consequences of forest clearance and agricultural abandonment in
central New York. Journal of Biogeography. 2005; 32:439-452.
Page | 33
35. Forman RT, Friedman DS, Fitzhenery D, Marten JD, Chen AS,
Alexander LE. Ecological effects of roads: Toward three summary
indices and an overview for North America, 40-54. In: K. Canters (Eds).
Proceedings Habitat fragmentation and infrastructure. Ministry of
Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Delft, the
Netherlands, 1997.
36. Forman RTT, Alexander LE. Roads and their major ecological effects.
Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 1998; 29:207-231.
37. Forman RTT, Sperling D, Bissonette JA, Clevenger AP, Cutshall CD,
Dale VH et al. Road ecology: Science and solutions. Washington, DC:
Island Press, 2003.
38. Found R, Boyce MS. Predicting deer-vehicle collisions in an urban area.
Journal of Environmental Management. 2011; 92:2486-2493.
39. Goswami ID. Hydrogeomorphological study of Karbi Anglong district
Assam using remote sensing techniques, Ph.D. thesis, Gauhati
University, 1994.
40. Graham MH. Confronting multicollinearity in ecological multiple
regression. Ecology. 2003; 84(11):2809-2815.
41. Grilo C, Bissonette JA, Santos-Reis M. Spatial-temporal patterns in
Mediterranean carnivore road casualties: consequences for mitigation.
Biological Conservation. 2009; 142:301-313.
42. Guisan A, Zimmermann NE. Predictive habitat distribution models in
ecology. Ecological Modeling. 2000; 135:147-186.
43. Hargis CD, Bissonette JA, David JL. The behavior of landscape metrics
commonly used in the study of habitat fragmentation. Landscape
Ecology. 1998; 13:167-186.
44. Kinnaird MF, Sanderson EW, O’Brien TG, Wibisono HT, Woolmer G.
Deforestation trends in a tropical landscape and implications for
endangered large mammals. Conservation Biology. 2003; 17:245-257.
45. King LE, Douglas-Hamilton I, Vollrath F. African elephants run from
the sound of disturbed bees. Current Biology. 2007; 17:832-833.
46. King LE, Lawrence A, Douglas-Hamilton I, Vollrath F. Beehive fence
deters crop-raiding elephants. African Journal of Ecology. 2009; 47:131-
137.
Page | 34
47. Kusta T, Hola M, Keken Z, Jezek M, Zika T, Hart V. Deer on the
railway line: Spatiotemporal trends in mortality patterns of roe deer.
Turkish Journal of Zoology. 2014; 38:479-485.
48. Laan R, Verboom B. Effects of pool size and isolation on amphibian
communities. Biological Conservation. 1990; 54:251-262.
49. Leitao AB, Miller J, Ahern J, McGarigal K. Measuring landscapes: A
planner’s handbook. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2006.
50. Lewisa JS, Rachlowa JL, Hornea JS, Gartona EO, Wakkinenb WL,
Haydenc J et al. Identifying habitat characteristics to predict highway
crossing areas for black bears within a human-modified landscape.
Landscape and Urban Planning. 2011; 101:99-107.
51. Liu S, Yin Y, Liu X, Cheng F, Yang J, Li J et al. Ecosystem Services
and landscape change associated with plantation expansion in a tropical
rainforest region of Southwest China. Ecological Modelling. 2017;
353:129-138.
52. Magness DR, Wilkins RN, Hejl SJ. Quantitative relationships among
golden-cheeked warbler occurrence and landscape size, composition,
and structure. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 2006; 34:473-479.
53. Malo JE, Suarez F, Dıez A. Can we mitigate animal vehicle accidents
using predictive models? Journal of Applied Ecology. 2004; 41(4):701-
710.
54. McGarigal K, Cushman SA, Ene E. FRAGSTATS v4: Spatial pattern
analysis program for categorical and continuous maps. Amherst:
Computer Software Program Produced by the Authors at the University
of Massachusetts, 2012. Retrieved from
http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/ fragstats/fragstats.html.
55. Moran PAP. The Interpretation of Statistical Maps. Journal of Royal
Statistical Society, Series B. 1948; 10:243-251.
56. Mumby HS, Courtiol A, Mar KU, Lummaa V. Birth seasonality and calf
mortality in a large population of Asian elephants. Ecology and
Evolution. 2013; 3:3794-3803.
57. Neumann W, Ericsson G, Dettki H, Bunnefeld N, Keuler NS, Helmers
DP et al. Difference in spatiotemporal patterns of wildlife road-
crossings and wildlife-vehicle collisions. Biological Conservation. 2012;
145:70-78.
Page | 35
58. Nielsen CK, Woolf A. Habitat-relative abundance relationship for
bobcats in southern Illinois. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 2002; 30:222-
230.
59. NFR. Northeast Frontier Railway, 2012.
60. Pan W, Lin L, Luo A, Zhang L. Corridor use by Asian elephants.
Integrative Zoology. 2009; 4:220-231.
61. Pateman RM, Thomas CD, Hayward SAL, Hill JK. Macro-and
microclimatic interactions can drive variation in species’ habitat
associations. Global Change Biology. 2016; 22:556-566.
62. Popescu VD, Gibbs JP. Landscape ecology and GIS methods. In: Dodd
Jr., K.C. (Eds.), Amphibian ecology and conservation, 339-360, Oxford
University Press, New York, USA, 2009.
63. Pradhan NMB, Wegge P. Dry season habitat selection by a recolonizing
population of Asian elephants Elephas maximus in lowland Nepal. Acta
Theriologica. 2007; 52:205-214.
64. Riley SJ, DeGloria SD, Elliott R. A terrain ruggedness index that
quantifies topographic heterogeneity. Intermountain Journal of Science.
1999; 5:23-27.
65. Rood E, Ganie AA, Niiman V. Using presence-only modelling to
predict Asian elephant habitat use in a tropical forest landscape:
implications for conservation. Diversity & Distributions. 2010;
16(9):75-984.
66. Roy M, Baskaran N, Sukumar R. The death of jumbos on railway lines
in northern West Bengal. Gajah. 2009; 31:36-39.
67. Roy M, Sukumar R. Railway and wildlife: A case study of train-
elephant collisions in Northern West Bengal, India. In: Borda-De-Água
L, Barrientos R, Beja P, Pereira HM (Eds.), Railway Ecology, 157-176,
Springer, Switzerland, 2017.
68. Sarma UK, Easa PS, Menon V. Deadly lines: A scientific approach to
understanding and mitigating elephant mortality due to train hits in
Assam (Occasional Report no. 24). New Delhi: Wildlife Trust of India,
2006.
69. Saunders DA, Hobbs RJ, Arnold GW. The Kellerberrin project on
fragmented landscapes: a review of current information. Biological
Conservation. 1993; 64:185-192.
Page | 36
70. Schwantes CA. Railroad Signatures across the Pacific Northwest.
University of Washington Press, Seattle, 359, 1993.
71. Seiler A. Predicting locations of moose-vehicle collisions in Sweden.
Journal of Applied Ecology. 2005; 42:371-382.
72. Sharma K, Robeson SM, Thapa P, Saikia A. Land-use/land-cover
change and forest fragmentation in the Jigme Dorji National Park,
Bhutan. Physical geography. 2017; 38:18-35.
73. Silveira L, Jacomo ATA, Diniz-Filho JAF. Camera trap, line transect
census and track surveys: a comparative evaluation. Biological
Conservation. 2003; 114:351-355.
74. Singh AK, Kumar A, Mookerjee A, Menon V. Jumbo express: A
scientific approach to understanding and mitigating elephant mortality
due to train accidents in Rajaji National Park (Occasional Report no. 3).
New Delhi: Wildlife Trust of India, 2001.
75. SFR. State Forest Report. FSI, Ministry of Environment & Forests,
Government of India, Dehra Dun, 1999.
76. SFR. State Forest Repor. FSI, Ministry of Environment & Forests,
Government of India, Dehra Dun, 2015.
77. Struebig MJ, Fischer M, Gaveau DLA, Meijaard E, Wich SA, Gonner C
et al. Anticipated climate and land-cover changes reveal refuge areas for
Borneo’s orang-utans. Global Change Biology. 2015; 21:2891-2904.
78. Sukumar R. The Asian elephants: Ecology and management. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, U.K, 1989.
79. Sukumar R. Ecology of the Asian elephant in southern India. I.
Movement and habitat utilization patterns. Journal of Tropical Ecology.
1989a; 5:1-18.
80. Sukumar R. The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behaviour
and Conservation. Oxford University Press, New York, 2003, 159-161.
81. Sukumar R. A brief review of the status, distribution and biology of
wild Asian elephants Elephas maximus. International Zoo Yearbook.
2006; 40:1-8.
82. Swets K. Measuring the accuracy of diagnostic systems. Science. 1988;
240:1285-1293.
83. Taher M, Ahmed P. Assam: A geographical profile. Mani Manik
Prakash, Guwahati, 2005, 54-58.
Page | 37
84. Taylor PD, Fahrig L, Henein K, Merriam G. Connectivity is a vital
element of landscape structure. Oikos. 1993; 68:571-573.
85. Turner MG, Ruscher CL. Changes in landscape patterns in Georgia,
USA. Landscape Ecology. 1988; 1:241-251.
86. Turner MG. Landscape ecology: what is the state of the science? Annual
Reviews of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 2005; 36:319-344.
87. Urban DL, O’Neill RV, Shugart HH. Landscape ecology, a hierarchical
perspective can help scientists understand spatial patterns. Bio Science.
1987; 37:119-127.
88. Van Der Grift EA. Mammals and railroads: impacts and management
implications. Lutra. 1999; 42:77-98.
89. Van Der Grift EA, Van Der Ree R, Fahrig L, Findlay S, Houlahan J,
Jaeger JAG et al. Evaluating the effectiveness of road mitigation
measures. Biodiversity and Conservation. 2013; 22(2):425-448.
90. Vergara PM, Armesto JJ. Responses of Chilean forest birds to
anthropogenic habitat fragmentation across spatial scales. Landscape
Ecology. 2009; 24:25-38.
91. Vollrath F, Douglas-Hamilton I. African bees to control African
elephants. Naturwissenschaften. 2002; 89:508-511.
92. Vos CC, Stumpel HP. Comparison of habitat-isolation parameters in
relation to fragmented distribution patterns in the tree frog (Hyla
arborea). Landscape Ecology. 1995; 11:203-214.
93. Wilson S, Davies TE, Hazarika N, Zimmermann A. Understanding
spatial and temporal patterns of human-elephant conflict in Assam,
India, Oryx. 2013; 49:140-149.
Page | 38
Chapter - 3
Use of Electronic Resources by the Research
Scholars of Gauhati University
Author
Silpisikha Devi
M.Phil. Scholar, Department of Library and Information
Science, Gauhati University, Master of Library & Information
Science, Gauhati University, Guwahati, Assam, India
Page | 39
Page | 40
Chapter - 3
Use of Electronic Resources by the Research Scholars of
Gauhati University
Silpisikha Devi
Abstract
Now a days, E-Recourses became very essential components for higher
education which directly helps in disseminating the knowledge and
individual’s personality. As we know that all types of library has migrated
from traditional to digital as well as paper to electronic version. The present
study tries to examine the awareness and use of e-resources by the Research
Scholars of Gauhati University. The study also includes the types of e-
resources are used by the Research Scholar and satisfactory level of the user.
Keywords: electronic resources, ICT, library, research scholars
1. Introduction
With the rapid growth of ICT, the world has turned from traditional to
digital one. Various computer applications in information generation and
communication have brought user and knowledge closer and it helps in the
creation of user friendly environment and productive information in libraries
and information centers. New technology has migrated the storage,
collection and information communication in the libraries to digital one.
Thus technology and use of internet become the important factor in the
libraries. E-resources are used as a digital version of print resources. It
generally comprises of E-Book, E- Journal, E-Thesis, E-Dissertation, CD-
ROM, DVD etc.
2. Electronic resources
Electronic Resources are the digital representation of information and
knowledge. Electronic resources are available in various forms like E-books,
E-databases, E-journal, E-thesis, and so on. These resources are very
essential for various activities such as teaching, learning and research.
Through implication of e- resources in libraries, information can be accessed
by users and research community at very short time. Multiple access of same
Page | 41
information can be done at a single time. Thus number of users can be
beneficial from these electronic resources. Users can access their needy
information from their own place.
3. Need for the study
The electronic resources are becoming more and more available. The
print media is now being digitized, which increase the availability of books
and journals in the electronic format. The electronic books are helpful
because of their portability and its future of incorporating more than one
book in a single hand held device. E-resources in the form of open access
journals have made it considerably easier to find and obtain the material.
Through this study it is aimed to know the level of awareness and frequency
of use of E-resources so that necessary steps can be taken to attract the user
communities towards E-resources.
4. Objectives
The objectives of the study are:
1. To know the awareness of e-resources among the research scholar
of Gauhati University
2. To know the frequency of using e-resources
3. The degree of preference for the electronic and printed formats
4. To know the purpose of using of e-resources
5. To identify level of user satisfaction with use of e-resources
5. Methodology
Research Methodology plays an important role in any type of research
and project. Various tools and techniques are used for collecting information.
In the present study, questionnaire method and interview method has been
adopted for obtaining generalized information from the user community i.e.
research scholar of Gauhati University to know the opinion of them in
respect of usage of e-resources.
6. Statement of the problem
A define problem is needed for a research. The present study has been
undertaken to know what is the effectiveness and impact of E-resources
using by research scholar, what are the major problems faced in accessing E-
resources and to find out the solutions for the problems identified through
study to enhance the usage and impact of E-resources available at library of
Gauhati University.
Page | 42
7. Scope and limitation of the study
The present study is delimited to the research scholar of Gauhati
University. The research scholar have been used the random sampling
technique for the study. The study includes 150 users drawn from research
scholars of Gauhati University.
8. Data analysis and interpretation
The primary data have been collected by using questionnaire and
interview method. On the basis of filled up questionnaire received from the
research scholar of Gauhati University, the data have been analyzed and
inferences have been drawn using standard statistical techniques. All the
results have been presented in the form of tables and graphs.
8.1 Awareness and usage of e-resources
The data collected from the research scholars to know about the
awareness and usage of e-resources has been interpreted in following table
and figure.
Table 1: Awareness and usage of e-resources
Awareness Responses Percentage %

Not at all 15 11.9%
Slightly Aware 40 31.7%
Very much aware 71 56.4%
Total 126 100.00
Source: Primary data obtained from the Questionnaire
Source: Primary data obtained from the questionnaire

Fig 1: Awareness and usage of e-resources
The above table and Figure 1 indicates that 11.9% users are not at all
aware about usages of e-resources, 31.7% users are slightly aware about e-
resources and remaining 56.4% are very much aware about usages of e-
resources.
Page | 43
8.2 Frequency of using e-resources
The frequency of using e-resources by the research scholar of Gauhati
University has been interpreted in the following table and figure.
Table 2: Frequency of using e-resources
Frequency No. of Respondents Percentage (%)

Weekly 58 43%
Fortnightly 42 31%
Occasionally 22 16%
Almost Daily 14 10%
Total 126 100.00
Fig 2: Frequency of using e-resources

The above table and figure 2 shows that the frequency of using e-
resources of the respondents are 43% of respondents using weekly, 31% of
respondents using e-resources fortnightly, 16% occasionally and rest of the
respondents 10% using e-resources almost daily.
8.3 Preference of e-resources over printed resources
Table 3: Preference of e-resources over printed resources
Preferences Responses Percentage%

E-resources 56 41%
Printed resources 28 21%
Both resources 52 38%
Total 126 100.00
The above table analyzed that out of 126 responses 56 (41%) users are
preferred e-resources where only 28 (21%) users preferred print resources
and remaining 52 (38%) preferred both the resources.
Page | 44
8.4 Purpose of using e-resources
Table 4: Purpose of using e-resources
Purposes Responses Percentage %

Research work 12 (5%)
Seminar preparation 18 (7%)
Trends in subject 34 (14%)
Keeping up-to-date 30 (12%)
General information 22 (8%)
Information gathering 56 (23%)
Examination preparation 76 (31%)

Fig 4: Purpose of using e-resources
From the above table it is clear that 76 (31%) users are using e-resources
for preparation of examination, 56 (23%) using e-resources for information
gathering, 30 (12%) users are using e-resources for keeping them up-to-date,
22 (8%) are use e-resources for general information and 12 (5%) users are
using e-resources for research work.
8.5 Level of satisfaction with e-resources
Table 5: Level of satisfaction with e-resources
Satisfaction Level Responses Percentage %

Not at all satisfied 08 6.3%
Slightly satisfied 18 14.3%
Quite satisfied 48 38%
Page | 45
Completely satisfied 52 41.4%
Total 126 100.00

Fig 5: Level of satisfaction with e-resources
The above table revels that 8 (6.3%) users are not at all satisfied with e-
resources, 18(14.3%) users are slightly satisfied with e-resources, 48(38%)
users are quite satisfied with e-resources and 52(41.4%) users are completely
satisfied with e resources.
8.6 Duration of using e-resources
Table 6: Duration of using e-resources (N=126)
Duration Respondents Percentage %

Less than 1 year 12 9.5%
1-2 years 35 27.8%
3-4 years 43 34.1%
More than 4 year 36 28.6%
Total 126 100.00
The above table indicates that 12 (9.5%) users are use e-resources less
than 1 year, 35 (27.8%) users are use e-resources 1-2 years, 43 (34.1%) users
are use 3-4 years and remaining 36 (28.6%) users are use e-resources more
than 4 years.
Page | 46
8.7 Preferred place to access e-resources
Table 7: Preferred place to access e-resources
Place Responses Percentage %

Central Library 84 67%
Departmental Library 25 20%
Other places 17 13%
Total 126 100.00
The above table indicates 67% users are using central library for
accessing e-resources, 20% users are use Departmental library for accessing
e-resources and remaining 13% are use other place for accessing e-resources.

Fig 7: Preferred place to access e-resources
9. Findings
 Maximum users i.e. (56.4%) are very much aware about using e-
resources followed by (31.7%) users are slightly aware about using
e-resources and (11.9%) users are not at all aware about usages of
e-resources
 Most of the users i.e. (43%) using e-resources weekly followed by
(31%) users are using e-resources fortnightly, (16%) occasionally
and rest of the users (10%) using e-resources almost daily
 Maximum users (41%) are preferred e-resources where only (21%)
users preferred print resources and remaining (38%) preferred both
the resources
 Majority of the users (31%) are using e-resources for preparation of
examination followed by (23%) using e-resources for information
Page | 47
gathering, (12%) users are using e-resources for keeping them up-
to-date, (8%) are use e-resources for general information and
remaining (5%) users are using e-resources for research work
 Majority of the respondents (41.4%) completely satisfied with e-
resources followed by (38%) respondents quite satisfied with e-
resources
10. Suggestions and recommendations
 Library professionals should make students and teachers aware of
tools that are available to assists the use of e-resources
 There is a need to make the users concerned about the benefits of e-
resources specially the open access journal
 There is a need for the library also in managing the e-resources
 The orientation/workshop on the use of e-resources should be
conducted regularly so that library users become interested in use of
e-resources
 To introduce adequate open access full text book and journal sites
 Impart training on feasible usage of library resources to new users
of the library
11. Conclusion
The present study concludes that e-resources are the most supporting
tool in academic purpose for teaching and learning, which help to improve
the quality education. With the rapid advancement in computer technology
along with IT, libraries and information centers have been blessed with
electronic materials and therefore libraries are gradually shifting towards the
e-libraries with electronic resources. The result of the present study offer
significant information on the level of awareness and use of e-resources by
users are very much encouraging.
12. Reference
1. Sinha MK. Usage of e resources by the scientific community library
users of Assam University, Silchar: A comparative study. Asia Pacific
Journal of research, 2014, 2347-4793. Retrieved from
http://apjor.com/downloads/0709201414.pdf,
2. Sharad Kumar Sonkar, Singh MP, Jitendra Kumar. Journal of
Information Management. 2014; 1(2):87-97.
3. Sudhier KG, Seethalekshmi KP. Use of E-resources by the Students and
Researchers of Faculty of Arts, University of Kerala, International
Page | 48
Journal of Information Dissemination and Technology. 2013; 6(3):120-
127.
4. Prabakaran K. Use of E-Resources among Faculty Members of
Engineering Colleges in Cuddalore District: A Study. Journal of
Advances in Library and Information Science. 2013; 2(2):71-75.
5. Sharma Dev Raj. Use of electronic resources in Guru Govind Singh
Indraprastha University: A study. International Journals of Library and
Information Management. 2012; 3(2):63-74.
6. Mukherjee B, Kumar P. Use of UGC-Infonet e-journals by research
scholars of Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi: A case study. Annals of
Library and Information Studies, 2010, 339-347. Retrieved from
http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/11051/1/ALIS57(4)
33934.pdf.
7. Sharma Chelan. Use and Impact of e-Resources at Guru Govind Singh
Indraprastha University (India): A case study Electronic Journal of
Academic and Special Librarianship. 2009; 10(1):1-8.
8. Kaur B, Verma R. Use and impact of electronic journals in the Indian
Institute of Technology, Delhi, India. The Electronic Library. 2009;
27(4):611-22.
9. Dadzie PS. Electronic Resources: access and usage at Ashesi University
College. Campus-wide Information Systems, 2005, 22(5). Available at:
http//www.emeraldinsight.com
10. Naushad Ali. The use of electronic resources at IIT Delhi Library; a
study of search behaviours. The Electronic Library. 2005; 23(6):691-
700.
11. www.inflibnet.ac.in/econ/eresource.php.
Page | 49
Page | 50
Chapter - 4
Hazards of Heavy Metal on Human Health
Authors
Dr. Ali Abid Abojassim
Professor, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science,
University of Kufa, Iraq
Rua R. Munim
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Kufa,
Iraq
Page | 51
Page | 52
Chapter - 4
Hazards of Heavy Metal on Human Health
Dr. Ali Abid Abojassim and Rua R. Munim
Abstract
Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are
exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy
metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of
these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium,
molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional
roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical
activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses
can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead,
chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in
the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The heavy metals
have been extensively studied and their effects on human health regularly
reviewed by international bodies such as the WHO. The main threats to
human health from heavy metals are associated with exposure to lead,
cadmium, mercury, and arsenic. The focus of this work is to describe the
heavy metals, sources of heavy metal exposure to humans and their toxicity
mechanisms. Therefore it aims to study the noxious health effects of these
heavy metals on humans.
Keyword: heavy metals, human body and human health
1. Introduction
Heavy metals have been used in many different areas for thousands of
years. Lead has been used for at least 5000 years, early applications
including building materials, pigments for glazing ceramics, and pipes for
transporting water. In ancient Rome, lead acetate was used to sweeten old
wine, and some Romans might have consumed as much as a gram of lead a
day. Mercury was allegedly used by the Romans as a salve to alleviate
teething pain in infants and was later (from the 1300s to the late 1800s)
employed as a remedy for syphilis. Claude Monet used cadmium pigments
extensively in the mid-1800s, but the scarcity of the metal limited the use in
Page | 53
artists’ materials until the early 1900s. Although adverse health effects of
heavy metals have been known for a long time, exposure to heavy metals
continues and is even increasing in some areas. For example, mercury is still
used in gold mining in many parts of Latin America. Arsenic is still common
in wood preservatives, and tetraethyl lead remains a common additive to
petrol, although this use has decreased dramatically in the developed
countries. Since the middle of the 19th century, the production of heavy
metals increased steeply for more than 100 years, with concomitant
emissions to the environment. At the end of the 20th century, however,
emissions of heavy metals started to decrease in developed countries: in the
UK, emissions of heavy metals fell by over 50% between 1990 and 2000 [1].
Emissions of heavy metals to the environment occur via a wide range of
processes and pathways, including to the air (e.g. during combustion,
extraction, and processing), to surface waters (via runoff and releases from
storage and transport) and to the soil (and hence into groundwater's and
crops). Atmospheric emissions tend to be of greatest concern in terms of
human health, both because of the quantities involved and the widespread
dispersion and potential for exposure that often ensues. Lead emissions are
mainly related to road transport and thus most uniformly distributed over
space. Cadmium emissions are primarily associated with non-ferrous
metallurgy and fuel combustion, whereas the spatial distribution of
anthropogenic mercury emissions reflects mainly the level of coal
consumption in different regions. People may be exposed to potentially
harmful chemical, physical and biological agents in air, food, water or soil.
However, exposure does not result only from the presence of a harmful agent
in the environment [2].
2. Define the heavy metal
Although there is no clear definition of what heavy metal is, density is
in most cases taken to be the defining factor. It may be defined as "Heavy
metals are metals having a specific density of more than 5 g/cm3". They are
natural constituents that exist in the ecosystem. They are substances with
high electrical conductivity which voluntarily lose their electrons to form
cations. Metals are found all over the earth including the atmosphere, earth
crust, water bodies, and can also accumulate in biological organisms
including plants and animals. Among the 35 natural existing metals, 23
possess a high specific density above 5 g/cm3 with an atomic weight greater
than 40.04 and are generally termed heavy metals [3, 4]. This category of
metals termed heavy metals have not only been known for their high density
but most importantly for their adverse effects on the ecosystem and living
Page | 54
organisms [5]. Some of these heavy metals such as cobalt, chromium, copper,
magnesium, iron, molybdenum, manganese, selenium, nickel and zinc are
essential nutrients that are required for various physiological and
biochemical functions in the body and may result to deficiency diseases or
syndromes if not in adequate amounts [6] but in large doses they may cause
acute or chronic toxicities.
3. Exposure sources
Heavy metals are naturally present in our environment. They are present
in the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere [7]. Although
these heavy metals are present in the ecosystem, their exposure to humans is
through various anthropogenic activities of man. In the earth's crust, these
heavy metals are present in ores which are recovered during mining
activities as minerals. In most ores, heavy metals such as arsenic, iron, lead,
zinc, gold, nickel, silver, and cobalt exist sulfides while others such as
manganese, aluminum, selenium gold, and antimony exist oxides. Certain
heavy metals such as copper, iron, and cobalt can exist both as sulfide and
oxide ores. Some sulfides may contain two or more heavy metals together
such as chalcopyrite, (CuFeS2) which contains both copper and iron. During
these mining activities, heavy metals are released from the ore and scattered
in open in the environment; left in the soil, transported by air and water to
other areas. Furthermore, when these heavy metals are used in the industries
for various industrial purposes, some of these elements are released into the
air during combustion or into the soil or water bodies as effluents. More so,
industrial products such as paints, cosmetics, pesticides, and herbicides also
serve as sources of heavy metals. Heavy metals may be transported through
erosion, run-off or acid rain to different locations on soils and water bodies.
As reviewed from [8], the sources of specific heavy metals are described
below.
3.1 Lead
Lead is a slightly bluish, bright silvery metal in a dry atmosphere. The
main sources of lead exposure include drinking water, food, cigarette,
industrial processes, and domestic sources. The industrial sources of lead
include gasoline, house paint, plumbing pipes, lead bullets, storage batteries,
pewter pitchers, toys and faucets [9]. Lead is released into the atmosphere
from industrial processes as well as from vehicle exhausts. Therefore, it may
get into the soil and flow into water bodies which can be taken up by plants
and hence human exposure of lead may also be through food or drinking
water [10].
Page | 55
3. Cadmium
This metal is mostly used in industries for the production of paints,
pigments alloys, coatings, batteries as well as plastics. The majority of
cadmium, about three-fourths, is used as an electrode component in
producing alkaline batteries. Cadmium is emitted through industrial
processes and from cadmium smelters into sewage sludge, fertilizers, and
groundwater which can remain in soils and sediments for several decades
and taken up by plants. Therefore, significant human exposure to cadmium
can be by the ingestion of contaminated foodstuffs especially cereals, grains,
fruits and leafy vegetables as well as contaminated beverages [11, 12]. Also,
humans may get exposed to cadmium by inhalation through incineration of
municipal waste.
3.2 Mercury
The metallic mercury is a shiny silver-white, odorless liquid metal
which becomes colorless and odorless gas upon heating. Mercury is used in
producing dental amalgams, thermometers and some batteries. Also, it can
be found in some chemical, electrical equipment, automotive, metal-
processing, and building industries. Mercury can exist in a gaseous form thus
it can be inhaled. Other forms of mercury contamination in humans may be
through anthropogenic activities such as municipal wastewater discharges,
agriculture, incineration, mining, and discharges of industrial wastewater [13].
3.3 Arsenic
Arsenic is the 20th most abundant element on earth and the 33rd on the
periodic table. The inorganic forms such as arsenite and arsenate compounds
are lethal to humans and other organisms in the environment. Humans get in
contact with arsenic through several means which include industrial sources
such as smelting and microelectronic industries. Drinking water may be
contaminated with arsenic which is present in wood preservatives,
herbicides, pesticides, fungicides and paints [14].
4. Instrumental determination
Many instrumental analytical methods may be employed to measure the
concentration level of heavy metals in various samples. The most
predominant techniques are atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS),
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), neutron activation
analysis (NAA) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF).
Page | 56
3.3 Atomic spectroscopy
In general, atomic spectroscopy is comprised of atomic absorption,
emission and fluorescence. Basically, each atom is composed of a nucleus
bordered by electrons. Every element has a specific number of electrons
connected to its nucleus. The most stable orbital configuration of an atom is
known as the "ground state. When energy is applied to an atom, a known
quantity of energy with a given wavelength will be absorbed and an outer
electron then promoted to a less stable configuration known as the "excited
state". Since this state is unstable, the atom will spontaneously return to the
"ground state," releasing light energy. The process of excitation and decay to
the ground state is involved in all three fields of atomic spectroscopy [15].
Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) is a quantitative method of metal
analysis suitable for the determination of approximately 70 elements. This
method measures the concentration of the element by passing light in
specific wave length emitted by a radiation source of a particular element
through cloud of atoms from a sample. Atoms will absorb light from an
energy source known as hollow cathode lamp (HCL). The reduction in the
amount of light intensity reaching the detector is seen as a measure for the
concentration of particular element in the original sample. A typical AA
spectrometer consists of energy (light) source, sample compartment
(atomizer), monochromator, detector, and a data process system (Figure 1).
Fig 1: Basic illustration of atomic absorption spectrometer

The radiation source is usually a hollow cathode lamp (HCL) or
electrodeless discharge lamp (EDL), while different atomizers are used in
various AAS techniques such as flame, a graphite furnace, or a quartz tube.
The Monochromator is eliminating scattered light of other wavelengths by a
number of lenses and mirrors to focus the radiation and the detector is
typically a photomultiplier tube that converts the light signal to an electrical
signal proportional to the light intensity [16].
Page | 57
4.3 Inductively coupled plasma/optical emission spectrometry (ICP-
OES)
Inductively coupled plasma/optical emission spectrometry (ICP/OES) is
a spectroscopic technique suitable for trace elements analysis in several
types of samples. The technique is based on the unprompted emission of
photons from atoms and ions that have been excited in a radiofrequency (RF)
discharge. Samples are usually introduced into the plasma in liquid form;
thus, solid samples require acid digestion prior to injection, while gas and
liquid samples may be injected directly into the instrument. The sample
solution is converted to an aerosol then sends into the center of the plasma
which maintains high atomization temperature of around 10,000 K. As the
plasma free atoms in the gaseous state are generated and adequate energy is
often available to convert the atoms to ions then promote the ions to excited
states. The ionic excited state species may then return to the ground state via
emission of photons. Specific wavelength of the photons can be used to
identify the elements and the number of photons is directly proportional to
the concentration of the element in the sample (Figure 3). A variety of
sample introduction methods are used in this technique such as nebulization,
hydride generation (HG) for certain elements such as arsenic, selenium, and
antimony, as well as electrothermal vaporization (ETV) and laser ablation
[17]
.
Fig 3: Basic ICP-OES
5.3 X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

XRF is a physical phenomenon involving the interaction of X-rays with
matter. When high intensity X-ray radiation strikes an atom, it dislodges one
or more of the tightly held electrons from the inner orbitals. This action
makes the atom unstable. The unoccupied spaces in the lower orbital will be
promptly filled by electrons from an outer shell. These electrons have a
higher energy than the replacing electron. As a result of these processes,
energy is released in the form of X-rays. Since the electronic energy levels
for each element are different, the energy of X-ray fluorescence peak can be
correlated to a specific element. X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRFS) is
an elemental analysis technique applicable for element coverage from
sodium to uranium in various matrices that typically requires minimal
sample preparation. A spectrometer usually consists of radiation (X-ray)
source, sample chamber, detector, and a computer for data processing [18].
Page | 58
6.3 Neutron activation analysis (NAA)
NAA is another type of analytical procedure used to detect the
concentration of trace elements in different matrices. In this technique, the
sample is exposed to a neutron flow after which radioactive isotopes for
interest element are generated. As these radioactive isotopes decay to a lower
energy state, they emit delayed gamma rays with characteristic energies for
each element. Quantitative measurement of the concentrations of various
elements may be achieved by determining the intensities of these gamma
rays emitted from the radioactive isotopes which are proportional to the
amount of the element in the sample. Several advantages have been recorded
for this method, such as the ability to analyses a number of elements
simultaneously without destroying the sample, and the high sensitivity for
different elements ranging from 0.1 to 106 ppb [19]. The NAA method has
been successfully applied to determine the metal content in different sample
matrices.
5. Biological role
When heavy metals are ingested through food or water into the body,
they are acidified by the acid medium of the stomach. In this acidic medium,
they are oxidized to their various oxidative states (Cd2+, Pb2+, As2+, As3+,
Ag+, Hg2+, etc.) which can readily bind to biological molecules such as
proteins and enzymes to form stable and strong bonds. The most common
functional group that heavy metals bind is the thio groups (SH group of
cysteine and SCH3group of methionine). Cadmium has been shown to
inhibit human thiol transferase such as thioredoxin reductase, glutathione
reductase, thioredoxin in vitro by binding to cysteine residues in their active
sites [20]. The equations of these reactions are shown below (Figure 4) [21].
Fig 4: Reactions of Heavy metals with sulphydryl groups of proteins or enzymes (A)
= Intramolecular bonding; (B) = Intermolecular bonding; P = Protein; E = Enzyme;
M = Metal
In the above reaction, the oxidized heavy metal replaces the hydrogen of
the SH group and the methyl of the SCH3group thereby inhibiting the
function of the protein or activity of the enzyme. For example,
Page | 59
methylmercury (MeHg) strongly inhibits the activity of l-glutamine d-
fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase in yeast [22]. Heavy metal-bound
proteins may be a substrate for certain enzymes. In such situations, the heavy
metal-bound protein fits into an enzyme in a highly specific pattern to form
an enzyme-substrate complex and thus cannot accommodate any other
substrate until it is freed. As such, the product of the substrate is not formed
as the enzyme is blocked and therefore, the heavy metal remains embedded
in the tissue leading to dysfunctions, abnormalities and damages in the body.
Inhibition of thiol transferases lead to increased oxidative stress and cell
damage. For example, toxic arsenic present in fungicides, herbicides and
insecticides can attack-SH groups in enzymes to inhibit their catalytic
activities as shown in Figure 5.
Fig 5: Reaction of arsenic with the thio group of enzymes.

Also, heavy metal toxicity may be induced by the replacement of a
metalloenzyme by another metal ion of similar size. Cadmium displaces zinc
and calcium ions from zinc zincin certain dehydrogenating enzymes, leading
to cadmium toxicity. Such replacement can convert the enzyme structurally
to an inactive form and completely alter its activity. These heavy metals in
their ionic species such as Pb2+, Cd2+, Ag+Hg2+and As3+form very stable
biotoxic compounds with proteins and enzymes and are difficult to be
dissociated.
The in vivo potency of these agents to trigger protein aggregation
probably depends on the efficiency of their cellular uptake/export and on
their distinct modes of biological action. Summarized in Figure 4is the
various mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication.
Page | 60
Fig 6: Mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication in humans.
Page | 61
6. Health effects
Heavy metal toxicity can have several health effects in the body. Heavy
metals can damage and alter the functioning of organs such as the brain,
kidney, lungs, liver, and blood. Heavy metal toxicity can either be acute or
chronic effects. Long-term exposure of the body to heavy metal can
progressively lead to muscular, physical and neurological degenerative
processes that are similar to diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, multiple
sclerosis, muscular dystrophy and Alzheimer’s disease. Also, chronic long-
term exposure of some heavy metals may cause cancer [23]. The various
health effects of some heavy metals will be highlighted below.
6.1 Lead
Toxicity due to lead exposure is called lead poisoning. Lead poisoning
is mostly related to the gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system in
children and adults [24]. Lead poisoning can be either acute or chronic. Acute
exposure of lead can cause headache, loss of appetite, abdominal pain,
fatigue, sleeplessness, hallucinations, vertigo, renal dysfunction,
hypertension and arthritis while chronic exposure can result in birth defects,
mental retardation, autism, psychosis, allergies, paralysis, weight loss,
dyslexia, hyperactivity, muscular weakness, kidney damage, brain damage,
and coma and may even cause death [25]. Although lead poisoning is
preventable, it still remains a dangerous disease as it can affect most of the
organs of the body. Exposure to elevated levels of lead can cause the plasma
membrane of the blood brain barrier to move into the interstitial spaces
leading to edema [26]. Also, lead exposure can disrupt the intracellular second
messenger systems and alter the functioning of the central nervous system.
Developing fetuses and children are most vulnerable to neurotoxic effects
due to lead exposure. A number of prospective epidemiologic studies in
children less than 5 years of age have shown that low-level of lead exposure
(5-25 μg/dL in blood) resulted to the impairment of intellectual development
which was manifested by the loss of intelligence quotient points [27]. As such,
the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in the United States has reduced the
tolerable amount of lead in children’s blood from 25 to 10 μg/dL and
recommended universal screening of blood lead for all children.
6.2 Cadmium
Cadmium and its compounds have several health effects in humans. The
health effects of cadmium exposure are exacerbated due to the inability of
the human body to excrete cadmium. In fact, cadmium is re-absorbed by the
kidney thereby limiting its excretion. Short-term exposure to inhalation of
Page | 62
cadmium can cause severe damages to the lungs and respiratory irritation
while its ingestion in higher dose can cause stomach irritation resulting to
vomiting and diarrhea. Long-term exposure to cadmium leads to its
deposition in bones and lungs. As such, cadmium exposure can cause bone
and lung damage [28]. Cadmium can cause bone mineralization as studies on
animals and humans have revealed osteoporosis (skeletal damage) due to
cadmium. It has been observed that “Itai-itai” disease, an epidemic of bone
fractures in Japan is due to cadmium contamination [29]. Increased cadmium
toxicity in this population was found to be associated with increased risk of
bone fractures in women, as well as decreased bone density and height loss
in males and females. Cadmium is highly toxic to the kidney and it
accumulates in the proximal tubular cells in higher concentrations. Thus,
cadmium exposure can cause renal dysfunction and kidney disease. Also,
cadmium exposure can cause disturbances in calcium metabolism, formation
of renal stones and hypercalciuria. Cadmium is also classified as group 1
carcinogens for humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer.
Tobacco is the main source of cadmium uptake in smokers and thus,
smokers are more susceptible to cadmium intoxication than non-smokers [30].
Also, cadmium can cause testicular degeneration and a potential risk factor
for prostate cancer.
6.3 Mercury
Mercury is an element that can easily combine with other elements to
form inorganic and organic mercury. Exposure to elevated levels of metallic,
inorganic and organic mercury can damage the kidney, brain and developing
fetus [31] while methyl mercury is highly carcinogenic. Organic mercury is
lipophilic in nature and thus can easily penetrate cell membranes. Mercury
and its compound affects the nervous system and thus increased exposure of
mercury can alter brain functions and lead to tremors, shyness, irritability,
memory problems and changes in hearing or vision. Short-term exposure to
metallic mercury vapors at higher levels can lead to vomiting, nausea, skin
rashes, diarrhea, lung damage, high blood pressure, etc. while short-term
exposure to organic mercury poisoning can lead to depression, tremors,
headache, fatigue, memory problems, hair loss, etc. Since these symptoms
are also common in other illness or disease conditions, diagnosis of mercury
poisoning may be difficult in such cases [25]. Chronic levels of mercury
exposure can lead to erethism, a disease condition characterized by
excitability, tremor of the hands, memory loss, timidity, and insomnia. Also,
occupational exposure to mercury as observed by researchers has been
associated with measurable declines in performance on neurobehavioral tests
Page | 63
of motor speed, visual scanning, and visuomotor coordination, verbal and
visual memory. Dimethyl mercury is a very toxic compound that can
penetrate the skin through latex gloves and its exposure at very low dose can
cause the degeneration of the central nervous system and death. Mercury
exposure to pregnant women can affect the fetus and offspring may suffer
from mental retardation, cerebellar symptoms, retention of primitive
reflexes, malformation and other abnormalities [32]. This has been confirmed
in recent studies in which pregnant women exposed to mercury through
dietary intake of whale meat and fish showed reduce motor neuron function,
loss of memory, impaired speech and neural transmission in their offspring.
6.4 Arsenic
Arsenic exposure can lead to either acute or chronic toxicity. Acute
arsenic poisoning can lead to the destruction of blood vessels,
gastrointestinal tissue and can affect the heart and brain. Chronic arsenic
toxicity which is termed arsenicosis usually focus on skin manifestations
such as pigmentation and keratosis [25]. Lower level exposure to arsenic can
cause nausea and vomiting, reduced production of erythrocytes and
leukocytes and damage blood vessels, cause abnormal heart beat and
pricking sensation in hands and legs. Long-term exposure can lead to the
formation of skin lesions, pulmonary disease, neurological problems,
peripheral vascular disease, diabetes mellitus, hypertension and
cardiovascular disease [33]. Chronic arsenicosis is May results to irreversible
changes in the vital organs and possibly lead to death. Also, chronic arsenic
exposure can promote the development of a number of cancers which
include skin cancer, cancers of the bladder, lung, liver (angiosarcoma), and
possibly the colon and kidney cancers [33]. Recently in the United States, the
tolerable amount of arsenic in drinking water is 50 μg/liter but there is much
concern of lowering this standard dose of population exposures to arsenic as
the present dose is believed to increase the risk for cancer. Most
environmental scientists studying this problem are of the view that the
current tolerable limit of arsenic in drinking water or food be reduced.
7. Conclusion
The exposure of heavy metals to humans involve various diverse forms
through food and water consumption, inhalation of polluted air, skin contact
and most important by occupational exposure at workplace. Though some
heavy metals such as iron and manganese are essential for certain
biochemical and physiological activities in the body, elevated level in the
body can have delirious health effects. Most of the other heavy metals are
Page | 64
generally toxic to the body at very low level. The main mechanism of heavy
metal toxicity include the generation of free radicals to cause oxidative
stress, damage of biological molecules such as enzymes, proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids, damage of DNA which is key to carcinogenesis as well as
neurotoxicity. Some of the heavy metal toxicity could be acute while others
could be chronic after long-term exposure which may lead to the damage of
several organs in the body such as the brain, lungs, liver, and kidney causing
diseases in the body.
References
1. Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. Statistics
Release 184 1999 UK Air Emissions Estimates, 2001.
2. Berglund M, Elinder CG, Järup L. Humans Exposure Assessment. An
Introduction. WHO/SDE/OEH/01.3, 2001
3. Duffus JH. Heavy metals-A meaningless term? Pure and Applied
Chemistry. 2002; 74(5):793-807.
4. Li F, Qiu ZZ, Zhang JD. Investigation, pollution mapping and
simulative leakage health risk assessment for heavy metals and
metalloids in groundwater from a typical brownfield, middle China.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.
2017; 14(7):768. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14070768
5. Bradl H. Editor. Heavy Metals in the Environment: Origin, Interaction
and Remediation. London: Academic Press, 2002, 6.
6. WHO/FAO/IAEA. Trace Elements in Human Nutrition and Health.
Switzerland: Geneva: World Health Organization, 1996.
7. Krishna AK, Mohan KR. Distribution, correlation, ecological and health
risk assessment of heavy metal contamination in surface soils around an
industrial area, Hyderabad, India. Environment and Earth Science. 2016;
75:411. DOI: 10.1007/s12665-015-5151-7.
8. Hu H. Human health and heavy metals exposure. In: McCally M, editor.
Life Support: The Environment and Human Health. Massachusetts,
USA: MIT Press, 2002.
9. Thurmer K, Williams E, Reutt Robey J. Autocatalytic oxidation of lead
crystallite surfaces. Science. 2002; 297(5589):2033-2035
10. Wani AL, Ara A, Usmani JA. Lead toxicity: A review. Interdisciplinary
Toxicology. 2015; 8(2):55-64.
Page | 65
11. Unaegbu M, Engwa GA, Abaa QD, Aliozo SO, Ayuk EL, Osuji GA et
al. Heavy metal, nutrient and antioxidant status of selected fruit samples
sold in Enugu, Nigeria. International Journal of Food Contamination.
2016; 3(7):1-8
12. Engwa AG, Ihekwoaba CJ, Ilo US, Unaegbu M, Ayuk LE, Osuji AG.
Determination of some soft drink constituents and contamination by
some heavy metals in Nigeria. Toxicology Reports. 2015; 2:384-390.
13. Rahimzadeh MR, Rahimzadeh MR, Kazemi S, Moghadamnia A.
Cadmium toxicity and treatment: An update. Caspian Journal of Internal
Medicine. 2017; 8(3):135-145.
14. Sauvé S. Time to revisit arsenic regulations: Comparing drinking water
and rice. BMC Public Health. 2014; 14:465.
15. Sneddon J. Advances in atomic spectroscopy. AE Amsterdam, Elsevier
Science, 2002, 244.
16. Beaty RD, Kerber JD. Concepts Instrumentation and Techniques in
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. USA, PerkinElmer Shelton CT,
1993, 8-12.
17. Brown RJ, Milton MJ. Analytical techniques for trace element analysis:
an overview. Trends Analyst Chem. 2005; 24(3):266-274.
18. Beckhoff B, Kanngießer B, Langhoff, N, Wedell R, Wolff H. Handbook
of practical X-ray fluorescence analysis. Berlin, Springer, 2007.
19. Win D. Neutron activation analysis (NAA). AU J Technol, 2004; 8(1):8-
14.
20. Chrestensen CA, Starke DW, Mieyal JJ. Acute cadmium exposure
inactivates.
21. Thiol transferase (Glutaredoxin), inhibits intracellular reduction of
protein-glutathionyl-mixed disulfides, and initiates apoptosis. The
Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2000; 275:26556-26565.
22. Duruibe JO, Ogwuegbu MO, Egwurugwu JN. Heavy metal pollution
and human biotoxic effects. International Journal of Physical Sciences.
2007; 2(5):112-118.
23. Naganuma A, Miura N, Kaneko S, Mishina T, Hosoya S, Miyairi S et
al. GFAT as a target molecule of methylmercury toxicity in
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FASEB Journal. 2000; 14:968-972.
Page | 66
24. Jarup L. Hazards of heavy metal contamination. British Medical
Bulletin. 2003; 68(1):167-182
25. Markowitz M. Lead poisoning. Pediatry Review. 2000; 21(10):327-335
26. Martin S, Griswold W. Human health effects of heavy metals.
Environmental Science and Technology Briefs for Citizens. 2009; 15:1-
6
27. Teo J, Goh K, Ahuja A, Ng H, Poon W. Intracranial vascular
calcifications, glioblastoma multiforme, and lead poisoning. American
Journal of Neuroradiology. 1997; 18:576-579.
28. Brown MJ, Margolis S. Lead in drinking water and human blood Lead
levels in the United States. In: The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly
Report (MMWR). Washington, DC: Center for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC), 2012.
29. Bernard A. Cadmium & its adverse effects on human health. Indian
Journal Medical Research. 2008; 128(4):557-564.
30. Nishijo M, Nakagawa H, Suwazono Y, Nogawa K, Kido T. Causes of
death in patients with Itaiitai disease suffering from severe chronic
cadmium poisoning: A nested case-control analysis of a follow-up study
in Japan. BMJ Open. 2017; 7:e015-694.
31. Mudgal V, Madaan N, Mudgal A, Singh RB, Mishra S. Effect of toxic
metals on human health. Open Nutraceuticals Journal. 2010; 3:94-99.
32. Alina M, Azrina A, Mohd Yunus AS, Mohd Zakiuddin S, Mohd Izuan
Effendi H et al. Heavy metals (mercury, arsenic, cadmium, plumbum) in
selected marine fish and shellfish along the straits of Malacca.
International Food Research Journal. 2012; 19(1):135-140.
33. Bernhoft RA. Mercury toxicity and treatment: A review of the literature.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.
2012; 2012:1-10.
34. Huy TB, Tuyet-Hanh TT, Johnston R, Nguyen-Viet H. Assessing health
risk due to exposure to arsenic in drinking water in Hanam Province,
Vietnam. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health. 2014; 11:7575-7591.
Page | 67
Page | 68
Chapter - 5
Authors
Dr. C Jayakumar
Department of Applied Science and Technology, A.C Tech,
Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
U. Sundheep
Department of Applied Science and Technology, A.C Tech,
Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Page | 69
Page | 70
Chapter - 5
Dr. C Jayakumar and U. Sundheep
Abstract
This project analysis the safety of employees working in paper mills.
The paper mill is a place where paper is manufactured by chemical
processes. It is one of the most hazardous industries with respect to chemical
hazards. Other hazards associated with paper mills are physical hazards and
biological hazards. This project also gives necessary control measures to
reduce or to eliminate hazards of paper mills. Pulp and paper manufacturing
can also be very hazardous due to massive weights and falling, rolling,
and/or sliding pulpwood loads. Workers may be struck or crushed by loads
or suffer lacerations from the misuse of equipment, particularly when
machines are used improperly or without proper safeguards. Environmental
problems regarding the pulp and paper industry are not limited to high water
consumption. Solid wastes including sludge generated from wastewater
treatment plants and air emissions cause further problems, thus an effective
disposal and treatment approach is essential.
Keywords: risk assessment, hazard identification, control measures, hazards
safety, paper mills
Introduction
A paper mill is a factory devoted to making paper from vegetable fibres
such as wood pulp, old rags and other ingredients. Prior to the invention and
adoption of the Fourdrinier machine and other types of paper machine that
use an endless belt, all paper in a paper mill was made by hand, one sheet at
a time, by specialized labourers. Paper mills can be fully integrated mills or
non-integrated mills. Integrated mills consist of a pulp mill and a paper mill
on the same site. Such mills receive logs or wood chips and produce paper.
The modern paper mill uses large amounts of energy, water, and wood pulp
in an efficient and complex series of processes, and control technology to
produce a sheet of paper that can be used in diverse ways. Modern papers
machines can be 500 feet (150m) in length, produce a sheet 400 inches
Page | 71
(10 m) wide, and operate at speeds of more than 60 miles per hour
(97 km/h). A paper mill is a type of factory that makes paper from wood
pulp and other special ingredients. This is accomplished through a variety of
special machines, including a tree chipper, a digester, and a Fourdrinier
machine. Due to the Kraft process used to separate the lignin from the plant
products used in the paper making process resulting in a sulphur by-product,
paper mills are associated with unpleasant smells. The environmental impact
of paper is significant, which has led to changes in industry and behaviour at
both business and personal levels. With the use of modern technology such
as the printing press and the highly mechanized harvesting of wood,
disposable paper became a relatively cheap commodity, which led to a high
level of consumption and waste. The rise in global environmental issues such
as air and water pollution, climate change, overflowing landfills and clear
cutting have all lead to increased government regulations. There is now a
trend towards sustainability in the pulp and paper industry as it moves to
reduce clear cutting, water use, greenhouse gas emissions, fossil fuel
consumption and clean up its impacts on local water supplies and air
pollution.
According to a Canadian citizen's organization, "People need paper
products and we need sustainable, environmentally safe production.
"Environmental product declarations or product scorecards are available to
collect and evaluate the environmental and social performance of paper
products, such as the Paper Calculator, Environmental Paper Assessment
Tool (EPAT), or Paper Profile.
Worldwide, the pulp and paper industry is the fifth largest consumer of
energy, accounting for four percent of the entire world's energy use.
However, the entire paper and printing sector contributes less than 1% to the
global greenhouse gas inventory due to the very high use of renewable
energy, mostly biomass. The pulp and paper industry uses more water to
produce a ton of product than any other industry. The de-inking process
during paper recycling is also a source of emissions due to chemicals
released in the effluent. The European Recovered Paper Council has
developed the ‘deink ability scorecard’ so that the printed paper products
which have the best recyclability when they are deinked can be identified.
Methodology
Risk assessment
Risk assessment is a term used to describe the overall process or method
where you
Page | 72
 Identify hazards and risk factors that have the potential to cause
harm (hazard identification)
 Analyze and evaluate the risk associated with that hazard (risk
analysis, and risk evaluation)
 Determine appropriate ways to eliminate the hazard, or control the
risk when the hazard cannot be eliminated (risk control)
A risk assessment is a thorough look at your workplace to identify those
things, situations, processes, etc. that may cause harm, particularly to people.
After identification is made, you analyze and evaluate how likely and severe
the risk is. When this determination is made, you can next, decide what
measures should be in place to effectively eliminate or control the harm from
happening.
Importance of risk assessment
 Create awareness of hazards and risk
 Identify who may be at risk (e.g., employees, cleaners, visitors,
contractors, the public, etc.)
 Determine whether a control program is required for a particular
hazard
 Determine if existing control measures are adequate or if more
should be done
 Prevent injuries or illnesses, especially when done at the design or
planning stage
 Prioritize hazards and control measures
 Meet legal requirements where applicable
Aim of risk assessment
The aim of the risk assessment process is to evaluate hazards, then
remove that hazard or minimize the level of its risk by adding control
measures, as necessary. By doing so, you have created a safer and healthier
workplace.
Hazard identification technique
The technique used for hazard identification is walk through audit and
checklist method
Walk through audit
It is one of the hazard identification techniques used by the auditors in
the industry to identify any hazards associated with the process going on in
Page | 73
the industry. These types of audits provides us clear understanding of the
hazards mostly visual observance is used here hence keen observation is
necessary here. All the visual hazards can be identified in this method.
Events like unsafe acts and unsafe conditions should also be noted in this
case.
The walk-through procedure, coupled with good prior year experience
with a client and evidence from reading general ledger account activity, may
permit an assessment of control risk at slightly less than high-to-moderate.
An auditor may be able to use lesser reliable procedures (nature) for small
details of an account balance, lesser audit coverage of an account balance
(extent), and/or perform some procedures before yearend (timing) at these
lower risk levels. This procedure, considered along with other risk
assessment procedures, can provide substantive evidence that enables the
auditor to plan an audit strategy that reduces tests of balances procedures.
Checklist
A checklist attempts to compensate for potential limits of hazard
recognition, human memory, and attention to specific details. It helps to
ensure consistency and completeness in carrying out a task from an
individual, within a work group, or across an institution. There are two basic
types of checklists: process-based and behaviour-based. Sometimes, process-
and behaviour-based checklists are combined.
Types of checklist
 Process based
 Behaviour based
 Combined
Process based checklist
These address safety hazards associated with a specific, well-defined
work task. They establish a set of steps for the checklist user to implement.
To be successful, checklist developers must be able to identify the critical
workflow for which the hazard assessment is based. Relevant safety
protocols are then established and explicitly integrated into the checklist.
Behaviour based checklist
These are designed to assess new or undefined tasks. The “cause-and-
effect” concept identifies potential high-hazard, high-risk work practices. To
be successful, checklist developers must have knowledge of the spectrum of
hazards and the activities conducted in the category of work area. An
Page | 74
appropriate set of hazard assessment criteria are established for evaluation in
the checklist.
Combined checklist
Checklists don't have to be strictly process-based or behaviour-based.
Sometimes, a process-based checklist may incorporate behaviour-based
checks, and vice versa. Often, a behaviour-based checklist may be conducted
for a higher-level risk assessment. If activities are then identified as higher
risk, a process-based checklist can be developed to mitigate those risks.
Development of checklist
Use of checklists tends to come naturally to researchers and safety
professionals. Most are comfortable with the checklist concept, and it
doesn’t typically take much time to implement and complete a basic safety
checklist. A basic checklist asks specific questions that the user confirms
upon completion of a task, availability of an item (inventory) or
applicability. Most lab managers and senior lab staff should be able to
answer these questions with moderate training.
Aspects of a Job Hazard Analysis, What-if Analysis, or Standard
Operating Procedures can be incorporated into a more structured checklist to
help guide the user in completing a risk assessment and identifying the
appropriate exposure control measures.
It is recommended that a principal investigator, laboratory manager,
senior laboratory staff member who is familiar with the overall operation of
the lab develop the more comprehensive laboratory safety checklists that
incorporate risk assessment.
Benefits of check list
Most people know what a checklist is.
A “finite” list of questions or assessment categories helps laboratory
users more familiar with laboratory operations assess and implement specific
safe work practices.
A standardized checklist allows institutions to compare and contrast
various laboratories and operations to identify high risk operations and
allocate resources.
Ability to quantify risk and provide scalability across an organization.
Disadvantages of checklist
Appropriate staffing and resources are needed to initially develop the
checklist.
Page | 75
Scope or assessment is limited to the specific questions listed rather than
a holistic hazard analysis for the process being evaluated.
Oversimplifying the scale and severity of a hazard. (In an effort to
address this, many checklists incorporate Severity of Consequences and
the Probability of Occurrence ratings).
Hazard identification methods
 Walk through audit
 Checklist
Walk through audit
A walk-through test is only one of many tests performed by auditors
during their evaluation of an organization's accounting controls and risk
management measures. The test can reveal system deficiencies and material
weaknesses that would need to be rectified by the organization as soon as
possible.
Bagasse storage area
 Accumulation of bagasse dust near open electrical wires
 Hot works conducted near the storage
 Improper storage of bagasse
Coal storage area
 Non maintenance of switch box, results in electric fires
 Physical access to fire monitor denied
 Coal dust was found all over the area
 Ladders without handrails was found
Paper reel godown
 Test date of fire extinguisher not mentioned
 Pressure value of extinguisher is empty
 Improper storage of paper reels
 Emergency fire number invisible due to dust
 Access to emergency exit denied due to storage of papers
Furnace oil storage area
 Oil drums not sealed properly
 No labeling of drums
Page | 76
 Spillage of furnace oil in the ground
 Oil drums likely to break due to physical damage
Wood storage area
 Dispersal of wood dust
 Emergency exits invisible due to wood dust
 Fire extinguisher not accessible due to wood storage
Checklist
A checklist is a type of job aid used to reduce failure by compensating
for potential limits of human memory and attention. It helps to ensure
consistency and completeness in carrying out a task. A basic example is the
"to do list". A more advanced checklist would be a schedule, which lays out
tasks to be done according to time of day or other factors. A primary task in
checklist is documentation of the task and auditing against the
documentation.
Checklists are often presented as lists with small checkboxes down the
left hand side of the page. A small tick or checkmark is drawn in the box
after the item has been completed. Other formats are also sometimes used.
Aviation checklists generally consist of a system and an action divided by a
dashed line, and lacks a checkbox as they are often read aloud and are
usually intended to be reused.
Checklist for ware house fire safety
 Post clearly visible no smoking signs on exterior and interior
warehouse walls
 Assign responsibilities, and establish steps, so that each staff
member knows what to do in case of fire
 Establish evacuation plans and escape routes for all warehouses for
emergency purpose
 Clearly signpost evacuation route
 Make fire extinguishers, sand/water buckets, shovels, and hoses
readily available and accessible, both inside and outside the
warehouse
 Train all warehouse staff on how to operate fire extinguishers
 Regularly inspect fire extinguishers for proper functioning, and
recharge as needed. Labels attached to each fire extinguisher should
indicate the expiry date and the next servicing date
Page | 77
 Make first-aid supplies readily available and accessible, and
replenished on a regular basis
 Train staff in the use of first-aid supplies and equipment
 Report all fires to management as soon as possible
 Make first-aid supplies readily available and accessible, and
replenished on a regular basis
 Train staff in the use of first-aid supplies and equipment
 Report all fires to management as soon as possible
 Make telephone numbers for fire brigades (as appropriate), key staff
members, and applicable government officials readily available to
warehouse staff
Table 1: Defects classification
Defects Value
Very minor 1
Minor 2
Major 3
Very major 4
Extreme 5
Calculation of fire load

The fire loading of a building or compartment is a way of establishing
the potential severity of a hypothetical future fire. It is the heat output per
unit floor area, often in kJ/m2 calculated from the calorific value of the
materials present. Fire loading is used for evaluating industrial safety risks.
Zero fire loading is next to impossible where industrial or commercial
properties are concerned. Wood (for furniture or finishing) and electric
equipment (computers, gadgets) are ubiquitous in working spaces. These
increase the fire load because they are combustible or could emit sparks.
Fire load = (M x C)/A
M = Mass of the combustible material in Kg
C = Calorific value of combustible material in kJ/kg
A = Area of the storage
Fire load calculation of bagasse storage area
Calorific value of bagasse = 2270KJ/KG
Total mass of bagasse in storage area = 9520kg
Page | 78
Area of bagasse storage warehouse = 8361.27m2
Fire load of bagasse storage area = 2584.58
Fire load calculation of coal storage area
Calorific value of coal = 3800KJ/KG
Total mass of coal in storage area = 60000 kg
Area of coal storage warehouse = 9290.30m2
Fire load of coal storage area = 24541.72
Fire load calculation of wood storage area
Calorific value of wood = 2500 KJ/KG
Total mass of wood in storage area = 14235 kg
Area of wood storage warehouse = 2508.38 m2
Fire load of wood storage area = 14187.44
Fire load of paper godown
Calorific value of paper = 3226KJ/KG
Total mass of paper in godown = 8500 kg
Area of paper godown = 3251.60m2
Fire load of paper go down = 8433.07
Table 2: Fire load calculation
Mass of Area of the Calorific value of Fire load of

Warehouse area combustible warehouse combustible the
substance (kg) (sq.m) substance (kj/kg) warehouse
Coal storage area 60000 9290.30 3800 24541.72
Bagasse storage area 9520 8361.27 2270 2584.58
Wood storage area 14235 2508.38 2500 14187.44
Paper and pulp
8500 3251.60 3226 8433.07
storage area
Table 3: Fire hazardous area classification
Fire hazardous area Type Value

Paper mill workshop Very minor 1
Bagasse storage area Minor 2
Paper storage area moderate 3
Wood storage area Major 4
Coal storage area Extreme 5
Page | 79
Table 4: Risk rating table
Bagasse storage area 2

Hazards Type of Risk
Hazards
value hazard rating
Accumulation of bagasse dust near open
3 Major 6
electrical wires
Hot works conducted near the storage 4 Very major 8
Improper storage of bagasse 3 Major 6
Improper house keeping 2 Minor 4
Emergency exit blocked 4 Very major 8
32
Coal storage area 5
Non maintenance of switch box, results in
5 Extreme 25
electric fires
Physical access to fire monitor denied 3 Major 15
Coal dust was found all over the area 5 Extreme 25
Ladders without handrails was found 2 Minor 10
Over loading of coal 5 extreme 25
100
Paper reel godown 3
Test date of fire extinguisher not mentioned 4 Very major 12
Pressure value of extinguisher is empty 3 Major 9
Improper storage of paper reels 5 Extreme 15
Emergency fire number invisible due to dust 4 Very major 12
Access to emergency exit denied due to
5 extreme 15
storage of papers
63
Paper machine plant 1
Pressure safety value was absent 3 Major 3
Access to ladders was denied 4 Very major 4
Forklifts in emergency exit passages 4 Very major 4
11
Wood storage area 4
Dispersal of wood dust 5 Extreme 20
Emergency exits invisible due to wood dust 3 Major 15
Fire extinguisher not accessible due to wood
5 extreme 20
storage
55
Page | 80
Control measures for fire in paper mills
Every year, fires occur in the paper and board industry, some are small
and others are devastating: people are injured (on occasion fatally) and there
is damage to buildings, equipment and materials. Thus, it is necessary to
ensure that operations have the necessary detection, suppression and
protection in place to handle fire risks. Paper is combustible, and, while solid
blocks of paper may not ignite easily, once they have caught fire flames can
spread rapidly and in most cases are extremely difficult to extinguish. The
likes of paper and board, loose paper and shrink-wrap material can all ignite
and start a fire.
Existing fire control measures in paper mills
 Fire buckets
 Fire extinguishers (dry chemical powder)
 Fire hydrant
 Fire tender vehicle
 Manual call point
Conclusion
In this project a clear analysis has been done in warehouse of the paper
mill which consisted of hazardous substances like bagasse, furnace oil, wood
chips, and paper and pulp sheets, coal. The materials were grouped into
combustible and flammable types. Using fire load calculation method and
checklist method, the most hazardous warehouse storage has been identified.
Comparison of unsafe acts and conditions was done in every warehouse to
check the most risky warehouse. After identifying some control measures
have also been given.
References
1. Bechir Ben Daya, Mustapha Nourelfath. Sustainability assessment of
integrated forest bio refinery implemented in Canadian pulp and paper
mills. International journal of production economics. 2014; 214:248-265
2. Balabani Filipic, Krivograd Klemen, Zegura. Raw and biologically
treated paper mill wastewater effluents and the recipient surface water.
2016; 574:78-89.
3. Wesley G, Bret W. Butler. Lab-scale observations of flame attachment
on slopes with implications for fire fighter safety zones. International
Journal of Wildland Fire. 2018; 27:141-154.
Page | 81
4. Fangli Su, Dong Linlin, Haifu Li, Wang Tieliang. Influence of Paper
Mill Wastewater on Reed Chlorophyll Content and Biomass. Physics
and Chemistry of the Earth. 2018; 108:13-18.
5. Fukai Chu, Xiaojuan Yu, Yanbei Hou, Xiaowei, Mu Lei Song, Weizhao
Hu Fukai. A facile strategy to simultaneously improve the mechanical
and fire safety properties of ramie fabric-reinforced unsaturated
polyester resin composites. Composites Part A: Applied Science and
Manufacturing. 2018; 115:264-273.
6. Chanti H, Thiry L, Hassenforder M, Brillhac P, Fromy H. Formalization
and composition of languages for the modelling of fire safety systems.
Proceedings of the 19th World Congress The International Federation of
Automatic Control Cape Town, South Africa. 2014; 3(4):1625-1630.
7. Huanbin Liu et al. Energy information integration based on EMS in
paper mill. 2014.
8. Ian Jutras, Brian J. Meacham. Development of objective-criteria-
scenario triplets and design fires for performance-based Fire Safety
Design. Journal of Building Engineering. 2016; 8:269-284.
9. Imran shabbir, Mojtaba Mirzaeian. Carbon emissions reduction
potentials in pulp and paper mills by applying cogeneration
technologies. Energy Procedia. 2017; 112:142-149.
10. Juan Manuel Parejo-Moscoso et al. Health and safety management in
olive oil mills in Spain. Safety Science. 2012, 2013; 51(1):101-108.
11. Manel Ghribi, Fatma Meddeb-Mouelhi, Marc Beauregard. Expression
and characterization of an esterase belonging to a new family via
isolation from a met genomic library of paper mill sludge. Pringer Plus
Article number. 2016; 2:14-92.
12. Mohammadreza Kamali et al. Additive and additive-free treatment
technologies for pulp and paper mill effluents: Advances, challenges and
opportunities. Water Resources and Industry. 2019; 21:100-109.
13. Perttu Leppänen et al. Experimental study on fire safety of chimneys in
real use and actual site conditions. Journal of Building Engineering,
2017, 14.
14. Qian Wang, Cong Zhang. Fire Safety Analysis of Building Partition
Wall Engineering, 2018.
15. Raghu Nandan Gurrama, Mohammad Al-Shannagb, Nicholas Joshua
Lechera, Shona M Duncana, Eric Lawrence Singsaasc, Malek
Page | 82
Alkasrawi. Bioconversion of paper mill sludge to bio ethanol in the
presence of accelerants or hydrogen peroxide pre treatment. Bioresource
Technology. 2015; 192:529-539.
16. Sarah N Scott et al. Validation of PMDI-based polyurethane foam
model for fire safety applications, 2018.
17. Shih-Hsu Wang et al. Applying building information modelling to
support fire safety management. Automation in Construction, 2015, 59.
18. Jean Pierre Corriou, Xin Tong, Wenhao Shen, Xiaoquan Chen.
Qualitative and quantitative analysis of gaseous pollutants for cleaner
production in pulp and paper mills. South China University of
Technology. 2018; 7:118.
19. Ying Zhen Li et al. Overview of research on fire safety in underground
road and railway tunnels. Natural Sciences. 2018; 81:568-589.
Page | 83
Page | 84
Chapter - 6
Emerging Trends in Indian Tourism Industry:
Challenges and Strategies
Author
Dr. Shikha Bhatt
Assistant Professor of Tourism, Government P.G College,
Ambala Cantt., Ambala Sadar, Haryana, India
Page | 85
Page | 86
Chapter - 6
Emerging Trends in Indian Tourism Industry: Challenges
and Strategies
Dr. Shikha Bhatt
Abstract
This chapter provides insights of emerging trends in the tourism industry
particularly India. It also encompasses the detailed analysis of challenges in
front of Indian tourism industry. Further, strategies adopted by the
Government of India to enhance tourism in India has also been discussed in
this chapter.
Keywords: challenges, strategies, tourism, trends analysis
Introduction
Travel has been a nomadic urge in man as travelling has been a
characteristic feature of human society and lifestyle but owing to ‘antiquated
means of mobility’, ‘lack of wayside facilities, safety and security’ and, ‘non-
availability of discretionary income and time’ during earlier phases of our
history, it mostly remained the privilege of elite and well to do section of
society who could meet the expenses to buy the conveniences. Middle Ages,
for the first time witnesses the appearance of two categories of travellers, i.e.,
adventurers and explorers. Strongly enthused by ‘inquisitiveness’ and ‘quest
for knowledge’, these inquisitive souls, despite their limited resources, used
to set-out on long and arduous expeditions, courageously facing on way risks
and discomforts. Their accounts on ‘different land and persons’ induced a
strong urge in the society to take journeys to ‘unfamiliar lands and cultures’
or to explore bounties of nature. Thus, legendary spirits like Columbus, Marco
Polo and Vasco De Gama added new dimensions to the world of travel and
tourism, in terms of activity, concept and philosophy. Renaissance period in
Europe followed by Grand Tours and subsequently to the growth and
development of spas, sea shores and resorts as health destinations gave further
impetus to travel and tourism.
Tourism what we know today has introduced much later in the 19th
century with the discovery of automobile and upsurge in income of the people
Page | 87
led travel for rest, pleasure and recreation purposes. This in turn established
the way for growth of organised travel which later on paved the way to develop
the concept of tourism.
In case of Tourism, the first question comes in mind that what exactly it
is? Why man travel and spend their hard-earned money on goods and services
at destinations where they do not normally reside in? To find the answers of
above stated questions, the concept of Tourism has been termed in various
ways by number of research scholars, academicians and authors time and
again but may be assumed as the relationship and phenomena occurring out of
the journeys and temporary stay of people travelling chiefly for the purpose of
leisure and recreational for decades. In the very early phases of considering
tourism as an economic activity Professor (Hunziker and Krafp of Berne
University, 1942) attempts to define conceptual definition of tourism as “the
sum of phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-
residents, in so far as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not
connected with any earning activity”. Tourism Society, 1976 (cited by Kamra,
K.K and Chand, M, 2004; Mathieson and Wall, 1982) accepted the view of
(Hunziker and Krafp, 1942); however, tried to understand the concept of
tourism in terms of duration of movement of people and proposed that tourism
is a temporary movement of persons to outside world from their natural place
of residence. (Hall and Page) contend that research scholars are troubled by
the multitude connotations and concept of tourism. According to Pigram
(1985) tourism is a recreation component, while eminent scholar (Murphy
1985, cited by hall and page 2006) counters the argument. Jafari (1977)
defines tourism from the point of view of anthropology and states that
“Tourism is the study of man away from his usual habitat of the industry,
which responds to his needs, and of the impacts that both he and the industry
have on the host’s social-cultural, economic and physical environments”.
Conversely, Murphy, 1985 (cited by Smith, 1988) defines tourism as “the sum
of the travel of non-residents (tourists, including excursionists) to destination
areas, as long as their sojourn does not become a permanent residence. It is a
combination of recreation and business”. Tourism today is not just stuck as a
leisure and recreational activity. It is an important component of world trade
and is fast becoming the dominant worldwide activity surpassing even trade
in oil and manufactured products. For developed and developing countries
alike, tourism has become a major source engine of earning foreign exchange,
a generator of personal and business incomes, a creator of jobs and a
contributor to Government revenues in terms of tax and revenues. The United
Nations World Tourism Organization, UNWTO (1981) understands the
social, economic, environmental importance of tourism and gives a broad
Page | 88
view about explaining the concept of tourism in the lines as “Any person
residing within a country, irrespective of nationality, travelling to a place
within this country other than his usual place of residence for a period of not
less than 24 hours or one night for a purpose other than the exercise of a
remunerated activity in the place visited. The motives for such travel may be
leisure (recreation, holidays, health, studies, religion, sports); business,
family, mission, meeting”.
Global tourism industry
Growth in international tourist arrivals and receipts continues to outplace
the globe economy and both emerging and advanced economies are
benefitting from rising tourism income (UNWTO, 2019). Though travel is as
old as man himself is, some record of travel can be traced out for the accurate
analysis of the measurement of travel. International tourist arrivals grew 5.4%
in 2018, which is 1.6% less of international tourist arrivals in 2017 however,
this figure was reached two years ahead of UNWTO forecast (UNWTO,
2019). A total of 1,401 million international tourist arrivals were recorded in
worldwide destinations from all over the globe, some 75 million more than in
2017. At the same international tourism receipts raised to 1,451 from 1,326 in
2017.
Figure 1. depicts change (%) of international tourist arrivals and tourism
receipts from the year 2008 to 2018.
Fig 1: International Tourist Arrivals, Change (%)

Source: UNWTO Tourism Highlights, 2019 Edition
A region-wise study of international tourist arrivals and tourism receipts
in 2019 highlights the share of five regions defined by UNWTO (Fig 2).
Page | 89
Fig 2: International Tourist Arrivals (million) and Tourism Receipts (USD billion)
Source: UNWTO tourism highlights, 2019 edition
According to UNWTO, two regions namely Asia and the Pacific 7% and
Africa 7% have the largest growth in tourist arrivals from all over the world.
Europe received 710 million international tourist arrivals which are over half
of the total of the world’s international tourist arrivals while Middle East
received just 60 million and which is less than a tenth of that amount.
Travelers from European nations accounted for 710 million international
tourist arrivals followed by 348 million of the totals from Asia and the Pacific,
216 million from the Americas, 67 million from Africa and 60 million from
the Middle East.
International tourism spending was also raised to 4% globally. Europe
received USD 570 billion from tourism spending which is nearly 40% of the
total figure spent by tourists worldwide for international travel followed by
Asia-Pacific received USD 435 and the Americas received USD 334 billion.
Page | 90
Fig 3: Top 10 destinations of tourist arrivals, 2018 (USD million)
According to (UNWTO, 2019) France maintained the status of top tourist
destination with 89 million tourist arrivals from all over the globe in the year
2018 followed by Spain 83 million, United States of America 80 million,
China 63 million, Italy 62 million, Turkey 46 million, Mexico 41 million,
Germany 39 million, Thailand 38 million, United Kingdom 36 million.
Fig 4: Top 10 tourism earner destinations, 2018 (USD billion)

According to (UNWTO, 2019) United States of America maintained the
status of top tourism earner destination with 214 billion USD in the year 2018
followed by Spain 74 billion, France 67 billion, Thailand from South East Asia
63 billion, United Kingdom 52 billion, Italy 49 billion, Australia 45 billion,
Germany 43 billion, Japan 41 billion, China 40 billion.
Page | 91
Fig 5: Purpose of visit, 2018 (% share)
According to UNWTO, leisure recreation, holidays with 56% is the main
purpose of visit among the tourists followed by visiting friends and relatives
(VFR), health, religion 27%, Business and professional visits 13%, and not
specified purposes 4%. The share of travel for the purpose of leisure has grown
from 50% in 2000 to 56% in 2018.
Fig 6: Purpose of visit, 2018 (% share)

Page | 92
According to UNWTO, the main mode of transport for all the arrivals in
2018 was recorded by air at 58%, followed by travel by road at 37%, travel by
water at 4% and travel by rail with only 2%. The share of travel by air has
increased from 46% in 2000 to 58% in 2018, while land transport has
decreased from 49% to 39% in the same period.
Tourism in India
India is the largest employment generation sector in the world.1 out of 9
jobs are generated in tourism. It has 74% Himalayan Mountains, 7500km
coastline, only living desert in the World and is the birthplace of 4 religions in
the world. 38 World Heritage Sites are located in India of which 30 cultural
sites, 7 natural sites, and 1 mixed site. 10 bio-geographical zones and 26 biotic
provinces are located in India. India is a tourism hub. India bagged 34th
position in Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index of the World Economic
Forum (WEF) of 2019, a greatest improvement over 40 in 2018 and 52 in
2017. The It is the only lower-middle-income country in the top 35 of the
Travel and Tourism Competitive Index, 2019 of the WEF. India also accounts
for the majority of South Asia's travel and tourism GDP and thus, remains the
sub-region's most competitive Travel & Tourism economy. Tourism in India
has shown a phenomenal growth in the past decade. India travel tourism has
grown rapidly with a great influx of tourists from all across the globe who
have been irresistibly attracted to the rich culture, heritage, and incredible
natural beauty of India. The Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTA) in India during
2018 were 10.56 million with a growth of 5.2% as compared to the FTAs of
10.04 million during 2017 (Table 1).
Table 1: Foreign tourist arrivals (FTAs) in India during 2000-2017
FTAs in India Percentage (%) change over the

Year
(in million) previous year
2001 2.54 -4.2
2002 2.38 -6.0
2003 2.73 14.3
2004 3.46 26.8
2005 3.92 13.3
2006 4.45 13.5
2007 5.08 14.3
2008 5.28 4.0
2009 5.17 -2.2
2010 5.78 11.8
2011 6.31 9.2
Page | 93
2012 6.58 4.3
2013 6.97 5.9
2014 7.68 10.2
2015 8.03 4.5
2016 8.80 9.7
2017 10.04 14.0
2018 (P) 10.56 5.2
(P) Provisional, Figures updated as in August, 2019.
Source: India Tourism Statistics at a Glance, 2019
Table 2 shows that Bangladesh is the top source country for foreign tourist
arrivals in India accounted 21.37% of the total foreign tourist arrivals in India
United States with 13.80% is the second tourist source market followed with
United Kingdom 9.75% in India. Rest of the top 10 source contributor nations
in foreign tourist arrivals in 2018 were Sri Lanka, Canada, Australia,
Malaysia, China, Germany and Russian Federation.
Table 2: Top 10 Source Countries for Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) in India in
2018 (P)
Rank in 2017 Source Country FTAs Percentage (%) Share in

1 Bangladesh 2256675 21.37
2 United States 1456678 13.80
3 United Kingdom 1029758 9.75
4 Sri Lanka 353684 3.35
5 Canada 351040 3.32
6 Australia 346486 3.28
7 Malaysia 319172 3.02
8 China 281768 2.67
9 Germany 274087 2.60
10 Russian Federation 262309 2.48
Total top 10 Countries 6931657 65.65
Others 3626272 34.35
G. Total 10557929 100.00
Source: Bureau of Immigration, Govt. of India
The Foreign Exchange Earnings (FEEs) from tourism business in 2018
was USD 28592 million with 4.7% growth rate as compared to FEEs of USD
27310 million registering a growth of 19.1% in 2017. In the year 2010, FEEs
from tourism was USD 14490 million registered a growth of 30.1 (Table 3).
Page | 94
Table 3: Foreign Exchange Earnings (FEEs) (in USD Million) from Tourism in India
during 2000-2018
FEE from Tourism in India Percentage (%) change over the

Year
(in USD million) previous year
2000 3460 15.0
2001 3198 -7.6
2002 3103 -3.0
2003 4463 43..8
2004 6170 38.2
2005 7493 21.4
2006 8634 15.2
2007 10729 24.3
2008 11832 10.3
2009 11136 -5.9
2010 14490
2011 17707
2012 17971 30.1
2013 18397 22.2
2014 19700 7.1
2015 21013 6.7
2016#2 22923 9.1
2017#2 27310 19.1
2018#2 28585 4.7
#2: Revised estimates
Source
i) Reserve Bank of India, for 2000-2015
ii) Ministry of Tourism, Govt. of India, for 2016 to 2018
At 385.90 million, Tamil Nadu had the largest number of domestic tourist
visits in 2018, accounting for 20.9% of the total domestic tourist visits during
the year. Other major states for domestic tourists were Uttar Pradesh (share of
15.4% in total), Karnataka (11.6%), Andhra Pradesh (10.5%) and Maharashtra
(6.4%) (Table 1.4). There is substantial concentration of domestic tourists in
the top ten states/UTs, as they accounted for nearly 84.4% of the total number
of domestic tourists during 2018.
Page | 95
Table 4: Share of Top 10 States/UTs of India in Number of Domestic Tourist Visits
in 2018
Domestic Tourist Visits in 2018 (revised)
Rank State/UT
Number Percentage Share (%)
1 Tamil Nadu 385909376 20.8
2 Uttar Pradesh 285079848 15.4
3 Karnataka 214306456 11.6
4 Andhra Pradesh 194767874 10.5
5 Maharashtra 119191539 6.4
6 Telangana 92878329 5.0
7 West Bengal 85657365 4.6
8 Madhya Pradesh 83969799 4.5
9 Gujrat 54369873 2.9
10 Rajasthan 50235643 2.7
Total of top 10 States 1566366102 84.4
Others 288567282 15.6
Source: India Tourism Statistics at a Glance 2019
Challenges and strategies
India offers rich opportunities for heritage tourism. It has 36 sites declared
as World Heritage Site by UNESCO which includes 28 cultural, 7 natural and
1 mixed category site. India is expanding the tourism offering year by year
and witnessed substantial growth with 34 rank over 40 in 2017 in the recent
period. However, India is contributing significantly to economic output,
employment and exports by performing well in tourism sector at globe still
there are number of challenges in front to tourism sector of India to overcome
to become number one globally.
Major challenges in tourism sector in India
Non-extendable e-visa
However, India is giving e-visa facility to 166 nations, yet its non-
extendable feature restricts the tourists to have glimpses of all over India as it
is a vast nation with versatility in its tourist products.
Limited entry points on e-visa
Indian Tourist e-Visa allows entry only through 28 designated airports
and 5 designated seaports. All the conditions given above, affects the entry
process of tourists to the country, hampering the tourism sector in India.
Infrastructure and connectivity
One of the key challenges for Indian tourism industry is the deficiencies
in infrastructure facilities like sanitation, living facilities, hotels, etc., and
inadequate connectivity to different tourist destinations hamper tourist visits.
Page | 96
Skills upgradation
Generally low skilled individuals without any diploma or degree are hired
for the tourism and hospitality sector due to which low services are served to
the tourists and it results into decrease of tourists. To meet the needs of tourism
and hospitality industry 46 Institutes of Hotel Management (IHMs) and 14
Food Craft Institutes (FCIs) are opened to support the tourism industry of
India.
Untapped products
India is a land of different culture and has different and untapped products
in a number to offer but only few circuits or segments are developed, and rest
are under the darkness lying unknown to the world.
Advertisement and marketing
Most of the advertisement are done on internet and travel markets.
However, somehow, we are succeeded to publicize our tourism products
globally yet there is a need to get familiarize the domestic tourists about their
own tourist destinations. Printed material containing knowledge of tourist
destinations are either not available or available with cost which affects
tourism industry of India.
Safety
India is known all over the world for its age-old hospitality that remarks
‘Guest as a God’. However, like any other civil society, there are aberrations,
and a few persons break the law now and then in the country which put an
interrogation mark on India whether it is a safe and secure destination for the
tourists or not? This may even lead tourists to choose not to return to that
destination, or in worse case scenarios cease to travel in the future.
Cleanliness
It has been observed that people do not bother about the hygiene of the
tourist destination. They throw empty wrappers, spit here and there and
sometimes ease off in open. This cause a negative impact upon the tourist
destination.
Access
Certain areas of India still lack electricity, access, and proper
accommodation. Tourist help centres are very less in numbers and even access
to information to domestic and foreign tourists is not at ease.
Congestion
India is a country of different culture in a single roof. People here connect
every activity with God and there are several occasions come when a person
Page | 97
has to give thanks and to feel sorry to God which results into congestion at
tourist’s sites and especially to pilgrimage sites which causes annoyance to the
tourists.
Language barrier
As Hindi is not global language, tourists come from outside of the country
often came across language barrier which makes their tour more complicated
sometimes.
Strategies adopted to uplift tourism sector by government of India
Swadesh Darshan scheme
It is a centrally funded scheme, launched by the Ministry of Tourism, for
integrated development of theme-based tourist circuits in India. This scheme
is envisioned for positioning the tourism sector as a driving force for economic
growth, a major engine for job creation, building synergy with various sectors,
etc.
Prasad scheme
The Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spirituality Augmentation Drive
(PRASAD) is a scheme of the Ministry of Tourism for identifying and
developing the pilgrim sites across the country and enrich the religious tourism
experience. It is a centrally funded scheme which also allows the Public-
Private Partnership (PPP) and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) model.
Twelve cities are announced to be developed under the PRASAD scheme by
the Ministry of Tourism, namely, Ajmer (Rajasthan), Amaravati (Andhra
Pradesh), Amritsar (Punjab), Dwaraka (Gujarat), Gaya (Bihar), Kamakhya
(Assam), Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu), Kedarnath (Uttarakhand), Mathura
(Uttar Pradesh), Puri (Odisha), Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) and Velankanni
(Tamil Nadu).
Branding and marketing initiatives
Government of India’s branding and marketing initiatives like ‘Incredible
India!’ and ‘Atithi Devo Bhava’ aim for providing a focused impetus to
growth.
Medical visa
A fresh category of medical visa or M visa has been released by the Indian
Government for encouraging medical tourism in the country.
Tax holiday for hotels around UNESCO world heritage sites
A five-year tax holiday has also been offered for all the 2, 3 and 4 starred
hotels located around UNESCO World Heritage sites in India (except Delhi
and Mumbai).
Page | 98
Incredible India 2.0 campaign
Launched in September 2017 the Incredible India 2.0 campaign aims for
promoting various destinations and tourism products of India in important and
potential source markets worldwide.
Incredible India mobile app
Indian government has launched the ‘Incredible India Mobile App’ in
September 2018, to assist the traveler and showcase major experiences for
traveling in India.
Tax refund for tourists (TRT) scheme
The Union Budget 2019-20 introduced a Tax Refund for Tourists (TRT)
scheme in countries like Singapore to encourage tourists for spending more in
India and boost tourism
Public service delivery system (PSDS)
It is a web-based portal launched by the Ministry of Tourism. It provides
all the applicants a single-window clearance system for approval of hotel
projects and tracking their applications online on a real-time basis.
Iconic tourist sites
Ministry of Tourism, Government of India has identified world class 17
iconic tourist sites in 12 clusters for development in the country to attract
foreign and domestic tourists.
Buddhist circuit
Ministry of Tourism has produced two films namely ‘India-The Land of
Buddha’ and ‘Following the path of the Buddha’ to increase its share in global
tourism market.
Audio Odigos
Ministry of Tourism launched Audio Guide facility App viz ‘Audio
Odigos’ for 12 tourist sites of India.
Swachhta action plan
To overcome the problem of sanitation, Ministry of Tourism has framed
‘Swachhta Action Plan’ for creating cleanliness awareness.
Conclusion
The tourism sector in India has a positive impact on the Balance of
Payment of the Country as it plays an important role in the income of foreign
exchange earnings in India. Recent tourism trends shows that annual growth
rate of the Tourism Industry in India is 9.4% and is expected to increase to Rs
32,05,000 crore (US$ 492.21 billion) by 2028 and Tourism Industry will
Page | 99
support for about 46 million jobs by 2025 under the right developmental
policies and investments made in this sector. International Tourist's arrival in
India is expected to reach 30.5 billion by 2028.
References
1. Achievements of Ministry of Tourism during the year 2013. Retrieved
from http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=102378. 15
October, 2019.
2. Hall CM, Page SJ. The Geography of Tourism and Recreation:
Environment, Place and Space, London: Routledge, 1999.
3. Hunziker W, Krapf K. Grundriß Der Allgemeinen. Fremdenverkehrslehre
(in German). Zurich: Polygraph. Verl. OCLC 180109383, 1942.
4. Jafari J. Editor’s Page. Annals of Tourism Research. 1997; 5:6-11.
5. Kamra KK, Chand M. Basics of Tourism. Kanishka Publishers
Distributors, New Delhi, 2004.
6. Matheson A, Wall G. Tourism, Economic, Physical and Social Impacts.
Longman House, New York, 1982.
7. Ministry of Tourism Government of India (18-19). Annual Report
(January 2018-March 2019. Retrieved from
http://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/files/annualreports/Ministry%20of%2
0 Tourism%20Annual%20Report%20English%20for%20Web.pdf. 20
December, 2019.
8. Ministry of Tourism Government of India. India Tourism Statistics at a
Glance, 2019. Retrieved from
http://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/files/Other/India%20Tourism%20Stati
stics%20at%20a%20Glance%202019.pdf. 22 December, 2019.
9. Murphy PE. Tourism: A Community Approach. London: Routledge,
1985
10. Pigram JJ. Outdoor Recreation and Resource Management. Edn. 2,
Croom Helm, London, 1985.
11. Smith SLJ. Defining Tourism: A Supply-side View. Annals of Tourism
Research, 1988; 15(2):179-190.
12. United Nation World Tourism Organization. UNWTO Tourism
Highlights, 2018 Edition. Retrieved from https://www.e-
unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284421152, 2019.
13. UNWTO. Saturation of Tourist Destinations: Report of the Secretary
General, World Tourism Organisation, Madrid, 1981, 2019.
Page | 100
14. World Economic Forum. The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness
Report, 2019. Retrieved from
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TTCR_2019.pdf. 24 December.
15. World Travel and Tourism Council. World Travel and Tourism Economic
Impact Report, 2019. Retrieved from https://www.wttc.org/-
/media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/regions-
2019/world2019.pdf. 23 December.
Page | 101
Page | 102
Chapter - 7
Utilization of Tree Stump Dimension in Forest
Modelling and Management
Authors
Onyekachi Chukwu
Department of Forestry and Wildlife, Nnamdi Azikiwe
University, Awka, Nigeria
Jacinta Ukamaka Ezenwenyi
Department of Forestry and Wildlife, Nnamdi Azikiwe
University, Awka, Nigeria
Page | 103
Page | 104
Chapter - 7
Utilization of Tree Stump Dimension in Forest Modelling
and Management
Onyekachi Chukwu and Jacinta Ukamaka Ezenwenyi
Abstract
The forests globally are faced with the problem of illegal exploitation of
trees. However, aside the stumps that are left after exploitation, most
removed tree dimensions are unknown. Stump dimension is therefore a
valuable tool to the forest manager; it is used to reconstruct the sizes of
removed trees, assess past harvesting practices, to determine the coppicing
ability of a tree and aid in assigning monetary value to the exploited tree.
This study aimed at assessing the potentials of tree stump diameter in forest
modelling for sustainable management of forest resources and decision
making. The study also used least square method to develop models for
estimating the aboveground biomass from stump diameter for Tectona
grandis species in the Tropical Rainforest of Southwestern Nigeria. The
study revealed that out of the four models (simple linear, Semi logarithmic
R, Semi logarithmic L and double logarithmic) fitted and evaluated, Semi
logarithmic L. best predicted aboveground biomass with the highest value of
adjusted coefficient of determination (0.93) and the least values of standard
error of estimate (0.111) and Furnival index (0.0048). This study concludes
that tree stump diameter is very important especially in the incident of timber
trespass. Stump diameter is therefore, recommend as an important variable
for tree modelling and a tool on which forest management decisions can be
based.
Keywords: biomass, biometrics, forest management, forest modelling,
stump diameter
1. Introduction
Forest management is an integral part of forestry concerned with the
general administrative, economic, legal, and social aspects, as well as
scientific and technical aspects. Quantitative information on a growing stock
is necessary for timber valuation and guides in decision making. However,
Page | 105
quantification of forest resources can be possible through forest inventory
and biometrics. Forest biometrics literally means measurements applied in
forestry. Forest biometrics is described as the methods of mathematical
statistics that are significant to forestry [1]. It basically involves quantification
of biological and physical characteristics of forest and its constituents, which
includes trees, shrubs and allied wildlife, vegetation, insects, disease,
topography, soils and climate. However, forest biometrics can be
summarized as the application of statistical and mathematical principles to
forestry to achieve managerial goals. Over the years, models have been used
in forestry to describe physical, chemical or biological state of forests.
Models have facilitated estimation and prediction of tree and stand variables,
especially those whose measurement are difficult and tedious. For instance;
tree volume, height, crown, biomass and carbon have been successfully
estimated from easily measurable variables such as stem diameter at breast
height and stump height [2, 3, 4, 5].
In forestry, diameter at breast height (DBH) has been portrayed as the
most important tree growth variable; in that most variation in other tree
growth variables are explained by DBH. Diameter at breast height is the
stem diameter of a tree measured at 1.3 meters or 4.5 feet. In forestry, it is
assumed that at the breast height, the effect of tree roots and buttress is
minimal and measurement is also convenient. However, estimation of
removed tree growth and stand variables is not possible using diameter at
breast height. With increase in the rate of illegal and/or indiscriminate
logging globally, forest biometricians developed means of estimating the
quantity of a removed tree variables. Thus, reconstruction of the size of a
removed tree variable is necessary due to several reasons. These reasons
include; creating historical records of previous management activities in the
forest, appraising harvesting practices, assessing damage due to catastrophic
events and establishing loss due to indiscriminate and/or illegal felling,
describing the structure of a removed tree, and providing quantitative
estimate of an illegal removed tree to aid legal proceeding in the law court.
Forest stores about 80% of all above-ground organic carbon [6]. The
ability to accurately and precisely estimate the biomass, will aid in the
measure of the carbon stored and sequestered in forests with respect to
mitigating carbon dioxide emissions. Aboveground biomass estimation may
be sufficient for estimating carbon in tropical forests, because tropical forests
tend to carry relatively more of their biomass in the standing crop than do
temperate forests particularly when not limited by water [7]. Thus, it is
imperative to develop a means of estimating aboveground biomass of a
Page | 106
removed tree, as it will serve as an index of the amount of carbon and carbon
dioxide lost to the environment. Hence, literatures on using stump diameter
to predict aboveground biomass of standing or a removed tree is scarce.
Estimation of most parts of a removed tree can only be possibly done
through the stump dimensions [8]. It is a common knowledge in forestry that
positive and high correlations exist between stump diameter and diameter at
breast height. Hence, stump diameter could in most cases serve as a
replacement for diameter at breast height. This study aimed at assessing the
potentials of tree stump diameter in forest modelling for sustainable
management of forest resources and decision making.
2. Stump diameter measurement
Stump is referred to as the base of the stem extracted from the forest
under optimal exploitation condition. A survey of felled trees from various
part of Nigeria indicates that most trees are cut above 0.15 m8. In this study,
stump diameter over bark is regarded as tree stem diameter measured at 0.30
meter from the ground level. Two instruments are popular in forestry for
measuring tree stem diameter, namely; caliper and girth or diameter tape.
The diameter tapes are wrapped around the point of reference measurement
on the tree stem. The tapes are calibrated in units of the mathematical
constant pi (π), which is the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its
diameter and has a value of approximately 3.142. This however implied that,
a unit shown as 1 cm long on a diameter tape is 3.142 cm long.
Calipers on the other hand are used to measure stump diameter by fixing
the tree stem at 0.3 m in between the jaws of the caliper. The calipers
measure stems only across one diameter of their cross-section. Calipers are
used to take two diameter measurements, at right angles to each other, and
then take the square root of the product of the two diameters to be the
measure of stump diameter. This approach assumes the cross section of tree
stem shape as an ellipse, rather than being circular. Stump diameter
measured either by any of the two instruments are recorded to an accuracy of
the nearest 0.1 cm. Trees with deformations at 0.3 m, measurements should
be made at the sound point on the stem above the abnormality. During the
measurement, climbers, loose bark and epiphytes should be lifted above the
measuring instrument. Stump diameter measurement should be recorded
from the uphill sides of the trees and on the inside of the lean for leaning
trees.
3. Importance of tree stump diameter in forest management
The importance of tree stump diameter to forest management is
summarized as follows:
Page | 107
3.1 Prediction of tree growth variables
i) Predicting diameter at breast height from stump diameter
One of the most important issues of forest inventory is stand volume.
However, diameter at breast height is a major variable used in estimating
tree volume. In the incident of illegal tree felling, volume cannot be
estimated. Since trees are usually cut at the stump, establishing relationship
between stump diameter and DBH is necessary. Stump diameter in previous
studies [2, 3, 9] showed high correlation with diameter at breast height, so the
equations using stump diameter as independent variable are useful tools to
estimate diameter at breast height of removed trees. Osho in 1983 developed
2-stage least squares model for converting stumps into harvested volumes for
Tectona grandis in Onigambari Forest Reserve, Nigeria [8]. The first stage
was to predict DBH using the following model:
𝐷𝐵𝐻 = −7.3936 + 1.3167𝐷𝑠 − 0.0108𝐷𝑠 2 (1)
Where
DBH = Diameter at breast height
Ds = Stump diameter
Estimating tree stem diameter at breast height from stump diameter is
very useful to the forest manager [10]; as it has several applications such as:
 Predicting removals from a large forested area
 Predicting total volume of timber resulting from trespass cutting
 Aiding in the calculation of basal area distribution
 Calculating growth on cut as part of a forest inventory
ii) Predicting basal area from stump diameter
Basal area (BA) is an important tree growth variable which is the cross
sectional area of a tree stem at breast height. It is the common term used to
describe the average amount of an area occupied by tree stem. BA is also
used as a measure of stand density, thereby tells the degree of crowding of
tree in a forest stand. Basal area is used to determine more than just forests
stand density; it is also related to tree growth and forest dynamics [11]. Thus,
basal area is derived from DBH as mathematically shown below:
𝜋(𝐷𝐵𝐻)2
𝐵𝐴 = (2)
4
Where
BA = Basal Area (m2)
Page | 108
π= Pi is constant (3.143)
DBH = Diameter at breast height (cm)
Six models for predicting basal area from stump diameter were
developed for Tectona grandis in the tropical rainforest of Nigeria (Table 1)
[12]
. About 79.2 to 94.7% (Table 1) of the total variation in the observed
Basal area values were explained by Stump diameter in the six models
developed; linear (B1), single logarithm (B2), double logarithm (B3), power
B4), growth (B5) and exponential (B6). However, Power model (equation 6),
with adjusted coefficient of variation (Adj.R2) of 0.92 and root mean square
error of 0.0048 was recommended as best for basal area prediction.
Table 1: Basal Area-Stump Diameter Models
Model Fit Statistics Equation

Function
Code Adj.R2 RMSE Press AIC Number
B1 𝐵𝐴 = −0.026 + 0.002𝐷𝑠 0.888 0.0056 0.0459 -14895 3
B2 𝐵𝐴 = −0.123 + 0.049𝑙𝑛𝐷𝑠 0 .792 0.0077 0.0853 -14001 4
B3 𝑙𝑛𝐵𝐴 = −9.784 + 1.973𝑙𝑛𝐷𝑠 0 .947 0.1421 29.066 -5611 5
1.966
B4 𝐵𝐴 = 0.0001 × 𝐷𝑠 0. 921 0.0048 0.0325 -15391 6
(−5.191+0.068𝐷𝑠)
B5 𝐵𝐴 = 𝑒 0.891 0.0056 0.0448 -14930 7
(0.068𝐷𝑠)
B6 𝐵𝐴 = 0.006 × 𝑒 0.891 0.0061 0.0529 -14930 8
Where: Adj.R2 = adjusted coefficient of determination, PRESS= prediction residual
error sum of squares, RMSE = root mean square error statistics, AIC= Akaike
information criterion, BA= basal area (m2), Ds= stump diameter, and ln= natural
logarithm. N = 1439
Source: [12]
iii) Volume Estimation
Information about volume of a tree is an important asset to a timber
manager. Tree volume can be estimated from easily measurable dimensions
of the tree, such as; stem diameter and height. Where unauthorized logging
operation exists, the forest manager is still interested in determining the
volume of trees illegally removed and even when trees are legally removed,
the stump can still serves as reference where measurement of diameter at
breast height (DBH) and tree height cannot be made. Consequently, volume
table or equation based on diameter at breast height (DBH) cannot be used
directly. Without reliable volume equations for tree species, there is no basis
for planning their sustainable use [8]. Several studies both nationally and
internationally have developed models that can be used to estimate tree
Page | 109
volume from stump diameter of Pinus spp., Quercus spp., Liriodendron
tulipifera among others in Louisiana [13], Tectona grandis in Nigeria [8],
Taxodium distichum [14], Gmelina arborea in Nigeria [15], Terminalia
ivorensis in Nigeria [2].
Species-group models for estimating volume from stump diameter were
developed for common Timber Species of Nigeria’s Tropical Rain Forests
[9]
. The model form was expressed as:
𝑉 = 𝑏1 𝐷𝑠 + 𝑏2 𝐷𝑠 2 (10)
Where
V = Tree volume
Ds = Stump diameter
b1 and b2 = Regression parameters
Furthermore, if a tree’s volume is known, it is easy to determine the
tree’s financial value using the current market price. Predicting volume from
stump diameters is useful to public and private timber owners.
iv) Crown diameter prediction from stump diameter
Tree crown is one of the most important elements of tree structure; it is
the centre of physiological activity, particularly gas exchange, which drives
essential living processes such as photosynthesis, growth and development
[16]
. Tree crowns provide habitats for a large range of plants and animals,
many of which are rare or threatened. Tree crown diameter remains one of
the most difficult variables to measure in forestry. Crown-Stump diameter
prediction models were developed for Nigeria southern guinea savannah
naturally grown Parkia biglobosa Benth. species in Benue State and further
concluded that the crown diameter predicted crown diameter can be used to
estimate Crown projection area (CPA); which is the area originally covered
by the removed tree [3]. The model developed was a double logarithmic
linear model, and expressed as:
𝑙𝑛𝐶𝑑 = 2.542 + 0.814𝑙𝑛𝐷𝑠𝑡 (11)
The stump diameter in the model explained about 65% of the total
variation in crown diameter, with 0.1729 standard error of estimate. Figure 1
displayed a positive linear association between crown and stump diameters
with correlation coefficient of 0.84. Hence, the constant error variance
assumption appears to be upheld by this double logarithm model (Figure 2).
Page | 110
Fig 1: Relationship between Crown diameter and stump diameter of Parkia
biglobosa Benth. Species in Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria
Fig 2: Residual plot for lnDs and lnCD for Parkia biglobosa Benth. Species in
Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria
Source: [3]
v) Height-stump diameter prediction
The relationship between tree stem and diameter height is one of the
most important components of forest structure, growth and yield models [17].
This relationship aids in forest damage appraisals and estimations of site
index, carbon sequestration and timber volume [18, 19]. However, predicting
the merchantable or total height of a tree from stump diameter helps the
forest manager with a quantitative estimate, there assists in assigning
monetary values to a removed tree. Nonlinear Height-Stump Diameter
Models were developed for Tectona grandis Linn. f. Stands in OMO Forest
Reserve, Nigeria [5]. The Height-Stump Diameter relationship was best
described by square model which gave least values of root mean square error
(0.083) and Akaike information criterion (-7578), out of four (4). They
Page | 111
concluded that height estimation was realistic even when the only
information available was stump diameter. The square model was expressed
as:
1 2
𝐻𝑡 = 1.087−29.393 ( ) (12)
𝐷𝑠
The square model was applied (validated) the square model (equation)
with independent data that was not used during the model development and
found a no significant difference (p>0.05) between the observed and the
predicted height (Table 2) [5].
Table 3: Results of validation of square model using t-test for paired sample
Model Mean Obs. Mean Pred. T- Value 𝛅2 Obs. 𝛅2 Pred. P-Value DF Remark
Square 94.87 94.81 1.648 265.68 263.98 0.376 391 ns
Where: 𝛅2 = variance, DF = degree of freedom, ns = not significant (P>0.05).
Numbers of tree = 392
Source: [5]
3.2 Assessment of regeneration requirements
Tree harvesting contractors and forest managers refer to several methods
to optimize forest regeneration. However, methods that ensure sustainability
of the forest resources are preferred in modern forestry. Regeneration using
vegetative propagation such as especially coppicing after felling constitutes a
possibility for resilience of tropical forests and enhances forest protection
and biodiversity conservation [20, 21]. The sprouting of trees after disturbance
is known in forestry to contribute largely to the regeneration of natural forest
than seed regeneration in tropical forest [20].
The diameter of a tree stump correlates with the tree sprouting ability;
larger stems produced more coppices, greater mean and cumulative coppice
shoot lengths than smaller stems [22]. The influence of diameter and height of
stump cutting was examined, on the sprouting capability of Acacia
auriculiformis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Tectona grandis currently
used as fuelwood in the southern part of the Republic of Benin, West Africa
[21]
. It was concluded that the number and height of sprouts increased with
the stump diameter for E. Eucalyptus and T. grandis and opposite for A.
auriculiformis. Hence, an understanding of the relationship of stump
diameter and sprouting characteristics of tree species will guide the forest
manager’s choice towards marking trees for harvesting.
3.3 Assessment of past events in a forest stand
Tree stump being the only thing left after exploitation can serve as
evidence and predicting the structure of a removed tree from its diameter
Page | 112
makes stump an important tool to a forest manager. Tree growth variables
predicted from stump dimensions will serve as empirical information for
valuating or assigning monitory value on the removed tree needed in the law
court proceedings for the conviction of illegal loggers [12].
The forest manager also uses stump dimensions to assess past event in a
forest estate. Event such as creation of historical records of past management
activities, reviewing harvesting practices, assessing damage due to
catastrophic events, statistical reconstruction of past forest status in the
absence of previous forest inventory [23]. Furthermore, researchers who have
lost permanent trees in their experiment plots can obtain estimates of the
desired tree variables from stump diameter equations.
4. Aboveground biomass estimation from stump diameter: case study
of Tectona grandis Linn. f. species in the tropical rainforest of
southwestern Nigeria
4.1 The data
The data used for this study were forest inventory data collected from 45
temporary sample plots (TSPs) of size 25m×25m randomly laid within
Tectona grandis plantations in tropical rainforest ecosystem of Nigeria. The
first was 7 TSPs in the 60 years old Teak plantation in the University of
Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, which lies between latitudes 7º 45.106' N to 7º
45.834' N and longitudes 3º 90.942' E to 3º 90.508' E. The second was 36
TSPs (6 TSPs each) in the 26, 23, 22, 16, 14 and 12 years old Teak
plantations within OMO Forest reserve, situated between Latitude 6°35' to
7°05 N and Longitudes 4°9' to 4°40' E., Ogun State. The third was 2 TSPs in
the 18 years old privately owned teak plantation located off Ijaiye road in
Akinyele, Oyo State, located between latitudes 07º 32.379ʹN and 07º
32.449ʹN; and longitudes 3º .53.358ʹE and 3º .53.459ʹE all in southwestern
Nigeria. The data were individual tree measurements for diameters (over
bark) at; stump, breast height, middle and top positions along the stem, and
stem total and merchantable heights.
4.2 Data analysis
The first task was to estimate individual tree aboveground biomass
using a biomass model developed for Tectona grandis Linn. F. plantations
within the Southwestern Nigeria tropical rainforest [24]. The biomass model is
expressed as:
𝑙𝑛𝐵 = 2.56 + 0.04𝐷𝐵𝐻 (13)
Page | 113
Where;
ln B = Natural logarithm of the tree aboveground biomass
DBH = Diameter at breast height (cm)
Furthermore, the data were summarized by computing simple
descriptive statistics such as mean, maximum, minimum and standard error.
Hence, the linear relationship between stump diameter and biomass and
DBH were examined using Pearson’s correlation.
Fig 3: Picture showing stump diameter measurement for tree variables estimation
Source: [25]
4.3 Developing the Biomass-Stump diameter Equations
The data set used in this study for model calibration consists of
measurements taken from trees located within different plots. Ordinary least
square (OLS) method was used to fit data using the general model
formulations. For the purpose of this study, four linear equations were
examined and selected as candidate models to predict tree aboveground
biomass (AGB) from stump diameter (Ds). These equations are listed
accordingly as simple linear, Semi logarithmic R, Semi logarithmic L and
double logarithmic functions. As mathematically expressed:
𝐴𝐺𝐵 = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝐷𝑠 (14)
𝐴𝐺𝐵 = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝑙𝑛𝐷𝑠 (15)
𝑙𝑛𝐴𝐺𝐵 = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝐷𝑠 (16)
𝑙𝑛𝐴𝐺𝐵 = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝑙𝑛𝐷𝑠 (17)
Where
AGB = Aboveground biomass (kg), Ds = Stump diameter, α and 𝛽 =
regression parameters, and ln= natural logarithm.
Page | 114
The candidate models were evaluated based on graphical and numerical
analysis of the residuals which are; model with the highest adjusted
coefficient of determination (Adj.R2) and least values of the standard error of
estimate (SEE), Furnival index (FI) was selected as best. They are
mathematically expressed as follows:
̂ )2
∑(𝑌𝑖 −𝑌
𝑆𝐸𝐸 = √ 𝑛−𝑝
𝑖 (18)
(1−𝑅2 )(𝑛−1)
𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝑅2 = 1 − (19)
𝑛−𝑝
(∑𝑙𝑛𝑓′ (𝑉)−1
𝐹𝐼 = {𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ]} × √𝑀𝑆𝐸 (20)
𝑛
Where; 𝑌𝑖 = observed value of Y for observation i, 𝑌̂𝑖 = predicted value i,

𝑛=the total number of observations 𝑌𝑖 (trees) used in fitting the model, 𝑝=
the number parameters in the model, 𝑅2 = coefficient of determination, ln =
natural logarithm, exp = exponential, MSE = mean square error from fitted
regression, F’ (V)-1 = the reciprocal of the first derivative of the
transformation applied to the AGB (aboveground biomass) variable with
respect to AGB.
4.4 Results and Discussion
A total of 2449 trees were measured and summary statistics of the data
used in this study are presented in Table 1. The stump diameter (Ds) ranged
from 7.67 to 115.42 cm, diameter at breast height (DBH) ranged from 6.01
to 68.29 cm, ranged from 5.00 to 57.00cm, Total height (TH) ranged from
5.0 to 27.8 m, merchantable height (MH) ranged from 2.2 to 19.0m and
aboveground biomass (AGB) ranged from 12.19 to 147.18 kg.
Table 4: Summary statistics of tree growth variables
Variable Descriptive Statistics (N= 2449)

Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Error
Ds (cm) 7.67 115.42 26.49 0.281
DBH (cm) 6.01 68.29 20.94 0.194
TH (m) 5.0 27.8 16.8 0.073
MH (m) 2.2 19.0 10.1 0.052
AGB (kg) 12.19 147.18 24.21 0.260
Where
Ds= stump diameter, DBH= diameter at breast height, THt= total height,
MH= merchantable height, AGB= aboveground biomass and N= total
number of trees measured.
Page | 115
The graphical relation between the independent variable (Ds) versus
dependent variable (AGB) was displayed in Figure 4. The scatter plot
(graph) showed a curve-linearly relationship between aboveground biomass
and stump diameter of T. grandis in the study area. This shows that linear
regression equations are not appropriate for estimating aboveground biomass
from stump diameter for T. grandis species in southwester Nigeria, unless
with some transformations of the variables. However, graphical relation
between the DBH and stump diameter displayed in Figure 5, showed a linear
relationship with a strong positive correlation (r=0.96). This result is similar
to the report of previous studies [3, 26]. This implies that as stump diameter
increases, DBH also increases. Furthermore, both variables can be used
interchangeably [12].
Fig 4: Relationship between aboveground biomass and stump diameter
Fig 5: Relationship between diameter at breast height and stump diameter

The essence of using only stump diameter as independent variable was
to help forest managers quantify tree resources of a forest after exploitation
either by legal or illegal activities within the forest. Earlier studies [8, 26]
upheld this method.
Page | 116
The AGB-Ds models fitted in this study were in linear, semi logarithmic
R, semi logarithmic L, and double logarithmic function forms (equations 14-
17, respectively). All parameters were found to be significant at the 95%
level of probability. The goodness of fit result revealed that semi log-L
model had the highest value of Adj.R2 (0.93) and the least values of SEE
(0.111) and FI (0.0048), therefore was selected as the best, and followed by
Double Log, Semi Log. R and Simple Linear models (Table 5). This study is
in line with earlier studies [4, 27] that opined that regression models are used to
convert inventory data into an estimate of aboveground biomass.
Table 5: Examined aboveground biomass-stump diameter models
Functional Fit Statistics Equation

Models
Form Adj.R2 See FI Number
Simple
𝐴𝐺𝐵 = 0.765 + (0.887 × 𝐷𝑠) 0.90 4.425 0.1947 21
Linear
Semi Log. R 𝐴𝐺𝐵 = −61.180 + (26.958 × 𝑙𝑛𝐷𝑠) 0.77 6.673 0.2936 22
Semi Log. L 𝑙𝑛𝐴𝐺𝐵 = 2.403 + (0.026 × 𝐷𝑠) 0.93 0.111 0.0048 23
Double Log 𝑙𝑛𝐴𝐺𝐵 = 0.362 + (0.863 × 𝑙𝑛𝐷𝑠) 0.92 0.112 0.0050 24
Where
Adj.R2 = adjusted coefficient of determination and SEE = standard error
of the estimate, FI = Furnival index. Total number of tree = 1937.
Furthermore, independent data from the study area not used in the
development of the models were used to validate the model (Semi-Log. L).
the paired t-test was used to test for significance between predicted and the
observed aboveground biomass at probability level of 0.05. The result
showed (Table 6) a non-significant difference (P>0.05) between the
predicted and the observed aboveground biomass. This signifies that the
developed Semi-Log. L model is valid for estimating the aboveground
biomass of individual Tectona grandis stands in Southwestern Nigeria, in the
case of illegal felling. Figure 6 showed the distribution of residuals against
the predicted natural logarithm of AGB. The constant error variance
assumption appears to be upheld by the Semi Log. L model (equation 22).
Table 6: Validation result for of Semi Log. L using Paired Sample t-test
Variable Mean SD N Diff t DF p Remark

AGB_ Observed 20.8332 6.8675 512
AGB_ Predicted 20.7142 7.5089 512 0.1190 0.718 511 0.473 ns
AGB= above ground biomass, SD = standard deviation, Diff = hypothesized mean
difference, DF = degree of freedom, p = probability value, N= total number of
observation and ns = not significant at 0.05.
Page | 117
Fig 6: Residual distribution against aboveground biomass using Semi Log R model
5. Conclusion and recommendations

This study revealed that stump diameter of a tree is very important
especially in the incident of timber trespass. It enables the forest manager
reconstruct the sizes of removed trees. These reconstruction include
evaluating damage as a result of adverse environmental conditions, timber
sales based on stump diameters, helping in the computation of basal area and
stem diameter distributions, assessment of harvesting practices after tree
removals, determining volume loss due to illicit cutting, tracing the history
of cutover lands and stands for assessing silvicultural practices and
calculating growth on cut as part of a forest inventory.
This study further concludes that, individual aboveground biomass of
Tectona grandis Linn. F. species in the Tropical Rainforest of Southwestern
Nigeria can be estimated from stump diameter using the semi Log. L
function in an event of indiscriminate felling.
Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that stump
dimensions should be utilized as component of modelling in forestry and
more study should be carried out on predicting other tree growth and stand
variables using stump dimensions.
Acknowledgement
Appreciation goes to Prof. J.S.A. Osho for technical and material
support toward the success of this research work.
References
1. Prodan M. Forest Biometrics. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1968, 447.
2. Aigbe HI, Oyebade BA. Comparison of stump diameter and diameter at
breast height for tree volume estimation of Terminalia ivorensis in
Page | 118
Sakponba Forest Reserve, Nigeria. Journal for Applied Research. 2014;
6(1):1-14.
3. Chukwu O, Dau JH, Ezenwenyi JU. Crown-stump diameter model for
Parkia biglobosa Benth. Species in Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria.
Journal of Tropical Forestry and Environment. 2017; 7(1):43-53.
4. Chave J, Andalo C, Brown S, Cairns M, Chambers JC, Eamus D et al.
Tree allometry and improved estimation of carbon stocks and balance in
Tropical Forests. Oecologia. 2005; 145:87-99.
5. Chukwu O, Osho JSA. Nonlinear height-stump diameter models for
Tectona grandis Linn. F. stands in OMO Forest Reserve, Nigeria.
Journal of Tropical Forestry and Environment. 2017; 7(2):45-54.
6. IPCC. Third assessment report-climate change. Houghton JT, Ding Y,
Griggs DJ, Noguer M, Van der Linden PJ, Xiaosu D. (eds.), The
scientific basis contribution of working group 1 to the Third Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, 2001, 944.
7. Brown S, Gillespie AJR, Lugo AE. Biomass estimation methods for
Tropical Forests with applications to forest inventory data. Forest
Science. 1989; 35(4):881-902.
8. Osho JSA. Volume prediction from stump diameter for Teak (Tectona
grandis L.F.) in Onigambari Forest Reserve, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal
of Forestry. 1983; 13(1-2):53-56.
9. Akindele SO. Volume functions for common Timber species of
Nigeria’s Tropical Rain Forests, a technical document: International
Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), 2005, 1-85.
10. Demaerschalk JP, Omule SAY. Estimating breast height diameter form
stump measurements in British Columbia. The Forestry Chronicle.
1982; 58(3):143-145.
11. Barlow B, Elledge J. Basal Area. A measure made for management,
Alabama Cooperative Extension System. ANR-1371, 2012.
https://store.aces.edu/DisplayImage.aspx?ProductID=13433&size=large
11 November, 2018.
12. Chukwu O, Osho JSA. Basal area-stump diameter models for Tectona
grandis Linn. F. stands in OMO Forest Reserve, Nigeria. Journal of
Forest and Environmental Science. 2018; 34(2):119-125.
13. Bylin CV. Volume prediction from stump diameter and stump height of
selected species in Louisiana’, United States Department of Agriculture,
Page | 119
Forest Service, New Orleans, Louisiana Research Paper SO-182. 1982,
1-11.
14. Parresol BR. Prediction and error of bald cypress stem volume from
stump diameter. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 1998; 22(2):69-
73.
15. Akindele SO. Volume prediction from stump diameters of Gmelina
arborea (Roxb) trees in Akure forest reserve, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal
of Forestry. 2003; 33(2):116-123.
16. Dubravac T, Dekanic J, Vrbek B, Matosevic D, Roth V, Jakovljevic T et
al. Crown volume in forest stands of Pedunculate Oak and common
Hornbeam. Periodicum Biologorum. 2009; 111(4):479-485.
17. Soares P, Tome M. Height-Diameter equation for first rotation Eucalypt
Plantations in Portugal, Forest Ecology and Management. 2002; 166:99-
109.
18. Vanclay JK. Modelling forest growth and yield: applications to mixed
tropical forests. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford,
United Kingdom, 1994, 312.
19. Peng C, Zhang L, Liu J. Developing and Validating nonlinear height-
diameter models for major tree species of Ontario's Boreal Forest,
Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 2001; 1:87-94.
20. Ky-Dembele C, Tigabu M, Bayala J, Ouedrago JS, Oden PC. The
relative importance of different regeneration mechanisms in a
selectively cut savanna-woodland in Burkina, West Africa. Forest
Ecology and Management. 2007; 243:28-38.
21. Matilo-TB AO, Akouehou GS, Sinsin B. Stump diameter and height
effects on early sprouting of three common firewood species used in the
coastal zone of Benin in West Africa. Rev. Cames. 2007; 5(1):44-51.
22. Mwavu E, Witkowski TF. Sprouting of woody species following cutting
and tree-fall in a low land semi-deciduous tropical rainforest, North-
Western Uganda. Forest Ecology and Management. 2008; 255:982-992.
23. Kulla L, Bošeľa M, Murgaš V, Roessiger J, Šebeň V. Reconstructing
past forest status using inventory and tree ring data to support uneven-
aged forest management. Cent. Eur. For. J. 2017; 63:203-211.
24. Olayode OO, Bada SO, Popoola L. Carbon stock in Teak stands of
selected forest reserves in Southwestern Nigeria. Environment and
Natural Resources Research. 2015; 5(3):109-115.
Page | 120
25. Quigley KL. Estimating volume from stump measurements. United
States Department of Agriculture. Forest service Technical Paper 142.
Central States Forest Experiment Station. 1954, 1-5.
26. Shamaki SB, Akindele SO. Volume estimation models from stump
diameter for Teak (Tectona grandis Linn F.) Plantation in Nimibia
Forest Reserve, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Science and Water
Resources. 2013; 2(3):89-94.
27. Ilyas S. Allometric equation and carbon sequestration of Acacia
mangium Willd. In coal mining reclamation areas. Civil and
Environmental Research. 2013; 3(1):8-16.
Page | 121
Page | 122
Chapter - 8
ICT-Information and Communication
Technology and Tools used in ICT
Authors
Kalidasan T
Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension,
Annamalai University, New Delhi, India
R. Sathishwaran
PG Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension, Annamalai
University, New Delhi, India
Page | 123
Page | 124
Chapter - 8
ICT-Information and Communication Technology and
Tools used in ICT
Kalidasan T and R. Sathishwaran
Abstract
A good way to think about ICT is to consider all the uses of digital
technology that already exist to help individuals, businesses and organization
use information. ICT covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate,
transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form. For example,
personal computers, digital television, email, robots. Information and
communication technology (ICT) Information is data that have been put into
a meaningful and useful context and communicated to a recipient who uses it
to make decisions. It is refers to computer based technology and
telecommunications. These are electronic systems for receiving, processing,
storing, retrieving and transmitting information. ICT facilitate the processing
and transfer of information, i.e. communication by electronic means. ICT
covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or receive
information electronically in a digital form. The term ICT is also used to
refer to the convergence of audio-visual and telephone networks with
computer network through a various linking systems.
Keywords: ICT, tools of ICT, communication and technology
Introduction
Agriculture is an important sector with more than 70% of the Indian
population living hood by agriculture and allied means of income. ICTs are
thus emerging as very important tools for agricultural extension, and it now a
must for every agricultural graduate to have working knowledge of
computers, communication, internet and world-wide web. Increasing
efficiency, productivity and sustainability of small-scale farms in an area
where ICT can make a significant contribution. ICT can act as an
accelerating force behind the productivity of Indian agriculture markets. ICT
can continuously introduce newer sets of information service to agricultural
markets where farmers can have a better control.
Page | 125
Meaning
ICTs are emerging as an important tool for the development of societies
and have driving forces in the economies world-wide. ICTs are no more
confined to assist high-end research and development; the new technologies
have made significant improvements in the life styles and the efficiency-
level of all sectors of economy.
Definition
ICT has no universal definition, since the concepts, methods and
applications involved in ICT are constantly evolving on an almost daily
basis. The term ICT is the broader term of information technology, to
explicitly include the field of electronic communication, in addition to IT.
Information and communication technology, or ICT, is defined as the
combination of informatics technology with other, related technologies,
specifically communication technology.
The term IT is defined as the study, design, development,
implementation, support or management of computer based information
system, particularly software applications and computer hardware. IT deals
with the use of electronic computer and computer software to convert, store,
protect, and retrieve information, securely.
Information and communication technology, or ICT, is defined as the
combination of informatics technology with other, related technologies,
specifically communication technology.
This definition implies that ICT will be used, applied, and integrated in
activities of working and learning on the basis of conceptual understanding
and methods of informatics.
Some underlying principles
Technology does not exist in isolation
 ICT contributes at various points along a line of activity
 ICT is used in activities-the ICT use depends on the activities
 The key outputs of educational activities are context are knowledge,
experience and products
Aims & objectives
Information and communication technology (ICT) has become, within a
very short time, one of the basic building blocks of modern society. Many
countries now regard understanding ICT and mastering the basic skills and
Page | 126
concepts of ICT as part of the core of education, alongside reading, writing
and numeracy.
What is a useful concept of ICT?
It depends on the local culture and the particular ICT available and how
it is configured and managed. The understanding, management and
configuration of the available technology might vary the concept of ICT
from.
A collection of tools and devices used for particular tasks, e.g.,
publishing, course delivery, and transaction processing.
An organised set of equipment (like a 'workshop') for working on
information and communication.
Components of integrated arrangements of devices, tools, services and
practices that enable information to be collected, processed, stored and
shared with others.
Components in a comprehensive system of people, information and
devices that enables learning, problem solving and higher order collaborative
thinking, that is, ICT as key elements underpinning a (sharable) workspace.
Unique features of ICT
 Access to the astounding store-house of information is free
 The information is available instantaneously round the year and
twenty four hours a day
 Communication can also be interactive
 The information is available from any point on the globe
 The communication is dynamic and ever growing
Roles of ICT in agriculture and rural development
Agriculture is an important sector with more than 70% of the Indian
population living hood by agriculture and allied means of income. ICTs are
thus emerging as very important tools for agricultural extension, and it now a
must for every agricultural graduate to have working knowledge of
computers, communication, internet and world-wide web. Increasing
efficiency, productivity and sustainability of small-scale farms in an area
where ICT can make a significant contribution. ICT can act as an
accelerating force behind the productivity of Indian agriculture markets. ICT
can continuously introduce newer sets of information service to agricultural
markets where farmers can have a better control.
Page | 127
Others,
 Agriculture extension and advisory services
 Enhance marketing system
 Disaster management and early warning system
 Food safety and transability
 Regulating and policy
 Financial inclusion insurance and management
 Promote environmentally sustainable farming practice
 Capacity building and employment
Advantages
 Through ICT, images can easily be used in teaching and improving
the retentive memory of students
 Through ICT, teachers can easily explain complex instructions and
ensure students' comprehension
 Through ICT, teachers are able to create interactive classes and
make the lessons more enjoyable, which could improve student
attendance and concentration
1. Processing of data is much faster on computer
 Example: Calculating an annual budget on a spreadsheet is
instantaneous, doing the calculations by hand would take some time
2. Repetitive processing can be better done using computerised
machinery
 Example: Humans get tired, lose concentration and generally fed
up if they have to repeat the same task over and over again. Robotic
machinery will perform the same task repeatedly with consistent
quality and never need a break, or software programs can be written
to process all the records in a database
3. Searching for data is much faster
 Example: Finding a patient's record in a doctor's surgery can be
done in seconds on a computerised database system, whereas it
would take a receptionist some minutes to locate a folder in a paper
filing system
Page | 128
4. Data storage capacity is almost limitless in a computer system
 Example: Large quantities of data can be stored on hard discs or
media such as CDs or DVDs instead of needing enormous
quantities of paper and many large filing cabinets. E.g. In a national
driving licence database
5. Data communications are fast and accurate
Data transmitted over a network will arrive at its destination anywhere
in the world in just a few seconds.
 Example: A computer user can place an order for an item on an
Internet website and it will be received immediately-posting an
order in the mail would take a day or two to arrive
6. Data can be output on a computer in a variety of different formats
 Example: Annual sales figures for a retail business can be printed
as a spreadsheet, displayed as a graph, or as a multimedia
presentation involving text, sound, graphics and animation
Limitations
1. Lack of security/privacy
Though IT may have changed and more convenient, it also brought
along privacy and security issues. From email hacking, phone signal
interception etc. people are worried that personal information may become
public knowledge. IT keeps changing almost every day which means that the
individuals must be up to date in IT to secure their jobs. There is also risk
factors with the systems computer viruses, malware, spam, Trojans etc.,
attacking.
2. Unemployment
While IT may have streamlined the business process, it has created job
redundancies and subcontracting. Using the computers instead of human
resources employers save huge amount of money but employees are losing
their jobs as not needed anymore.
3. Social media
The network pages are open to everyone including teenagers and young
children’s which can affect their mental and physical health by watching and
playing violent games. They became addicted to the phones, iPod, gaming
consoles forgetting about outside activities and communication in the
society.
Page | 129
4. Cyber bulling
It is so easy now bullying and threatening others in social network pages
that this has become much easier for internet users all over the world. They
don’t realize what the consequences are to those reading/hearing unpleasant
comments. In the recent past there have been so many investigation cases
regarding cyber bullying with lethal consequences.
“Avoid hurting someone’s feelings by emails or other forms of
electronic communication; Respect other people’s online rights; avoid
insulting someone; if someone insults you be calm; Avoid ‘crashing’
discussion groups or fora; Respect the privacy of other people online; be
responsible online”.
5. Hard ware limitations
The hardware needs to be reliable. If a company’s computer system is
consistently breaking down, the faster a processor on a computer, the quicker
it can process data. If a company only has access to old machines then data
processing will be slow. This would reduce efficiency. Input and output
devices may be too slow or the computer be find it difficult to handle the
data from them. For example, a OMR may read thousands of forms which
would take a long time and lots of memory. The computer may not have the
memory to cope stompers are not going to trust them leading to lost sales.
6. Software limitations
It is vital that the software is appropriate for the task. Off-the-shelf
software maybe less expensive than bespoke but is less likely to contain all
the features needed, and will have unneeded features. If bespoke software is
poorly written it may not take the needs of the user into account and maybe
inefficient. Interfaces maybe poorly designed meaning using the system
could be frustrating and time consuming.
7. Suitability of operating system
The operating system can limit the software and hardware that can be
used. If the system only requires text inputs then a command-line operating
system may do. If the system is intended for novice users then GUI would be
more appropriate. If there is a need for quick, up-to-date information then a
batch-processing system would not be effective.
For example, if all the orders for flights were all processed together at
the end of the week, people would not know if they had tickets or not.
Instead a real-time system would be more appropriate.
Page | 130
8. Communication
If the systems requires lots of transmission of data using the Internet and
the band-width available is small, the system would not run efficiently.
Conference calls may not be possible due to the limits in band-width.
9. Input
We have talked about this before. An information system is only as
good as the data held. If poor, inaccurate data is collected, the information
provided will be unreliable.
10. Computer systems
At some point all the software we use now had to be created by
someone, usually a team of programmers large companies pay a lot of
money to have software specifically made for them (bespoke or custom
written software). The team of developers who make the software will go
through a long process of analysis, design, implementation, testing,
installation and maintenance.
ICT tools
ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology. ICT tools
are defined as a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to
communicate and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information.
Types of ICT tools
There are various ICT tools or applications available to simplify the
operation for general purpose use to mission critical applications. The
general purpose applications can be used to simplify the day-to-day
operations in the organization. The following range of ICT tools
(applications) is available for the general purpose use.
Word processing applications-used for preparing text documents
i) Presentation software: Used for preparing presentations
ii) Spreadsheets: Used for calculation and preparing tabular data with
calculations
iii) Databases: Used to store the information in the form of records and
retrieving information using query mechanism
iv) Multimedia: Used to organize the information more meaningful
manner with the help of text, images, animation, audio and videos
v) Web browsers and e-mail: Used to searching information and
sending or receiving mail using Internet
Page | 131
ICT tools in agriculture
Information and communication technology in agriculture (ICT in
agriculture), also known as e-agriculture, is developing and applying
innovative ways to use ICTs in the rural domain, with a primary focus on
agriculture. Application of innovative ways to use ICTs in the rural domain,
with a primary focus on agriculture. The common problems in adoption of
ICT in rural segments are ICT illiteracy, availability of relevant and
localized contents in their own languages, easy and affordable accessibility
and other issues such as awareness and willingness for adoption of new
technologies among the rural peoples etc.
Benefits of ICT in agriculture
Providing farmers with
i) Timely and relevant information
ii) Access to credit
iii) Better market prices could go a long way in addressing global
poverty and improving agricultural productivity. ICTs have a
possibility of strengthening the linkage between extension, research
and farmers
Print and electronic media
Print media
It is a means of mass communication in the form of printed publications.
Print media is one of the oldest and basic forms of mass communication.
Before the invention of printing press, books are expensive materials
affordable only for royal families. Printing reduced the cost of books and
made them available to the common men also. Rapid duplication of multiple
copies of handy texts led to the innovation of modern newspapers.
Print media includes
 Newspapers
 Magazines
 Posters
 Other textual documents
Newspaper
A newspaper is a periodical publication containing written information
about current events. Newspapers can cover wide variety of fields such as
Page | 132
politics, business, sports, and art, and often include materials such as opinion
columns, weather forecasts, reviews of local services, obituaries, birth
notices, crosswords, editorial cartoons. It is a good medium of
communication during urgent situations. Newspaper may support extension
work by publishing news of extension activities and achievements, extension
recommendations and package of practices, success stories, market news,
etc.
Six ingredients to determine then news worthiness
i) Timeliness: The more timely information, the greater is the news
value.
ii) Nearness: The closer the information seems to the reader the
greater is its news value,
iii) Consequence: The more the readers are affected by the information
the greater is its news value.
iv) Human interest: Information concerning human interest elements
such as news programmes, personal involvement, profitability,
progress etc., have more news value.
v) Prominence: Prominent people, places, things, events carry more
news value.
vi) Editorial policy: It broadly determines the kinds and amount of
information it publishes.
Role of newspapers
Informs people about various events, issues, and occurrences
worldwide. Helps readers to build an opinion about various National and
International news, events through its editorial and opinion columns.
Increases the sale of various goods and services through its advertisements.
Magazine
Magazines are the predecessor of the daily newspaper. They provide
detailed articles on various topics such as food, fashion, sports, finance, and
lifestyle and so on. A magazine is a publication that is issued periodically.
Magazines are directed at general and special audience, often published on a
weekly or monthly basis. The word "magazine is derived from Arabic word
makhazin or "storehouse," which contains a collection of facts and fiction,
all bundled together in one package. Gentlemen's magazine, founded in 1731
is considered as the world's first magazine.
Page | 133
Magazines
These are magazines featuring news and information pertaining to the
agricultural sector. It is a resource for farmers and vendors of farmer’s
markets. There are various farm magazines that contain information about
various farming equipment, farming practices, ideas and technology suitable
to small and big farms, raising unusual livestock, growing high-value crops,
direct marketing of their products to bring in more income, the latest
techniques for growing bountiful, nutritious crops and many more articles
that could provide information to the farmers who are their target audience.
They also share the success stories of artisans and farmers, on government
policies and programmes and also about how to promote their business by
reaching new customers and develop value-added products.
Poster
Posters are widely used by almost every Department of Government and
by majority of commercial firms for any campaign or publicity. It is used to
create awareness among the public. It is one of the most commonly used
medium for advertisement nowadays.
Electronic media
Broadcast and storage media that take advantage of electronic
technologies. They may include television, radio, internet, fax, CD-ROMs,
DVD and any other medium that requires electricity or digital encoding of
information. The term electronic media is often used in contrast with print
media.
Radio
Radio is an electronic audio- medium for broadcasting programmes to
the audience. Radio is a medium through which electromagnetic signals are
delivered over long distances. These signals are sent out through transmitters
and obtained by receivers. Mann Ki Baat is an Indian radio programme
hosted by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in which he addresses the people
of the nation on All India Radio, DD National DD News.
Community radio
Community radio is a type of radio service that caters to the interests of
a certain area, broadcasting content that is popular to a local audience. It
covers area of not more than 20-30 km radius. It is the easy way for
extension workers to disseminate information to rural people. Rural radio
can be used to improve the sharing of agricultural information by remote
rural farming communities.
Page | 134
Television
Television is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting
moving images in monochrome, or in color. Television is one of the most
popular inventions of the last century. Television is a mass medium for
advertising, entertainment and news.
Television broadcasting is the transmission of visual images, generally
with accompanying sound, in the form of electromagnetic waves that when
received can be reconverted into visual images.
E-Mail
E-mail or electronic mail is a service for sending or receiving messages
electronically through a computer network. The electronic mail uses various
technologies that support electronic transmission of text, data and graphics.
Some of the features of e-mail are
i) It is much faster than the normal mail. Messages can be sent within
a matter of seconds to any part in the world
ii) It can be sent to many people at the same time
iii) E-mail is cheaper than a phone call and an ordinary mail
iv) It can access information and file libraries on request
v) E-mail user can have a mail box which is accessed through a
computer terminal
vi) An e-mail message consists of two parts
a) A header specifying the address of the sender and the address
of the receiver
b) The text of the message
vii) The mailing system allows selecting messages for reading,
displaying, saving, deleting, forwarding and replying
viii) Mailing list can be created to send the same message to a group of
people
E-mail address
An e-mail address consists of three parts
i) The person’s Login name
ii) @ sign
iii) Domain name
A domain represents organization, network, and country name.
Page | 135
Ex: [email protected] in this Statistics is the user name and his
account is in the domain hotmail.com. Both the names are separated by the
@symbol.
Search engines
Search engines are utilities used to search for information on the web. A
user interface is provided where you can enter the word or phrase you are
searching for. The search engine looks for the keywords we have entered and
returns the results of the search, providing links to relevant Web sites for us
to choose from. Some commonly used search engines are MSN, Google, and
Yahoo etc.
Internet
The internet is a global collection of computers. These computers are
connected via a huge network of communication links. The internet allows
you to access to a whole resource of data and information stored at different
sites (hosts) and locations around the world. The communication links which
interconnect each host computer use a common method of transmission
known as TCP/IP, which stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol.
Internet connection helps us to
i) Read information on a wide range of topics
ii) Send or receive e-mail
iii) Download useful programmes such as virus detectors, file
compression, decompression utility etc.
iv) Share your opinions and your knowledge on a variety of topics
through various new groups
v) Chat with other people anywhere in the world
vi) View interesting videos, listen to music or wander through a 3-D
world
Requirements for connecting to the internet
Modem
A modem is a peripheral device that allows a computer to connect and
communicate with other computers. Modem stands for Modulator
Demodulator.
Web browser
A browser is a software program that is necessary in order to view web
pages on the web. Example: Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla
Firefox etc.
Page | 136
Telephone line
A telephone line is required to transfer data from one computer to
another. The computer is connected to a modem, which in turn connected to
a telephone line.
World Wide Web
It refers to the collection of information accessible on the internet. The
web is similar to a library. It consists of millions and millions of pages of
text, pictures, sounds and animation on various topics. These pages called
web pages are stored on different computers that are connected to internet.
The web pages have links between them i.e. when we click a certain word or
picture in a page, it will take us to another are called hyperlinks. A collection
of related web pages is known as web site.
The internet was initially designed for the transmission of text basing on
the protocols mentioned. In order to transmit a graphically designed web
pages complete with pictures, embedded sound and animation a special a
special language was designed which is referred to as Hyper Text Markup
Language (HTML). The WWW support a protocol called Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol (HTTP). HTTP provides a method of transmitting a
professionally laid out page over text based internet. Each web site has a
unique address commonly referred to as a URL. A URL specifies the exact
location of the web page on the internet.
Web technologies
 Markup Languages [edit]
 Hypertext [edit]
 Hypertext Markup Languages (HTML) [edit]
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) [edit]
 Web Design Programs [edit]
References
1. http://wwwtscermumbai.in/resources%20-paper-%204/IV.1-
information-and-communication-technology.pdf
2. https://ageconsearch.umn.edu
3. http://techyrems.com/definition/ict.
4. www.cse.iith.ac.in.
5. A textbook of agricultural extension and global innovation.
6. Shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in > bitstream.
Page | 137
Page | 138
Chapter - 9
Event Management: An Overview
Author
Dr. Kavita Dua
Assistant Professor, Family Resource Management, College of
Home Science, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Haryana, India
Page | 139
Page | 140
Chapter - 9
Event Management: An Overview
Dr. Kavita Dua
Abstract
Now a day’s, the events such as festivals, wedding etc. have become a
core part of life which has resulted in event planning and Management
Company to rise. With the customers and events increasing at larger rate, it
is difficult to manage using traditional system using spreadsheets, traditional
database and more. Event management is the application of project
management to the creation and development of large scale events such as
festivals, conferences, ceremonies, formal parties, concerts, or conventions.
It involves studying the brand, identifying its target audience, devising the
event concept, and coordinating the technical aspects before actually
launching the event.
Keywords: event, event management, target audience
9.1 Introduction
We all love to celebrate and need little reason to celebrate-whether it be
winning the World Cup or the Common Wealth Games or birthdays,
Graduation party, weddings etc. in the family. Celebrations are an integral
part of our life and often a symbol of happiness. However, modern lifestyles,
busy work schedules, smaller families and participation of women in the
workforce, have resulted in less manpower and time to plan, organize and
execute such events. Hence many people prefer to use the services of an
expert (who has the know-how and takes care of the minutest details) to plan
and execute such events. Nowadays organizations and institutions also hire
the services of such experts to organize a variety of events. This is referred
to as ‘outsourcing’. Experts who undertake this work are known as event
planners or event managers. They provide consultancy and undertake all
tasks right from the planning stage till the final execution of the event.
Involvement of such experts has made celebrations and occasions easier,
enjoyable and stress-free for the client.
Page | 141
What is an event?
Events have been defined by the famous economist Philip Kotler (2004)
as ‘occurrences designed to communicate particular messages to target
audiences’. Events are celebrations that provide an opportunity to meet and
share happy moments with family members, relatives, colleagues and
friends.
An event can be described as a public assembly for the purpose of
celebration, education, marketing or reunion. And it can be classified on the
basis of their size, type and context.
An event is a message sent by an object to signal the occurrence of an
action. The action can be caused by user interaction, such as a button click,
or it can result from some other program logic, such as changing a property's
value. The object that raises the event is called the event sender.
An event is a live multimedia package carried out with a preconceived
concept, customized or modified to achieve the clients’ objectives of
reaching out and suitably influencing the sharply defined, specially gathered
target audience by providing a complete sensual experience and an avenue
for two-way interaction. Events were a form of breaking the tedium and
monotony of everyday life. Events generally revolved around or emanated
from religious ceremonies and holy days.
In other words, something that happens or is regarded as happening; an
occurrence, especially one of some importance.
9.2 Event management is the application of project management to the
creation and development of large-scale events such as festivals,
conferences, ceremonies, weddings, formal parties, concerts,
or conventions. It involves studying the brand, identifying its target
audience, devising the event concept, and coordinating the technical
aspects before actually launching the event.
The process of planning and coordinating the event is usually referred to
as event planning and which can include budgeting, scheduling, site
selection, acquiring necessary permits, coordinating transportation and
parking, arranging for speakers or entertainers, arranging decor, event
security, catering, coordinating with third party vendors, and emergency
plans.
Event Management is the application of project management to the
creation and development of large scale events such as festivals,
conferences, ceremonies, weddings, formal parties, concerts, or conventions.
Page | 142
It involves studying the brand, identifying its target audience, devising
the event concept, and coordinating the technical aspects before actually
It is basically the process of planning, implementation and control of
event. Event management is the application of project management to the
Event management is the application of project management to the
It involves studying the brand, identifying its target audience, devising the
event concept, and coordinating the technical aspects before actually
The events industry now includes events of all sizes from the
Olympics down to business breakfast meetings. Many industries, charitable
organization, and interest groups hold events in order to market themselves,
build business relationships, raise money, or celebrate achievement.
9.3 Types of events
An event can be
1. Social/life-cycle events: Events like Birthday party, Hen/Stag
party, Graduation day, Bachelor's party, Engagement, Wedding,
Anniversary, Retirement day
2. Education and career events: Events like education fair, job fair,
workshop, seminar, debate, contest, competition etc.
3. Sports events: Events like Olympics, World Cup, marathons,
Wimbledon, wrestling matches etc.
4. Entertainment events: Events like music concerts, fairs, festivals,
fashion shows, award functions, celebrity nights, beauty peagents,
flash mob, jewellery shows, stage shows etc.
5. Political events: Events like political procession, demonstration,
rally, political functions etc.
6. Corporate events: Events like MICE (meetings, incentives,
conferences, and exhibitions), product launches, road shows, and
buyer-seller meet etc.
7. Religious events: Events like religious festivals/fairs, religious
procession, Katha, Pravachan, Diwali fair, Dusherra fair etc.
Page | 143
8. Leisure event: Simply put, these are events held purely for the fun
of having an event. For Recreation, like a party, sports competition,
or a fair. Leisure events are held to involve the person taking part in
the event without actually expecting an immediate result.
9. Cultural events: Events that bring out a Cultural heritage or
happening much like the Goan, carnival. These have an impact on
society and people who are a part of it. These are high community
involvement events.
10. Organizational events: These are events that tend to be well
organized and have implications and interests that are commercial,
political, sales driven etc. Events of this nature generally with a
specific agenda. It is generally informative or sales driven or has
some commercial value in tangible or intangible terms.
11. Personal events: These are generally events that are held on a very
personal level, for family and friends etc. These are generally by
invitation and the number of people involved is high. One of the
underlying facts differentiating the types of events is also the
number of people who take part in the event or are in some way
involved.
An event can be described as a public assembly for the purpose of
celebration, education, marketing or reunion. Events can be classified
on the basis of their size, type and context
Fund raising/cause related events: Any event can be turned into a
fund rising or cause related event e.g. auctions.
Types of events
Events are about the business of thrill and excitement and having fun
and making money while working. They can also be classified as follows:
 Event linked to product launch
 Company market entry
 Brand extension
 Dealer conference
 Anniversary celebration
 Entertainment
 Religious
 Community events
Page | 144
Different types of events
9.4 lists of the varied events
 Business events
 Corporate events
 Cause-related events
 Coordinating skills
 Fundraising events
Page | 145
 Exhibitions
 Trade fairs
 Entertainment events
 Concerts/live performances
 Festive events
 Government events
 Meetings
 Seminars workshops
 Conferences
 Conventions
 Social and cultural events
 Sporting events
 Marketing events
 Promotional events
 Brand and product launches
Corporate event management: One of the most important aspects of
any company is the varied events that are organized not only within the
company, but also for the clients and customers. This is because one of the
prime objectives for hosting events is to build on relations. Usually corporate
houses encourage in house events for the staff in order to motivate them
from time to time, as well as to upgrade the knowledge and skills, in order to
be along with the times. They also encourage staff to attend seminars,
conferences and conventions in order to keep them abreast with the latest
trends. Such corporate events also become a meeting point for others from
the same field to share varied aspects. This is more like a formal social
forum for executives and managers. These are rather serious events and are
mainly handled by the corporate, itself. However, in order to organize a
formal event on a larger scale, this may be delegated to the public relations
company handling the companies PR activities, or then maybe given to a
corporate event management company. Apart from the serious events, there
are the fun, celebratory ones. These maybe organized to celebrate the main
festivals, or then the success of a project. These are mainly organized in
order to build an environment of closeness amongst colleagues.
This is because human resource executives and managers realise the
importance of encouraging healthy interpersonal relations in the office to
Page | 146
maximise staff efficiency. Corporate event management services India
includes the in-house events, as well as the larger once to launch and
promote products and services. Most service providers double up to even
take on the role of public relations and media relations. More often than
never company event management planning is done on an annual basis. The
event calendar is determined according to the budget set aside for the events,
as well as other aspects that differ from one corporate house to another.
Global event management: The biggest events are those that are
arranged at a global level. These international events are mainly the sports
events, like the international competitions that are hosted by various
countries each year. In fact, for global event management for an event like
the Olympics, preparations begin well in advance, which amounts to five to
six years prior to the event. These large-scale events also require
Government involvement in order to meet expenses and ensure safety and
security of delegates from varied nations. While international sports largely
represent the term global event management, but it also includes other
events, such as live performances by international artistes. For instance, the
pop stars and rock stars being brought to India for their concerts and shows.
These are mainly hosted by the large event companies and sponsored by the
bigger corporate houses, as this becomes a major advertising vehicle for
them. Then there are the international social and cultural events hosted at an
international level. These are mainly those that created to create widespread
awareness with regards to varied global problems such as global warming.
Private events: Not all events need to be large-scale ones where one
and all are invited. There are certain private events that are hosted for a
selective guest list. The guest list is predetermined. In fact, for events such as
these usually the guest list is the first stage in planning and the rest, such as
budgeting and venue finalisation, follows. These events are not just
weddings and birthday parties, but also corporate and celebrity events.
Amongst the slightly larger scale private events are product launches and
movie premiers. In such situations the event manager/company is provided
with the list of people to be invited. The manager/company is also assigned
the responsibility of designing the invitations, which are then generally
circulated by the company hosting the event.
The guest list could be limited to family and friends of the company, or
then a selection of loyal customers and clients. The reason for these events
being called private is that they are not open to the general public, but only
strictly for invitees. Events on a private basis, as mentioned are also the
weddings and birthday parties. Nowadays, an increasing number of people
Page | 147
are delegating their-wedding plans and event to wedding planners who
manage everything for them, including sending out invitations if asked to.
The same is with children’s birthday parties. Working parents find it
rather difficult to organise a party for their children and so prefer to a sign
the task to an event management company that can professionally manage
the entire event and give the children a memorable party.
Small events: Whether the event is a small one or a grand one, it does
not matter, as the organising the event requires the same process. It is just the
scale at which they are organised that differs. At the very base of any event
is the planning stage. This first involved understanding the small events at
hand-the purpose and target audience. This sums up as the objective of the
event. Once this is decided then budget that is allocated for the event needs
to be decided first, the event manager needs to sit with the client to finalize
the preferred venue. If the client desires a theme party, then all arrangements
have to be made. In fact, then the manager is required to make all
arrangements in accordance to theme. Event Management 10/JNU OLE For
instance, if the party is a black and white party, then invitations and the
entire decor should be in the combination of black and white. Also, the
guests need to be informed about this, so that they are dressed up
accordingly. Children’s birthday event organizers seem to have all the more
fun, as they take over the responsibility of also entertaining the children.
They organize a show for the children, depending on the selected theme of
the party. The event organizers are the ones who ensure that the child has a
memorable celebration, leaving the parents rather stress-free and enjoying
the party as much.
Grand events
For those in the field of event management field that there could be no
more excitement than there is in this profession. Yes, there are times of
anxiety and stress, but these come and go like the rain clouds on a sunny
day. Otherwise it is all about fun and games at work. And those working for
companies that host grand events have a lot more fun than others; they get to
meet celebrities from various walks of life. And when they meet the one they
have always, they feel all their hard work has been paid back. The events on
a grand scale include international events such as the concerts and live
performances, wherein rock stars and pop stars are invited from around the
world to perform here. Or then, the events are a part of the star’s world tour,
with a stopover on Indian soil. These events include the likes of the live
performances by Michael Jackson, Bryan Adams, U2, amongst numerous
Page | 148
others. There are also the global fund raising events that are delegated to
event companies by world social and non government organizations such as
WHO, UNESCO, UNICEF, amongst others.
These events mainly have international celebrities spread awareness
regarding varied global concerns on various platforms and stages, depending
on the decision made by the association they represent. A prime amongst all
the events on a grand scale is the sports events. These include all types of
sports such as cricket, hockey, table tennis, swimming, tennis, squash, etc.
In the recent past some corporate houses have come forward to host
international sporting events in India. However, the most important aspect
that one needs to keep in mind is that security information and event
management go hand-in-hand. Organizing an event on a large scale with
global delegates coming to India, means taking all security measures to
ensure the safety of the not only the foreign visitors, but also all others
gathering at the venue. It needs to be kept in mind that any faltering in
security could cause damage to the company’s future prospects.
Musical events
Music is an important aspect of almost every. It is not only a form of
entertainment, but also a way to relax and be at ease. In fact, many are ready
to pay any amount of money to attend a live performance by their favorite
singer/ musician. No wonder, musical events have been a success through
the years. These include the international performances, as well as those by
the performing artistes of the nation. Musical shows go almost packed, with
people struggling for tickets as the date of the performance approaches. And
the more famous the performer, the higher the success rate of the event.
However, in order to meet such success the company has to undergo a
long process in making the event happen. For international performances, the
company has to make a lot more arrangements, and one of the biggest
challenges in front of them is that of security. When arranging a globally
renowned performer the company is responsible for the taking care of the
performers stay in India, as well as his/her tour through the cities that have
been short-listed for the performances. In the case of music event
management, the company stands to earn from sponsorships, as well as sales
of tickets. However, no company can depend solely on the sale of tickets to
recover expenses.
And the fact is that a number of companies are ever ready to sponsor
and support such functions as they realise the potential these events to create
awareness of their products and services., For such events one has to be on
Page | 149
their toes throughout, and whether the performer is from the international or
domestic arena, the fact is that big budgets are involved. And unless and
until the entire show is not wound up, one can really not rest. In fact, the
event company has to also take the responsibility of clearing up the venue
after the event, and ensure it is in the same condition, as it was handed over
to them.
Sports events
One of the most important aspects of people’s lives is sports. In fact,
most people around the world, of all ages are passionate about some sport or
the other. They either pursue it as a hobby or leisurely activity, or are
involved in it as participants at competitions of varying levels; then they are
mere spectators at sports events. Keeping this in mind, since eras together,
events in the arena of sports have been an integral part of society, at large.
Sports event management, whether at the inter-school or inter-collegiate
level, as well as those at a larger level requires a lot of planning. This is not
just about the venue, but the entire event-the pre-sports (qualifying rounds)
leading up to the final day event. In fact, sporting events such as the
international football, cricket, tennis competitions, for instance need
planning and implementations well in advanced.
Preparations for the Olympics begin five to six years prior to the event.
And this is not only about preparing the various venues, but ensuring that the
infrastructure of host country is ready to accommodate participants and
spectators from around the world. Managing events in the field of sports
cannot be done by a team of ten to twelve people. Hundreds of people are
involved in putting together international events. There is a also a lot of
money involved in the management of sporting events. And the sponsors are
ready to lend their complete support, knowing that during events such as the
World Cups, the spectator’s amount up to hundreds of thousands. Apart from
ground sponsorships, there are companies, who advertise on the channels
that own rights to relay the events. Thus, the sources of income for these
events are varied and numerous. These events also cost immensely, and so
apart from ticket sales, sponsorships are a major part of the returns for these
events.
Fashion shows
The fashion industry is an integral part of daily life. In fact, today, in
India this industry is growing by leaps and bounds, each year. It is not only
about the domestic fashion gurus, but also world fashion that is reaching
Indian shores almost at the same time a new trend is launched in the west.
Page | 150
Another vital achievement is that a number of Indian fashion designers are
rubbing shoulders with those of the west. One of the most important
platforms for fashion designers to showcase their work is the fashion shows.
Today, not only are Paris and Milan important fashion centers, but the
list also includes India on the global fashion map. These shows are not meant
for the day-to-day consumers, so to speak, but are used as marketing and
launch platforms. In fact, any designer with his or her own label, launch each
new season with a show. They hire the top ranking fashion models that walk
the ramp in their range of clothes. Buyers and sellers form the larger section
of the audience. Apart from the designers, textiles designers, and other
players in the industry also showcase their line of products at such events
and shows. These are then relayed on various television channels for the
general public. One of the most important requirements in a fashion related
show is the security event management system. This is vital, as those
attending the show are high profile professionals from various walks of life.
Usually this task is handed over to a professional security company that has
guards posted at various positions in order to ensure the smooth run through
of the event
Children’s event
In the present day and age, professionally handled events seem to be the
call of the day. And this is the way most parents are opting to celebrate their
child’s birthday. Since it is a once-a-year occasion, most are prepared to
spend extra bucks on giving their child a celebration to remember. For this
they approach managers and organizers, who are also into children’s events.
Event planning management for children’s events is more often than never
theme based. Apart from the birthday parties there are the festive parties
such as Christmas, Diwali, Children’s Day, etc. the list also includes special
camps during vacations. The managers are responsible for arranging the
entire occasion, after sitting in consultation with their client over the theme
of the party.
In fact, most event companies have a fixed budget for such events and in
accordance give their entire price list and then organise the party. Kid’s
birthday parties are in fact rather simple to put together. And companies, as
well as individuals specialising in this area of events have a fixed team with
which they have to coordinate to put the party together. The team usually
includes the caterers, performers, novelty item suppliers (for the take horne
gifts for other children), the music providers and entertainers, as well as a
couple of people, who look after the kids so the Event Management 12/JNU
Page | 151
OLE parents are absolutely free and can enjoy the party themselves. In fact,
these form the very basis of birthday party event management.
There are a number of birthday party organisers, who work
independently. This means that they do not run a company as such. They
work on an individual basis and put together an event by coordinating with
the required people. Such organisers include homemakers, as well as college
students. These event planners are as efficient as any renowned company.
They mainly look into small events such as birthday parties and weddings,
depending on the scale.
9.5 Elements of event management
No event can be successfully completed without interaction and inputs
from the six key elements of events, viz., event infrastructure, target
audience, clients, event organizers, venue and the media.
1) Event infrastructure
They could also be for an outdoor site. These requirements could be for
an indoor venue, such as sports centre, community hall or an exhibition
centre. The first stage of event operational planning involves establishing the
event infrastructure requirements.
The first step is to coordinate with relevant authorities at the
commencement of the management cycle to ensure regulatory requirements
are integrated into planning process followed by identifying event
infrastructure.
The second step is to identify and analyze infrastructure and facility
requirements based on detailed review of all aspects of the proposed event
and venue.
These requirements include Security, waste management, disabled
access, technology requirements, signage, camping sites or other temporary
accommodation, contractor access, transport systems, car and coach parking,
emergency services, scaffolding, erection of temporary structures (in
addition to staging), public toilets, heating or air-conditioning, Water supply,
Power supply and staging.
It is necessary to incorporate safety, security and risk management
issues into all planning documentation and processes as safety aspects are
the most likely to lead to rejection of event plans. Once detailed list of the
infrastructure requirements has been developed, it needs to be discussed with
the approving authority or venue management.
Page | 152
2) Target audience
Audience targeting refers to identifying the group of attendees that will
be specifically susceptible to your event marketing efforts. In other words,
your event's success depends on how well you pinpointed a specific group
that will react positively to your messages one of the most important things
you need to do before arranging your event is defining your target audience.
You should have a very clear picture of who is going to come for the event.
Whether the event is for entertainment, information or some other purpose.
You can’t have a very trendy look for a wedding; there you go for the
traditional look. And again you keep in mind the number of guests, their
status and style, their tastes, likes and dislikes. Similarly you can’t have a
traditional Indian look for a pop music concert. In this way you have to first
identify the target audience to get started with your event.
3) Clients
Clients are the people or organisation who acts as sponsors any event.
They sponsor the events because they use events as a more effective
marketing communication tool to create for themselves a desired position in
the minds of target audience. They provide funds that either fully or partially
subsides an event to make it affordable for the target audiences.
4) Event organizers
An event planner organizes a variety of events to include business
conventions, weddings, and educational conferences, and more. They ensure
all event details meet their client's specifications. The event manager is the
person who plans and executes the event, taking responsibility for the
creative, technical, and logistical elements. This includes overall event
design, brand building, marketing and communication strategy, audio-visual
production, script writing, logistics, budgeting, negotiation, and client
service.
5) Venue
Event venues are locations where events are taking place. Traditionally,
a meeting room, hotel, conference center, restaurant or convention center
may come to mind when envisioning the stage where large, note-worthy
events are held. However, in today's world where making a great first
impression and expressing one's own style has never been more important,
there are many newcomers on the traditional event stage. Ballrooms,
gardens, rooftops, museums, theaters, yachts, stadiums, universities and even
outdoor venues are becoming the norm in providing a unique, tasteful
Page | 153
backdrop in creating the perfect atmosphere for business to business forums,
as well as weddings and private parties. Depending on the premise or desired
outcome of the planned event, the selected venue can make a tremendous
impact. Venues designed for events with a larger number of guests include
conference centers, convention centers, hotels, some restaurants, theaters,
ballrooms, some gardens, mansions, universities, outdoors, stadiums and
yachts.
6) Media
Media is ultimately a free and useful tool that can prove effective when
it comes to marketing your venue or helping to plan your events and
encouraging attendee interaction. When applied correctly, media can
generate extra business for your venue and improve your brand reputation
via social proofing. On the flip side, as an event planner, social media can
aid in the process of organizing a social function, provide you with important
event feedback and help you get involved in industry conversations.
9.6 Event characteristics
Events as all other services have some distinct characteristics, which
make it as much a part of the marketing function as communications. These
are:
Uniqueness
Intangibility
Rituals
Personal interactions
Time scale
Uniqueness: The event has to be unique and different in order to be
remembered. Recall and remembering of an event are the signs of a good
event. Although an event may not always be a happy event, but in this case
we would refer to happy and pleasant events. One would safely assume that
a wedding is a wedding is a wedding. But truthfully we would be making a
wrong assumption. Even if two weddings were to be held on the same day at
the same location, they would not be the same, they would differ in terms of
timings, number of people visiting, the way people interact etc. so the two
events or in this case the two weddings would be radically different. So an
event must be unique.
Intangibility: Events in general are as intangible as any other service,
which means that you can see the event, and even experience it, but you
Page | 154
can’t touch it. Much like the toothpaste you buy, you can see and feel the
toothpaste therefore it is a tangible. But visiting a mall does not cost you
anything yet you can sense the ambience and get a “feel” of the place and the
service provided, these are intangibles, can be felt and experienced. Events
are the same; they are intangible and cannot be felt. But what event
managers do is, they have what they classify as “give always”. A cap, a
wristband, a t-shirt, a prize etc. These make the event tangible even the
giveaway acts and works like a memorabilia, it’s a remembrance that
whenever seen, viewed or felt acts as a reminder of the event.
Rituals: Oscars, a tradition started to award the best in a particular
genre. The tradition has remained and become a ritual. And the largest event
in Hollywood. Started in 1929 for b/w films… moved into colour in 1966…
More hi-tech and more glamorous, more exciting, more thrilling and with
worldwide coverage remains a tradition and an event looked forward to
every year by the best in the business.
Personal interactions: In a sports tournament the spectators are part of
the tournament as much as the players are. They also help in building the
atmosphere and ambience of the tournament with cheering and flags and face
painting etc. so while the viewers may not actually play the game they are
certainly as involved with the event as the players are. Therefore the action
and reaction of the people are a critical aspect and part of the event. It is
necessary to create the event based on the kind of people who are going to be
a part of it. Because simply put, if the people who will be a part of an event
or are spectators do not enjoy the event, the event is considered a flop or a
failure. So it is naturally important for us to know who the target audience is
or for whom the event is intended. Imagine a situation where you create a
party for people in the age group of 18-25 and have a performance by a
kathak dancer. The target audience least expected to enjoy the performance.
So do you know how important the personal interaction is in order for the
event to be a success?
Time scale: Events do not go on forever, they do have a lifespan.
Although, events could go on for some days or an evening, an hour or even a
yearly event. The timing of the event determines the kind of event that will
be held. If it is an evening event, the lighting, the stage, the colour of
backdrop etc will be determined separately as opposed to if the event were
conducted during the day. Timing is also kept in mind when planning an
event, because preparation for the event, pre and post and wrap up etc are
decide the magnitude and size of the event. Timings also play a role in
planning an event when we have to work out the schedule of the event
Page | 155
because we need to know how long an event will last, whether it will be an
hour or two and what will happen during the event and how much time each
item will take. Timing is critical in events. Imagine a launch where the
product is revealed while the chairman is still introducing the product, when
the schedule specifies that the product reveal must happen after the speech
9.7 Needs and importance of event management
Events are celebrations that provide an opportunity to meet and share
happy moments with family members, relatives, colleagues and friends. A
family event is envisaged as an opportunity to meet old friends and relatives
and develop new relationships with unknown people. Besides this, events are
an integral part of professional life, may it be corporate houses, nonprofit
organizations or Government sector.
From a business perspective, event management is of great importance.
Creating events occasionally provide an incredible opportunity to promote
one’s business. The more popular a brand is, the lesser hesitant people will
be for trying out new products launched by that brand.
Event management skills are, therefore, necessary for the company to
get the required exposure and build a positive image of the overall company
as well as any brand in particular. They not only serve as a chance for a well-
established company to regain its importance by attracting an increasing
number of prospective customers but also enable a budding company to
cultivate a sense of interest in the common people about the products and
services they offer.
 Develops leadership qualities
 Enhances corporate image
 Develops the theme of event
 Ensure safety and security
 Smooth Execution
 Provides career opportunities
 Develop team spirit
 Encourages creativity
 Financial Management
 Save time and money
 Inflow of creative ideas
Page | 156
References
1. Allen J. Event Planning Ethics and Etiquette: A Principled Approach to
the Business of Special Event Management, John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
2. Anton S, Bryan P. Successful Event Management: A Practical
Handbook, Cengage Learning EMEA, 2004.
3. Ferdinand N, Kitchin P. Events Management: An International
Approach, SAGE, 2012.
4. Judy A. The Business of Event Planning: Behind-the-Scenes Secrets of
Successful Special Events, John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
5. Katharine MN. Managing Risk in Sport and Recreation: The Essential
Guide for Loss Prevention, Human Kinetics, 2009.
6. Koontz H, Weihrich H. Essentials of Management, Tata McGraw-Hill
Education, 2006.
7. Lena M. Events Exposed: Managing and Designing Special Events,
John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
8. Verhaar J, Eshel I. Project Management: A Professional Approach to
Events, Eleven International Publishing, 2010.
9. Wagen. Event Management, Pearson Education India, 2005.
Page | 157
Page | 158
Chapter - 10
Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Plants from
Southern India: A Critical Appraisal
Authors
A. Stephen
Assistant Professor, Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s
College (Autonomous), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
S Kumaresan
Associate Professor, Department of Botany, Ramakrishna
Mission Vivekananda College (Autonomous), Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, India
Page | 159
Page | 160
Chapter - 10
Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Plants from Southern
India: A Critical Appraisal
A. Stephen and S Kumaresan
Abstract
Microbial infections are being managed therapeutically through
available antimicrobial regimens with unsatisfactory clinical outcomes.
Diverse range of bioactive molecules produced from plants making them
rich source of different types of drugs. The different plant parts such as seed,
fruit, root, bark, stem, leaf and even the whole plant were extracted using
different solvents like ethanol, methanol, chloroform, acetone, petroleum
ether, alcohol, and ethyl acetate. These extracts were tested against gram
positive, gram negative bacteria and fungi to assess their antimicrobial
activity. Antimicrobial properties of these herbs can be used as therapeutics
in human and animals. The aims of this review are to assemble the facts and
to conclude the therapeutic potential of some selected commonly available
medicinal plants in the eradication and management of various diseases
caused by various microbes.
Keywords: antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, natural products, medicinal
plants
Introduction
Plants remained as the basis for traditional system of medicine for
thousands of years, with the first record dating back to about 3000 B.C.
However, the fossil details reported that, Neanderthal remains have been
found to contain residues of medicinal herbs, which indicate that natural
products had been used even before the available evidence [1]. Later in 2600
B.C. the usage of natural products has been inscribed as cuneiform on clay
tablets in Mesopotamia. Certainly, many of these products are modified and
are still used [2-5]. Around 2000 B.C. Chinese herbal guide reported the usage
of herbaceous plants [1]. Later, in 1500 B.C. the Egyptians have reported the
use of various herbs [4-5, 1]. Ebers Papyrus is accepted as one of the best
records among all, which documents around 1000 different substances and
formulations most of which are plant-based products [2-3].
Page | 161
Many of the plant species have been documented pharmacologically and
clinically which are endowed in phytochemistry with marked activity on
human pathogenic bacteria [6-16]. A report by Bérdy in 2012 described that
over 10 million known chemical compounds had been reported, mainly from
the field of synthetic chemistry (Table 1) [17]. Although the number of
compounds from natural sources is only about one-tenth of the number from
synthetic compounds, the compounds from nature, especially those from
microorganisms, tend to be much more bioactive than synthetic compounds.
In addition, the natural products can be obtained with less stress to the
environment, and are more structurally diverse. Hence, natural products are
expected to serve as a powerful and promising resource of novel compounds.
Table 1: Approximate number of known synthetic compounds, natural products, and
microbial products
Synthetic chemical
Natural products Microbial products
compounds
Numbers 8-10 millions ~500,000 ~70,000
Drugs 2,000-2,500 1,200-1,300 450-500
Percentage 0.005 0.6 1.6
Ayurveda an Indian system of medicine, has its roots in folk medicine

and it is presumed that the fundamental and applied principles of Ayurveda
became organized and enunciated around 1500 BC. From 6th Century BC to
7th Century AD there was a systematic development in Ayurvedic science
and it is called the Samhita period. From the knowledge gathered and
cherished over these centuries, two major schools evolved. One was the
school of physicians called as ‘Dhanvantri sampradaya’ and the other was
the school of surgeons referred to as ‘Atreya sampradaya’. These schools
had their respective representative compilations in “Charaka samhita” for
the school of Medicine and “Sushruta samhita” for the school of Surgery [18-
19]
.
Theophrastus, a philosopher and a natural scientist wrote “De Historia
Plantarum” around 300 B.C. in which he has described about the medicinal
values of herbs and methods of cultivating them [20]. A compilation of
Ayurvedic hymns from 1000 B.C and earlier had described the uses of over
1000 different herbs in India. During eighth century, this literature was
translated from Sanskrit and used as the basis for Tibetan system of medicine
[4-5]
. In the middle ages, between fifth to twelfth centuries, monks in
monasteries developed several manuscripts about herbs and their uses [4, 1]. In
1596, during Ming dynasty a Chinese drug encyclopedia was created by Li
Shih-Chen, which documented 1898 herbal drugs and 8160 prescriptions [2-
Page | 162
3]
. Until the early nineteenth century the crude extract of the plant in various
forms had been used for treatment. Later with an advent in technology in the
field of analytical chemistry and acquiring exhaustive knowledge in science,
the isolation and purification of active ingredients from medicinal plants
were practiced, which demonstrated their value in medicine [21]. In 1815,
morphine was isolated from opium extract [22], followed by the isolation of
papaverine from opium in 1848 [23].
In the mid-nineteenth century, the combination of synthetic approach
with traditional knowledge has revolutionized pharmaceutical and chemical
industries leading to the development of analogues for existing natural drugs.
In late twentieth century, the fields of microbiology, pharmacology and
biochemistry collaborated together to discover many novel drugs based on
their mode of action [21, 24]. Though the pharmaceutical industries have grown
to unexpected heights, the current trend is returning back to nature for the
search of novel drugs. The reason behind it is that, it is less toxic to the
environment and has no side effects. Moreover, plants produce molecules
with great structural diversity.
Natural products from various sources
Nature is a treasure that is rich in bioactive molecules with significant
therapeutic potential. This wealth can be obtained from every niche of an
ecosystem [25-27, 4, 28]. Plants and microbes from different ecosystems can be
an affluent source for potential drug leads [29-33].
Natural products from plants
The usage of plants for treating various ailments is as old as humankind.
Till date around 35,000 to 70,000 plant extracts have been screened for their
medicinal applications [34]. These extracts are not only used as direct drugs
but are also used as a precursor for the synthesis of new drugs with improved
pharmacological properties [35]. In the last century medicinal plants were
considered to be the chief source of natural products because several active
compounds have been isolated from different plants [36-37].
Antiviral Plants
Two pure compounds gallocatechin and epigallocatechin extracted from
Mimusops elengi exhibited satisfactory anti-HIV-1 activity [38]. It was
reported that ethanol and water extracts of Brasenia schreberi inhibited the
DNA polymerase activity of HIV-1 RT (HIV-1 reverse transcriptase).
Similarly, the aqueous extract of Petasites japonicus and hydroethanolic
extracts of Brasenia schreberi significantly inhibited the activity of DNA
Page | 163
polymerase to incorporate dTTP into poly (rA)-p(dT)15. Additionally, it also
inhibited the activity of RNase H to hydrolyze the RNA strand of an
RNA/DNA hybrid. The extract also inhibited HIV-1 replication in human
cells [39]. Several plants are against influenza, human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), hepatitis and coxsackievirus
infections [40].
Antibacterial plants
The ethanolic extract of the whole plant of Couroupita guianensis
exhibited wound-healing capacity by decreasing the surface area of the
wound and increasing the tensile strength. Furthermore, the extract also
exhibited antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia
coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae [41]. Couroupita
guianensis is known to exhibit a variety of pharmacological properties and it
is antimycobacterial and antibiofilm [42]. The leaf and flower extract of
Guazuma ulmifolia exhibited significant antibacterial activity against
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus and moderate activity
against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus epidermis [43-44] and antiviral
[45]
.
In Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae), the most important bioactive
constituents present in the leaves include, β-Sitosterol, Hyperoside,
Nimbandiol, Nimbolide, Quercetin, Quercitrin and Rutin. Leaves and bark of
this plant are known to possess a variety of pharmacological properties such
as anticancer [46], antibacterial and antiviral [47], antifilarial [48]. Plumeria
rubra (Apocynaceae) is found to have wide range of pharmacological
activities and exhibit antibacterial activity [49]. Antimicrobial properties of
Albizia saman (Caesalpiniaceae) are studied [50]. Similarly, Tabebuia rosea
(Bignoniaceae) also studied for its antibacterial, anti-inflammatory activity
[51]
and antimalarial activity [52].
It was concluded that the results of antibacterial activity of Alpinia
calcarata confirmed the evidence in previous studies reported that alcohol is
a better solvent for more consistent extraction of antimicrobial substances
from medicinal plants compared to other solvents such as Water, Methanol
and Hexane [53]. It was reported that a wide range of activities of the different
herbs and extracts against the bacteria tested. Relatively high levels of
activity (MIC of 12.5-6.25mg/L) were observed for plant extracts from all
herbs except Alpinia galanga. The MIC Values indicate that ginger oil was
more efficient than the others. The minimum concentration for inhibition of
Bacillus cereus and Listeria monocytogenes was 6.25mg/L. As was the case
Page | 164
with the water extracts. Listeria monocytogenes proved to be most sensitive
of the bacteria tested. The ethanolic extracts of Boesenbergia pandurata
showed better growth inhibition against Listeria monocytogenes than
Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus [54].
It was reported that the development of bacterial resistance to presently
available antibiotics had necessitated the search for new antibacterial agents
[55]
. This development of bacterial resistance to the available antibiotics and
increasing popularity of traditional medicine has led researchers to
investigate the antibacterial compounds in plants [56]. It was said that many
herbs have medicinal properties to prevent the pathogenic microorganisms
and their processes [57]. It was found out that turmeric are well known for
their antimicrobial properties and has been aptly known as the village
dispensary for the past 2000 years [56-57]. It was documented that extract of
Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae) (turmeric) and the essential oil inhibit the
growth of a variety of bacteria, parasites and pathogenic fungi [58].
It was reported that the use of alternative medicinal therapy had
increased the interest of pharmacologists and herbalists over the past decade.
Natural products from plants may offer new agents for antimicrobial use. A
special feature of higher plants is their capacity to produce a large number of
organic chemicals of high structural diversity the so-called secondary
metabolites. Antibacterial activity of Alpinia calcarata showed significant
results against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter aerogenes, Salmonella
paratyphi, Vibrio cholerae and Bacillus subtilis. The Methanol and Hexane
extract of Alpinia calcarata showed significant activity against selected
bacterial strains [59].
The crude extracts of curcuminoids and essential oil of Curcuma longa
varieties were studied for their antibacterial activity against four bacterial
strains viz., Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus macerans, Bacillus licheniformis and
Azotobacter using agar well diffusion method. Ethanol was used for the
extraction of curcuminoids. Both curcuminoids and oil showed zone of
inhibition against all tested strain of bacteria. Among all the bacterial strains
Bacillus subtilis was the most sensitive to turmeric extracts of curcuminoids
and oil. The MIC value for different strains and varieties ranged from 3.0 to
20.6mm in diameter [60].
The antibacterial activity of ethanol extract of Curcuma zedoaria
(0.15mg/ml) and Curcuma malabarica (0.94mg/ml) showed higher
inhibition against Bacillus subtilis and their ethanol extracts were effective
Page | 165
only at higher concentration of 3.75mg/ml [61]. The rhizomes of Curcuma
aromatica possess a reputed property to promote health conditions by
arresting ageing and used as an antibiotic against various microbial
infections [62]. Curcuma longa oil was tested against cultures of
Staphylococcus albus, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus typhosus,
inhibiting the growth of Staphylococcus albus and Staphylococcus aureus in
different concentrations. The essential oil fraction from turmeric possess
significant (P<0.001) antibacterial activity at very low concentration (20
g/disc) on pathogenic Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus bacteria [63].
The extracts of Ginger, Mango ginger and Turmeric mixtures thereof
showed more activity against Gram positive bacteria compared to Gram
negative bacteria, the decreasing order of sensitivity of selected species of
Gram positive and Gram-negative bacteria against extracts of species was
Bacillus subtilis>Staphylococcus aureus>Escherichia coli Gram negative
bacteria were also more resistant than Gram positive bacteria [64].
The antibacterial activities of 1,4-Dioxan and Dimethyl formamide
(DMF) extract extracts of Ginger, Mango ginger and Turmeric against
Bacillus subtilis. The 1,4-Dioxan extract of Mango ginger was highly active
against Bacillus subtilis, followed by Turmeric and Ginger. The antibacterial
activities of four synthetic compounds, i.e. HC-1, HC-2, HC-3 and HC-4 in
1,4-Dioxan as well as in DMF extracts against Escherichia coli were studied.
In 1,4-Dioxan, HC-2 and HC-3 showed the highest activity followed by HC-
1 while HC-4 had the lowest activity. The synthetic compound HC-1 in
DMF showed very little activity against Escherichia coli while the other
compounds did not show any activity. The antibacterial activity of synthetic
compounds of HC-3 in 1,4 Dioxan and DMF extracts against Bacillus
subtilis showed highest activity. The antibacterial activity of HC-2 in 1,4
Dioxan and DMF extracts against Staphylococcus aureus showed highest
activity [65].
The hydro ethanolic extract of Curcuma zedoaria and Curcuma
aromatica rhizomes were found to have potent antimicrobial activity against
Bacillus cereus at 1000 g/ml and showed moderate activity against
Klebsiella pneumoniae and Candida albicans. In the case of MIC, hydro
ethanolic extract of Curcuma aromatica inhibited Bacillus cereus at 15.625
g/ml, Klebsiella pneumoniae was inhibited at 62.5 g/ml and Candida
albicans at 125 g/ml. Hydro ethanolic of Curcuma zedoaria inhibited
Bacillus cereus at 31.25 g/ml whereas Klebsiella pneumoniae and Candida
albicans were inhibited at 125 g/ml [66].
Page | 166
Methanolic extracts of ginger did not present antimicrobial effect
against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli [67]. However, a different
method of ginger extract preparation, verified an inhibitory action against
Escherichia coli as well as high antimicrobial activity of garlic extracts
against Escherichia coli and Salmonella [68].
Phyllanthus is one of the most important groups of plants traded as a
raw herbal drug in India [69]. Herbaceous species of this genus have been
used in traditional medicine for a variety of uses including as an antipyretic,
laxative, tonic, antibacterial, antioxidative, immunomodulatory, antiviral,
antiatherosclerotic and antineoplastic [70-72]. Most of the herbs belonging to
genus Phyllanthus have been shown to contain different combinations of
secondary metabolites which render them with medicinal properties [72].
The major class of bioactive compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids,
lignans, phenols, tannins and terpenes has been isolated from these herbs.
Compounds like sterols, volatile oils, alkamides, lipids, coumarins, acids,
phytallate and alkanols are also found in Phyllanthus species. Various
classes of phytochemicals found in Phyllanthus species [73]. The lignans:
phyllanthin, hypophyllanthin, niranthin, nirtetralin, virgatus and helio
ophthalmic lactone are common to P. amarus, P. maderaspatensis, P.
urinaria and P. virgatus [74]. However, phyllanthin is absent in P.
maderaspatensis [75]. Also, it was reported that the absence of phyllanthin
and hypophyllanthin from P. maderaspatensis and P. urinaria [76].
Antifungal plants
Mode of action of antifungal agents and their mechanisms of resistance
were dealt in detail. There are three major groups of antifungal agents in
clinical use, azoles, polyenes, and allylamine/thiocarbamates, all owe their
antifungal activities to inhibition of synthesis of or direct interaction with
ergosterol [77]. Ergosterol is the predominant component of the fungal cell
membrane [78]. Several plants produce such chemicals. Millettia pinnata
(Fabaceae) exhibited antifungal property against dermatophytes [79]. It was
reported that Indian researches have shows antibacterial and antifungal
activity in extracts of Alpinia calcarata. However, the plant is generally used
in the Indian traditional medicine and it is recommended as an aphrodisiac
and a decoction is widely used in the treatment of bronchitis, cough,
respiratory ailments, diabetics, asthma and arthritis [80]. It was reported that
essential oils from both fresh and dried rhizomes of galangal have
antimicrobial activities against bacteria, fungi, yeast and parasite [81].
Terpinen-4-01, one of the monoterpenes in the essential oil from fresh
Page | 167
Alpinia rhizomes, contains an antimicrobial activity against Trichophyton
mentagrophytes [82].
It was documented that the components of turmeric are named
curcuminoids, which include mainly curcumin (diferuloyl methane),
dimethoxy curcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin. Curcumin 95%, a potent
antioxidant is believed to be the most bioactive and soothing portion of the
herb turmeric and posses the properties like antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
antibacterial and antifungal effects [83].
The antimicrobial potential of seventy-seven extracts from twenty-four
plants was screened against eight bacteria and four pathogenic fungi, using
micro broth dilution assay. Lowest concentration of the extract, which
inhibits any visual microbial growth after treatment with p-
iodonitrotetrazolium violet, was considered to be minimum inhibitory
concentration (MIC). The water extracts of Acacia nilotica, Justicia
zeylanica, Lantana camara and Saraca asoca were found to be the most
active against bacteria as well as fungal pathogens [84].
Conclusion
Microbial infection is a public health problem affecting the large
population of the world. Plants have been used to treat microbial infections
since long. Review of literature affirms that plants are therapeutically
effective in diseases caused by pathogenic microbes; however, it would be
unwarranted to declare that all these plants can be blindly prescribed in
patients with microbial infections. Therefore, it is required to establish and
validate all the assessment parameters such as herb-drug and herb-herb
interaction and toxic effects following the pharmacological authentication of
plant materials for human consumption. Plant products have contributed a lot
to the development of various drugs and many patients rely on these natural
products for relief. Because drugs from herbals are having numerous
advantages such as less expensive, acceptance among population due to a
long history of use, better patient tolerance, and fewer or no side effects. The
antimicrobial plants are just a ‘tip of the iceberg’, yet lot more compounds
from plants awaiting its discovery for its antimicrobial property. Systematic
screening of these plants may be rewarding in the search of better therapeutic
agents against these pathogenic microbes.
Acknowledgements
AS wish to thank the management especially the Rector, Rev. Fr. Dr.
Melwyn D' Cunha, SJ and the Principal Rev. Fr. Dr. Victor Lobo SJ of St.
Joseph’s College (Autonomous) for providing all the necessary facilities and
Page | 168
encouragement. SK wish to thank the management of Ramakrishna Mission
Vivekananda College (Autonomous) for providing all the necessary facilities
and encouragement.
References
1. Holt GA, Chandra A. Herbs in the modern healthcare environment-An
overview of uses, legalities, and the role of the healthcare professional.
Clinical Research and Regulatory Affairs. 2002; 19:83-107.
2. Nakanishi K. An historical perspective of natural products chemistry.
Comprehensive Natural Products Chemistry. 1999; 8:21-38.
3. Nakanishi K. An historical perspective of natural products chemistry. In
S. Ushio (Ed.), Comprehensive Natural Products Chemistry. 1999; 1:23-
40.
4. Cragg GM, Newman DJ. Natural product drug discovery in the next
millennium. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2001; 39:8-17.
5. Cragg GM, Newman DJ. Natural products drug discovery and
development at the United Sates National Cancer Institute. In L. Yuan
(Ed.), Drug discovery and traditional Chinese medicine: science,
regulation, and globalization, 1st, College Park, MD. Kluwer Academic,
Hingham, 2001, 19-32.
6. Anonymous. Indian material medica, Population Prakashan, New Delhi,
India, 1976; 1:283-284.
7. Ray PG, Majumdar SK. Antimicrobial activity of some Indian Plants.
Econ. Bot. 1976; 30(4):317-329.
8. Farnsworth NR. Screening plants for new medicines. Wilson EO (Ed.).
Biodiversity, National Academy Press, Washington, 1988, 83-97.
9. Rastogi RP, Mehrotra BN. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants,
Vol. II, CSIR Publication, India, 1991.
CSIR Publication, India, 1993, 3.
CSIR Publication, India, 1998, 5.
12. Cox PA. The ethnobotanical approach to drug discovery: strengths and
limitations. In, ethnobotany and the search for the new drugs. John
Wiley and Sons, England, 1994, 25-36.
Page | 169
13. Asolkar LV, Kakkar KK, Chakra OJ. Second supplement to glossary of
Indian medicinal plants with active principles, part 1(A-K). Pub. and Inf.
Div. (CSIR), New Delhi, 1992, 18-414.
14. Perry LM, Metzer J. Medicinal plants of east and south Asia, attributed
properties and uses. MIT press Cambridge, Massachusetts and London,
1998.
15. Khan AV, Parveen G, Alam MM, Singh VK. Ethnomedicinal uses of
Neem in rural areas of Uttar Pradesh, India. Ethnomed and Pharmacog,
(Sci. Tech. Pub. USA). II Rec. Prog. Med. Plants, 2002, 7:319-326.
16. Khyade MS, Vaikos NP. Phytochemical and antibacterial properties of
leaves of Alstonia scholaris R. Br. African Journal of Biotechnology.
2009; 8(22):6434-6436.
17. Berdy J. Thoughts and facts about antibiotics: Where we are now and
where we are heading. The journal of antibiotics. 2012; 65:385-395.
18. Narayanaswamy V. Origin and development of ayurveda (A brief
history). Ancient Science of Life. 1981; 1(1):1-7.
19. Ravishankar B, Shukla VJ. Indian Systems of Medicine: A brief profile.
African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative
Medicines. 2007; 4(3):319-337.
20. Biljana BP. Historical Review of Medicinal plants usage.
Pharmacognosy Review. 2012; 6(11):1-5.
21. Drews J. Drug Discovery: A historical perspective. Science. 2000;
287:1960-1964.
22. Serturner FW. Uber das morphium, eine neue salzfahige grundlage, und
die Mekonsaure, als Hauptbestandtheile das opiums. Gilbert’s Annalen
der Physik, 1817; 25:56.
23. Sneader W. Drug discovery - A history. Wiley, New York, 1985.
24. Yeh BJ, Lim WA. Synthetic biology: lessons from the history of
synthetic organic chemistry. Nature Chemical Biology. 2007; 3(9):521-
525.
25. Clark AM. Natural Products as a Resource for new drugs.
Pharmaceutical Research. 1996; 13(8):1133-1141.
26. Kelecom A. Chemistry of marine natural products: yesterday, today and
tomorrow. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciencias. 1999; 71(2):249-
263.
Page | 170
27. Grabley S, Thiericke R, Sattler I. Tools for drug discovery: natural
product-based libraries. Ernst Schering research foundation workshop.
2000; 32:217-252.
28. Jia W, Liu VJK, Tang L. Chinese herbal drugs for diabetes. Frontiers
Biotechnology and Pharmaceuticals. 2002; 3:337-358.
29. Haefner B. Drugs from the deep: Marine natural products as drug
candidates. Drug Discovery Today. 2003; 8:536-544.
30. Butler MS. The role of natural product chemistry in drug discovery.
Journal of Natural Products. 2004; 67(12):2141-2153.
31. Cragg GM, Newman DJ. Plants as source of anticancer agents. Journal
of Ethnopharmacology. 2005; 100:72-79.
32. Berdy J. Bioactive microbial metabolites. Journal of Antibiotics. 2005;
58:1-26.
33. Mishra BB, Tiwari VK. Natural products: an evolving role in future
drug discovery. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 2011;
46:4769-4807.
34. Farnsworth NR, Soejarto DD. Global importance of medicinal plants.
In: Akerele O, Heywood V, Synge H (Eds.). The conservation of
medicinal plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991, 25-52.
35. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Amed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal
plants of cold desert Ladakh used against kidney and urinary disorders.
Journal of Food Chemistry. 2008; 118:331-339.
36. Qin G, Xu R. Recent advances on bioactive natural products from
Chinese medicinal plants. Medical Research Reviews. 1998; 18(6):375-
382.
37. Lee KH. Anticancer drug design based on plant-derived natural
products. Journal of Biomedical Science. 1999; 6(4):236-250.
38. Suedeea A, Tewtrakulab S, Panichayupakaranant P. Anti-HIV-1
integrase activity of Mimusops elengi leaf extracts. Pharmaceutical
Biology. 2014; 52(1):58-61.
39. Hisayoshi T, Mayu S, Atsushi K, Junji T, Hiroshi S, Keishi H, et al.
Inhibition of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase activity by Brasenia schreberi
(Junsai) Components. Journal of Biological Macromolecule. 2014;
14:59-65.
Page | 171
40. Akram M, Tahir IM, Shah SMA, Mahmood Z, Altaf A, Ahmad K, et al.
Antiviral potential of medicinal plants against HIV, HSV, influenza,
hepatitis, and coxsackievirus: A systematic review. Phytother Res. 2018;
32(5):811-822.
41. Umachigi SP, Jayaveera KN, Ashok Kumar CK, Kumar GS.
Antimicrobial, wound healing and antioxidant potential of Couroupita
guianensis in rats. Pharmacology. 2007; 3:269-281.
42. Al-Dhabi NA, Balachandran C, Karunai Raj M, Duraipandiyan V,
Muthukumar C, Ignacimuthu S et al. Antimicrobial, antimycobacterial
and antibiofilm properties of Couroupita guianensis Aubl. fruit extract.
BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012; 12:242.
43. Boligon AA, Andrieli CF, Margareth LA. Determination of chemical
composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of Guzuma
ulmifolia essential Oil. American Journal of Essential Oils and Natural
Products. 2013; 1(1):23-27.
44. Aline AB, Andrieli CF, Margareth LA. Determination of chemical
composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of Guazuma
ulmifolia essential oil. American Journal of Essential Oils and Natural
Products, 2013; 1(1):23-27.
45. Adriana MMF, Vinicius PR, Fabricio JB, Rosa ECL, Karen JG, Cleyton
EMD, et al. Antiviral effects of Guazuma ulmifolia and
Stryphnodendron adstringens on Poliovirus and Bovine herpesvirus.
Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 2006; 29(6):1092-1095.
46. Wu Q, Kohli M, Bergen HR, Cheville JC, Karnes RJ, Cao H, et al.
Preclinical evaluation of the supercritical extract of Azadirachta indica
(neem) leaves in vitro and in vivo on inhibition of prostate cancer Tumor
Growth. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics. 2014; 13(5):1067-1077.
47. Bharitkar YP, Bathini S, Ojha D, Ghosh S, Mukherjee H, Kuotsu K et
al. Antibacterial and antiviral evaluation of
sulfonoquinovosyldiacylglyceride: A glycolipid isolated from
Azadirachta indica leaves. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 2014;
58(2):184-189.
48. Niladri M, Prasanta S, Suprabhat M, Priya R, Santi P, Sinha B. In vitro
antifilarial activity of Azadirachta indica aqueous extract through
reactive oxygen species enhancement. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical
Medicine. 2014; 7(11):841-848.
Page | 172
49. Egwaikhide PA, Okeniyi SO, Gimba CE. Screening for antimicrobial
activity and phytochemical constituents of some Nigerian medicinal
plants. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 2009; 3(12):1088-1091.
50. Raymond CJ, Akini M, Subramanian G. Selective antimicrobial
properties of leaf extract of Samanea saman against Candida albicans,
Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli using several microbial
methods. Journal of American Science. 2011; 7(3):108-119.
51. Franco OLA, Castro GJP, Ocampo BYC, Pájaro BIB, Díaz CF. Anti-
Inflammatory, antioxidant and antibacterial activity of two species of
Tabebuia genus. Revista Cubana de Plantas Medicinales. 2013;
18(1):34-46.
52. Compadre CM, Jauregui JF, Nathan PJ, Enriquez RG. Isolation of 6-O
(pcoumaroyl)-catalpol from Tabebuia rosea. Planta Medica. 1982;
46(1):42-44.
53. Ahmad I, Mehmood Z, Mohammad F. Screening of some Indian
medicinal plants for their antimicrobial properties. J Ethnopharmacol.
1998; 62:183-193.
54. Hsieh P.C, Mau JL, Huang SH. Antimicrobial effect of various
combinations of plant extracts. Food Microbiol. 2001; 18:35-43.
55. Davies J. Inactivation of antibiotics and the dissemination of resistance
genes. Science. 1994; 264:375-382.
56. Chattopadhyay I, Biswas K, Bandyopadhyay U, Banerjee RK. Turmeric
and curcumin: Biological actions and medicinal applications. Curr. Sci.
2004; 87:44-53.
57. Harikrishnan R, Rani CN, Balasundaram C. Hematological and
biochemical parameters in common carp, Cyprinus carpio, following
herbal treatment for Aeromonas hydrophila infection. Aquaculture.
2003; 221:41-50.
58. Allen PC, Danforth HD, Augustine PC. Dietary modulation of avian
coccidiosis. Int. J Paracitol. 1998; 28(7):1131-1140.
59. Robinson JP, Balakrishnan V, Raj JS, Britto SJ. Antimicrobial activity
of Alpinia calcarata Rosc. and characterization of new α, β unsaturated
carbonyl compound. Advances in Biological Research. 2009; 3(5-
6):184-187.
60. Naz S, Jabeen S, Ilyas S, Manzoor F, Aslam F, Ali A. Antibacterial
activity of Curcuma longa varieties against different strains of bacteria.
Pak. J Bot. 2010; 42(1):455-462.
Page | 173
61. Wilson B, Abraham G, Manju VS, Mathew M, Vimala B, Sundaresan S.
et al. Antimicrobial activity of Curcuma zedoaria and Curcuma
malabarica tubers. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2005; 99:147-151.
62. The Wealth of India. A dictionary of Indian raw materials and industrial
products. First Supplement Series (Raw Materials) ed. National Institute
of Science Communication and Information Resources, Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, 2001; 2:259-295.
63. Singh R, Chandra R, Bose M, Luthra PM. Antibacterial activity of
Curcuma longa rhizome extract on pathogenic bacteria. Current
Science. 2002; 83(6):737-740.
64. Zaika LL. Spices and herbs: Their antimicrobial activity and its
determination. Journal of Food Safety. 1988; 9(2):97-118.
65. Chandarana H, Baluja S, Chanda SV. 2005. Comparison of antibacterial
activities of selected species of Zingiberaceae family and some synthetic
compounds. Tur. J Biol. 2005; 29:83-97.
66. Srividya AR, Yadav AK, Dhanabal SP. Antioxidant and Antimicrobial
Activity of Rhizome of Curcuma aromatica and Curcuma zedoaria,
Leaves of Abutilon indicum. Archives of Pharmaceutical Sciences and
Research. 2009; 1(1):14-19.
67. Samy RP. Antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants from India.
Fitoterapia. 2005; 76:697-699.
68. Indu MN, Hatha AAM, Abirosh C, Harsha U, Vivekanandan G.
Antimicrobial activity of some of the South-Indian spices against
serotypes of Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes and
Aeromonas hydrophila. Braz. J Microbiol. 2006; 37:153-158.
69. Ved DK, Goraya GS. Demand and supply of medicinal plants in India.
FRLHT, Bangalore, India, 2008.
70. Unander DW, Webster GL, Blumberg BS. Uses and bioassays in
Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae): a compilation. II. The subgenus
Phyllanthus. J Ethnopharmacol. 1991; 34:97-133.
71. Unander DW, Webster GL, Blumberg BS. Usage and bioassays in
Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae): IV. Clustering of antiviral uses and other
effect. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995; 45:1-18.
72. Calixto J, Santos RS, Filbov, Yunes RA. A review of the plants of the
genus Phyllanthus: their chemistry, pharmacology, and therapeutic
potential. Med. Res. Rev. 1998; 18:225-258.
Page | 174
73. Nahar L, Sarker SD, Delazar A. Phytochemistry of the genus
Phyllanthus. In Phyllanthus Species: Scientific Evaluation and
Medicinal Applications, Kuttan R, Harikumar KB, (Eds.), Taylor and
Francis Group, CRC Press, London, UK. 2011; 119-138.
74. Shanker K, Singh M, Srivastava V, Verma R, Gupta A, Gupta M.
Simultaneous analysis of six bioactive lignans in Phyllanthus species by
reversed phase hyphenated high performance liquid chromatographic
technique. Acta Chromatographica. 2011; 23(2):321-337.
75. Khatoon S, RaiV, Rawat AKS, Mehrotra S. Comparative
pharmacognostic studies of three Phyllanthus species. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology. 2006; 104(1-2):79-86.
76. Sharma SK, Arogya SM, Bhaskarmurthy DH, Agarwal A, Velusami
CC. Hepatoprotective activity of the Phyllanthus species on tert-butyl
hydroperoxide (t-BH)-induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells. Pharmacogn
Mag. 2011; 7(27):229-33.
77. Ghannoum MA, Rice LB. Antifungal agents: mode of action,
mechanisms of resistance, and correlation of these mechanisms with
bacterial resistance. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 1999; 12(4):501-
517.
78. Parks LW, Casey WM. Fungal sterols. In: Prasad R, Ghannoum M.
(Eds.) Lipids of pathogenic fungi. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, Fla,
1996, 63-82.
79. Misra SK, Sahu KC. Screening of some indigenous plants for antifungal
activity against dermatophytes. Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 1977;
9:269-272.
80. Kaleysa RRM. Screening of indigenous plants for anthelmintic agonists,
apomorphine, on thermal and chemical eroked noxious responses in rats.
Brain Research. 1975; 296:286-293.
81. Farnsworth NR, Bunyapraphatsara N. Thai Medicinal Plants. Medicinal
Plant Information Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University,
Thailand, 1992, 402.
82. Janssen AM, Scheffer JJC. Acetoxychavicol Acetate, an Antifungal
Component of Alpinia galanga. Planta Med. 1985; 51(6):507-511.
83. Chainani-Wu N. Safety and anti-inflammatory activity of curcumin: a
component of turmeric (Curcuma longa). J Altern. Complement Med.
2003; 9:161-168.
Page | 175
84. Dabur R, Gupta A, Mandal TK, Singh DD, Bajpai V, Gurav AM. et al.
Antimicrobial Activity of Some Indian Medicinal Plants. Afr. J Tradit
Complement Altern Med. 2007; 4(3):313-318.
Page | 176
View publication stats

Research Trends in

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Research Trends in

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Research Trends in

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Risk Assessment of Hazards Safety in Paper Mills

Chapter · June 2021

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Chief Editor: Dr. R. Jayakumar

The author/publisher has attempted to trace and acknowledge the materials

S. No Chapters Page No.

2. Habitat, Height and Hardship: Determinants of Elephant

3. Use of Electronic Resources by the Research Scholars of

4. Hazards of Heavy Metal on Human Health 51-67

5. Risk Assessment of Hazards Safety in Paper Mills 69-83

6. Emerging Trends in Indian Tourism Industry: Challenges

7. Utilization of Tree Stump Dimension in Forest Modelling

8. ICT-Information and Communication Technology and Tools

9. Event Management: An Overview 139-157

10. Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Plants from Southern

Fig 1: Physiological location of Deepor Beel

Fig 2: Showing satellite view of Deepor Beel

Sr. No. Class Family Genus Species Also mentioned by

(A) (B) (C) (D)

(I) (J) (K)

(L) (M) (N) (O)

Fig 1: The location o the study area

Model No. K AIC AICc AIC (∆ᵢ) Akaike weights (ωᵢ)

Awareness Responses Percentage %

Source: Primary data obtained from the questionnaire

Frequency No. of Respondents Percentage (%)

Fig 2: Frequency of using e-resources

Preferences Responses Percentage%

Purposes Responses Percentage %

Source: Primary data obtained from the Questionnaire

Satisfaction Level Responses Percentage %

Source: Primary data obtained from the Questionnaire

Duration Respondents Percentage %

Place Responses Percentage %

Source: Primary data obtained from the Questionnaire

Fig 1: Basic illustration of atomic absorption spectrometer

Fig 3: Basic ICP-OES

5.3 X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

Fig 5: Reaction of arsenic with the thio group of enzymes.

Calculation of fire load

Mass of Area of the Calorific value of Fire load of

Table 3: Fire hazardous area classification

Fire hazardous area Type Value

Bagasse storage area 2

Fig 1: International Tourist Arrivals, Change (%)

Fig 4: Top 10 tourism earner destinations, 2018 (USD billion)

Fig 6: Purpose of visit, 2018 (% share)

FTAs in India Percentage (%) change over the

Rank in 2017 Source Country FTAs Percentage (%) Share in

FEE from Tourism in India Percentage (%) change over the

Model Fit Statistics Equation

Where; 𝑌𝑖 = observed value of Y for observation i, 𝑌̂𝑖 = predicted value i,

Variable Descriptive Statistics (N= 2449)

Fig 4: Relationship between aboveground biomass and stump diameter

Fig 5: Relationship between diameter at breast height and stump diameter

Functional Fit Statistics Equation

Variable Mean SD N Diff t DF p Remark

5. Conclusion and recommendations