Compiled Module in Eed 17
Compiled Module in Eed 17
Compiled Module in Eed 17
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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I. Learning Outcomes
II. Introduction
III. Discussion
The world is now in the “Knowledge age” where the challenge of education is to
prepare learners to deal with the challenges of the changing world. Students in this age
must be prepared to compete in a global economy, understand and operate complex
communication and information systems, and apply higher level thinking skills to make
decisions and solve problems.
The Language Arts and Multiliteracies Curriculum (LAMC) addresses these
needs. This is the rationale why Mother Tongue, Filipino and English follow a unified
framework which allows easy transition from acquiring and learning one language to
another.
The curriculum has five (5) components. Each component is essential to the
learners‟ ability to communicate effectively in a language leading them to achieve
communicative competence and multiliteracies in the Mother Tongue, Filipino and
English. The diagram on page 2 shows that the heart and core of LAMC is making
meaning through language and aims to develop graduates who are communicatively
competent and multiliterates.
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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Component 1 illustrates learning processes that will effect acquisition and learning of the
language. It explains the HOW of language learning and therefore serves as guiding
principles for language teaching.
Component 2 describes knowledge and skill areas which are essential to effective
language use (understanding of cultures, understanding language, processes and
strategies) which will be developed through language arts (macro-skills).
Component 3 shows the interdependence and interrelationships of the macro-skills of the
language (listening, speaking and viewing; reading, viewing and responding; writing and
representing) and the development of thinking skills (critical thinking, creative thinking
and metacognition) allowing students to make meaning through language.
Component 4 explains the holistic assessment of the Language Arts and Literacy
Curriculum which serves as feedback of its effectiveness to students, teachers, school
administrators, and curriculum developers.
Integrated Language
LISTENING SPEAKING READING WRITING VIEWING
Arts Domains
1 Oral Language √ √
2 Phonological Awareness √
4 Alphabet Knowledge √ √ √ √ √
6 Fluency √ √
7 Spelling √ √
8 Writing and Composition √ √ √ √
Grammar Awareness &
9 √ √ √ √
Structure
10 Vocabulary Development √ √ √ √ √
11 Reading Comprehension
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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Definitions of the Content Standards for the Integrated Language Arts Curriculum for
the K to 12 Basic Education Program of the Department of Education
Have sufficient facility in English to understand spoken discourse and to talk and interact with
Oral Languages in English
others about personal experiences and text listened to or read
Phonological Skills Be able to demonstrate phonological awareness at the levels of the syllable and the phoneme
Demonstrate and use concepts of print, such as directionality, spacing, punctuation and
Book and Print Knowledge
configuration
Alphabet knowledge Recognize, name and sound out all the upper and lower case letters of the alphabet.
Phonic and Word Use sight word recognition or phonic analysis to read and understand words in English that
Recognition contain complex letter combinations, affixes and contractions
Read aloud grade level texts effortlessly and accurately, without hesitation and with proper
Fluency
expression
Spelling Spell words with two or more syllables using phonic, semantic, and morphemic knowledge
Express their ideas effectively in formal and informal compositions to fulfill their own purposes
Writing /Composition
for writing
· Demonstrate grammatical awareness by being able to read, speak and write correctly
Grammar Awareness and
· Communicate effectively, in oral and written forms, using the correct grammatical structure
Structure
of English
Vocabulary Acquire, study, and use English vocabulary words appropriately in relevant contexts
Be self-aware as they discuss and analyze text to create new meanings and modify old
Comprehension Strategies
knowledge
Respond to literary text through the appreciation of literary devices and an understanding
Comprehending Literary Text
of story grammar
Comprehending Informational Locate information from expository texts and use this information for discussion or written
Text production
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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What Reading Is
What is reading? This is a seemingly simple question although it is filled with complexity.
People from various disciplines have attempted to define reading. It is not surprising to find
educators, psychologists, linguists, sociologists to have filled volumes with their definition of
reading. A closer look of the definitions however, may reveal that they are not really
contradictory as others claim they are. Each is probably just focusing on a particular component
of the reading process. Thus, one definition will emphasize the mental processes involved in
reading while another one, the values that may be derived from the process. Anyway, varied as
the definitions are, a commonality among them remains: reading involves the use of a code that
has to be interpreted for meaning. Lapp and Flood( 1978) states that all definitions of reading fall
into two categories. First there are those who view reading primarily as a decoding process, a
breaking of visual code. In a second view, reading for meaning is emphasized from the very
earliest stages of instruction; in this view reading as a comprehension process is stressed.
Although there are differences of opinion about a precise definition of reading, many
educators agree on the following :
1. Reading is decoding written symbols.
2. Reading is getting meaning from the printed page.
3. Reading is putting meaning from the printed page.
4. Reading is the process of interpreting the written symbols.
5. Reading is a process of communication between the author and reader.
A number of reading scholars have arrived at some characteristics of the reading process:
2. Reading is a two- way process. Reading is communication between author and reader.
Communication gap between the author and the reader results to poor comprehension. when
that gap is bridged, better comprehension takes place.
3. Reading is largely a visual process. Normally, good eyesight is required in good
reading.
4. Reading is an active process. It is a thinking process.
A reader usually reacts physically, emotionally, or intellectually with what he reads.
5. Reading makes use of a linguistics system which enables readers to be more effective
users of written language.
A reader who has some knowledge of the syntax, orthography, and morphology (
formations of words) of a language can interact more effectively with the printed form of that
language.
6. Effective reading is partly dependent on the reader’s prior knowledge or
background experiences.
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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1. Prereading Stage. During this age, the individual is engaged in a program of experiences
aimed to enhance his oral language development to a level equal to or greater than the level
of materials for beginning reading. Experiences are also provided for concept development.
The individual is also trained auditory and visual discrimination, listens to, tells and
discusses stories and learns basic work and study habits. Further experiences are provided to
develop his mental, physical, emotional, and social readiness for reading.
2. Initial Reading stage. The individual begins to use picture, context, and configuration clues
to recognize words and then goes on to beginning instruction in phonetic and structural
analysis techniques. He learns to use and handle books, acquires the understanding that
reading yields information, and begins to develop skills in finding main ideas, anticipating
outcomes, making inferences , finding details, and noting sequence.
3. Stage of Rapid Progress. The reader extends his use of a variety of word-recognition
techniques and begins to use the dictionary for word meaning, spelling, and pronunciation.
He extends his vocabulary and comprehension skills, he reads with understanding a greater
variety of materials, and he begins to read independently for information and pleasure.
4. Stage of extended Reading Experience and Rapidly Increasing Reading Efficiency.The
individual, at this stage, uses word – recognition ttechniques automatically, and is almost
completely independent in reading. He reads with understanding in the subject areas,
extends his dictionary and reference-use skills , uses the library independently, and begins to
use reading as a tool in problem solving.
5. Stage of Refinement in Reading in Reading Abilities, Attitudes, and Tastes. The
individual reader has acquired independence in locating and utilizing a variety of materials, is
aware of varied purposes for reading and has developed skills of critical evaluation of
material read. His reading interests are extended, and his literary tastes refined. This
refinement process actually begins with initial reading instruction and proceeds into adult
life.
1.Transfer Stage
It is the period during which the individual is learning to transfer from the auditory signs for
language signals, which he has already learned, to set a visual signs for the same signals.
This process of transfer is not the learning of the new language code or of a new language
code of a new language code ; it is not the learning of a new or different set of language
signals. It is not the learning of a new “words” ofr of new grammatical structures of a new
meanings. These are all matters of the new language signals which he has on the whole
already learned so well that he is not conscious of their use. what he needs in this stage is to
learn to respond rapidly and accurately to the visual patterns that replace the auditory
patterns.
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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Why Read
Carl Woodward refer to books as “ the instruments for perpetuating the body of
knowledge painfully and slowly accumulated through the ages of man. They are also the
means of preserving and sustaining the solid foundations of culture and learning. They
provide the record of man‟s progress and the point of departure for steps into the future.
Through them the resources of mankind become the birthright of generations to come.”
Books and other reading materials proliferate that many often take them for granted.
Many people have yet to realize the rewards that reading has to offer.
It is through the magic of reading that all the wisdom of the ages , all the stories that have
delighted mankind of centuries are available at negligible cost. Reading is worth one‟s effort
, worth is the little expenses it may entail if any.
Specifically, these are some of the important things that reading does for us:
1. Reading makes us well- informed.
2. Reading can be worthwhile form of recreation.
3. Books we read can be source of inspiration.
4. Reading can be a form of therapy.
What to Read
Pupils and students , because of their “ limited “ experiences, are usually guided as to
what reading materials may be appropriate for them. The guidance they get hopes to be
reflected when they do their own reading choices outside the school.
In school the students „ reading materials are usually classified based on the reading
program the students are in.
These are usually suggested reading materials for :
1. Developmental Reading
2. Remedial Reading
3. Recreatory Reading
4. Functional Reading
Outside the classroom, an individual who is capable of independent reading, usually
selects reading materials based on the following :
1. His purpose
2. His interests
3. The availability of materials
4. Readability of the material
5. Time of reading
How to Read
One who claims to know how to read can be very well answer these questions in the
affirmative:
1. Do you associate the proper sound to the written symbols?
2. Do you recognize the relationships of words , sentences, paragraphs in the selection?
3. Do you get the general message of the selection?
4. Do you have a clear purpose in mind when you started to read the selection?
5. Do you make full of aids available to help you grasp effectively the flow of ideas in a
printed selection?
a. Context clues- the co-occurring words with an unfamiliar word which may shed light
on the meaning of such word.
b. Illustrations – pictures, graphs, diagrams.
c. Presentation clues- italics, boldface, footnotes, indentation, marginal notes
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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2. Scanning - helps the student search quickly for the specific information he wishes to get
from the material such as finding the meaning of a word in a dictionary; finding the
heading under which required information appears in an index, finding statistical
information in tables, charts, or graphs, and finding the answers to certain questions from
a text.
3. Comprehensive Reading - Scientific texts contain a great deal of information, most of
which consists of facts. The student must read carefully and slowly in order to extract
information and understand the material.
To read scientific material comprehensively, the student must learn and practice the
following :
a. Vocabulary recognition
b. Sentence comprehension
1) Sentence analysis
2) Recognizing punctuation clues
3) Recognizing reference terms
4) Recognizing signal words
c. Paragraph analysis
d. Interpreting illustrations
4. Critical Reading- To be able to read critically, the student must learn to:
a. examine the reliability of the material
b. distinguish facts from opinion
c. draw inferences from the material
5. Note taking- students should take notes as he reads. It involves: a) recording key points,
b) reducing language, organizing notes in a format that is easy to understand.
Emergent Literacy
Emergent literacy refers to competencies and literacy skills in early
childhood. Marie Clay (1966) was the first one who used the term emergent
literacy. Emergent literacy is based on an assumption that a child acquires some
knowledge about language, reading and writing even before attending any formal
education. Clay (1966) asserted that literacy development begins early in life and
is ongoing.
Teale (1987) described emergent literacy as the early signs of reading and
writing demonstrated by young children, even before they begin to take formal
instruction to reading and writing , and such early signs and ways are recognized
by most adults. Teale (1982) viewed literacy as the result of children‟s
involvement in reading activities facilitated by literate adults.
Mediation can be consciously employed by the parents as they prepare their
for formal schooling. Thus a literacy –rich home environment can provide more
literacy information to the child. However, at times , some parents are not
actually aware of their direct role in developing the early literacy skills in early
childhood.
The concept of emergent literacy suggests that all children who are to school
already have certain experiences and interests in learning (Teale, 1987). Thus,
emergent literacy refers to competencies and literacy skills in early childhood.
Teale and Sulzby pointed out the preference for the term emergent literacy
over traditional readiness. Emergent or emerging means that children are always
in the process of becoming literate, probably, since they are just few months old(
Teale, 1987). Sulzby (1991) defines literacy as the reading and writing behaviors
of young children that precede and develop into conventional literacy.
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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Change has always defined literacy . Change defines literacy instruction. These transitions are
marked by:
1. basic literacy which emphasizes the reading and writing of young learners to construct
meaning for themselves;
2. socio-cultural literacy which emphasizes the importance of social interaction of children to
construct cultural- specific meanings and to demonstrate literacy practices as social events
and cultural phenomena; and
3. functional literacy which emphasizes the use of technology for instruction and literacy ,
and the young learners‟ use of technology to produce meaning.
intervention curiosity
Montessori Children need Specific Allowing Specific
(1965) early, orderly, concepts children to use concepts. self-
systematic meeting specific manipulative correction,
training in objectives; toys, working independent
mastering one learning with carefully learning and
skill after materials are designed and mastery of one
another; auto- self –correcting; specific skill after
education learning during materials for another
“ sensitive specific skills;
period”, work instead of
designing play; activities
activities and for skill mastery
experiences for
learning
Dewey (1966) Early childhood Allowing time Manipulative Social skills,
learning is child- for play and toys, arts, music, emotional and
centered; is built learning; story reading, physical
around the providing a free and outdoor development,
interest of the relaxed play, snack, rest, informal reading
child; child atmospehere; circle time, and writing
learns best informal informal reading
through play activities for and writing
because of learning
social
interaction
Piaget (1969) Children at Providing real Natural problem Active
certain stages life setting and solving construction of
are capable of materials, solutions, his learning
only certain opportunity to playing; problem-
types of play, explore exploring and solving, playing,
intellectual and experiment experimenting, exploration
endeavors, and experiment planning one‟s experimentation
acquire and allowing own activities and curiosity,
knowledge by kids to use their and cooperating inquisitiveness,
interacting with curiosity, with teachers and spontaneity
the world; active inquisitiveness and peers in decision-
participants in and spontaneity planning making, social
their own to help evaluating interaction
learing themselves to learning.
learn
In Constructivist Model, skills are taught at the point when they are likely to be useful to
kids as part of an authentic literacy task.
From these learning theories, concrete teaching models have evolved and have been
continuously modified to meet the needs of emergent learners and to develop their literacy
skills. However, it is important to note that literacy skills. However, it is important to note that
literacy skills. However, it is important to note that literacy of the 20 th century has paved a way
to new literacy studies which would gradually lead to redefining literacy, to reidentifying the
perspectives for such new definition and that would significantly lead to redirecting the
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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principles of early literacy, that is to examine the literacy behaviour of young learners and the
characteristics of emergent readers and writers.
Historical Perspective
Literacy is viewed to be changing over time.
Christie (1990) determined the rising literacy demands of the 20th century and described a
more complex phenomenon contrasted to the literacy of the earlier periods. She emphasized
the greater level of sophistication in literacy such as new kinds of writing, new genres which
are necessary for new knowledge and new ways of thinking. All these transitions certainly
affect the kind of literacy an emergent learner acquires in the home since the parents are
possessing and demonstrating sophisticated literacy and that literacy materials readily available
in the home and even in the community are determined by the new literacy brought by the
information age. Similarly, this kind of literacy provided in the home will be brought by the
young learner in the school, and therefore the school has to take such considerations in
designing early literacy instruction.
In response to the literacy demands of the 20th century, conducted researches and
designed programs in literacy have provided specific ways in promoting early literacy.
Significantly, one model has been adopted and, or has been adapted in early literacy
instruction, that is, the constructivist model. This is supported by the social constructivist
theory of learning. Vygotsky (1978), stressed that knowledge is socially constructed by
interacting with others in a variety of experiences. Moreover, social interaction allows
emergent learners to construct their own knowledge and view themselves as members or, with
peers. The constructivist model asserts that emergent learners need to interact which would
positively make them interested and be involved in meaningful activities. It emphasizes that
young learners must be provided with adult support like parents, teachers and other literate
adults to successfully acquire knowledge about literacy , to develop literacy skills and to
complete literacy tasks in varied literacy events.
The philosophy of Dewey undergirds constructivists education, a view on teaching and
learning as a conscious process of reconstruction of experience. He developed a sctrict
criterion for determining educative experience which must lead to positive growth.
An educative experience must be continuous, provoke change, and emphasize the
importance of the participation of the learner in the formation of purposes which direct his
activities in the learning process.
In the constructivist model, skills are taught at the point when they are likely to be useful
to kids , as part of an authentic literacy task(Au, 1993). Au emphasized the significant work of
Vygotsky (1978, 1981) which asserts that learning is basically a social process that takes place
through the interaction between children and others in their environment.
Further, Au ( 1993) thoroughly discussed the four distinct advantages of the
constructivist model:
1. literacy instruction embedded in meaningful social contexts
2. students‟ exploration of the functions of literacy,
3. student-centered, and
4. recognize different life experiences and cultural schemata in the meaning-making
process. In a constructivist perspective, young learners set their own goals for literacy
learning and monitor their own progress in achieving those goals.
trough collaboration , they become more interested and more involved in meaningful activities.
Further, collaboration serves as support to complete their activity successfully and to improve
their literacy skills. As Bruner( 1986) stressed those students learn most effectively when they
are actively involved in their learning.
Views on Reading
Siebersten (1987) accounted for the developments in reading instruction. Her paper traced the
significant changes in reading instruction as greatly influenced by the trends in language
teaching and learning. In the beginning, reading was viewed simply as speech written down. This
view was influenced by the behaviourist view language acquisition and learning, language was
speech ( Bloomfield & Fries). However, dissatisfaction with this view resulted to the decline of
the oral approach.
Then, a modern psycholinguistic perspective viewed reading as a complex information-
processing skill. The reader was an active, planning, decision-making individual who coordinates
a number of skills and strategies to facilitate comprehension(Goodman, 1967 & Smith , 1973).
This psycholinguistic theory of reading was elaborated in a contemporary interactive
approach which emphasized the role of cognition in an interaction of reader and text. Thus, the
interactive approach emphasized that meaning is derived through the interaction of text and
reader. The schema theory recognizes that background knowledge facilitates the reader‟s
comprehension of the text.
These perspectives on reading have substantially strengthened philosophy of reading and
have significantly guided reading instruction.
Views on Reading
Goodman Chomsky Holdway Vygotsky Teale
(1967,1980) (1972) (1979) (1981) (1982)
Reading as a Reading Children Children Reading
psycholinguist to a child aids learn to read all higher is acquired
ic guessing literacy skills naturally in mental through
game increases the home functions are socially
Reading as an interest in environment internalized interactive
active process books and in and social and
capitalizes on learning to read interaction relationship emulative
children‟s enhances with parents children behaviour
prior background Children increase their social
strengths, past information emulate the independent functions and
experiences and sense of reading model engagement in conventions
and story structures set up by the reading of reading
knowledge familiariz parents activities are acquired
child attempts ation with through through
to reconstruct language of interaction with interactive
his own books literate adults literacy
knowledge events
Reading theorist agree that extensive reading is essential for the development of reading
comprehension.
There are several overlapping and sometimes conflicting theories on reading acquisition
and instruction. Depending on the theory of instruction adopted by a teacher or a school, the
impact of a theoretical orientation is tremendous for students, especially for second language
students. Durkin (1995) addressed this issue when she discussed the various theories of
language acquisition, the curriculum will tend to support these principles versus a more
constructivist approach. In other words, the curriculum will be more reflective of a skilled-
based model with long periods of drill and practice as compared to a school that adopts a more
social constructivist model of language acquisition. Regardless of the model adopted, reading
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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theorist agree that extensive reading essential for the development of reading comprehension
(Cummins, 2005,p.8)
From a behaviourist perspective, reading is viewed as speech. Thus, a child must possess
both the aural skills and oral vocabulary to read successfully. From a cognitive perspective,
reading is viewed as extracting meaning from the text. Therefore, a child is viewed as an
active constructor of his own reading as he employs his reading skills and strategies which
allow him to comprehend the text. Further, he uses his schema as he interacts with the text.
Thus, balanced literacy is framed from these models of reading.
Figure 1 attempts to combine the reading theories continuum into a more integrated
approach that considers the models in a dynamic structure leading to a fourth approach that
utilizes components from each of the models. The end goal is to provide students with the most
comprehensive instructional program available I order to gain meaning from a text.(
Pearson,2000).
In implementing an integrated approach to the teaching of reading, a teacher is more
likely to find the most appropriate method for teaching students based on their individual
strength and needs, thus eliminating the need to make a child change to fit a particular
methology. It is important to teach the child rather than try to conform to a predetermined
curriculum or approach. This becomes particularly important hwen working with students
because students often experience a mismatch between their academic needs and strengths
and methods of English language instruction. In order to better understand the process involved
in learning to read, it becomes necessary to clearly define reading and develop an awareness of
the complexities involved.
The movement from playing with drawing and writing to communicating through written
messages is a continuum that reflects the basic theories of emergent literacy.(Dyson,
1985;Halliday, 1975; Parker,1983Sulzby ,1986 in Morrow , 1989) Children develop their
writing naturally through play as they make markings on papers, on walls or anywhere,
through social interaction as they join in the social writing activities of adults like writing
simple notes, writing messages on greeting cards and writing letters to family members.
Children do a lot of hypothesis- testing , experimenting, inventing to attempts include invented
forms of letters, symbols, words, mixed drawing and writing and, invented messages through
forms and shapes. As kids continue to test their hypothesis about writing, hey refine previously
formed rules and knowledge about writing, until they have mastered the conventional form of
writing.
Vygotsky (1978) asserted that the child‟s language learning begins in the prespeech
communication between parents and infants. This prespeech is built through listening and
talking, to playing symbolically, to drawing, and from there to writing and reading. This
process of writing development is unitary, that is children‟s literacy development begins with
the continual process of learning to communicate which involves nonverbal, berbal, symbolic
play and drawing.
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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Children naturally develop their writing through their self-initiated practice. This self-
initiated practice significantly helps in children‟s conscious learning about writing. This is an
evolving phenomenon that plays a fundamental role in the development of writing abilities.
These principles provided best serve the early literacy instruction and the explicit writing
activities in the preschool.
From the moment of birth, babies begin to acquire literacy information and they continue to
build their childhood. Thus, when children attend formal education, they have been already
equipped with many literacy concepts and certain oral language, reading and writing
competencies. Goodman (1984) reported that many children have already known certain things
which are necessary for reading. When children have acquired naturally some command of their
language, similarly they will naturally develop these skills, until they have internalized many its
rules and have learned its more complex processes.
This leads to relevant concepts about emergent literacy and guides knowledge about early
literacy behaviour.
print in the home and continues through preschool and to the first few years of formal
schooling (Clark , 1976; Clay, 1967, 1975; Durkin, 1996; Grave , 1978).
Scarborough and Dobrich (1994) described emergent literacy as a highly complex
concept and that children are developing simultaneously with respect to many crucial and
eventual literate behaviour.
When children are immersed in literacy by being surrounded with materials that promote
their early literacy, by being exposed to meaningful literacy events, and by having constant
interaction with literate adults , they demonstrate that behaviour provided for is a guide:
1. to determine which behaviour can be identified for acquisition-early signs of their
abilities, interests and information about literacy,
2. to recognize which behaviour can be associated with approximation-conditions when
children are almost correct in their literacy skills, and
3. to identify which behaviour can be linked to development-practices with scaffolding,
up to minimal adult supervision or no guidance at all since they can independently
perform those early literacy skills.
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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A. Vocabulary
Structural analysis is a process of decoding unfamiliar words by visually examining the
words to discover component parts which may lead to pronunciation and meaning . One who
uses structural analysis must be able to recognize the root word or base word: inflectional
endings (-s, -ed, -ing), affixes (prefixes and suffixes), and compound words.
a. Rootwords
A word from which other words are formed by adding a beginning part (prefix) or an
ending part 9suffix) is called a rootword.
The underlined part of each of the words is the root:
rewrite kindness reading hopeful
b. Prefixes
A word part added to the beginning of a word is called a prefix. A prefix is made up of
one or more syllables.
Many words contain prefixes. Some of them are shown in the following examples:
Prefix Rootword New word
sub set subset
trans- pose transpose
in- finite infinite
re- group regroup
c. Suffixes
A suffix refers to a syllableor syllables added at the end of a word to form a new word
with a different meaning.
In general, suffixes serve primarily to indicate whether the word is used as a verb, an
adjective or a verb or whether the word is the name of a person, place or thing. They may also
serve as tense or number markers, i.e they tell whether a word is in its past or present form, of
it is plural or singular.
The suffixes –or, -er, -ist,-ant often mean one or which does something.
Suffixes like –hood, -age, and –ship , are used with words you often meet. when they are
added to words, they mean :
1. a whole group, as in priesthood
2. a way or state of being, as in friendship, marriage, manhood, nationhood
Suffixes may be used to form verbs. Suffixes are –en,-ize, -ify
Adjectives may be formed by using –ful or –ous, -ic, -ish, or –ive
d.Compound words
Words that are made up of two or more words are called compound words.
Compound words may be written in three ways : with hyphen, joined as one word,
written as separate words. The dictionary will help you best as to how a certain compound word
is written.
bobbysoxer check – off rat race
teenager hanger- on blue stocking
kickback runner – up red house
blackout all-time standing invitation
Certain combinations like the following are used to form compounds:
1. noun+ noun = noun pillbox
2. adverb + noun = noun underground
3. adjective + noun = noun highway
4. verb + adverb = noun make up
5. verb + noun = noun killjoy
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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Word Associations
The process of forming links as you think of the word is called word association. The
more links there are between words, the more you understand them. Word association also help
you remember better words you have learned before. As you recall them they become a part of
your active vocabulary. You eventually, are able to use them when you talk or write.
( EMELYN F. SAGRADO-Instructor)
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Words that sound alike vet have different spellings and meanings are called homonyms
or homophones.
Example : to – two way – weigh
Words that are spelled the same but have different meanings are called homographs.
Some homographs sound the same.
Examples of homographs that sound the same:
Same : 1. fan(as in : “ I used my fan when it is not hot”)
fan ( as in “ movie fan”)
2. bill ( as in “the bird‟s bill”)
bill ( as in “electric bill” )
Examples of heteronyms or homographs that do not sound the same:
1. resume (as in “resume of the report”)
2. refuse (as in “resume of the work”)
Idioms
An idiom is an expression peculiar to a language. Idiomatic expressions abound in the
English language. They are usually found in daily speech of people rather than in elaborate
polished compositions. They also abound on the radio, in novels, newspaper, and magazine
articles.
Idiomatic expressions are usually forcible, terse, and vivid. The same meaning can be
expressed in some other way but not with equal force and brevity. Thus, idioms fulfill a special
function in effective, vivid communication. Idioms, however, are not easy to learn. The idiomatic
part of a language is usually the most difficult part for a foreign language student. Tis is
probably because no reason can be given as to how or why particular idiomatic phrase has
assumed its present form. People must use them as they are. As a general rule, an idiomatic
phrase cannot be altered, i.e no synonymous word can substitute for any word in the expression
nor the arrangement of words may be changed. To do so would commonly destroy the idiom and
may render it meaningless.
Any student interested to learn idioms should take note of the following:
1. Note the precise words that make up any idiom. Note the exact arrangement of the
words, too.
2. Read much and note idioms used.
3. Read good modern authors.
4. commit idiomatic expressions to memory.
Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the same meaning .
Example : beautiful- pretty, explain-elaborate, walk-toddle
Antonyms are words with opposed meaning.
Example : vague-clear, profound- shallow, gigantic- puny
Figure of Speech
The language we use may sometimes be literal or figurative. Literal language uses words
in their exact meaning. Figurative language uses words not only in their literal meaning but with
certain emotional coloring. Use of fifures of speech quickens the imagination and stimulates the
emotions. The expressions add to the effectivenss of our speech. They give clearness, force and
beauty to our ideas. Fifures of speech are therefore important because they give color ,
decoration and life to language.
Simile
A simile is a comparison between two unlike objects made by using like or as.
Example : 1. His mind is like a sponge.
2. She is as meek as a lamb.
Metaphor
A metaphor is an indirect comparison. A metaphor may be more difficult to recognixze
because there are no signalling words. The comparison is complete : one thing is another thing
Example : 1. “The Child is father of the Man.”
2. The lion was a friendly kitten.
Personification
Personification is the giving of human characteristics and capabilities to nonhuman things
such as inanimate objects, abstract ideas, or animals.
Example : 1. The leaves of the trees were whispering to one another.
2. The clouds cried a torrent of tears.
3. The sun looked upon the ship all day…”
Apostrophe
The apostrophe is a figure of speech in which the writer directly addresses an absent
person as if he were present, or an inanimate object or an abstract idea as if it had life.
The apostrophe goes one step further than personification – it talks to the newly created
person.
Example : 1. O, wind if winter comes, can Spring be far behind?
2. Oh, Mother, how I wish you were here to see the sight.
3. Time, you old gypsy man, will you not stay?
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is the use of excessive exaggeration for effect.
Example: 1. She cried forever!
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2. He is as tall as a giant.
3. I‟ve been waiting for an eternity.
Oxymoron
Oxymoron is the combining of contraries (opposites) to portay a particular image or to
produce a striking effect.
Example: 1. She cried forever!
2. He is as tall as a giant.
3. I‟ve been waiting for an eternity.
What is Comprehension?
Some students are able to sound out words although they do not know what the words
mean. In the real sense this is not reading. what the students do is nothing but word calling. when
one reads , there must be comprehension ; otherwise no reading takes place .
Comprehension takes place when there is communication between the author and the
reader. In plain language, it is understanding what the author has written.
The following are generally the manifestations of comprehension: noting dtails, getting
the main idea, inferring, predicting outcomes, drawing conclusions. Other reading authorities
give a longer list of comprehension sub-skills.
The comprehension sub-skills when classified according to the level of thinking involved,
will fall under three levels :
1. Literal (Reading the lines)
2. Inferential (Reading between the lines)
3. Critical ( Reading beyond the lines)
Reading on the literal level requires the reader to remember or recall facts explicitly or
directly found in the material read. Inferential reading requires the reader to look for implied
information in the selection. Critical reading takes place when the reader evaluates the material
read, gives judgement or opinion on ideas read using his prior knowledge or background
experiences in relation to the information read.
Noting details
Is a factual type of reading comprehension in which the reader is directly concerned with
remembering items within the passage. This calls for a relatively slow and exacting type of
reading.
Getting the main idea is similar to finding the most important thing an author is trying to
say.
The main idea of a paragraph is a general statement of the content of the paragraph. It is
what the paragraph develops. It is the central thought of the paragraph.
The main idea provides order, progression, and unity to the paragraph by trying together
the sentences. without the main idea, the paragraph would be nothing but a collection of
unrelated ideas.
Recognition of the main idea of a paragraph is important because it not only helps you
understand the paragraph but also helps you remember the content.
Inferring
Oftentimes, the information you are looking you are looking for in what you read is not
directly stated in the in the text. Reading between the lines requires a kind of sensitivity on your
part so that you will be able to use some clues, link them to your own experiences and arrived at
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the new “new” desired information. When you do this you do inferring. Inferring occurs when
you mentally explore and take a position in relation to the facts and related details.
Making Generalizations
Predicting Outcomes
Reading to predict outcomes is a kind of reading where the reader is made to identify an
expected outcome or a probable consequence based on certain tendencies or trends observed.
Just like in making a generalization , in order to be able to predict outcomes, one must see the
relationship between the given facts first. Then the reader foretells a possible outcome. This skill
is in effect an aspect of what is considered active reading in which the reader assumes an attitude
of anticipation. This kind of thinking about the reading material requires an estimation beyond
the data presented.
In reading current events this skill is frequently employed. The reader analyses current
happenings and based on his analysis predicts possible consequences. The accuracy of his
prediction depends in some measure upon his ability to read, to appraise and to estimate the
trends.
Study skills
Reading skills learned must be put into practical use. when this is done, there is what we
may call functional reading.You do functional reading when you read your references in all
areas like Philosophy, sociology, Psychology, and Natural Sciences.The reading, skills you use
when reading references for the content areas are often termed as study skills.
The ability to gather information and the ability to organize gathered information are the
two main study skills. To be able to gather information, one must have a knowledge on the
effective use of the library which is supposed to be the main source of printed references.
Information gathered must be organized and to do this requires knowledge of summarizing,
outlining, and note taking.
Notetaking is the recording of important items of information for the future use. The best
notes are as brief as possible without missing any vital points.
Learn to take notes as you read and study. When you read an assignment , gather
information in the library , prepare a book report, or study magazine articles for a talk or
composition , collect the facts in notes. They will help you understand and information better.
The organization of the material is often a useful aid when taking down notes
Outlining-a diagram that shows topical organization is called an outline.The form or
skeleton of an outline shows he relationships among all the topics.
Using references- The term “ reference book” has come to mean a specific kind of
publication which has been planned and written to be consulted for items of information, rather
than read throughout. It contains facts that have been brought together from many sources and
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organized for quick and easy use, either in an alphabetical or chronological arrangemen or by the
use of detailed indexes and numerous cross references.
List of references : dictionary, encyclopedia, index, yearbook, handbook, almanac,
biological dictionary, directory, atlas, gazetter, bibliography.
Nonprose reading- There are many words and numbers instead of sentences and
paragraphs. This is nonprose reading. Nonprose reading may include map reading, graph and
chart reading, menu reading, and reading of other tabular materials.
Reading graphs
Reading a table.
Activity 1 :
Direction : Identify the domains of literacy and the competencies to be developed in each
domain by filling up the matrix. Give your explanation in each domain.
DOMAIN DISCUSSION
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Activity 2 : Discuss what are skills and how these skills developed in every domains of
literacy. Cite example of a child‟s action, behaviour or activity.
EXAMPLE
DOMAIN DISCUSSION
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Activity 4. Using a Venn diagram, give the characteristics of Fries and Michaelis et.al Stages of
Reading growth.
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Activity 5. Using a matrix , discuss each theory on child development that support early
literacy .
THEORIST DISCUSSION
Activity 6. Using a matrix, describe how the child learns to read based on the views of
the theorist.
THEORIST DESCRIPTION
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