Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

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Cleaner Engineering and Technology

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Mechanical and durability property dimensions of sustainable bamboo leaf

ash in high-performance concrete
David O. Nduka a, *, Babatunde J. Olawuyi b, Adekunle M. Ajao a, Victor C. Okoye a,
Obinna M. Okigbo a
a
Department of Building Technology, College of Science and Technology, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
b
Department of Building, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This research characterises bamboo leaf ash (BLA), which was obtained by calcining dry bamboo leaves at
Bamboo leaf ash approximately 600 ◦ C for 2 h in a laboratory-controlled muffle furnace. To understand the pozzolanic potentials
High-performance concrete of the BLA, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and scanning electron microscope/energy dispersive x-ray (SEM/EDX)
Superabsorbent polymers
techniques were employed. The BLA was then mixed with Portland cement (PC) to produce high-performance
Superplaticiser
concrete (HPC) at 0, 5, 10, and 15% BLA contents by weight. Fresh HPC samples were evaluated for their
Supplementary cementitious materials
Sustainability workability with slump flow test. After 7, 21, 28, and 60 days of hydration, HPC samples’ mechanical
(compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural) and durability (water absorption, sorptivity, and influence of
aggressive environments) were measured. As determined by XRF, the calcined BLA has pozzolanic properties,
whereas the SEM micrograph exhibits irregular and angular morphologies. The incorporation of BLA into the
HPC matrix enhanced the mechanical and durability qualities of the evaluated samples, primarily at a substi­
tution rate of 10% PC. Therefore, it can be stated that 10% BLA can substitute cement in an HPC subjected to
standard environmental conditions.

1. Introduction value of 50 MPa was chosen because it corresponds to a level of quality

at which much care must be taken while developing and testing con­
The concept of high-strength concrete (HSC)/high-performance crete. To meet the needs of HPC, a unique design may be necessary,
concrete (HPC) is fundamental to concrete technology. The significance while supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), also known as
derives from the precisely chosen ingredients and mixture ratios that are pozzolans, contribute significantly to the characteristics.
optimally designed to have primarily improved qualities, such as high The addition of industrial (iron slag, copper slag, electrolytic man­
strength and low permeability (Xu et al., 2021; Dushimimana et al., ganese residue, glass waste, lithium slag, and ferro-silica wastes (Zeyad
2021; Zeyad et al., 2022). The American Concrete Institute, ACI (1999) et al., 2021a; Zeyad et al., 2021b) and agricultural (rice husk ash,
defined HPC as concrete that satisfies unique performance and unifor­ bamboo leaf ash, palm oil fuel ash, cotton stalk, egg shell powder and
mity requirements that cannot ordinarily be obtained using standard olive waste ash etc.) (Odeyemi et al., 2022) based-SCMs in concrete and
constituents, a standard blending technique, and curing practices. The mortar is one approach to promote sustainable development in the
desirable features of HPCs include high resistance to abrasion and building sector. K Al-Chaar et al. (2013) opine that SCM can substitute a
damage tolerance, long lifespan in harsh environments, resistance to large portion of cement in a concrete mixture with characteristics
environmental attacks and impacts (Dushimimana et al., 2021) and easy similar to Portland cement. Dembovska et al. (2017) posit that the
placement (Zeyad et al., 2021a, 2021b). HPC is exclusively used in amount of portlandite created during cement hydration would decrease
high-rise buildings, long-span bridges (Nduka et al., 2018; Dushimimana related to the amount of SCMs used in a mixture. SCMs are products that
et al., 2021), tunnels, and maritime structures (Odeyemi et al., 2022). are not cementitious in themselves but comprise reactive elements such
According to Mehta and Monteiro (2017), the strength classification as silica and alumina in a partitioned structure capable of being mixed
suggests that HPC has a compressive strength of at least 50 MPa. The with calcium hydroxide once water is present to create mixtures with

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (D.O. Nduka).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2022.100583
Received 27 May 2022; Received in revised form 9 October 2022; Accepted 1 November 2022
Available online 5 November 2022
2666-7908/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
D.O. Nduka et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

cementitious properties (Silva et al., 2021). SCMs may be in the form of calcined at a controlled temperature in the foundry workshop of Cove­
natural (pumice, perlite, volcanic ash and diatomaceous earth) (Kasa­ nant University in Ota, Ogun state, using a muffle furnace. Following
niya et al., 2021), agricultural (sugar cane bagasse ash, rice husk ash, calcination at 600 ◦ C for approximately 2 h, the ash was air-cooled and
sorghum husk ash, coconut shell ash, and bamboo leaf ash) (Mo et al., further sieved according to Silva et al.’s (2021) BLA thermal treatment
2016) and industrial origins (silica fume, fly ash, granulated blast methodology. According to Moraes et al. (2019), BLA calcined between
furnace slag (Chinnu et al., 2021; Kasaniya et al., 2021). Irrespective of 500 ◦ C and 600 ◦ C demonstrated significantly more pozzolanic reac­
the SCM sources, their later-age strength characteristics have the po­ tivity than ash thermally treated at 900 ◦ C. From their experiment, ash
tential to improve the mechanical, durability and microstructural per­ passing a 90 μm standard sieve facilitated filler and nucleation site effect
formances of mortar and concrete. in the cementitious matrix. To improve the workability of the HPC
Recent attention has been paid to bamboo leaf ash (BLA) as an specimens, a Masterglenium Sky 504 – a polycarboxylic ether (PCE)
agricultural waste with pozzolanic reactivity. Bamboo is a renewable polymer-based superplasticiser supplied by BASF, Lagos, West Africa
resource that may thrive in various environments, particularly in trop­ Limited was sourced and dispensed at a quantity of 2% by weight of
ical and subtropical nations (Mo et al., 2016). Annual bamboo use by the binder (bwob) under the manufactures’ details. A thermoset polymer and
food, brewing, construction, agricultural, fibre, paper, and board in­ strictly covalently cross-linked polymer of acrylic acid and
dustries is estimated at 20 million tonnes (Kolawole et al., 2021). These acrylamide-based superabsorbent polymers, SAP (“FLOSET 27CC” ≤
industries generate huge amounts of bamboo waste for which alterna­ 300 μm), obtained from bulk solution polymerisation and neutralised by
tive applications have not been fully exploited. Frequently, the waste is alkaline hydroxide was added to the HPC mixtures as a curing agent.
burned in an open location, resulting in environmental deterioration. Using the sophisticated quantitative techniques of X-ray fluorescence,
Kolawole et al. (2021) calculated that more than 1% of the tropical XRF (Bruker AXS S4, Explorer, Karlsruhe, Germany), and scanning
forest is covered by bamboo. The plantation deposits many dry leaves as electron microscope/energy dispersive X-ray, SEM/EDX, (Phenom ProX,
agricultural waste beneath them. Activating their pozzolanic reactivity PhenomWorld Eindhoven, The Netherlands) the chemical composition
via calcination in a controlled setting is one of the sustainable methods and morphology of the BLA were analysed
for utilising bamboo leaf waste as an SCM. According to Dwivedia et al.
(2006), BLA calcined at a regulated temperature of 600 ◦ C for 2 h will 2.2. Aggregates
exhibit a significant pozzolanic reactivity. Similar claims were made by
Villar-Cociña et al. (2011) and Frías et al. (2012), confirming that This study employed locally sourced river sand as the fine aggregate.
calcined ash obtained from bamboo leaf waste is an effective SCM ma­ The fine aggregate was properly washed to eliminate harmful substances
terial for producing mortar and concrete. Rodier et al. (2019) investi­ and then sun-dried. The material’s quality was further enhanced by
gated the pozzolanic activity and compressive strength of BLA mortar removing finer particles that passed through a 300 μm standard sieve. In
mixes. The mixtures produced a pozzolanic reaction between amor­ testing the sand’s physical properties, the values for fineness modulus,
phous silica and lime, forming a calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). At 28 (FM = 2.78), coefficient of uniformity, (Cu = 2.00), coefficient of cur­
days of curing, the compressive strength behaviour of their evaluated vature, (Cc = 0.20), specific gravity, (SG = 2.65), and water absorption,
samples improved more than the control mix. In addition, Kolawole (0.73%), were determined. The coarse aggregate (granite) larger than
et al.’s (2021) findings on the investigated PC replacement with BLA 12 mm was sieved out and then thoroughly washed with clean water to
revealed that up to 10% BLA content in the cement-based matrix remove fine particles. The coarse aggregate had a specific gravity of
developed over 75% compressive strength as anticipated from a 2.70, a water absorption rate of 0.52%, and a crushing impact value of
pozzolanic cement at 7 and 28 days of hydration period. 23.13%. The aggregates met the requirements of BS EN 12620:2002:
The binary blend of BLA and cement in HPC is underrepresented in +A1: (2008). These results agreed with and supported the practicability
the identified research. Most research on BLA in concrete is centred on of removing finer sand particles with a 300 μm screen and washing
normal-strength concrete with 20-35 MPa compressive strength, which coarse aggregate to lower the dust content (Aitcin, 2004). Fig. 1 displays
is marred by degradation concerns (Oyebisi et al., 2020; Nduka et al., the particle size distribution (PSD) of the fine and coarse aggregates used
2022). Nevertheless, a more recent work by Odeyemi et al. (2022) in this study. Table 1 further summarises the aggregates’ physical at­
demonstrated that 5% PC substitution with BLA in the HPC mixture tributes. The figure’s PSD plot illustrates that the fine aggregate sample
improved the evaluated samples’ mechanical and microstructural conformed to Shetty’s (2004) classification of medium sand. The coarse
properties. In Nigeria, the concrete production quality has been identi­ material is uniformly graded. The aggregate results conform to the
fied as one of the primary causes of the failure and collapse of concrete conditions described in Zeyad et al. (2021a), Zeyad et al. (2021b) and
structures (Kolawole, 2015), with many construction professionals Arulmoly et al. (2021) studies for HPC production.
being unaware of SCM utilisation in mortar and concrete works (Nduka
et al., 2018). Investigating concrete quality by combining PC and BLA in 2.3. Water
HPC production would raise awareness among construction pro­
fessionals regarding new alternative materials in building projects. The water utilised for this work adhered to the BS EN 1008 (2002)
Therefore, this study investigates the mechanical and durability prop­ criteria for concrete mixing water.
erties of BLA-blended HPC to establish their appropriateness for struc­
tural element works. 2.4. HPC specimen proportion

2. Materials and method Following the British HPC design technique, the HPC’s control
sample consists of 515 kg/m3 of CEM II, 1013.4 kg/m3 of coarse
2.1. Binders and admixtures aggregate, and 675.6 kg/m3 of fine aggregate, and a total of 155.4 kg/
m3 of water. Based on Olawuyi et al.’s (2021) analysis of the SAP ab­
The cement used was Dangote “3X” Portland-limestone cement (PC) sorbency, 12.5 g/g of water was added. The SAP and superplasticiser
with the marking “CEM II B-L, 42.5 N” This Portland cement brand concentrations in the combination were maintained at 0.3% and 1.5%
conforms to BS EN 197-1 (2011) and NIS 444-1 (2018) requirements. bwob, respectively. Other HPC combinations substituted CEM II for BLA
This experiment collected bamboo leaves in Ijo-Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. in proportions of 5, 10, and 15%, respectively. Binders (CEM II and BLA)
The leaves were sun-dried to reduce their moisture content, then and aggregates were weighed separately and mechanically mixed to
calcined in an open drum to an undetermined temperature and allowed produce a homogenous mixture. SAP was added and combined with
to cool to room temperature. The ash was subsequently compressed and sand and binder mixture in a dry state. To improve the workability of the

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D.O. Nduka et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

Fig. 1. Particle distribution of aggregates.

vibrating table for 3 min effective compaction. The specimen was

Table 1
demoulded after 24 h and cured immersed in the various curing media
Physical and mechanical properties of aggregates.
(water, HCl, Na2SO4 and CaCl2 solutions) up to the respective curing age
Properties Sand Granite (7, 21, 28, and 60 days).
Fineness modulus 2.78 –
Specific gravity 2.65 2.70
Water absorption, % 0.73 0.52 2.6. Testing procedure
Aggregate crushing value, % – 23.13
D10, mm 0.5 6.70
D30, mm 0.55 10.00 2.6.1. Workability
D60, mm 1.00 10.10 Slump flow of the fresh HPC was performed using the flow table test
Cu 2.00 1.50 illustrated in BS EN 12350-5 (2009) as a gauge for the HPC mixtures’
Cc 0.20 5.95
workability.

HPC combinations, water containing superplasticiser (Masterglenium 2.6.2. Compressive strength

Sky 504) was added to the dry HPC mixture after it was thoroughly At ages 7, 21, 28, and 60 days, the compressive strength of the 48-
mixed. The weighted mixing water was divided into two parts and a half number HPC specimen was evaluated under BS EN 12390-3 (2019)
was added first before the remaining half mixed with the Masterglenium specifications. This was by applying a crushing force on the 100 mm
Sky 504 was added and the mix was allowed to agitate in the mixer for cube specimen through the YES-2000 digital Materials Testing Machine
another 3 min. The HPC proportions for the mixtures are given in with a maximum loading capacity of 2000 kN ensuring the cast face is
Table 2. The categories of the HPC were labelled BLAC with BLA content placed horizontally to the loading platen. The compressive strength (fc)
stated. For instance, the HPC containing BLA at a 5% concentration was is calculated using Eq. (1):
referred to as BLAC-5. F
fc = (1)
Ac
2.5. HPC casting and curing
where fc is the compressive strength of the HPC mixture, MPa; F is the
For each HPC mixture, 192 numbers of 100 mm cubes were cast for maximum load at failure, kN; Ac is the specimen’s cross-sectional area,
compressive strength, water absorption, and resistance to aggressive mm.
chemical environment tests. 48 numbers of 100 Ø x 200 mm cylinders
and 46 numbers of 100 x 100 × 500 mm prisms were cast for splitting 2.6.3. Splitting tensile strength
tensile and flexural strength tests, respectively. In addition, was 16 The test specimen consisted of 100 Ø x 200 mm cylinders following
numbers 100 Ø x 200 mm cylinders cast for the sorptivity test and this BS EN 12390-6 (2019) specification. Consequently, 48 number cylinders
was sliced into a 100 Ø x 50 mm disc when dried. The HPC cubes, cyl­ were examined at ages 7, 21, 28, and 60 days using the linear elastic
inders, prisms and discs were cast in four BLA contents (i.e. 0%, 5%, 10% theory stated in Eq. (2):
and 15%) respectively, and each specimen was allowed to vibrate on a 2P
σt = (2)
πDL
Table 2
HPC mix proportions. where σt is the splitting tensile strength of the HPC mixture, MPa; P is the
3
failure load, kN; D is the diameter of the specimen, mm, and L is the
Materials Mix ID (kg/m )
length of the specimen, mm. YES-2000 digital Materials Testing Ma­
Control BLAC-5 BLAC-10 BLAC-15 chine as in the compressive strength test was utilised for the test with the
Cement (CEM II) 515 515 515 515 cylindrical specimen placed lying longitudinally on the platen. The
BLA 0 1.254 2.508 3.762 fracture line on the surface of the specimen was initially established by
Coarse aggrgate 1013 1013 1013 1013
applying diametric compression. The specimen was then positioned in
Fine aggregate 676 676 676 676
SAP (0.3% bwob) 1.545 1.545 1.545 1.545 the centre of the pressure plate, with its split line aligned with the centre
Superplasticizer (1.5% bwob) 7.725 7.725 7.725 7.725 line at the bottom of the pressure plate.
Water 154.5 154.5 154.5 154.5
Additional Water 0.941 0.941 0.941 0.941 2.6.4. Flexural strength test
Water/binder (W/B) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Using a manually operated three-point contact 50 kN Impact AO 320

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 D.O. Nduka et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

flexural machine, the flexural strength (also known as the modulus of Open plastic containers were used while the acid, sulphate and chloride
rupture, MR) of 48 HPC prismatic samples measuring 100 × 100 × 500 environments’ pH was checked during the experimenting cycle. After 30
mm were evaluated. In the flexural strength test, the test configuration days, the pH of the solutions was reaffirmed, and the concentration
followed BS EN 12390-5 (2019) with the same variables as detailed in changed. The samples were removed at 7, 21, 28 and 60 days after being
the splitting tensile test. As indicated in Equation (3), flexural strength is exposed to acid, chloride, and sulphate solutions and then rinsed with
represented by the modulus of rupture (MR), as shown in Eq. (3). water. The samples were sun-dried quickly, and the adhering particles
were wiped away using a cotton napkin. The influence of acid, chloride
PL
MR = (3) and sulphate attack was evaluated using the same compressive testing
bd2
machine described in section 2.6.3 to measure compressive strength.
MR is the modulus of the rapture of the HPC mixture, MPa; P is the HPC’s cube compressive strength determination followed BS EN
failure load, kN; L is the length of the specimen, mm; b is the specimen’s 12390-3 (2019) specifications.
breath, and d is the depth of the specimen, mm.

2.6.5. Water absorption test 2.7. Statistical analysis

This study determined the HPC specimen water absorption following
BS EN 1097-6 (2013) on 100 concrete cubes cured by immersion in a The SPSS software version 23 was used to analyse the experiment’s
water tank for 7, 21, 28, and 60 days. The weight of the soaked HPC findings. The statistical significance between the study’s dependent and
specimens was initially determined and labelled as Mwet; they were independent variables was determined using the general linear model -
subsequently oven-dried at 110 ± 5 ◦ C in a triplex for 24 h until their multivariate analysis for the Tests of Between-Subjects Effects. The study
mass was constant. The dry samples were allowed to cool before being had curing age and BLA content as the independent variables, but slump
computed and recorded with the designation Mdry. The water absorption flow, density, compressive strength in water, splitting tensile strength in
value was calculated by subtracting the dry sample’s mass from the wet water, flexural strength in water, water absorption, compressive
sample’s mass, dividing the result by the mass of the dry sample, and strength in HCL, compressive strength in Na2SO4 and compressive
multiplying the result by 100. The value of water absorption (WA) can strength in a chlorine solution were all dependent variables.
be stated mathematically as follows:
3. Results
Mwet − Mdry
WA = × 100 (4)
Mdry
3.1. Characterisation of materials and fresh property
WA (%) is the water absorption value; Mwet is the wet sample’s
weight; Mdry is the dry sample’s weight. 3.1.1. Chemical and microstructure analyses of BLA

2.6.6. Sorptivity test 3.1.1.1. X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF). The chemical compositions
To determine the sorptivity coefficient of the HPC samples, capillary of BLA used for the blended cement in this study are presented in
water absorption (sorptivity) measurements were performed in accor­ Table 3. The findings show that BLA calcined at a maximum temperature
dance with ASTM C 1585-04 (2007) on 100 Ø x 50 mm discs cured in a of 600 ◦ C contains high silica content of 75.1%, calcium oxide of 4.22%,
water tank for 7, 21, 28, and 60 days. After demoulding, specimens were alumina of 3.55% and ferrite of 1.34%. This result confirms that the
cut from the 100 Ø x 200 mm cylinder using an electric handheld cutting analysed BLA is a pozzolanic material in consonance with ASTM C 618
machine. Three-disc samples were weighed and then placed in an oven (2019) standard provisions. This BLA can be rated under Class F poz­
at 110 ± 5 ◦ C for 24 h for each HPC mixture until a steady weight was zolans since the sum of the percentage elemental oxide content of
achieved. The discs were reweighed to establish a uniaxial water flow, SiO2+Al203+Fe2O3 equals 80.03%, and higher than the minimum of
and the circumference was sealed with plastic tape, but the opposing 70% requirements of ASTM C 618 (2019). As stipulated by the standard,
faces were left exposed. The specimen were then stored in a rectangular the XRF result also highlights less than 4% of sulfur trioxide (SO3)
container filled to 30 mm height with water for approximately 7 h. 5, 10, composition (1.69%). The loss on ignition (LOI) of 5.32% found on the
15, 30, 60, 120, and 180 min later, the data were recorded to estimate BLA sample is within the threshold permitted by ASTM C 618 (2019) for
the water absorbed. The samples were then removed and weighed once pozzolanic materials. Thus, this study’s useful oxides (SiO2
more to estimate the water absorbed. Eq. (5) was used to compute the +Al2O3+Fe2O3) and LOI are consistent with the current literature and
results: standards (Olutoge and Oladunmoye, 2017; Kolawole et al., 2021; Silva
et al., 2021; Odeyemi et al., 2022; ASTM C 618, 2019) on BLA
I =S.t0.5 (5)
composition.
I is the accumulative ingress of water in mm, S is the sorptivity co­
efficient, and t (min) is the sample’s immersion period in the water. The 3.1.1.2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis of BLA. The BLA
sample’s water absorption was converted to volume. The volume of morphology and semi-quantitative chemical elements were analysed
water plotted against the square root of time generates a straight line. By using SEM/EDX techniques. Figs. 2 and 3 illustrate the BLA SEM
computing the slope of this straight line, the coefficient of sorptivity was micrograph under 100 μm magnification and EDX peak results. Also,
obtained. The best-fitting line was then determined using a regression Table 4 highlights the atomic and weight concentrations of the same
analysis of the data points for every HPC mixture. This mixture’s ab­ material. Similar to Silva et al.’s (2021) BLA SEM image of Brazilian
sorption rate corresponded to the slope of the best-fitting line. origin, this sample’s SEM images depict flaky irregular, angular, and
needle-like particles denoted as A, B and C interconnected. Also, the
2.6.7. Resistance to aggressive chemical environment test SEM image revealed very dark and light grey irregular colours with very
This study used 5% hydrochloric acid (HCl) as an acidic curing dark colours in between them. The very dark colours can be inferred as
environment to assess resistance to acid attack. So also, were, 5% cal­ the air spaces depicting porous materials which ought to enhance easy
cium chloride (CaCl2) and sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) solutions were passages of water for dilution of the cementitious materials and hence
utilised to determine the chloride and sulphate resistances of the HPC improved hydration. The EDX spectra show silica in high content, fol­
samples. The 100 mm cubic samples for four mix designs in triplicates lowed by peaks of potassium and calcium. There are aluminium and iron
were deposited in 5% HCl, 5% CaCl2, and Na2SO4 blends for 60 days. in low contents in the investigated BLA sample. Thus, silica enrichment
in the BLA sample is similar to the result of the chemical oxides.

4
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D.O. Nduka et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

Table 3
Chemical composition of BLA.
Elemental Oxides SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Mn2O3 P2O5 TiO2 LOI SiO2+Al203+Fe2O3

Composition (%) 75.10 3.55 1.34 4.22 4.04 1.69 0.22 1.51 0.26 5. 32 80.03

readily and with less friction on each other. In addition, BLA’s ability to
act as a filler enables it to replace the water-filled spaces surrounding
aggregate particles, resulting in increased free water, less friction, and
improved workability. The findings here are at variance with the slump
cone test behaviours of BLA-based concrete investigated by Onikeku
et al. (2019) and Abebaw et al. (2021). Onikeku et al. (2019) and
Abebaw et al. (2021) studies focused on normal-strength concrete using
a slump cone test for workability determination. However, the fluidity

Table 4
EDX atomic and weight concentrations of BLA.
Element Element Element Atomic Weight
Number Symbol Name Conc. Conc.

14 Si Silicon 38.48 39.18

19 K Potassium 11.49 16.29
20 Ca Calcium 10.59 15.39
6 C Carbon 25.48 11.09
Fig. 2. SEM micrograph of BLA. 26 Fe Iron 1.76 3.55
17 Cl Chlorine 2.54 3.26
3.2. Fresh properties: slump flow test 15 P Phosphorus 2.14 2.41
47 Ag Silver 0.61 2.39
16 S Sulfur 1.62 1.88
Fresh HPC mixtures were evaluated for workability using a slump 13 Al Aluminium 1.89 1.85
flow test before being cast into moulds. Fig. 4 displays the slump flow 22 Ti Titanium 0.45 0.78
tests performed on HPC mixes containing BLA. 12 Mg Magnesium 0.83 0.73
7 N Nitrogen 1.09 0.56
From Fig. 4, the slump flow value is influenced greatly by the cement
8 O Oxygen 0.86 0.50
substitution with BLA. The slump flow was less affected by the volume of 11 Na Sodium 0.17 0.15
water and other constituents used, unlike the BLA, which was used to
replace cement in the mixture. The result depicts that BLA-15 with 15%
PC replacement has the highest slump flow value of 510 mm, followed
by the BLAC-10 with a slump flow of 477 mm. BLAC-5 and control
mixtures recorded 460 mm and 430 mm slump flow values, respectively.
These results indicate that the fresh BLA-based HPC matrix increases
workability with higher BLA contents. This scenario may be linked to the
BLA’s pore structure noticed in the SEM result. The BLAC-15 increases
the slump flow value by 18.61% compared to the control alluding to the
BLA’s capacity to take up the Masterglenium Sky, 504 superplasticiser
applied in the mixtures triggering the dispersal and water acceptance
propensities (Pang et al., 2022) impacting BLA-based HPC. The
improvement in slump flow value between BLAC-15 and the control was
attributable to the BLA’s capacity to encapsulate the aggregate particles,
producing a higher viscosity and enabling the aggregate to flow more
Fig. 4. Slump flow values of different HPC mix designs.

Fig. 3. EDX microanalysis of BLA

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D.O. Nduka et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

values in the current study are consistent with the HPC mixtures in the
literature, with a flow range of 400 to 600 mm (Neville, 2012; Nduka
et al., 2021).

3.3. Mechanical properties of hardened HPC

3.3.1. Density of HPC

Using Equation (6), the average densities of each HPC sample were
calculated, and the values determined from the average of triplicate
samples are presented in Fig. 5.
Mass
density = (6)
Volume
Fig. 6. Compressive strength of BLA-based HPC.
From the cylinder samples in Fig. 5, all BLA percentage replacements
were slightly lower than the control in the order of replacement, such 3.3.3. Splitting tensile strength of HPC with BLA
that BLAC-5 was less by 0.99%, and BLAC-10 was 0.98% lower than the Fig. 7 depicts the splitting tensile strength of HPC cylinders blended
control. From these findings, the reduction of the densities of BLA-based with BLA at curing ages 7, 21, 28, and 60 days. The splitting tensile
HPC specimens may come from a lower specific gravity of BLA than strength of HPC specimens increases as the number of curing days in­
cement. Aprianti et al. (2015) found BLA’s specific gravity and surface creases but decreases as BLA replacement increases.
area to be 1.9–2.4 and 274 - 943 cm3/g, respectively. These BLA’s As the BLA proportion increased, there was a progressive increase in
physical properties are lower than cement 3.1–3.16 specific gravity and the splitting tensile strength at 7 days. The BLAC-10 mixture had the
3100 - 2250 cm2/gm specific surface area. highest splitting tensile strength of 3.86 MPa, followed by the control
with a value of 3.72 MPa. BLAC-15 and BLAC-5 had a splitting tensile
3.3.2. Compressive strength of HPC with BLA strength of 3.56 and 3.41 MPa. The splitting tensile strength value of
Fig. 6 depicts the compressive strength values of HPC cubes com­ BLAC-10 (5.917 MPa) dropped after 21 days of curing, making it the
bined with BLA at ages 7, 21, 28, and 60 days. The compressive strength second-highest value to control with a splitting tensile strength of 6.06
improves as the cubes age. MPa. The BLAC-5 mixture’s splitting tensile strength value was 5.67
Based on the figure, the compressive strength values in the 7, 21, 28 MPa, and the BLAC-15 with a value of 4.62 MPa. At 28 days of curing,
and 60 days of curing had an increasing trend in all curing regimes. This the control mixture still retains the highest splitting tensile strength
same trend was reported by Odeyemi et al. (2022) in HPC containing value of 7.35 MPa, while BLAC-5 recorded a 6.76 MPa showing an
BLA. There was a strength improvement of 2.68% and 1.69%, respec­ improvement after 7 and 21 days of curing. BLAC-10 mixture demon­
tively for BLAC-10 at 21 and 60 days hydration period. The results strated a splitting tensile strength value of 6.13 MPa, while BLAC-15
revealed that the control mixture achieved a compressive strength value shows the least splitting tensile strength value of 5.52 MPa. At 60
of 34.64 MPa, while BLAC-5, BLAC-10, and BLAC-15 achieved days, control still possesses the highest splitting tensile strength value of
compressive strength values of 34.60, 32.35, and 29.94 MPa, respec­ 8.54 MPa, followed by BLAC-10 with 7.99 MPa. Thus, the splitting
tively at 7 days of curing. At 21 days of curing, the compressive strength tensile strength values are consistent with the compressive strength
results indicate that BLAC-10 has the highest compressive strength value values reinforcing the amorphous characteristics of BLA in the cemen­
of 47.56 MPa, followed by control with a compressive strength of 46.32 titious matrix (Thomas et al., 2021).
MPa, BLAC-5 with 45.89 MPa, and BLAC-15 with 36.47 MPa least value.
At 28 days of curing, control had the highest compressive strength value 3.3.4. Flexural strength of HPC with BLA
of 52.05 MPa, then BLAC-10 with 51.08 MPa, followed by BLAC-5 with Fig. 8 depicts the flexural strength study of HPC prisms blended with
49.76 MPa, and lastly BLAC-15 with 43.87 MPa. The findings show that varying percentages of BLA substitution. Similar to the compressive
the increase in the percentage of BLA replacement decreases the strength and splitting tensile strength values, the data demonstrate that
compressive strength of the specimen, especially at an early age. Thus, flexural strength increases with increasing age.
BLAC-10 at 28 days attained 51.08 MPa, slightly above the designed As shown in the Figure, at 7 days of curing, BLAC-10 recorded the
characteristics strength of 50 MPa, while 60 days of curing produced a maximum flexural strength value of 1.15 MPa, followed by BLAC-5 with
1.69% increase in compressive strength compared with the control. a flexural strength of 1.12 MPa. BLAC-5 and BLAC-10 showed a signif­
Also, the present result is at variance with Odeyemi et al. (2022), who icant improvement after 7 days of curing. The flexural strength value of
obtained 57.59 MPa optimum compressive strength value in 1.00 MPa was obtained for the control at the same age, while BLAC-15
BLA-blended HPC at 5% cement replacement. A major shift between the had the least flexural strength value of 0.87 MPa. Similar to 7 days
present study and Odeyemi et al. (2022) may be attributed to different curing results, BLAC-10 remained the most improved mixture recording
designed strength characteristics and target mean strengths. 1.23 MPa at 21 days, next is the BLAC-5 with 1.20 MPa. The flexural
strength values of control and BLAC-15 were 1.12 and 1.10 MPa,
respectively, after 28 days of curing. For the 60 days of curing, BLAC-10
had a flexural strength of 1.76 MPa, followed by control with 1.73 MPa.
BLAC-5 had a strength value of 1.67 MPa, and the least flexural strength
value for 60 days of curing is BLAC-15, with a strength of 1.32 MPa. The
increased flexural strength observed in the BLA-blended mixture, espe­
cially with the BLA-10 mixture, may be attributed to the high SiO2
values revealed in the XRF and EDX micrograph and atomic and weight
concentration results of the tested BLA. The SiO2 content in BLA in­
fluences pozzolanic reactivity in cementitious products (Silva et al.,
2021). The finding here complied with both compressive and splitting
tensile test results.

Fig. 5. Densities of BLA-based HPC in 100 Ø x 200 mm cylinder mould.

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D.O. Nduka et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

Fig. 7. Splitting tensile strength of BLA-based HPC.

Fig. 8. Flexural strength of BLA-based HPC.

3.4. Durability properties varied from 5.10 to 7.10% for 7 days, 5.01 to 7.02% for 21 days, 4.19 to
6.96% for 28 days, and 4.07 to 6.79% for 60 days. The control mixture
3.4.1. Water absorption of HPC without BLA complied with ASTM C 642 (2006) provisions with an
Fig. 9 shows the mean experimental results for the water absorption acceptable range of 2–5% water absorption for HPC mixtures. On the
of BLA-modified HPCs at 7, 21, 28, and 60 days. The water absorption other hand, BLA blended HPCs had water absorption values slightly

Fig. 9. Water absorption of BLA-based HPC at various curing days.

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D.O. Nduka et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

higher than that prescribed by the relevant standard. Silva et al. (2021) respectively. ASTM C 1585-04 (2007) guideline stated, “The initial ab­
reported increased water absorption when more than 10% of PC was sorption rate cannot be established if the data between 1 min and 6 h do
replaced with BLA in the mortar mixture. Increased water absorption not follow a linear connection (correlation coefficient less than 0.98)
may be attributable to the mesoporous nature of the tested BLA sample, and exhibit a systematic curvature.” Thus, the BLAC-5 correlation co­
confirmed by the SEM image. However, the BLAC-10 mixture had the efficient was significant at 21, 28 and 56 days but not at 7 days. BLAC-10
lowest water absorption capacity among the BLA blended HPCs con­ revealed a significant difference at 28 and 56 days, but BLAC-15 gave
firming the best-improved mixture in the tested mechanical properties differences in the calculated correlation coefficient between 7, 21, 28,
results. For instance, there are 16.90 and 25.05%, 16.42 and 28.72%, and 60 days.
20.63 and 32.94%, and 18.71 and 32.21% water absorption reductions
for BLAC-10 compared to the BLAC-5 and BLAC-15 HPCs at 7, 21, 28 and 3.4.3. Resistance to the aggressive chemical environment
60 days of curing, respectively. The water absorption values obtained in Figs. 14-17 depict the compressive strength at 7, 21, 28, and 60 days
BLAC-10 mixtures are moderately above 5% at 60 days compared with of hardened HPCs with varied PC substitutions by BLA subjected to
28 days, signalling the best-improved mixture among the blends. The various curing media (water, acid, sulphate, and chlorine solutions).
decrease in water absorption may indicate the efficacy of BLA particles According to the data, the compressive strength of the HPCs in aggres­
in densifying the cement paste matrix and the interface between the sive environments decreased by 8.40, 27.68, 40.86, and 46.34% (acid);
cement paste and aggregates. Moreover, the creation of calcium silicate 22.63, 38.64, 47.72, and 51.13% (sulphate) and 14.81, 41.45, 52.80,
and calcium silicate aluminate hydrates (C-S-H and C-A-H) via the and 43.46% (chlorine) after 7, 21, 28, and 60 days of curing, respec­
pozzolanic activity further fills the pores and enhances the microstruc­ tively, in comparison to curing in water. The sulphate environment
ture of the BLA-blended HPC. strongly influenced the investigated samples’ compressive strength for
all the mix types. Comparing the plain water curing of HPCs with other
3.4.2. Sorptivity of HPCs chemical environments, the control had the least reduced compressive
The changes in water absorption by capillary pressure as a function strength percentage (30.82%), followed by BLAC-15 (31.49%), while
of time have been illustrated in Fig. 10 through 13. The absorption rate the other mixture’s compressive strength reduction was within 40.14%.
(sorptivity coefficient) plots for BLA-modified HPCs were analysed in In the sulphate solution, BLAC-5 had the least strength reduction
conjunction with the change in mass per unit area relative to the water (37.27%), then control (40.04%), while the other mixture’s strength
unit mass and the period’s square root (min). The effects of blended BLA reduction was 46.90%. Similarly, BLAC-10 has the lowest strength
on the water sorptivity of HPC at 7, 21, 28, and 60 days are depicted in reduction (34.92%), while other HPC mixtures’ strength reduction was
Figs. 10-13. During the seven days of curing, the capillary water activity 45.42%. In general, the control mixture demonstrated superior re­
of BLAC-10 (1.87 mm) dropped the most compared to the control (2.75 ductions in compressive strength in the tested chemical conditions.
mm) and other combinations. Also, a 28-day BLAC-10 had the lowest Therefore, it can be inferred that mesoporous BLA particles produced
water capillary ingress of approximately 0.74–4.50 mm over the 180 pores in the HPCs, allowing acid, sulphate, and chloride ions to enter the
min inspection time compared with other mixes. The BLAC-10 mixture matrix. The findings complied with the water absorption and sorptivity
had a mean water sorptivity of 2.12 mm to the control mix (2.62 mm). A results in the HPC matrix water ingress.
related trend was observed at 60 days; the mean water ingress was 2.30
mm for the BLAC-10 modified HPC.
3.5. Statistical analysis
The correlation coefficient of BLA-based HPC at 7, 21, 28 and 60 days
is shown in Table 5. On all curing days of 7, 21, 28, and 60 days, the
Table A in the appendix shows the general linear model – multi­
control mixture demonstrated a good correlation between the rate of
variate analysis for the Tests of Between-Subjects Effects obtained by
absorption and the square root of time, with R2 = 0.966 (7 days), 0.979
SPSS v 23 highlighting the effects of BLA content, and curing age on the
(21 days), 0.964 (28 days) and 0.911 (60 days), respectively. These
compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths, slump flows, den­
results demonstrate the hydration trends of the examined samples as
sity, water absorption, compressive strength in acid, sodium sulphate
curing days progressed. The correlation coefficients for BLAC-5 were R2
and chloride solutions curing environments of BLA-based HPC mixtures.
= 0.997 (7 days), 0.944 (21 days), 0.985 (28 days) and 0.948 (60 days),
The significance is assessed based on P < 0.5 (as shown in the last col­
respectively. For BLAC-10, the correlation coefficients recorded were R2
umn of the Table). The results show that each independent variable (BLA
= 0.994 (7 days), 0.990 (21 days), 0.983 (28 days) and 0.980 (60 days),
content and curing age) had a significant effect on all the tested prop­
respectively. Lastly, BLAC-15 had correlation coefficients of R2 = 0.987
erties of the HPC mixtures except the slump flow values which were
(7 days), 0.988 (21 days), 0.995 (28 days) and 0.995 (60 days),
purely for an assessment of workability done only at the fresh state of the

Fig. 10. Water sorptivity characteristics of BLA-blended HPC for 7 days.

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D.O. Nduka et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

Fig. 11. Water sorptivity characteristics of BLA-blended HPC for 21 days.

Fig. 12. Water sorptivity characteristics of BLA-blended HPC for 28 days.

Fig. 13. Water sorptivity characteristics of BLA-blended HPC for 60 days.

concrete. The slump flow value was not influenced by curing age since it content. Generally, both the curing age and BLA content were observed
was determined before the concrete was cast, so the same slump flow to have a very strong influence (with a P value of 0.00) on all the tested
value holds for all curing ages considered. This explains the P value of mechanical and durability properties of the investigated BLA-modified
1.0 gotten as an outcome of the analysis for the single-factor analysis HPC.
with curing age and also, the two-factor analysis (Curing Age combined
with BLA content) affirming the curing age has no significant effect on
slump flow. The variable of influence on the slump flow is the BLA

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D.O. Nduka et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

Table 5 samples while the optimum BLA content for use in HPC is 10% for
Summary of water sorptivity correlation coefficient of BLA-blended HPCs. acceptable mechanical and durability properties. BLA-modified HPC
Mix ID/Sorptivity correlation 7 days 21 days 28 days 60 days should not be used in severe acidic, sulphate and chloride environments.
coefficient 2 2 2 Curing age and BLA content had a significant effect on the tested me­
R R R R2
chanical and durability properties of the investigated BLA-modified
Control 0.966 0.979 0.964 0.911 HPC. It is the idea of this paper to be used by researchers and con­
BLAC-5 0.997 0.944 0.985 0.948
BLAC-10 0.994 0.990 0.983 0.980
struction professionals as one of the inputs for steering new alternative
BLAC-15 0.987 0.988 0.995 0.995 materials in building projects. It will also serve as a source of informa­
tion for the general public. The present study thereby recommends the
adoption of 10% BLA content for the production of HPC exposed to
4. Conclusions normal environmental conditions.

By building upon the scientific contributions of past studies on the Funding

use of SCMs as a substitute in cementitious products, the present paper
identified the feasibility of the blend of BLA and PC for HPC develop­ There was no external funding for the study.
ment. Thus, this experimental study investigated the mechanical and
durability properties of BLA-based HPC to establish their relevance for
Compliance with ethical standards
structural element works. Using standard testing procedures, the study
found that the analysed BLA falls under the Class F pozzolans of ASTM C
This paper does not contain any studies involving human or animal
618 (2015) classification (Si02+Al203+Fe203 = 80.03%), with SEM
subjects.
image showing flaky irregular, angular and needle-like particles
affirming the BLA sample as an amorphous material. BLA content has a
Credit authorship contribution statement
significant influence on the workability of the HPC mixtures deducing
from the slump flow increases from BLA contents increases. PC substi­
David O. Nduka: Conceptualisation, writing-review & editing.
tution with BLA in HPC accounted for reduced density in the tested
Babatunde J. Olawuyi: Formal analysis and writing-review & editing.

Fig. 14. Compressive strength of BLA-blended HPC cured in a plain water.

Fig. 15. Compressive strength of BLA-blended HPC cured in an acid environment.

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D.O. Nduka et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

Fig. 16. Compressive strength of BLA-blended HPC cured in a sulphate environment.

Fig. 17. Compressive strength of BLA-blended HPC cured in a chlorine environment.

Adekunle M. Ajao: Methodology, Project administration. Victor C. Data availability

Okoye: Writing-original draft, Formal analysis. Obinna M. Okigbo:
Writing-original draft, Formal analysis. Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgement
Declaration of competing interest
The authors would like to thank Covenant University for using the
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial laboratory and equipment and sponsoring this paper’s article processing
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence charge (APC). Supplier of Masterglenium Sky 504, BASF, Lagos, West
the work reported in this paper. Africa, facilitated by Mr Adesola Mofikoya, is acknowledged.

Appendix
Table A
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects of BLA-based HPC on workability, mechanical and durability properties

Source Dependent Variable Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Curing Age Slump flow .000 3 .000 .000 1.000

Density 9939.063 3 3313.021 50.420 .000
Compressive strength in water 2433.734 3 811.245 1.990E3 .000
Splitting tensile strength in water 106.503 3 35.501 2.031E3 .000
Flexural strength in water 2.363 3 .788 579.902 .000
Water Absorption 1.943 3 .648 20.325 .000
Compressive strength in HCl 134.781 3 44.927 110.155 .000
(continued on next page)

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D.O. Nduka et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 11 (2022) 100583

Table A (continued )
Source Dependent Variable Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Compressive strength in Na2SO4 464.875 3 154.958 765.298 .000

Compressive strength in Chlorine solution 154.703 3 51.568 156.696 .000
BLA content Slump flow 40100.000 3 13366.667 130.939 .000
Density 13536.063 3 4512.021 68.667 .000
Compressive strength in water 496.345 3 165.448 405.811 .000
Splitting tensile strength in water 10.524 3 3.508 200.657 .000
Flexural strength in water .554 3 .185 135.890 .000
Water Absorption 38.763 3 12.921 405.519 .000
Compressive strength in HCl 233.169 3 77.723 190.566 .000
Compressive strength in Na2SO4 58.076 3 19.359 95.608 .000
Compressive strength in a Chlorine solution 494.660 3 164.887 501.033 .000
Curing Age * BLA content Slump flow .000 9 .000 .000 1.000
Density 47980.688 9 5331.188 81.134 .000
Compressive strength in water 86.942 9 9.660 23.694 .000
Splitting tensile strength in water 4.258 9 .473 27.062 .000
Flexural strength in water .130 9 .014 10.638 .000
Water Absorption 1.346 9 .150 4.693 .001
Compressive strength in HCl 89.610 9 9.957 24.412 .000
Compressive strength in Na2SO4 34.474 9 3.830 18.918 .000
Compressive strength in a Chlorine solution 201.348 9 22.372 67.981 .000

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