Dry Cast UHPC

Journal of Cleaner Production 337 (2022) 130507
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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Development of sustainable steel fibre-reinforced dry ultra-high

performance concrete (DUHPC)
Ruizhe Shao a, Chengqing Wu a, *, Jun Li a, Zhongxian Liu b
a
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia
b
Tianjin Chengjian University, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Civil Structure Protection and Reinforcement, Tianjin, 300384, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling Editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Klemeš Dry concrete technology has been extensively utilized in many engineering fields thanks to its remarkable high
early strength, fast construction speed and low production cost. However, its shortcomings such as low flexural
Keywords: tensile strength, poor toughness, and susceptible to crack under stress and temperature also render the safety and
Dry concrete service life of concrete structures unable to be effectively ensured. Dry ultra-high performance concrete
Steel fibres
(DUHPC), a promising building material, has improved mechanical and durability performance, and contributes
Orthogonal test
to economical construction by reducing the cross-section size and improving structural long-term serviceability.
Curing condition
Mechanical properties In this study, the mechanical performance (such as compressive and indirect tensile behaviour) of fibre-
Microstructure reinforced DUHPC (FR-DUHPC) was experimentally investigated after a benchmark mix proportioning was
Environmental impact determined via orthogonal tests. Different steel fibre volume contents (0.5–2.0%) and curing regimes including
normal-temperature water curing, moist/steam curing and hot-water bath curing were used to explore their
impacts on the mechanical properties of DUHPC. In total, 648 FR-DUHPC samples were fabricated and tested for
determining their unit weight, compressive, flexural and split tensile strengths. The samples’ failure modes after
bending and split tensile tests were analyzed. The results indicated that the fibre addition exhibited a notable
positive effect on the mechanical properties of DUHPC, especially for the enhancement of the flexural and split
tensile strengths, along with the improvement of post-cracking behaviour. An evident increase in early strength
was found via using moist/steam and hot-water bath curing regime, but the former negatively impacted the
development of the long-term strength. 50 ◦ C moist/steam curing temperature was suggested for consolidating
the pre-cast DUHPC units based on the microstructure analysis conducted, and the volume content of 1.5% was
considered to be the most suitable steel fibre addition in this study. In conclusion, the use of supplementary
cementing materials and steel fibres endows the developed FR-DUHPC wtih the advantages of both dry concrete
and UHPC and achieves the target of sustainable development.
1. Introduction concrete needs to be moist enough to facilitate the slurry to fill the gap
between the aggregates but viscous enough to support rollers or with
Concrete is a multi-phase heterogeneous composite building mate stand the compaction load until the final form. Roller-compacted con
rial constituted principally with cement, aggregates, chemical additives crete (RCC) and dry-cast concrete (DCC) are two typical dry concrete
and water. In line with the evident distinctions in mixture’s flowability mixtures with different fabrication methods and application areas
and the following fabrication method, concrete may be simply divided (Marchand et al., 1996). Generally, RCC mixture is moulded by com
into two types, i.e., dry concrete and self-compacting concrete. Ac pacting rollers before cement setting occurs without any formwork
cording to the definition of ACI 211.2 (ACI 211.2, 2002), dry concrete is operation (ACI 207.5R (ACI 207.5R, 2011)), and it is commonly utilized
considered as the hardened mixture having a low water-cement ratio in the engineered areas of dams (RCCD) and pavements (RCCP) (Chhorn
and cementitious material content, and its fresh consistency with slump et al., 2018; Li et al., 2015; Aghaeipour and Madhkhan, 2019). For DCC,
value of no more than 25 mm is significantly higher than that of ordinary it is more used for manufacturing small units such as concrete bricks,
Portland cement (OPC) concrete. During the mixing and casting, fresh paving stones, sewer pipes, segmental retaining walls and roof tiles.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Wu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130507
Received 7 July 2021; Received in revised form 27 December 2021; Accepted 11 January 2022
Available online 17 January 2022
0959-6526/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Shao et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 337 (2022) 130507
Vibrated-compaction is required to ensure a sufficient consolidation Model I fracture toughness considering the possible kinked cracks
when preparing DCC products, and the casting moulds can be removed (Rooholamini et al., 2018b). Mohamed et al. (2014) studied the me
immediately once the mixture is formed (ACI 211.2, 2002; Ling, 2012; chanical performance of steel fibre-reinforced DCC to explore the pos
Sukontasukkul and Chaikaew, 2006; Zhang et al., 2021a). sibility of using developed DCC to replace conventional RC for
Based on the main application fields of literatures reported dry fabricating the pipes. Different types of commercial steel fibres were
concrete, its structures and members are susceptible to damage caused mixed and full-scale pipe specimens with a diameter of 300 mm were
by flexural-bending load, abrasion and penetrated erosion during their tested via carrying out Three Edge Bearing Tests. It was concluded that
service. Unfortunately, the mechanical performance and durability of the collated hooked-end steel fibres demonstrated the most evident
the existing or developed dry concrete are unsatisfying due to its improvement in bending performance of pipe specimens such as flexural
inherent features, such as low cement and moisture content, as well as a strength and post-crack behaviour. Dispersed steel fibres with more than
large amount of recycled materials used to replace partial OPC (fly ash, 20 kg/m3 volume addition reached the reinforcement requirements for
alkali-activated slag, rice husk ash, natural pozzolan, waste glass pow Class V pipes specified in ASTM C76, and could be adopted to replace
der, etc.) (Mardani-Aghabaglou et al., 2013; Xiao et al., 2020, 2021; regular steel cages inside pre-cast concrete pipes. Additionally, re
Modarres and Hosseini, 2014; Ghahari et al., 2017; Omran et al., 2017) searchers who mixed PP and polyvinyl alcohol fibres into the mixtures
and aggregate (electric arc furnace slag, circulating fluidized bed com came to the similar conclusions of fibres’ toughening effect on DCC pipe
bustion ash, recycled concrete aggregate, crumb rubber, recycled cath properties (Peyvandi et al., 2013; Park et al., 2015; Wilson and Abol
ode ray tube funnel glass powder, etc.) (Lam et al., 2017; Chi and Huang, maali, 2014). In addition to steel, PP and polyvinyl alcohol fibres re
2014; Lopez-Uceda et al., 2018; Adamu et al., 2018a; Ling and Poon, ported above, different recycled fibres, such as reused tyre
2014). Therefore, to improve the mechanical performance of dry con (Angelakopoulos et al., 2015; Graeff et al., 2012), waste plastic (Sobhan
crete and extend its service life, many experimental studies have been and Mashnad, 2001) and recycled glass fibres (Yildizel et al., 2018),
carried out. Adamu et al. (2018a) explored the compressive/ were also added to dry concrete to improve its target performance.
flexural/splitting tensile strength, elastic modulus and abrasion resis Table 1 summarizes representative studies on the impacts of fibre type
tance of high-volume fly ash RCC mixed with rubble particles and and volume content on the compressive, flexural and split tensile
nano-silica. It was indicated that all the foregoing properties strengths of dry concrete.
decreased as the ratio of rubber particles replacing fine aggregate
increased, but nano-silica could mitigate these adverse impacts owing to 2. Research objectives
its great pozzolanic effect on densifying the microstructure and ITZ
(interfacial transition zone) of concrete matrix. In addition, the authors Dry concrete is broadly applied to the construction of dams and
pointed out that the addition of nano-silica could contribute to better pavements as well as the fabrication of pre-cast units considering its
fatigue, shrinkage and creep resistance of crumb rubber-incorporated economic performance, simple preparation and high early strength.
RCC with and without high-volume fly ash (Adamu et al., 2018b, However, the strengths of literatures reported dry concrete are relatively
2018c). The method of using waste rubber as a partial substitute for
aggregate was also adopted by Ling (2012), who had studied the impacts
of fabrication method and rubber addition on the performance of DCC Table 1
paving blocks. The results showed that the compressive/flexural Summary of various fibre’s effect on strength behaviour of RCC and DCC (In
strengths of block samples were slightly improved with low rubber crease: ↑, Decrease: ↓).
content of no more than 10%, but more porosity and cracks would Authors Fibre type Compressive Flexural Split tensile
appear after a larger substitution was adopted. However, the inclusion of (Volume strength strength strength
soft rubber particles was able to increase the sample’s deformability and content, %)
toughness efficiently, which was beneficial for improving its ductility Algin et al. ( Twisted/ 0.2–0.6%↑ 0.2–0.6%↑ –
and further transforming the brittle failure characteristics. It is also Algin and Mesh PP
worth pointing out that although the incorporation of sustainable Gerginci, (0.2, 0.4,
2020) 0.6)
cementitious materials would reduce the mechanical properties (espe
Kolase et al. ( Triangular 0.25–0.75%↓ 0.25–0.75%↑ Variable
cially the early performance) of dry concrete to some extent, the proper Kolase and PP (0.25,
addition of some foregoing materials, such as fly ash (Adamu et al., Desai, 2019) 0.5, 0.75)
2018a; Atiş, 2005), ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) (Rao Yazici et al. ( Mesh PP 0.25–0.75%↓ 0.25–0.75%↓ 0.25–0.5%↑,
Yazici et al., (0.25, 0.5, 0.75%↓
et al., 2016) and white cement by pass dust (Ashteyat et al., 2019), could
2015) 0.75)
weaken their adverse impacts and positively affect the long-term per Ashteyat et al. Virgin PP 0.25%↑, – 0.25%↑,
formance of dry concrete. (Ashteyat (0.25, 0.5) 0.5%↑ 0.5%↑
Numerous studies have illustrated that fibres exhibit a remarkable et al., 2019)
effect on increasing the ultimate strength and toughness of concrete, and LaHucik et al. ( Embossed/ 0.2%↑, 0.4%↑ 0.2%↓, 0.2%↑, 0.4%↑
LaHucik Smooth PP 0.4%↓
improving its impact resistance and durability by virtue of restricting the
et al., 2017) (0.2, 0.4)
micro-cracks propagation and bridging the matrix on both sides of Hooked end 0.2%↑, 0.4%↓ 0.2%↑, 0.2%↑, 0.4%↑
macro-cracks (Zhang et al., 2021b; Chun et al., 2020; Yoo et al., 2020a, steel (0.2, 0.4%↓
2020b; Wang et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2018). Researchers are therefore 0.4)
committed to studying the effects of fibre type and content on various Peyvandi et al. Polyvinyl 0.8%↓ 0.8%↑ –
(Peyvandi alcohol (0.8)
properties of dry concrete. Rooholamini et al. (2018a) explored the and
impact of twisted polyethylene (PP) fibre on the consistency and me Soroushian,
chanical behaviour of RCCP by conducting three-point bending tests on 2015)
pre-cracking beams and using response surface methodology. Test re Sobhan et al. ( Waste 0.25%↓, Variable 0.25%
Sobhan and plastic 0.5%↓ Variable,
sults indicated that although the incorporation of PP fibres would
Mashnad, (0.25, 0.5) 0.5%↑
diminish the mixture consistency and therefore increase the compaction 2001)
energy, it remarkably contributed to flexural strength and fracture en Yildizel et al. ( Recycled 1.0–2.0%↓ 1.0–1.5%↓, –
ergy in addition to compressive strength. Moreover, to further evaluate Yildizel glass (1.0, 2.0%↑
the effect of mono/hybrid (PP and steel) fibres on fracture behaviour of et al., 2018) 1.5, 2.0)
RCCP, a modified two-parameter model was developed to study the Notes: “PP” denotes polypropylene and “–” denotes unstudied.
2
low and its ductility is not good owing to the use of coarse aggregates pointed out that the utilization of foregoing ASCMs can also minimize
and a large amount of alternative materials, even after fibre reinforce the amount of cement used and cut down the environmental wastes
ment. Therefore, this study aims to develop a sustainable dry ultra-high generated, which is in line with green and sustainable concrete concepts.
performance concrete (DUHPC), which not only exhibits the charac As for aggregate, natural quartz sand with an aggregate size ranged
teristics of fast hardening speed and rapid demoulding of conventional between 0.12 mm and 1.18 mm was employed to substitute the tradi
dry concrete, but also possesses the advantages of ultra-high strength tional gravel aggregate inside the concrete mixture in favour of good
and great toughness (ductility) of UHPC. Subsequently, the impacts of particle packing and cementitious materials with the aggregate bond. Its
different curing regimes and fibre volume contents on the mechanical specific gravity and packing density were, respectively, 2.63 and 1.65 g/
behaviour of steel fibre-reinforced DUHPC (FR-DUHPC) are further cm3, and the water absorption was 0.58%. The particle size distribution
assessed. The following objectives are planned to be accomplished: curves of cement, silica fume, fly ash, GGBS and natural quartz sand
mixed in dry-cast mortar and DUHPC mixtures are plotted in Fig. 1.
– Investigating the influences of water-binder ratio and substitution Moreover, smooth and copper-coated steel micro-fibres with diameter of
percentage for cement using silica fume, fly ash and GGBS on the 0.12 mm, length-diameter ratio of 83.33 and tensile strength of more
properties of dry-cast cement mortar by fixing the amount of total than 4000 MPa were added to DUHPC to upgrade its mechanical per
cementitious materials, aggregate and superplasticizer in the mixes. formance. The used volume content of the fibre incorporation was 0.5%,
– Determining the benchmark mix proportion of DUHPC by adopting a 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0%, respectively. Since the moisture content of dry
high-efficiency, fast and economical orthogonal experimentation concrete was limited and the presence of steel fibres reduced the
with a L16 (45) orthogonal array. workability of the mixture, polycarboxylate superplasticizer containing
– Studying the effects of curing regime (normal-temperature water early-strength ingredients and a water-reducing rate of 27% was added
curing, moist/steam curing and hot-water bath curing) and fibre to all mixtures to achieve a satisfied consistency and good workability.
volume content (0.5–2.0 Vol-%) on the mechanical performance
(compression, flexure and split tension), damage and microstructure 3.2. Proportioning design method
of FR-DUHPC.
– Selecting an appropriate curing temperature and fibre volume con For the purpose of determining the benchmark mix proportion of FR-
tent of FR-DUHPC in view of the cost, preparation compactibility and DUHPC as well as exploring the effects of water-binder ratio (w/b) and
mechanical properties for practical applications. the substitution ratio of cement using silica fume, fly ash and GGBS on
– Evaluating the environmental impact of the developed sustainable the behaviour of dry-cast cement mortar, a high-efficiency orthogonal
DUHPC via considering the total amount of alternative supplemen test method was used in this study. Orthogonal test uses orthogonal table
tary cementitious materials and CO2 emissions. to arrange parameters and levels, and selects representative tests from
all combinations to perform range and variance analysis, and finally
3. Materials and proportioning design obtains the optimal combination (Feng et al., 2021). Based on the pre
liminary experiments, the fractions of total cementitious materials,
3.1. Raw materials aggregate and superplasticizer were set to predetermined values, and
the mass ratio of these materials was 1: 1.85: 0.02. L16 (45) orthogonal
Like traditional concrete, the properties of dry concrete are associ table with an empty column was selected, and the parameters and levels
ated with the type, proportion ratio and moisture content of its matrix of the orthogonal experiments are detailly illustrated in Table 3, in
raw materials. It is thus important to use appropriate raw materials and which the percentage value indicates the replacement ratio of the cor
carry out mix design for fresh mixture workability as well as strength responding ASCMs for cement. Finally, 16 dry-cast mortar mixes with
and durability of hardened concrete. To ensure the consistency of dry- the combination of four levels of A, B, C and D and an error column were
cast cement mortar and fibre-reinforced dry ultra-high performance prepared without any significance. The mixture combinations are given
concrete (FR-DUHPC), the cement used was composite Portland cement in Table 4. After the optimal mix proportion of dry-cast cement mortar
(42.5 Grade) complying with the Chinese standard GB175-2020. The was determined, steel fibres with volume content ranged between 0.5%
ultra-fine industrial waste silica fume was selected as an alternative and 2.0% were added to the matrix to investigate their effects on the
supplementary cementitious material (ASCM) to densify the micro performance of FR-DUHPC.
structure of concrete matrix in consideration of its remarkable pozzo
lanic activity and micro-aggregate filling effect. Moreover, in order to
improve the mixture’s internal microstructure, interfacial properties,
workability and reduce its early hydration heat, as well as enhance the
long-term strength of dry concrete (based on the secondary hydration
reaction), fly ash and GGBS were added to concrete mixture as a partial
substitute for the cement. The main components and physical charac
teristics of silica fume, fly ash and GGBS are listed in Table 2. It should be
Table 2
Components and physical characteristics of silica fume, fly ash and GGBS.
Components/ Silica fume Fly ash GGBS
Properties
Al2O3 (%) – 29.09 21.71

SiO2 (%) 93.91 53.36 34.43
CaO (%) 1.85 8.27 33.16
Other components MgO, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, Fe2O3, MgO, Fe2O3,
Na2O K2 O SO3
Loss ignition (%) 0.30 2.48 1.01
Fineness (Blaine, m2/ – 359 385
kg)
Fig. 1. Particle size distributions of raw materials used in dry-cast cement
Specific gravity 2.20 2.55 2.83
mortar and DUHPC.
3
Table 3 frequency of 48 Hz and an amplitude of 0.3–0.6 mm. The vibrating

Factors and levels of the orthogonal experiments. duration was between 20 and 35 s per layer and the slurry ring would
Factors Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 appear in previous layer prior to starting to prepare the next layer.
Surcharges with different cross-sectional dimensions and shapes, based
Water-binder ratio A 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18
Silica fume B 0% 5% 10% 15% on different mechanical tests, were used to distribute the vibrated-
Fly ash C 0% 10% 15% 20% compaction energy. Finally, a plastic film that prevented the evapora
GGBS D 0% 5% 10% 15% tion of water was employed to wrap the mould. It is noteworthy that the
low moisture content and steel fibre addition affected the consistency of
FR-DUHPC. Thus, extra attention was paid once the water was added.
4. Specimen preparation, curing and testing
Short wet stirring time could not adequately mix dry materials with
water, whereas the water evaporation inside the mixture would increase
4.1. Specimen preparation
with long mixing period, resulting in attenuated concrete performance.
Fig. 2 exhibits the complete preparation process of FR-DUHPC samples
During the preparation of dry-cast cement mortar, well-graded
and the used moulds (surcharges) respectively for compression, bending
quartz sand and powder materials which consisted of cement, silica
and split tension tests.
fume, fly ash and GGBS were dry mixed utilizing a laboratory concrete
mixer for 5 min prior to any water introduction. Additionally, steel fi
bres were evenly dispersed into the mixer within the 5 min of dry mixing 4.2. Curing regime
when the FR-DUHPC mixture was being mixed. Afterwards, the weighed
water (superplasticizer pre-blended) was slowly poured into dry mate Three curing regimes including normal-temperature water curing
rials and mixed for another 7 min and then fibres were uniformly (20 ◦ C), moist/steam curing (30–60 ◦ C) and hot-water bath curing
distributed and the desired consistency was observed. Subsequently, the (90 ◦ C) were employed to study the effect of curing regime on the
fresh mixtures were poured into steel/plastic variform moulds and behaviour of FR-DUHPC. Moist/steam curing is a high efficiency curing
compacted in three layers via utilizing a concrete shaking table with a method in common use for pre-cast concrete components, and another
two are universally accepted concrete curing methods in laboratories,
Table 4
Orthogonal experiments for mortar mixtures and the relevant test results.
Mix No. W/b (A) Silica fume (B) Fly ash (C) GGBS (D) Error (E) Unit weight (kg/m3) fc (MPa) fr (MPa) fts (MPa)
Fresh Hardened 3-day 7-day 3-day 7-day 3-day 7-day
L1 1 1 1 1 1 2170 2173 30.1 31.7 6.6 9.6 3.3 3.5

L2 1 2 2 2 2 2208 2211 38.9 41.0 5.8 10.1 4.2 4.9
L3 1 3 3 3 3 2277 2302 49.9 58.0 7.6 11.7 4.3 5.7
L4 1 4 4 4 4 2322 2326 54.6 66.8 9.7 12.9 4.6 6.5
L5 2 1 2 3 4 2226 2229 30.2 31.8 4.9 7.3 3.6 3.9
L6 2 2 1 4 3 2310 2314 53.9 55.1 11.2 11.9 5.0 5.4
L7 2 3 4 1 2 2299 2283 61.9 87.8 15.3 16.3 6.1 8.4
L8 2 4 3 2 1 2290 2288 60.7 79.5 12.8 14.8 6.2 7.4
L9 3 1 3 4 2 2242 2245 42.2 44.4 5.2 7.2 3.3 3.6
L10 3 2 4 3 1 2259 2252 61.5 63.8 9.3 11.1 3.8 4.8
L11 3 3 1 2 4 2303 2304 73.5 78.0 10.5 14.7 5.8 7.2
L12 3 4 2 1 3 2267 2269 67.1 76.8 9.9 13.3 5.2 6.7
L13 4 1 4 2 3 2273 2275 50.2 61.2 6.7 7.5 3.0 3.7
L14 4 2 3 1 4 2259 2261 72.4 82.1 9.5 12.0 4.1 6.9
L15 4 3 2 4 1 2268 2271 70.6 74.6 6.8 10.4 4.6 6.3
L16 4 4 1 3 2 2304 2307 77.6 82.8 9.5 11.5 5.9 7.4
Fig. 2. Completed preparation process of FR-DUHPC specimens for static mechanical tests.
4
especially for preparing UHPC. After compaction, moist/steam curing loading plates via two upper and lower plywood with a width of 4 mm.
samples were placed in an insulated container at corresponding tem Then, the compressive load was slowly applied along the height of the
peratures for 24 h, and the samples under the other two curing condi sample at a rate of 0.05 mm/min. Tests stopped when the cylindrical
tions were cured in a humid room (20 ± 2 ◦ C) for 24 h first. All samples samples were split into two parts along the loading direction as shown in
were then in turn demoulded and cured in normal-temperature water Fig. 4, and this damage pattern was caused by the indirect tensile stress
until they were tested. For hot-water bath samples, they were cured in from the Poisson’s effect. Similarly, a total of 321 dry-cast samples with
hot water for another 24 h before put in 20 ◦ C water. For dry-cast mortar 105 cement mortar and 216 FR-DUHPC were laboratorial prepared and
samples, room-temperature water curing was adopted until the testing tested.
age. Concrete samples cured in water were provided with a curing
environment for the continuous hydration of cementing materials upon 5. Results and discussion
demoulding, and the moisture loss of concrete matrix caused by surface
evaporation could also be effectively prevented, which was beneficial 5.1. Orthogonal experiment results
for dry-cast cement mortar and DUHPC with low moisture content. Prior
to mechanical property tests, all samples were air-dried first and the According to the orthogonal experimental arrangement, a total of 16
load-bearing surfaces were properly sanded and cleaned. Fig. 3 exhibits groups of mix proportion tests were carried out. Three identical dry-cast
the cubic, beam and cylindrical mortar samples after the water curing. cement mortar samples were prepared for each group. The results of the
orthogonal experiments are indicated in Table 4, where fc is the uniaxial
compressive strength, fr is the rupture modulus (flexural strength for FR-
4.3. Test procedure
DUHPC) and fts is the splitting tensile strength. All of the mortar samples
were tested for strength behaviour at 3 and 7 days of 20 ◦ C water curing
4.3.1. Uniaxial compression test
except for unit weight measurement. The benchmark mix proportion of
Quasi-static uniaxial compression tests, complying with the Chinese
FR-DUHPC was then determined in view of the analysis and discussion
standards GB/T50081-2019 and CECS13-89, were performed on dry-
on these orthogonal test results.
cast cement mortar and FR-DUHPC samples utilizing a computer-
controlled hydraulic testing machine with a capacity of 100 tons. The
5.1.1. Unit weight of cement mortar
dimensions of cubic samples were 40 × 40 × 40 mm and their com
The range analysis of unit weight and the influences of each factor in
pacted surfaces were set as the load-bearing direction. All samples were
the orthogonal experiments are, respectively, exhibited in Table 5 and
centrally placed between the upper and lower rigid plates and loaded at
Fig. 5. The fresh unit weight corresponded to the state of the mixture
a constant rate of 0.2 mm/min until failure. On both sides of the support
after the vibrated compaction and prior to curing, and the hardened unit
plate, two LVDTs were symmetrically fixed to measure the axial
weight referred to the state of the mortar samples after they were
displacement of the samples. In total there were 321 cubic samples
demoulded. As can be observed from the range analysis, interestingly,
tested, including 105 dry-cast cement mortar and 216 FR-DUHPC
the unit weight of cement mortar under both fresh and hardened con
samples.
ditions was more affected by the replacement percentage of silica fume
and fly ash rather than water-binder ratio. During the mixing, it could be
4.3.2. Flexural bending test
observed that under the same water-binder ratio, the consistency was
Quasi-static bending tests, conforming to the Chinese standards GB/
visibly improved with the increase in the content of fly ash substituted
T50081-2019 and CECS13-89, were carried out on beam samples with
for cement. The main reason was that fly ash with a micro-spherical
dimensions of 40 × 40 × 160 mm by using a 5-ton universal testing
appearance enhanced the movement and permeability of the paste
machine. The flexural behaviour of beam samples without notch was
across aggregate cracks and thus improving the interface bonding per
explored via using a three-point flexural bending configuration, and the
formance between aggregates and slurries. The increased amount of fly
clear span between the two roller supports was 100 mm. Similarly, two
ash micro-spheres after the equivalent mass substitution of cement
symmetrical LVDT sensors were arranged at each side of the mid-span to
further enhanced the foregoing effect. Furthermore, the increase in silica
record the vertical displacement (deflection) of the samples. In order to
fume content also densified the microstructure of cement mortar and
obtain the sample’s complete force-deflection relationship, a displace
improved its unit weight. The results of analysis of variance (ANOVA)
ment loading mechanism of 0.05 mm/min was adopted. The compacted
for unit weight of dry-cast cement mortar are presented in Table 6 in
surfaces were also set as the load-bearing surface, and a total of 105
detail, where SSA is the sum of squares, DOF is the degrees of freedom
cement mortar and 216 FR-DUHPC samples were prepared and tested.
and MSA is the mean squares for each variation source. It was indicated
that all sources had no significant effect on both fresh and hardened unit
4.3.3. Splitting tension test
weight since the F-value was less than 9.28 (F0.05). After considering the
Splitting tension tests, in accordance with the Chinese standards GB/
cost and unit weight of dry-cast mortar samples, the optimal combina
T50081-2019 and CECS13-89, were conducted on cylindrical dry-cast
tion is A2B3C4D4.
mortar and FR-DUHPC samples with dimensions of 50 mm in diam
eter and height via utilizing a 10-ton universal testing machine. Cylin
drical samples were horizontally fixed between the rigid support and
Fig. 3. Dry-cast cement mortar of (a) cubic, (b) beam and (c) cylindrical samples after the curing.
5
Fig. 4. Split tension test setup (left) and failure pattern (right) of the mortar sample.
Table 5
Response table for unit weight of dry-cast cement mortar.
Levels Fresh mixture unit weight (kg/m3) Hardened mixture unit weight (kg/m3)
A B C D E A B C D E
1 2244 2227 2272 2249 2247 2248 2230 2275 2251 2251
2 2281 2259 2243 2269 2263 2284 2262 2245 2271 2266
3 2268 2287 2267 2267 2282 2270 2289 2271 2270 2285
4 2276 2296 2288 2285 2278 2279 2299 2291 2289 2280
Delta (△) 37.0 68.0 46.0 36.0 35.0 36.0 69.0 47.0 38.0 34.0
Rank 3 1 2 4 5 4 1 2 3 5
Fig. 5. Effects of various factors on the unit weight of dry-cast cement mortar.
Table 6
ANOVA table for unit weight of dry-cast cement mortar.
Source Fresh mixture unit weight Hardened mixture unit weight
SSA DOF MSA F-value SSA DOF MSA F-value
Water-binder ratio 3207.188 3 1069.063 1.067NS 3036.500 3 1012.167 1.036NS

Silica fume 11283.188 3 3761.063 3.753NS 11326.500 3 3775.500 3.864NS
Fly ash 4345.188 3 1448.396 1.445NS 4345.000 3 1448.333 1.482NS
GGBS 2709.688 3 903.229 0.901NS 2929.500 3 976.500 0.999NS
Error 3006.190 3 1002.063 – 2931.500 3 977.167 –
Notes: “NS” denotes no significant.
Table 7
Response table for compressive strength of dry-cast cement mortar.
Levels 3-day compressive strength (MPa) 7-day compressive strength (MPa)
A B C D E A B C D E
1 43.4 38.2 58.8 57.9 55.7 49.4 42.3 61.9 69.6 62.4
2 51.7 56.7 51.7 55.8 55.2 63.6 60.5 56.1 64.9 64.0
3 61.1 64.0 56.3 54.8 55.3 65.8 74.6 66.0 59.1 62.8
4 67.7 65.0 57.1 55.3 57.7 75.2 76.5 69.9 60.2 64.7
Delta (△) 24.3 26.8 7.1 3.1 2.5 25.8 34.2 13.9 10.5 2.3
Rank 2 1 3 4 5 2 1 3 4 5
6
5.1.2. Compressive strength of cement mortar experiments are, respectively, introduced in Table 11 and Fig. 8. Since
The range analysis for dry-cast cement mortar in compressive the flexural bending and split tension tests were two commonly used
strength and the influences of each factor in orthogonal experiments are, means to measure the tensile behaviour of concrete members, the effect
respectively, presented in Table 7 and Fig. 6. Data and curves clearly of four factors on split tensile strength was similar to that on rupture
illustrated that the order of the effect of various factors on 3 and 7-day modulus. The content of silica fume substituting partial cement and the
compressive strength was the same, i.e., silica fume content > water- water-binder ratio were two prominent factors affecting the early split
binder ratio > fly ash content > GGBS content. The 3 and 7-day tensile performance of the cement mortar, but the other two parameters
compressive strength of mortar samples increased as the water-binder showed a smaller impact. The obtained ANOVA results listed in Table 12
ratio and silica fume content increased. But the strength growth rate further confirmed the above findings and only silica fume content was
slowed down observably when the replacement ratio of silica fume conspicuous for 3-day split tensile strength. Finally, the optimal
exceeded 10%. Moreover, the effect of fly ash and GGBS replacement on proportioning combination in consideration of the split tensile perfor
3-day compression behaviour was not evident. However, the 7-day mance is A2B3C4D2, which is the same as that of the rupture modulus.
strength was gradually enhanced when the fly ash addition raised
from 10% to 20%, which was due to the continuous secondary hydration 5.1.5. Optimal mix proportion of cement mortar
provided by fly ash with excellent pozzolanic reactivity. Table 8 presents It can be clearly illustrated through the foregoing analysis that the
the significance of various variation sources on the compressive strength proportions of silica fume and fly ash replacing partial cement are the
of dry-cast cement mortar. The results indicated that the water-binder principal elements determining the unit weight of cement mortar.
ratio and silica fume content were highly significant as expressed by However, the influences of both fly ash and GGBS incorporation on its
the F-value greater than 29.5 (F0.01), while the GGBS and fly ash sub mechanical performance are inconspicuous, which are not quite iden
stitution were only, respectively, significant and highly significant for 7- tical to what other researchers have reported (Adamu et al., 2018a; Rao
day compressive strength, which were consistent with the range analysis et al., 2016; Lessard et al., 2017). The reason might be that the
results. Thus, the optimal mix proportion with respect to the compres high-strength mortar contained evidently more cement in comparison
sion performance of cement mortar is A4B3C4D2. with traditional normal-strength dry concrete, and meanwhile the
amounts of cement-substitution with fly ash and GGBS were within a
5.1.3. Rupture modulus of cement mortar lower range in the current study. The active ingredients in these mineral
The range analysis of the rupture modulus for cement mortar and the materials had not fully participated in the pozzolanic reaction at early
effects of each factor from the orthogonal experiments are, respectively, stages, and they mainly played a micro-aggregate filling effect in the
shown in Table 9 and Fig. 7. No surprisingly, the content of silica fume concrete mixture. Therefore, the impact of their content change on
had the greatest impact on both 3 and 7-day rupture modulus of mortar mortar strength was less prominent than that of silica fume and moisture
samples. The influence of water-binder ratio and fly ash substitution on content. Furthermore, owing to the fact that concrete mechanical
3-day rupture modulus was ranked second and third with little differ properties are the decisive factors affecting its proportioning design and
ence, whereas the other three parameters excluding silica fume addition also dry concrete structures/components are more vulnerable to the
had no remarkable difference on 7-day rupture modulus. The rupture flexural tensile loads during their service life, the mix design should give
modulus was not continuously increased with moisture content, which priority to its impact on the bending performance of dry concrete. Also,
was different from its impact on compressive performance. An optimal since the water-binder ratio exceeding the optimal moisture content
water-binder ratio was found, and beyond/below which the rupture significantly reduced the flexural and split tensile strength values of
modulus would be reduced. Moreover, when the proportion of fly ash cement mortar, the proportioning combination was ultimately deter
replacing partial cement was within the range of 10–20%, its positive mined as A2B3C4D2, i.e., the water-binder ratio was 0.16 and the per
impact on rupture modulus was less evident than that against the centages of using silica fume, fly ash and GGBS instead of partial cement
compressive strength. Table 10 exhibits the results of ANOAV for the were, respectively, 10%, 20% and 5%. High-strength dry-cast cement
rupture performance of mortar samples and it was shown that all control mortar mixed with optimum mix proportions were subsequently pre
factors had remarkable significance when the testing age was 3 days. But pared and tested for 3, 7 and 28-day mechanical properties, and the
for 7-day rupture modulus, the influences of fly ash content and water- corresponding results are summarized in Table 13.
binder ratio/GGBS content were downgraded to inapparent and normal
significance, respectively. In view of the above analysis, the optimal mix
combination for rupture behaviour of cement mortar is A2B3C4D2. 5.2. DUHPC experimental results and discussion
5.1.4. Split tensile strength of cement mortar FR-DUHPC samples were prepared by mixing the above-determined
The range analysis for dry-cast cement mortar in splitting tensile benchmark mix proportion and steel fibres. The mass ratio of the
strength and the influences of each factor from the orthogonal incorporated cement, silica fume, fly ash, GGBS, aggregate, water and
superplasticizer were 1: 0.15: 0.31:0.08: 2.84: 0.25: 0.03, and smooth
Fig. 6. Effects of various factors on the compressive strength of dry-cast cement mortar.
7
Table 8
ANOVA table for compressive strength of dry-cast cement mortar.
Source 3-day compressive strength 7-day compressive strength
Water-binder ratio 1362.937 3 454.312 82.647** 1363.523 3 454.508 101.453**

Silica fume 1851.117 3 617.039 112.250** 3004.223 3 1001.408 223.529**
Fly ash 109.502 3 36.501 6.640NS 421.067 3 140.356 31.330**
GGBS 21.737 3 7.246 1.318NS 277.282 3 92.427 20.631*
Error 16.490 3 5.497 – 13.440 3 4.480 –
Notes: “NS” denotes no significant, “*” denotes significant and “**” denotes highly significant.
Table 9
Response table for rupture modulus of dry-cast cement mortar.
Levels 3-day rupture modulus (MPa) 7-day rupture modulus (MPa)
A B C D E A B C D E
1 7.4 5.9 9.5 10.3 8.9 11.1 7.9 11.9 12.8 11.5
2 11.1 9.0 6.9 9.0 9.0 12.6 11.3 10.3 11.8 11.3
3 8.7 10.1 8.8 7.8 8.9 11.6 13.3 11.4 10.4 11.1
4 8.1 10.5 10.3 8.2 8.7 10.4 13.1 12.1 10.6 11.7
Delta (△) 3.6 4.6 3.4 2.5 0.3 2.2 5.4 1.8 2.4 0.6
Rank 2 1 3 4 5 3 1 4 2 5
Fig. 7. Effects of various factors on the rupture modulus of dry-cast cement mortar.
Table 10
ANOVA table for rupture modulus of dry-cast cement mortar.
Source 3-day rupture modulus 7-day rupture modulus
Water-binder ratio 29.642 3 9.881 147.478** 10.477 3 3.492 12.041*

Silica fume 52.357 3 17.452 260.478** 75.027 3 25.009 86.238**
Fly ash 25.297 3 8.432 125.851** 7.377 3 2.459 8.479NS
GGBS 14.502 3 4.834 72.149** 14.962 3 4.987 17.197*
Error 0.200 3 0.067 – 0.870 3 0.290 –
Notes: “NS” denotes no significant, “*” denotes significant and “**” denotes highly significant.
fibres with 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0% volume fractions of the total
Table 11
mixture volume were used for reinforcing the concrete matrix. Three
Response table for split tensile strength of dry-cast cement mortar.
different curing regimes including 20 ◦ C normal-temperature water
Levels 3-day split tensile strength (MPa) 7-day split tensile strength (MPa) curing (W), 30–60 ◦ C moist/steam curing (M) and 90 ◦ C hot-water bath
A B C D E A B C D E curing (H) were adopted, and FR-DUHPC samples were tested for den
1 4.1 3.3 5.0 4.7 4.5 5.2 3.7 5.9 6.4 5.5
sity and mechanical performance after 1 day (M), 3 (W and H), 7 and 28
2 5.2 4.3 4.4 4.8 4.9 6.3 5.5 5.4 5.8 6.1 days of curing. The tests results for density and various strength prop
3 4.5 5.2 4.5 4.4 4.4 5.6 6.9 5.9 5.5 5.4 erties based on the average of three identical FR-DUHPC samples are
4 4.4 5.5 4.4 4.4 4.5 6.1 7.0 5.9 5.5 6.1 listed in detail in Table 14.
Delta (△) 1.1 2.2 0.6 0.4 0.5 1.1 3.3 0.5 0.9 0.7
Rank 2 1 3 5 4 2 1 5 3 4
5.2.1. Density of DUHPC mixtures
The density variations in FR-DUHPC samples under different initial
curing temperatures and fibre contents are plotted in Fig. 9. As noticed
in the figure and Tables 13 and 14, changes in temperature from 20 to
8
Fig. 8. Effects of various factors on the split tensile strength of dry-cast cement mortar.
Table 12
ANOVA table for split tensile strength of dry-cast cement mortar.
Source 3-day split tensile strength 7-day split tensile strength
Water-binder ratio 2.722 3 0.907 4.774NS 3.082 3 1.027 1.720NS

Silica fume 11.662 3 3.887 20.458* 29.007 3 9.669 16.196NS
Fly ash 1.043 3 0.348 1.832NS 1.547 3 0.516 0.864NS
GGBS 0.522 3 0.174 0.916NS 2.287 3 0.762 1.276NS
Error 0.570 3 0.190 – 1.790 3 0.597 –
Notes: “NS” denotes no significant and “*” denotes significant.
Table 13
Testing results of optimal mix proportion for dry-cast cement mortar.
Mix combination Unit weight (kg/m3) fc (MPa) fr (MPa) fts (MPa) MOE (GPa)
Fresh Hardened 3-day 7-day 28-day 3-day 7-day 28-day 3-day 7-day 28-day 28-day
A2B3C4D2 2284 2276 65.9 79.8 92.6 9.2 14.1 16.2 4.5 5.2 6.9 35.8
Table 14
Summary of density and mechanical performance test results of prepared FR-DUHPC samples.
Samples Fibre (%) Density (kg/m3) fc (MPa) fr (MPa) fts (MPa)
7-day 28-day 1/3-day 7-day 28-day 1/3-day 7-day 28-day 1/3-day 7-day 28-day
0.5 W20 2359 2343 72.8 (3) 98.4 110.8 10.3 (3) 15.8 19.0 5.0 (3) 6.1 8.5
M30 2348 2334 52.9 (1) 84.4 107.7 8.7 (1) 13.1 17.9 3.5 (1) 5.7 8.4
M40 2328 2331 69.4 (1) 90.6 106.5 10.6 (1) 13.8 16.4 4.4 (1) 6.3 8.2
M50 2335 2310 86.9 (1) 95.9 102.6 12.4 (1) 15.1 15.5 5.1 (1) 7.2 8.1
M60 2326 2323 93.8 (1) 102.6 105.8 13.4 (1) 15.2 15.9 6.2 (1) 7.8 8.4
H90 2336 2349 109.9 (3) 117.2 120.4 18.0 (3) 19.7 20.5 8.2 (3) 9.5 10.3
1.0 W20 2383 2389 94.6 (3) 117.5 139.3 16.9 (3) 22.1 25.3 5.6 (3) 8.7 10.4
M30 2395 2406 64.4 (1) 94.1 140.9 9.8 (1) 17.4 25.0 4.1 (1) 7.1 10.0
M40 2406 2423 77.9 (1) 98.4 135.3 11.9 (1) 18.3 24.3 5.3 (1) 7.6 9.8
M50 2388 2394 89.3 (1) 104.1 133.7 15.3 (1) 19.4 23.7 6.4 (1) 8.5 9.9
M60 2356 2376 102.9 (1) 115.6 130.4 18.4 (1) 21.7 25.0 7.7 (1) 9.2 10.2
H90 2373 2388 120.7 (3) 133.9 141.9 22.9 (3) 26.5 28.5 9.8 (3) 10.9 11.5
1.5 W20 2415 2432 110.5 (3) 128.1 162.6 26.1 (3) 28.5 32.2 8.2 (3) 10.4 13.1
M30 2437 2432 70.7 (1) 108.6 152.9 10.9 (1) 22.2 30.3 4.9 (1) 9.1 12.9
M40 2413 2432 98.8 (1) 120.9 144.4 19.9 (1) 25.5 29.1 7.5 (1) 10.5 12.8
M50 2417 2429 124.8 (1) 132.0 144.6 24.9 (1) 26.7 29.2 9.1 (1) 10.9 12.6
M60 2414 2433 129.7 (1) 141.1 147.0 26.9 (1) 29.7 30.7 10.4 (1) 11.5 13.3
H90 2431 2455 146.3 (3) 155.6 163.3 32.0 (3) 34.6 36.5 12.1 (3) 13.1 14.0
2.0 W20 2441 2472 115.2 (3) 125.3 168.9 27.0 (3) 30.0 36.6 9.6 (3) 12.0 14.2
M30 2434 2448 78.9 (1) 121.2 163.7 15.2 (1) 29.3 35.8 5.2 (1) 10.1 13.8
M40 2452 2468 123.1 (1) 137.8 167.7 25.6 (1) 32.3 36.0 8.9 (1) 11.2 13.5
M50 2438 2435 129.3 (1) 142.4 159.3 28.1 (1) 32.2 33.2 11.4 (1) 12.0 13.4
M60 2425 2451 135.6 (1) 139.3 154.6 29.5 (1) 30.8 32.7 12.5 (1) 13.1 14.3
H90 2436 2471 150.3 (3) 159.5 167.6 35.2 (3) 36.8 38.3 12.8 (3) 13.8 14.6
90 ◦ C had a little effect on FR-DUHPC density, while the average unit dry concrete per unit volume and squeezed the free water space within
weight raised from 2276 to 2448 kg/m3 as the volume content of steel the mixture under the combined conditions of constant moisture content
fibres increased from 0 to 2.0%. Compared with other raw materials, the and vibrated-compaction work. As a result, the mixture’s porosity was
incorporation of steel fibres with higher density increased the mass of reduced and its compactness was enhanced, thereby evidently
9
Fig. 9. Effects of initial curing temperature and fibre dosage on density of DUHPC.
improving the density and various properties of FR-DUHPC. 60 ◦ C at early ages, especially when it reached 40 ◦ C and above. Better
early compressive performance is particularly important for enhancing
5.2.2. Compressive performance the early abrasion resistance of dry concrete structures and components.
The results for the impacts of initial curing temperature and fibre Additionally, it could be noted that for all FR-DUHPC samples, they
content on compressive strength of DUHPC are exhibited in Fig. 10. As exhibited remarkably higher compressive strength after being cured in
can be visually observed from the diagram and Tables 13 and 14 that the hot-water bath in comparison with the same age samples of the other
28-day strength was increased from 92.6 MPa for dry-cast cement two curing methods. The 3-day strength value (H90) was greater than or
mortar to 168.9 MPa for 2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC (W20) samples. More close to the 28-day strength values (W20-M60) for 0.5 Vol-% samples,
over, the average strength values of DUHPC at 28-day age were, and also for 1.0–2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC, their 3-day strength values (H90)
respectively, 109.0 (0.5 Vol-%), 136.9 (1.0 Vol-%), 152.5 (1.5 Vol-%) were all larger than the corresponding samples’ 7-day strength values
and 163.6 (2.0 Vol-%) MPa without considering the influence of (W20-M60). The main reason was that the high-temperature water bath
different initial curing temperatures, and the increments were calcu not only improved the reaction rate and the degree of cement hydration,
lated as 25.6% (0.5–1.0 Vol-%), 11.4% (1.0–1.5 Vol-%) and 7.3% but also fully activated the compound pozzolanic effect of silica fume,
(1.5–2.0 Vol-%). When the curing temperature and testing age were the fly ash and GGBS, which significantly increased the amount of hydration
same, the compressive strength of samples was also enhanced markedly products inside the cementing system and densified the microstructure
with fibre addition. It was noteworthy that the raise in initial curing of the matrix (Shen et al., 2019).
temperature via utilizing moist/steam curing caused a downtrend in The typical and complete compressive stress-strain relationships for
compression behaviour under the same fibre content, especially for 28-day-age 0.5–2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples with various initial
samples at 28-day periods. For instance, the compressive strength of 1.5 curing regimes are plotted in Fig. 12. Curves showed that the
Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples at 28-day age decreased by 6.0%, 11.2%, compression bearing capability enhanced visibly with fibre volume
11.1% and 9.6% as the initial temperature raised from 20 to 30, 40, 50 content, and the corresponding peak strain presented the same
and 60 ◦ C, respectively. The degradation in final strength when raising increasing trend. For the tested DUHPC samples mixed with different
temperatures was ascribed to the decrease in moisture content within fibre additions, the change in the initial curing temperature seemed to
the mixes as well as the denser, heterogeneous and coarser distribution have no obvious regularity in the effect of the strain at the peak stress.
of hydration products (Deghfel et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2011; Balabio Moreover, as can be seen that when the fibre addition was gradually
et al., 2010). However, the rate of compressive strength development for increased and 90 ◦ C water curing was adopted, the overall contour of
DUHPC with 0.5–2.0 Vol-% fibre reinforcements, as depicted in Fig. 11, stress-strain curves became plumper and the descending parts were
was improved as the initial curing temperature increased from 30 to smoother with better extensibility. The increase in fibre addition
Fig. 10. Effects of initial curing temperature and fibre dosage on compressive strength of DUHPC.
10
Fig. 11. Development of various strength values for DUHPC under different initial curing temperatures: (a) 0.5% fibre dosage; (b) 1.0% fibre dosage; (c) 1.5% fibre
dosage and (d) 2.0% fibre dosage.
Fig. 12. Typical 28-day compressive test data of DUHPC samples under various initial curing temperatures: (a) 0.5% fibre dosage; (b) 1.0% fibre dosage; (c) 1.5%
fibre dosage and (d) 2.0% fibre dosage.
11
rendered more “fibre nets” formed inside the concrete and meanwhile derived from the accelerated hydration/secondary hydration reaction,
the accelerated cement hydration and pozzolanic reaction rate enhanced as well as the higher interfacial bond strength existed between steel fi
the bonding property of steel fibres with the matrix, therefore effectively bres and cementing matrix (Shen et al., 2019).
restrained the concrete samples’ lateral deformation and improved their The development of the flexural strength with initial temperature
post-cracking behaviour when they were subjected to compression changes is illustrated in Fig. 14. As an accelerated degree of hydration
loads. and increased amount of hydration products, the raise in temperatures
The 28-day static modulus of elasticity (MOE), calculated from the (30–60 ◦ C) markedly increased the samples’ strength evolution kine
compression test data, for 0.5–2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples at different matics, especially after 40 ◦ C and the fibre volume content reached 1.5
initial curing temperatures are presented in Fig. 13(a). Wang et al. Vol-%. For instance, 85% and 97% of final values of flexural strength
(2015) pointed out that the proportional elastic limit within the rising were, respectively, achieved for 2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples after 1
part of compressive stress-strain curves for UHPC was approximately day of 50 ◦ C moist/steam curing and the following 7 days of 20 ◦ C room-
83–95% of the ultimate load ascribed to its dense and homogeneous temperature water curing, whereas the 28-day strength was only
microstructure, which was significantly broader than that for OPC reduced by 9.3%. Thus, even though a similar phenomenon of the
concrete (40–50%). Thus, 85% of the peak compressive stress was strength attenuation was obtained when comparing the 28-day flexural
considered as the elastic branch to calculate the static MOE of strength values of FR-DUHPC samples cured with moist/steam regime to
FR-DUHPC. As can be observed that the 28-day mean MOE increased those with normal-temperature water, it was greatly advantageous for
from 36.8 to 42.3 GPa with steel fibre content, whereas the variation in some applications that had special requirements for early flexural
initial curing temperature presented little impact on the static MOE. strength, such as paving blocks, pipes, pavements and roof tiles.
Moreover, by comparing the 28-day MOE of 2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC The typical and complete 28-day flexural stress-midspan displace
(W20, 42.8 GPa) and dry-cast cement mortar (35.8 GPa) samples lis ment curves of 0.5–2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples cured with different
ted in Table 13, the change in fibre addition from 0 to 2.0% increased the initial temperatures are displayed in Fig. 15. As shown, the midspan
MOE by 19.6% ascribed to the enhancement of steel fibres for deflection of beam samples subjected to bending load increased linearly
compressive performance. Fig. 13(b) depicts the developed function before the initial cracks appeared and it was directly proportional to the
relationship between FR-DUHPC samples’ 28-day compressive strength bearing loads. Then, the deflection extended plastically up to the peak
and static MOE without considering the impact of different initial curing stress. For 0.5 Vol-% FR-DUHPC, samples cured with different initial
temperatures. As seen from the figure, the increase in compressive temperatures all presented slight brittle failure after reaching the peak
strength caused a logarithmic improvement in static MOE, as expected, stress, but meanwhile they still had a certain plastic deformation ability
and a strong correlation (MOE = 14,152⋅lnfc - 44,028) existed between after the carried loads dropped suddenly, which was due to the presence
these two variables with R2 greater than 0.98. of a small amount of fibres. However, the brittle failure disappeared
under the condition of higher fibre additions and the samples’ ductility
5.2.3. Flexural performance was improved visibly. Moreover, the average midspan deflection cor
The variations in the flexural strength of hardened DUHPC with responding to the peak stress was likewise extended from 0.493 to 0.657
different initial temperatures and fibre contents are indicated in Fig. 14. mm ascribed to the enhanced toughening effect derived from the
As expected, the final strength values after 28 days of 20 ◦ C normal- increased fibre content.
temperature water curing were improved from 16.2 (cement mortar) Fig. 16 presents the pictures of typical failure patterns of 0.5–2.0 Vol-
to 19.0 (0.5 Vol-%), 25.3 (1.0 Vol-%), 32.2 (1.5 Vol-%) and 36.6 (2.0 % FR-DUHPC samples after the three-point bending tests. It was noticed
Vol-%) MPa, and the corresponding percentages were, respectively, that a principal fracture crack propagating from the bottom to the load
17.3%, 33.2%, 27.3% and 13.7%. Additionally, the increments in 28- location occurred in beam samples under the flexural-tensile stress. All
day mean flexural strength for DUHPC samples with 0.5–2.0 Vol-% samples remained intact when the ultimate was reached, even when the
fibre reinforcements were obtained as 44.6%, 23.7% and 13.1%, which fibre addition was lower, that is, they still possessed a good load bearing
indicated that the incorporation of steel fibres into concrete mixes capacity. In addition, part of the fibres pulled out and remaining fibres
contributed more positive effect to the flexural performance rather than bridging the matrix on both sides of the crack were observed within the
the compressive strength. This is extremely beneficial for dry concrete fracture surface. This phenomenon was especially evident when the
structures and components that are mainly subjected to bending loads fibre volume content was higher. During the inception of loading, the
during their serviceability. Furthermore, it should be noticed that an stress of samples was mainly borne by the matrix concrete. As the strain
improvement effect on flexural behaviour better than that on increased, the load carried by steel fibres became larger. After the matrix
compressive property was found when FR-DUHPC samples were cured cracking, the stress between cracks was redistributed and the stress
in 90 ◦ C water after being completely hardened. The 7-day flexural originally borne by the matrix concrete was transferred to fibres. Then
strengths (H90) of samples reinforced with all fibre contents were fibres that had not been pulled out transmitted the load to concrete on
greater than their 28-day strengths under other curing conditions, which both sides of the crack, which rendered samples still to remain load
was mainly attributed to the formation of dense and uniform C–S–H gels bearing capacity and simultaneously retarded the crack propagation.
Fig. 13. (a) 28-day static modulus of elasticity and (b) its relationship with compressive strength of DUHPC samples reinforced with different fibre dosages.
12
Fig. 14. Effects of initial curing temperature and fibre dosage on flexural strength of DUHPC.
Fig. 15. Typical 28-day flexural test data of DUHPC samples under various initial curing temperatures: (a) 0.5% fibre dosage; (b) 1.0% fibre dosage; (c) 1.5% fibre
dosage and (d) 2.0% fibre dosage.
Fig. 16. Typical flexural-tensile failure patterns of (a) 0.5 Vol-%; (b) 1.0 Vol-%; (c) 1.5 Vol-% and (d) 2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples after bending tests.
13
When the number of fibres across the fracture surface increased, the toughening effect of steel fibres rather than the improvement of tensile
duration of the stable crack propagation was prolonged and the ultimate strength of the material itself. Compared with 0.5–1.0 Vol-% FR-
tensile stress reached was also improved. This was the main reason for DUHPC, samples with 1.5% and 2.0% fibre reinforcements presented
the significant difference between FR-DUHPC and OPC concrete in terms higher peak stress and better ductility, and the average vertical
of flexural-tensile failure patterns. displacement corresponding to the ultimate split tensile strength was
extended from 0.851 to 0.923 and 0.943 mm.
5.2.4. Split tensile performance Fig. 19 exhibits the typical failure modes of 0.5–2.0 Vol-% FR-
Fig. 17 exhibits the effects of initial curing temperature and fibre DUHPC samples after the splitting tensile tests. As it can be noticed
volume content on the split tensile performance of DUHPC after having from Fig. 19(a) that cylindrical samples were not split into two pieces
been cured for 1 day as well as 3, 7 and 28 days. Under the normal- under the splitting load, and there were still a large number of fibres
temperature water curing, the variation trend of samples’ strength in bridging the concrete matrix on both sides within the split section.
split tension was basically the same as that in flexure, i.e., the strength Moreover, the width of the principal crack of samples was visibly
increased from 6.9 MPa to more than doubled 14.2 MPa with fibre decreased attributed to the enhancement of the restraint effect of steel
volume content changed from 0 to 2.0%. The largest percentage fibres on macro-cracks development. It should be mentioned that after
improvement in 28-day mean strength of 27.2% was observed when the individual split tensile tests, a small part of cylindrical samples were
fibre incorporation increased from 1.0% to 1.5%. However, on the damaged into the upper, middle and lower parts as shown in Fig. 19(b)
contrary, the insignificant effect of 6.9% enhancement (from 13.1 to in addition to the principal splitting crack. The foremost reason was that
14.0 MPa) occurred when the volume ratio exceeded 1.5%, which was the preparation method of layered vibration and compaction rendered
attributed to fibre agglomeration within the mixes and the visible the fibres distributed along the horizontal direction of the compacted
reduction in workability. Additionally, a relatively large difference from surface, which resulted in the lack of sufficient fibre anchoring between
compressive performance was that the 28-day split tensile behaviour layers.
was modest affected by the changes in initial curing temperature except
for 90 ◦ C. For example, for 0.5 Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples, the 28-day 5.2.5. Strength development kinematics
strength values were, respectively, 8.5, 8.4, 8.2, 8.1 and 8.4 MPa As reported in Sections 5.2.2 to 5.2.4, Fig. 11 demonstrates the
when the temperature raised from 20 to 60 ◦ C, whereas for 1.5 and 2.0 percentage ratios of the strength development in compression, flexure
Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples, their 28-day strength values at 60 ◦ C were and split tension for 0.5–2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples at various initial
even higher. As anticipated, the samples after having been cured in hot curing temperatures. It was shown that the evolution kinematics of all
water had better split tensile performance of evidently higher 3 and 7- strengths were quickened when moist/steam and hot-water bath curing
day strength values. methods were used at early ages, especially when the curing tempera
Fig. 11 also presents the percentage ratios of the split tensile strength ture reached 40 ◦ C and above. The lower moist/steam curing tempera
at 1 day, 3 days and 7 days in comparison with 28 days under different ture could not contribute to satisfactory early mechanical behaviour,
initial curing temperature and fibre content conditions. Although the and the lowest 1-day percentage of samples’ strength development was
temperature changes (excluding 90 ◦ C) had lesser impact on the 28-day 36% of the corresponding 28-day strength value and the highest could
split tensile behaviour of DUHPC, its strength development ratios at the only reach 49%. Compared with other fibre contents, the strength evo
corresponding age were also increased evidently with temperatures lution rate of DUHPC with 0.5% fibre reinforcement was relatively slow
(30–60 ◦ C), especially when the curing temperature reached 40 ◦ C and when adopting normal-temperature water curing method, but as the
above. In addition, compared to the 60 ◦ C moist/steam curing method, initial curing temperature raised, the difference between its strength
high-temperature water bath curing exhibited a better promoting effect development kinematics and other 1.0–2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples
on the development of the early split tensile strength for DUHPC samples was gradually smaller. The reason may be that the early strength of
reinforced with 0.5–1.5 Vol-% fibre additions. DUHPC was greatly affected by fibre content when the initial tempera
The typical 28-day split tensile stress-displacement curves of 0.5–2.0 ture was lower, whereas increasing curing temperature accelerated the
Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples adopting various initial curing methods are formation of hydration products and weakened the effect of fibre con
plotted in Fig. 18. As could be observed that the extent of the sudden tent on the strength. Moreover, it should be particularly pointed out that
drop in split tensile stress when failure occurred was effectively the hot-water bath curing not only markedly enhanced the ultimate
controlled with fibre content. The peak split tensile stress of DUHPC strength in compression, flexure and split tension, but also evidently
samples was determined as the first point where the bearing capacity speeded up the early evolution rate of various strength properties of
was insufficient owing to the crack initiation, and the subsequent load DUHPC. For example, the 3 and 7-day compressive strength could be
carried by samples after failure was considered to be more from the achieved up to 91% and 97% of 28-day strength; for the flexural
Fig. 17. Effects of initial curing temperature and fibre dosage on split tensile strength of DUHPC.
14
Fig. 18. Typical 28-day split tensile test data of DUHPC samples under various initial curing temperatures: (a) 0.5% fibre dosage; (b) 1.0% fibre dosage; (c) 1.5%
fibre dosage and (d) 2.0% fibre dosage.
Fig. 19. (a) Typical split tensile failure and (b) delamination patterns of FR-DUHPC samples.
strength, the percentages were up to 92% and 96%, and for the split 5.2.6. Relationship between strength behaviour
tensile strength, the maximum strength percentage ratios could reach Taking into account that dry concrete structures and components are
88% and 95%. In general, the prepared FR-DUHPC possessed excellent more susceptible to flexural tensile loads during their service life, as well
mechanical performance while having fast hardening along with early as the complexity of the indirect tensile tests and the discreteness of the
strength characteristics irrespective of which curing regime was results, it is therefore necessary and meaningful to predict the indirect
adopted. tensile behaviour through the material’s compressive performance.
Fig. 20. Relationships between compressive and flexural strength of 0.5–2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples after (a) 1 day of moist/steam curing and (b) following 7/28
days of normal-temperature water curing.
15
Fig. 21. Relationships between compressive and split tensile strength of 0.5–2.0 Vol-% FR-DUHPC samples after (a) 1 day of moist/steam curing and (b) following 7/
28 days of normal-temperature water curing.
Figs. 20 and 21 respectively displays the relationships between 5.3. Microstructure analysis (SEM)
compression and flexure as well as split tension of 0.5–2.0 Vol-% FR-
DUHPC samples under moist/steam curing (30–60 ◦ C) conditions. As reported above, the moist/steam curing regime is generally used
Each set of correlations was divided into 1-day (4 data points) and 7/28- to accelerate the hardening rate of dry concrete mixtures and increase
day (8 data points) models since the 1-day strength was greatly affected the turnaround speed of moulds. Thus, to further explore the effect of
by the change in curing temperatures as discussed above. Good re moist/steam curing on the early performance of DUHPC, the 1-day
lationships were observed existing between compressive and another microstructure patterns for concrete mixtures under different moist/
two strength behaviour with R2 greater than 0.9, except for 7/28-day steam curing temperatures were studied utilizing SEM technique, which
compressive-split tensile relationship of 2.0% FR-DUHPC samples (R2 could clearly exhibit the mixtures’ microstructure and the distribution of
= 0.822) as presented in Fig. 21(b). The various models with respect to hydration products upon heating (Li et al., 2021). The typical morpho
these strength properties are summarized in Table 15 in detail. It can be logical images were presented in Fig. 22. It can be distinctly observed
clearly found that enhancing the compressive strength led to a power from Fig. 22(a) that when the initial curing temperature was 30 ◦ C, the
functional improvement in two indirect tensile performance, but the degree of cement hydration was lower and meanwhile the hydration
growth rate of the split tensile strength under the same fibre content was process of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) was still within
slower than that of the flexural strength. Furthermore, the positive effect the preliminary stage. Large amount of needle-bar ettringite (AFt) phase
of fibre content on flexural performance was likewise significantly as well as unreacted spherical fly ash and silica fume particles were
stronger than its effect on split tension. The main reason was that the embedded/interlaced in C–S–H gels, which were derived from the
preparation method of layered vibration/compaction rendered FR- cementing materials hydration. Moreover, the crystalline Ca(OH)2 in the
DUHPC cylinder samples lack sufficient fibre bonding between the form of laminated shapes could also be visually recognized attributed to
layers, as illustrated in Fig. 19(b), which in turn caused the samples to be the slow pozzolanic reaction of fly ash and GGBS at early ages (Liu et al.,
more prone to damage when subjected to splitting loads. It can also be 2019). As expected, the raise in initial curing temperature contributed to
observed from Fig. 21 that the introduction of 2.0 Vol-% steel fibres increased cement hydration rate along with the consumption of Ca
possessed a slightly remarkable impact on improving split tensile (OH)2, as a result of accelerated secondary hydration process of SCMs,
behaviour under the same compressive strength values, and this and produced more gels filling up the pores in the mixtures (Sun et al.,
enhancement effect became evident when the curing age was longer, 2020) and consequently rendered the DUHPC matrix more dense as
and the fibre content was also extended to 1.5 Vol-%. Nevertheless, the depicted in Fig. 22(b) and (c). However, the raise in temperatures during
split tensile strength values of samples mixing with 2.0% fibre addition the early moist/steam curing also speeded up the migration of surface
were more discrete (with the minimum goodness of fit) owing to the water into the concrete matrix and formed a denser shell on the surface
potential fibre agglomeration and delamination failure. Hence, in the of cement particles, which in turn reducing the later hydration degree of
case of comprehensive consideration of the cost and mechanical cement clinker (Zhang et al., 2021c). After a long period of high tem
behaviour of FR-DUHPC, volume content of 1.5% was proposed as the perature curing, the hydration products and the interface between ma
most appropriate fibre incorporation in this study. trix and aggregates presented varying degrees of micro-cracks, which
were not conductive to the long-term strength development. When the
curing temperature increased to 60 ◦ C, the foregoing adverse impacts
Table 15 became more evident, accompanied by uneven-distributed and
Correlation models between compression and flexure/split tension for FR- coarse-crystallized hydration products, as well as visibly increased
DUHPC. porosity and ITZ thickness as shown in Fig. 22(d). Combining the
Fibre content Correlation models of compressive-flexural behaviour microstructure characteristics of DUHPC mixtures at different moist/
1-day curing age 7 and 28-day curing age steam curing temperatures and their mechanical properties obtained
from Section 5.2, 50 ◦ C was considered to be the most suitable moist/
0.5% fr = 0.414⋅fc0.764, R2 = 0.997 fr = 0.176⋅fc0.973, R2 = 0.907
1.0% fr = 0.027⋅fc1.408, R2 = 0.990 fr = 0.247⋅fc0.937, R2 = 0.968 steam curing temperature for DUHPC in this study.
1.5% fr = 0.040⋅fc1.340, R2 = 0.983 fr = 0.300⋅fc0.923, R2 = 0.955
2.0% fr = 0.069⋅fc1.230, R2 = 0.997 fr = 1.709⋅fc0.592, R2 = 0.901
5.4. Environmental impact of developed DUHPC
Fibre content Correlation models of compressive-split tensile behaviour
1-day curing age 7 and 28-day curing age In order to prepare UHPC with high strength, low porosity and great
0.5% fts = 0.059⋅fc1.018, R2 = 0.984 fts = 0.010⋅fc1.436, R2 = 0.980 durability, gravel aggregates are generally removed from concrete mix
1.0% fts = 0.017⋅fc1.315, R2 = 0.998 fts = 0.161⋅fc0.841, R2 = 0.961 proportion and more cement is added (800–1000 kg/m3). However, the
1.5% fts = 0.033⋅fc1.178, R2 = 0.986 fts = 0.053⋅fc1.098, R2 = 0.931 huge cement consumption releases a large amount of CO2 in production
2.0% fts 0.003⋅fc1.709, R2 = 0.965 fts 0.123⋅fc0.928, R2 = 0.822
and consumes a lot of resources and energy. As reported above, dry
= =
16
Fig. 22. Microstructure for DUHPC mixtures after 1 day of (a) 30 ◦ C; (b) 40 ◦ C; (c) 50 ◦ C and (d) 60 ◦ C moist/steam curing based on SEM.
concrete contains lower cement and moisture content compared with development along with energy conservation and emission reduction.
conventional OPC concrete, and a variety of waste materials and by-
products can be introduced as ASCMs to replace partial OPC. Table 16 6. Conclusions
exhibits the comparisons of cement content, ASCMs amount, replace
ment percentage and 28-day strength in compression and flexure of 1) The additions of silica fume and fly ash as a partial substitute for
straight steel fibre-reinforced UHPC and developed DUHPC in this study. cement were identified as the most significant factors influencing the
All samples were tested after 28-day normal-temperature water curing. unit weight of dry-cast cement mortar, whereas the water-binder
It is evident that with less cement incorporation and comparable ratio and silica fume content were the predominant parameters
replacement percentage (RP) of cement, the developed DUHPC still affecting its mechanical properties including compression, rupture
exhibited superior strength behaviour. As an illustration, Yu et al. modulus and split tension.
(2014) used 610 kg/m3 cement and 33% substitution of cement to 2) The various mechanical properties of DUHPC were improved
prepare UHPC and the 28-day compressive (fc) and flexural (fr) strengths significantly with steel fibre content at all ages. The increments of
were obtained as around 140 and 26.5 MPa, respectively. However, the 28-day mean strength in compression and flexure of DUHPC with
corresponding strengths of DUHPC can, respectively, reach around 169 0.5–2.0% fibre reinforcements were respectively 25.6%, 11.4%,
and 36.5 MPa with only 560 kg/m3 cement and lower fibre addition. 7.3% and 44.6%, 23.7%, 13.1%, manifesting that the incorporation
Furthermore, the embodied CO2 emission is calculated as approximately of steel fibres contributed more positive effect to the flexural rather
658 kg/m3 for FR-DUHPC based on the CO2 emission indexes of various than the compressive performance, which is extremely beneficial for
raw materials provided by references (Long et al., 2015; Zhang et al., dry concrete structures and units that are mainly subjected to
2019). Hence, conclusion can be drawn that the DUHPC developed in flexural-bending loads during their serviceability.
this study not only possesses the advantages of both dry concrete and 3) The increase in initial curing temperature via adopting moist/steam
UHPC, but also contains low cement content and considerable cement curing regime led to an attenuation trend in various strengths of
substitution, which is consistent with the principles of sustainable DUHPC under the identical fibre content, especially at 28-day
Table 16
Comparisons of ASCMs amount and strength values (28 days) of UHPC and developed DUHPC.
References Cementitious materials (kg/m3) Steel fibre reinforcement Sample size fc fr
Cement ASCMs RP (%) Fibre size (mm) Vol-% (mm) (MPa) (MPa)
Song et al. (Song et al., 2018) ~750 FA + SF, ~344 31 L = 13, d = 0.2 3.0 40 × 40 × 160 ~170 ~33.5
Yu et al. (Yu et al., 2014) ~610 LSP + SP, ~305 33 L = 13, d = 0.2 2.5 40 × 40 × 160 ~140 ~26.5
Wu et al. (Wu et al., 2016) ~785 SF, ~260 25 L = 13, d = 0.2 3.0 40 × 40 × 160 ~160 ~38.0
Xu et al. (Xu et al., 2021) – CTWP, – 35 L = 13, d = 0.2 2.0 40 × 40 × 160 ~135 ~19.0
Brito et al. (Brito et al., 2021) ~570 MK + SF, ~305 35 L = 12.5, d = 0.5 5.0 40 × 40 × 160 ~118 ~36.5
Yu et al. (Yu et al., 2017) ~700 FA + SP, ~200 22 L = 13, d = 0.2 2.5 40 × 40 × 160 – ~25.0
This study ~560 FA + SF + GGBS, ~305 35 L = 10, d = 0.12 2.0 40 × 40 × 160 ~169 ~36.5
Notes: only in this table, “FA” denotes fly ash, “SF” denotes silica fume, “LSP” denotes limestone powder, “SP” denotes silica powder, “CTWP” denotes ceramic tile
waste powder, “MK” denotes metakaolin, “L” denotes fibre length, “d” denotes fibre diameter and “–” denotes unmentioned.
17
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Declaration of competing interest strength and microstructure of ultra-high performance concrete embedded with steel
fibers. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 14, 1893–1902.
Ling, T.-C., 2012. Effects of compaction method and rubber content on the properties of
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial concrete paving blocks. Construct. Build. Mater. 28 (1), 164–175.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Ling, T.-C., Poon, C.-S., 2014. Use of recycled CRT funnel glass as fine aggregate in dry-
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Liu, G., Florea, M.V.A., Brouwers, H.J.H., 2019. Characterization and performance of
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Journal of Cleaner Production 337 (2022) 130507

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

Development of sustainable steel fibre-reinforced dry ultra-high

Al2O3 (%) – 29.09 21.71

Table 3 frequency of 48 Hz and an amplitude of 0.3–0.6 mm. The vibrating

Fresh Hardened 3-day 7-day 3-day 7-day 3-day 7-day

L1 1 1 1 1 1 2170 2173 30.1 31.7 6.6 9.6 3.3 3.5

SSA DOF MSA F-value SSA DOF MSA F-value

Water-binder ratio 3207.188 3 1069.063 1.067NS 3036.500 3 1012.167 1.036NS

Notes: “NS” denotes no significant.

SSA DOF MSA F-value SSA DOF MSA F-value

Water-binder ratio 1362.937 3 454.312 82.647 1363.523 3 454.508 101.453

SSA DOF MSA F-value SSA DOF MSA F-value

Water-binder ratio 29.642 3 9.881 147.478** 10.477 3 3.492 12.041*

SSA DOF MSA F-value SSA DOF MSA F-value

Water-binder ratio 2.722 3 0.907 4.774NS 3.082 3 1.027 1.720NS

Notes: “NS” denotes no significant and “*” denotes significant.

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