Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108737

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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Durability, mechanical, workability, and environmental

assessment of self-consolidating concrete containing blast furnace
slag and natural zeolite
Hamid Bayat a, Rasoul Banar b, Morteza Nikravan c, Pedram Farnood b, Amir
Mohammad Ramezanianpour d, Alireza Kashani a, *
a
Centre for Infrastructure Engineering and Safety, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
c
School of Civil Engineering, Building Materials and Construction Chemistry, Technical University of Berlin, Germany
d
School of Civil Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study aims to investigate the possibility of using industrial and natural supplementary
Self-consolidating concrete cementitious materials (SCMs) in self-consolidating concrete (SCC) with lower embodied carbon.
Durability Binary and ternary blends of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and natural zeolite
Life cycle assessment (NZ) at higher range replacements of up to 50 wt% of Portland cement (PC) were used. Ten SCC
Sustainability mixtures with various binder compositions were evaluated for workability, compressive strength,
and durability properties, as well as corresponding environmental impacts based on life cycle
assessment (LCA). A new approach for LCA’s functional unit which specifies the required concrete
cover and effective height for a beam section was used to include structural design and durability
in environmental assessment. Utilizing GGBFS and NZ presents a positive synergistic effect
resulting in improved water impermeability, electrical resistivity, and resistance to chloride
migration compared to binary blends of GGBFS + PC or NZ + PC. LCA for a service life of 100
years showed the ternary SCC mixture with PC replacements of 10% NZ, and 40% GGBFS could
reduce global warming potential by up to 38% compared to the control mixture without SCM.
This study concludes that a cleaner SCC with enhanced properties and reduced environmental
footprint can be achieved by replacing PC with blends of GGBFS and NZ up to 50 wt%.

1. Introduction
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) has a very high fluidity for easier pumping, placement, and better compaction, especially for
concrete elements with highly congested steel reinforcements [1,2]. A large amount of binder materials, mainly, Portland cement (PC),
is required to achieve the desired fresh properties for SCC, including the ability to fill congested areas around steel reinforcements and
to avoid segregation [3]. However, higher PC contents result in more expensive and less environmentally friendly concrete [4,5]. The
consumption of PC has a negative environmental impact and leads to the release of a considerable amount of greenhouse gases [6,7].
To address this issue, a new type of SCC with lower cement content and acceptable properties has been proposed, which is called
Eco-efficient SCC or Eco-SCC [8,9]. The maximum binder content for an Eco-SCC mixture is limited to 315 kg/m3 to produce a low-cost

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Kashani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.108737
Received 22 October 2023; Received in revised form 16 January 2024; Accepted 3 February 2024
Available online 4 February 2024
2352-7102/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
H. Bayat et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108737

and low-embodied carbon SCC [10,11]. Eco-SCC brings some drawbacks such as lower paste volume, higher water content, and lower
viscosity of the mixture compared to normal SCC, resulting in high susceptibility to segregation and water bleeding [12]. In addition, a
lower content of the binder in Eco-SCC makes it more challenging to achieve the desired mechanical and durability properties [13,14].
The incorporation of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) into SCC at higher volumes has been a global effort to ensure
technical properties while reducing the cement content and carbon footprint of SCC [15,16]. Previous studies [17–19] investigated the
effects of various SCMs on the fresh, mechanical, and durability properties of SCC. The results showed that the sediments’ small
particle size and elevated chemical activity resulted in the refinement of micro-pores, heightened density, enhanced microstructure,
and diminished micro-cracks in the studied self-compacting concrete (SCC) mixes. Nehdi et al. [20] concluded that replacing PC with
SCMs up to 50% can produce an economically and environmentally competitive SCC. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS)
from steel manufacturing has been frequently used as a partial replacement of the PC in SCC due to its ability to retain the mechanical
and some durability properties of concrete although the early strength and shrinkage are compromised at high replacement levels [21,
22]. Natural zeolite (NZ) is a mineral admixture with porous aluminosilicate microstructure and large quantities of reactive SiO2 and
Al2O3 but is rarely used to produce SCC [23]. The application of NZ in concrete has been limited due to scarce NZ resources in some
regions of the world [24]. In addition, the honeycomb-like structure of NZ leads to higher water absorption and reduction of slump
flow in SCC [4,25]. However, NZ is more beneficial than fly ash (FA) in enhancing the compressive strength and reducing the chloride
diffusion of concrete as an SCM and it is much more economical than silica fume, i.e. another commonly used SCM [25,26]. Therefore,
the application of NZ as a highly reactive natural pozzolan in concrete has been evolving in recent years [27,28].
Ramezanianpour et al. [29] reported that 10% and 20% of NZ replacement led to significant decreases of 60% and 80% in chloride
penetration values of low-cement SCC mixtures at 90 days, respectively. Zhao et al. [30] concluded the SCC with 40% GGBFS had the
lowest chloride ion diffusion coefficient among the SCC mixtures containing up to 40% FA or GGBFS. This behavior is due to the
combined effect of the lower permeability of concrete and lower ionic concentration of pore fluid in the SCC mixtures with NZ or
GGBFS [31]. Kannan and Ganesan [32] concluded that ternary cementitious blends in concrete could reduce or eliminate the
drawbacks of a particular SCM in binary mixes through a synergistic effect. However, there are limited studies on the combined use of
ternary blends of GGBFS and NZ in SCC. The effect of binary and ternary blends of GGBFS and NZ on workability, ultrasonic pulse
velocity, compressive strength, and flexural strength of SCC have been studied. Based on the results, it was possible to produce SCC
with 10% NZ and 20% GGBFS with adequate properties [33].
Although the effect of binary blends of GGBFS and NZ on some properties of SCC have been assessed [1,4,21,25], the effects of
ternary blends of GGBFS and NZ on fresh, mechanical, and durability properties of SCC have not been comprehensively studied at
higher PC replacement levels. Also, the available zeolites have different types, purities, and compositions from various sources, which
necessitates evaluating the effects of concrete containing NZ from a different region [24,34]. Moreover, the environmental impacts of
GGBFS and NZ replacement have been neglected in previous studies.
Improving the durability of concrete leads to increasing the service life of the structure and reducing energy and input materials in
maintenance which eventually reduces the environmental impacts [35]. Therefore, incorporating durability in life cycle assessment
(LCA) is particularly important. While many studies chose the volume of concrete (in m3) as a ‘simple’ functional unit (FU), defining a
fair FU based on durability and structure application is challenging. Panesar et al. [36] evaluated the selection of six different com­
binations of FU on the LCA of concretes including volume, compressive strength, chloride attack, and a combination of these factors.
However, Marinković [37] criticized the approach of Panesar et al. [36] because of a linearly-related effect of compressive strength and
chloride penetration on LCA calculation. For example, 20% less concrete volume was not necessarily achieved by 20% more
compressive strength. Also, in a recent study for fly ash concrete structural members, Marinkovi et al. [38] showed that drawing
conclusions only based on service life modeling with the same volume approach may be misleading. They concluded that a deteri­
oration mechanism as well as the type of structural members could affect the analyzed FU and should be selected as case-dependent to
choose more environmental-friendly mixtures. In this study, the FU was modified based on a non-linear relationship between the depth
of concrete cover requirement for a steel-reinforced concrete beam against chloride-induced corrosion of steel for a service of life of
100 years under a similar structural loading and environmental conditions to make a fair and comparable FU.
This study for the first time, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, investigates binary and ternary cementitious blends of GGBFS
and NZ at higher PC substitution of up to 50% to produce a low-embodied carbon SCC. The effect of various replacement levels of SCM
on the workability, mechanical, and durability properties of SCC mixtures was investigated. Fresh concrete tests include slump flow
diameter, T50, V-funnel, and J-ring, while hardened concrete tests consist of compressive strength, electrical resistivity, capillary
water absorption, and rapid chloride migration. Also, the environmental performance of all SCC mixtures was evaluated based on an

Fig. 1. SEM images of PC, GGBFS and NZ particles.

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H. Bayat et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108737

improved functional unit considering structural design and durability which has not been previously considered in the literature.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials
Type CEM I 42.5 ordinary Portland cement (PC), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), and natural zeolite (NZ) complying
with the requirements of ASTM C150 [39], ASTM C989 [40] and ASTM C618 [41], respectively, were used as binder materials for SCC
production. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of PC, GGBFS, and NZ particles are presented in Fig. 1. Limestone powder
(LP) is also added as a filler. The chemical compositions and physical properties of these powders are given in Table 1. Local natural
river sand with a specific gravity of 2.51 and water absorption of 2.56% was used as fine aggregate complying with the requirements of
ASTM C128 [42]. The crushed gravel was used as coarse aggregate with a nominal maximum size of 12.5 mm, specific gravity of 2.54,
and water absorption of 2.49% according to ASTM C127 [43]. The aggregate gradation is presented in Fig. 2 and meets the re­
quirements of ASTM C33 [44]. A liquid superplasticizer (SP) with the base of modified polycarboxylate ether was used according to
ASTM C494 [45] with a specific gravity of 1.1.

2.2. Mixture proportions

Four factors were considered constant in all mix designs as presented in Table 2, including a total binder content of 450 kg/m3,
water to binder (W/B) ratio of 0.4, limestone powder (LP) of 150 kg/m3, and the mass ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate of 0.55.
The studied SCC mixtures with various binder types were compared with a reference SCC mixture without any SCMs. Six binary mixes
incorporating 5%, 10%, and 15% NZ, as well as, 20%, 30%, and 40% GGBFS, and three ternary mixes incorporating 10% NZ with 20%,
30% and 40% GGBFS were prepared. These replacement levels of GGBFS and NZ have been chosen based on the suggested amounts in
similar studies [29,30]. The appropriate dosages of a modified polycarboxylate ether-based SP were adjusted to attain an initial slump
flow of 750 ± 30 mm. The amounts of all aggregates in Table 2 were calculated based on saturated surface dry (SSD).

2.3. Test procedures

The workability properties of SCC mixtures were evaluated using slump flow diameter, slump flow time (T50), J-Ring test, and V-
funnel flow time according to the guidelines and specifications for SCC provided by the European Federation of National Associations
Representing for Concrete (EFNARC) [46]. Slump flow, T50, and V-funnel time measure the flowability or filling ability of the SCC,
while the J-ring evaluates the passing ability. The test of V-funnel time is also used to assess the passing ability of the SCC [3].
Compressive strength was conducted on three 100 mm cubic specimens at the ages of 7, 28, 90, and 180 days following ASTM C39
[47]. The specimens were demolded after 24 h and then cured in lime-saturated water at a temperature of 20 ◦ C.
The capillary water absorption test was conducted on three concrete discs with a diameter of 100 mm and a height of 50 mm
according to ASTM C1585 [48]. After 28 and 90 days of curing, three specimens were dried for two weeks in a 50 ◦ C oven. The amount
of water absorption and the initial and secondary rates of water absorption were calculated.
Cylindrical samples (d:100 mm and h:200) mm were prepared to measure the surface electrical resistivity of SCC samples by
Wenner’s four-probe technique following AASHTO T 358–15 [49]. The electrical resistivity test was conducted at 7, 28, 90, 180 days.
The rapid chloride migration test (RCMT) was performed to measure the non-steady state migration coefficients of SCC samples.
After 28 and 90 days of curing, three disc-like specimens with a thickness of 50 ± 2 mm were derived from the 100 × 200 mm cylinder
concrete as per NT BUILD 492 instruction (Fig. 3) [50].

2.4. Life cycle assessment

The environmental impacts of using different GGBFS and NZ values in the SCC samples were calculated by life cycle assessment
(LCA) [51,52]. A systematic LCA approach consists of four major phases: goal and scope definition (Section 2.4.1); life cycle inventory
(Section 2.4.2); life cycle impact assessment (Section 2.4.3); and interpretation phase (Section 3.3).

Table 1
Chemical composition and physical properties of powder materials.

Items PC GGBFS NZ LP

CaO 62.4 36.0 3.1 54.8

SiO2 20.4 35.1 66.5 0.8
Al2O3 2.6 10.4 11.8 0.2
Fe2O3 4.5 0.9 1.3 –
MgO 3.7 10.4 0.8 0.4
K2 O 0.9 0.7 2.1 –
MnO 0.3 1.6 0.0 –
Na2O 0.2 0.6 2.0 –
TiO2 0.4 – – –
SO3 2.6 – 0.52 0.3
L.O⋅I 1.9 1.3 9.8 42.9
Specific gravity 3.10 2.94 2.24 2.67
Fineness (Blaine) (cm2/gr) 3200 4000 6000 3300

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Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of aggregates in comparison with limitations of ASTM C33 for the maximum size of 12.5 mm.

Table 2
Mix proportions of SCC mixtures substituted with SCMs (kg/m3).

NO Mix ID Description W/B PC NZ GGBFS LP Water Gravel Sand SP

1 R Reference 0.4 450 0 0 150 180 686.5 839.5 5.4

2 Z5 5% Zeolite 0.4 427.5 22.5 0 150 180 683.3 835.6 5.4
3 Z10 10% Zeolite 0.4 405 45 0 150 180 680.1 831.8 8.1
4 Z15 15% Zeolite 0.4 382.5 67.5 0 150 180 676.9 827.9 10.4
5 S20 20% Slag 0.4 360 0 90 150 180 684.7 837.3 4.1
6 S30 30% Slag 0.4 315 0 135 150 180 683.8 836.2 3.8
7 S40 40% slag 0.4 270 0 180 150 180 682.9 835.1 3.8
8 ZS20 10%Z+20%S 0.4 315 45 90 150 180 678.3 829.6 7.7
9 ZS30 10%Z+30%S 0.4 270 45 135 150 180 677.4 828.5 8.6
10 ZS40 10%Z+40%S 0.4 225 45 180 150 180 676.5 827.4 7.7

Fig. 3. Rapid chloride migration test set up: (a) Actual (b) Schematic equipment.

2.4.1. Goal and scope definition

The main goal of the comparative LCA in this study is to compare the changes in life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of
concrete with various NZ and GGBFS replacement contents and evaluate the impact of changes in durability and design characteristics
on their environmental performance. The LCA scope is defined as cradle to the grave and the activities involved in the product systems
for each component and the system boundaries are shown in Fig. 4. The end-of-life stage including transportation, recycling, and
landfilling of all mix designs, also steel reinforcement production, construction on-site, and concrete structural use are assumed
identical and excluded from the system boundary for the life cycle calculation.
In comparative LCA for concrete, similar functional requirements should be satisfied for all compared alternative mixtures. In
previous research, this problem was recognized and dealt with by modifying the functional unit (FU) to include the properties of the
concrete as a material. However, to compare the environmental performance of mixtures, the service life of concrete mixtures is
frequently ignored in the literature. Since improving durability in the mixture increases the service life, it might affect the decision to

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H. Bayat et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108737

Fig. 4. System boundaries of concrete structure life cycle used for this study.

select the best eco-friendly SCC. In this study, the functional unit was selected as a volume of the concrete for a reinforced concrete
beam with a nominal compressive strength of 35 MPa (C35) during and service life of 100 years. The benefit of this approach is that
alternative mixtures were compared based on integrated structural and durability characteristics, which yielded a more consistent
interpretation and assessment of results.
To calculate the depth of concrete cover required (mm) for a 100-year service life, the fib model [53] was applied. The fib model for
service life design allows a more precise prediction of the required concrete cover to be obtained through a formula that considers the
macro-climate conditions and concrete properties. In the fib model, the depth of cover is represented by Eq. (1).
[ ]
( ) a − Δx
Ccrit = C(x = a, t) = C0 + CS,Δx − C0 1 − erf √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅ (1)
2 Dapp,C (t).t

Where Ccrit = critical chloride content at which depassivation of reinforcement occurs (wt. %/CM); C0 = initial chloride content of the
concrete (wt.%/CM); Δx = depth of the convection zone (mm). CS,Δx = chloride content at a certain time and a depth Δx (%), a =
concrete cover (mm); t = time (units: years); erf = error function, and Dapp,C (t) = chloride diffusion coefficient (mm2/years) computed
using Eq. (2)
Dapp,C (t) = ke DRCM,0 k(t)A(t) (2)

Where k(t) = transfer variable (unitless); DRCM,0 = chloride migration coefficient at the reference point of time (10^− 12
m2/s); ke =
environmental transfer variable; and A(t) = ageing function. The ke and A(t) are calculated as follows:
[ ( )]
1 1
ke = exp be − (3)
Tref Treal

Where be = regression variable (K); Tref = standard test temperature (K); and Treal = real temperature of concrete’s surroundings (K).

Fig. 5. Schematic of (a) the reinforced concrete beam with loads and (b) cross-section of the beam; D.L. = dead load; L.L. = live load; d = effective depth of concrete
beam; Φ = radius of reinforcement bar; As = area of reinforcement; e = reinforcement diameter of Φ20/2 + Stirrup diameter of Φ10 +concrete cover; h = total height
of the beam.

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(t )α
(4)
0
A(t) =
t

Where t0 = reference time 0.0767 years (=28 days); and α = an ageing exponent. The chloride migration coefficient (DRCM,0 ) from
RCMT at 28 days were used in Eq (2) to calculate the depth of concrete cover required for design mixtures considering the same
environmental conditions of Habibi et al. (2021) [54].

Ccrit: 0.6 (wt.-%), C0 = 0.1 (wt.-%), Δx: 0 (mm), Cs,0: 3.0 (wt.-%), be: 4800 (k), Tref: 293, Treal: 303 (k).t0: 0.0767 yr (28 days), α:
0.3, k(t): 0.1,

In the next step, changes in the dimensions of structural elements should be calculated by changes in the compressive strength
based on the Iranian National Concrete Code [55,56]. Fig. 5 depicts a schematic of a reinforced concrete beam with a 6 m span. The
applied loads on the beam were taken from a real example that consisted of a permanent live load of 500 kg/m2 and a dead load of 600
kg/m2, following [55]. In addition, the area of reinforcement (As) and width of beam (b) were assumed to be similar for all
alternatives.

2.4.2. Life cycle inventory (LCI)

Field tests and manufacturer reports were used to obtain the most accurate data for cement and zeolite. The cement production’s
GHG emissions were determined directly from stacks at the Cement Plant Co. The total CO2, CO, NO2, CH4 emissions for PC production
were calculated as 906.23, 0.48, 9.1⨯10− 4, and 6.6⨯10− 3 kg/ton, respectively [57]. For NZ, since the material is extracted from nature,
the extraction and milling procedure was calculated based on used oil and electricity; As natural sunlight was applied to dry NZ inside
the plant, no drying procedure was considered. The Iran national electricity grid mix comprising 73% natural gas power plant, 15% oil
power plant, 9% hydro, and 2% nuclear was assumed for electricity generation [58].
For various elements such as aggregates, GGBFS, and transportation, Ecoinvent 3.7 [59] was utilized due to the unavailability of
GHG emissions data in Iran. Ecoinvent is selected as the preferred database for this research, given its global recognition for scientific
reliability. Consequently, more dependable outcomes were derived, suitable for global application. Only the data for limestone has
been adopted from the Gabi database [60]. In addition, the distance from suppliers to the concrete plant was considered by a truck
lorry (EURO 4).

2.4.3. Environmental impact assessment

The global warming potential (GWP) resulting from concrete production as a lead parameter for the environmental impact is
characterized by kg CO2eq and was calculated based on IPCC guidelines [61] as follows:
∑
GWP100YEAR (kg CO2 eq) = mi × GWPi (5)
i

Where mi = elementary flow mass i (kg) for a given GHG, and GWPi is the equivalent carbon dioxide based on the heat-trapping
potential during 100 years. The LCA modeling was performed using the open-access OpenLCA modeling software (version 1.10.3).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Fresh concrete properties
The properties of fresh SCC mixtures containing GGBFS and NZ were assessed by slump flow, T50, V-funnel, and J-ring tests.
Table 3 shows the SP demand of the mixes to reach 750 ± 30 mm slump-flow diameter. For better comparison, the mass ratio of SP to
binder (PC + SCMs) and SP to PC is presented in Table 3. A higher SP-to-PC ratio was required to compensate for workability loss by
NZ. By adding more SP, less water is required to wet PC particles and more water is available for wetting NZ and maintaining
workability. The reaction mechanism of SP is by providing a negative charge on the surface of PC particles so that they repel each other
due to the same electrostatic charges hence reducing the water demand [62]. The inclusion of 15% NZ in the mixtures increases the SP
demand up to 92% compared to the control mixture. The high surface area and honeycomb-like structure of NZ increase the water

Table 3
Workability properties of fresh SCC mixtures.

Mix ID Slump Flow J-Ring D1-D2 (mm) V-Funnel (sec) SP to binder (%) SP to PC (%)

T50 (sec) D1 (mm) Δh (mm) D2 (mm)

R 2.1 730 5 720 10 3.6 1.2 1.2

Z5 2.3 750 5 740 10 4.9 1.2 1.3
Z10 2.3 740 10 730 10 4.6 1.8 2.0
Z15 2.5 745 5 730 15 5.3 2.3 2.7
S20 1.7 770 5 720 50 3.7 0.9 1.1
S30 1.7 760 5 740 20 3.5 0.85 1.2
S40 1.5 750 5 700 50 3.1 0.85 1.4
ZS20 2.2 720 10 670 50 4.8 1.7 2.4
ZS30 2.2 770 10 740 30 4.9 1.9 3.2
ZS40 2.2 770 5 750 20 4.7 1.7 3.4

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demand and reduce the workability of the mixture [4,25]. The incorporation of 10% NZ in ternary blends containing GGBFS leads to an
increase in T50 and V-funnel time compared to binary mixtures containing GGBFS only.

3.2. Hardened concrete properties

3.2.1. Compressive strength
The results of average compressive strength for studied SCC mixtures are presented in Fig. 6. The inclusion of GGBFS and NZ
regardless of type and content remarkably reduced the compressive strength at 7 days (up to 48.3% for ZS40 mixture) compared to the
control mixture. This reduction can be related to the dilution effect of cement replacement with SCMs which is typical for most SCMs,
especially in early ages [63]. However, at 180 days, the binary and ternary SCC mixtures reached or exceeded the compressive strength
of the control. The difference between the 7-day and 180-day compressive strengths of mixtures containing GGBFS and NZ increased
significantly from 1.39 times (for Z5) up to 2.15 times (for ZS30) compared to the control mixture (R). This enhancement is attributed
to the pozzolanic activity of GGBFS and NZ on compressive strength gain at later ages [22,29]. It is well known that the use of SCMs
requires longer curing time to achieve a given strength [64]. Among binary samples, the inclusion of 10% NZ demonstrated the highest
compressive strength at older ages which was also reported as an optimum replacement by other studies [4,29]. The inclusion of
GGBFS at higher replacement levels resulted in a reduction in the compressive strength of the SCC mixtures until 90 days relative to the
control mixture which was also concluded by Zhao et al. [30]. Also, the effect of SP on enhancing particle packing, elevating
compressive strength and reducing porosity must be also considered [65].

3.2.2. Capillary water absorption

Fig. 7 shows the amount of capillary water absorption (I) at 72 h in selected SCC mixtures. The SCC mixtures containing SCMs,
regardless of the type and amount of replacement, present lower sorptivity than the control (also seen in Ref. [66]). Increasing the
percentage of NZ and GGBFS replacement in binary blends reduced water sorptivity. Also, binary mixtures made with NZ seemed to be
more effective in reducing the sorptivity compared to those made with GGBFS. This better performance of NZ can be related to the
internal curing ability of NZ as a porous material that absorbed a part of the water in the fresh state of concrete and this water gradually
migrated out of NZ for subsequent cement hydration [24,67]. The synergic effect of ternary blends containing NZ and GGBFS resulted
in the lowest sorptivity among SCC mixtures. The lowest capillary water absorption at 90 days (i.e., 2.8 mm) is observed for the ZS30
and ZS40 mixtures with the highest SCMs replacement among all mixes. These improvements can be attributed to the pozzolanic
reactions, leading to improvements in pore structures and disconnection in capillary pores [68]. Also, a higher substitution rate of PC
by finer SCMs increases the nucleation zones, hence increasing hydration kinetics [64]. The initial and secondary rates of water ab­
sorption of SCC samples are shown in Fig. 8. Initial rates of absorption are related to values up to 6 h and secondary rates of absorption
belong to values between 6 and 72 h. The secondary rate of water absorption of binary and ternary mixtures containing NZ and GGBFS
is lower than that of the control mixture at 28 and 90 days. The lowest initial and secondary rates of sorptivity belong to ternary
mixtures containing 10% NZ with 20%, 30%, and 40% GGBFS. The secondary rate of absorption for ZS20, ZS30, and ZS40 is about
40%, 39%, and 39.6% of the control mixture at 90 days, respectively. The improvement of water impermeability of mixtures is related
to two significant effects of SCMs including the physical filling effect and producing secondary C–S–H in cement matrix [69].

3.2.3. Chloride ions migration

The 28 and 90-day chloride ions migration coefficients of SCC mixtures containing NZ and GGBFS are presented in Fig. 9. The
utilization of SCMs in binary and ternary mixtures decreases the migration coefficient of chloride ions for all mixtures compared to the
control mixture. The SCMs in concrete mixtures change the pore structure by blocking the pores with reaction products and trans­
forming the continuous pores to discontinuous [1]. The further difference between 28-day and 90-day chloride migration coefficients
of binary and ternary SCC mixtures indicates the development of pozzolanic activity with the increase in curing time [70]. The lowest
and highest difference of migration coefficient between 28 and 90 days belonged to the control mixture and S40, respectively. This
transition can be due to the delayed reactions of SCMs in the cement matrix. In the binary mixtures, the presence of NZ with lower
replacement ratios (up to 15%) exhibited more effective performance in decreasing chloride penetration than GGBFS with higher
replacement ratios (up to 40%). As mentioned before, this can be related to the finer particles and internal curing ability of NZ [24,67].
In addition, with the change in the replacement level of NZ from 5 % to 15 %, the chloride ion diffusion coefficient of the binary SCC

Fig. 6. Compressive strength of SCC mixtures made with various SCMs.

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H. Bayat et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108737

Fig. 7. Capillary water absorption (I) in SCC mixtures with various SCMs cured for 28 and 90 days.

Fig. 8. Initial and secondary rates of water absorption for SCC mixtures.

Fig. 9. RCMT results of SCC mixtures made with various SCMs.

Fig. 10. Surface electrical resistivity of SCC mixtures made with various SCMs.

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H. Bayat et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108737

mixtures was drastically decreased from 18% to 59% lower compared to the control mixture at 90 days which are in agreement with
the findings of the other researchers [29,71]. According to the findings, all mixtures containing NZ and GGBFS demonstrated lower
levels of chloride ion penetration than the control mixture after 28 and 90 days. This reduction can be attributed to the decrease in
calcium hydroxide content and pore volumes due to the pozzolanic reactions and filling effects [30]. The combination of GGBFS and
NZ in ternary mixtures caused the best performance of SCC mixtures against chloride ion penetration. The lowest migration coefficient
of chloride ions belongs to ZS30 and ZS40 with 77% reduction compared to the control mixture result at 90 days. The RCMT results
concluded that adding 10% NZ to S20, S30, and S40 mixtures reduced the chloride migration coefficient by about 46%, 54%, 47%
compared to the corresponding binary mixtures containing only GGBFS. According to the recommended guideline by Gjorv [72], the
resistance to chloride ion permeability of concrete mixtures can be categorized qualitatively based on the 28-day RCM diffusivity
which are shown in Fig. 9. Among the studied mixtures, only a ternary blend containing 10% NZ and 40% GGBFS is categorized as high
resistance to chloride ingress. The control and Z5 mixtures are classified as low resistance to chloride ingress.

3.2.4. Surface electrical resistivity

The surface electrical resistivities of control, binary, and ternary SCC mixtures at 7, 28, 90, and 180 days are presented in Fig. 10.
Electrical resistivity describes the movement of ions in concrete which is an appropriate index for the resistivity of concrete against
chloride ions penetration [73]. The correlation between the electrical resistivity and chloride permeability of concrete was shown in
previous studies [74,75]. Replacing cement with SCMs causes a reduction in ion concentration in the pore solution because of the
pozzolanic reactions of SCM particles [73]. The 7-day electrical resistivity of all samples was approximately equal considering a limited
pozzolanic reaction at this age. At 28 days, the Z15 exhibited the highest electrical resistivity with 17.8 kΩ cm among the binary
mixtures containing NZ while the S40 with 13.3 kΩ cm had the highest resistivity among binary mixtures containing GGBFS. At 90
days, Z15 with 34.2 kΩ cm has lower electrical resistivity than S40 with 37 kΩ cm. The main reason for the increase of electrical
resistivity of SCC with GGBFS is its higher pozzolanic reactivity at later ages which led to the reduction in the pore structure of the
binder matrix [22]. Therefore, the combination of NZ with a better effect on electrical resistivity at early ages and GGBFS increased
resistivity at older ages causes a positive synergic effect on the electrical resistivity of ternary SCC mixtures at all ages. The ternary
sample containing 10% NZ and 40% GGBFS yielded the best result in electrical resistivity at all ages. According to AASHTO TP 95 [76],
the chloride ion permeability of concrete can be classified based on surface electrical resistivity at 28 days. Thus, the control mixture,
Z5 and S20 are in the high chloride ion penetration class, while ZS30 and ZS40 are in the low chloride ion penetration class.

3.2.5. The relationship between hardened concrete properties

The correlation analysis between the chloride migration coefficient and the compressive strength of all mixes showed weak re­
lationships with R2 = 0.5. Also, there was no strong relationship between the electrical resistivity and compressive strength (R2 =
0.72). Therefore, the durability of the studied SCC concrete containing SCM against steel reinforcement corrosion cannot be predicted
based on its compressive strength because of the complexity of factors affecting each of these properties. For example, the strength of
the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) has a significant effect on compressive strength, while it does not affect chloride penetration and
electrical resistivity of concrete [77]. Moreover, chemical compounds in pore solution have a notable impact on electrical resistivity
while they do not affect compressive strength [73,78].
Finding an appropriate relationship between RCMT and other easier tests such as electrical resistivity and water sorptivity could
make it possible to rely on their results instead of RCMT, which needs more time and effort to be conducted. Fig. 11 (left) shows that
there is a linear relationship with a strong relation (R2 = 0.92) between the chloride migration coefficient and water sorptivity for all
the studied SCC mixes containing SCM. The electrical resistivity of concrete is a suitable indicator for concrete chloride ion pene­
tration, so a close relationship between electrical resistivity and RCMT results was expected [79]. As presented in Fig. 11 (right), the
electrical resistivity of all mixes is also revealed to have a strong exponential relationship with the chloride migration coefficient with
R2 = 0.95. A similar trend was also reported by other researchers [75,79].

3.3. Life cycle impact assessment

3.3.1. Role of service life and structural design
The results of reinforced concrete beam designs concerning their service life and structural requirements are presented in Table 4.
NZ and GGBFS in SSC improve durability, leading to less concrete cover (e) for the same service of life (i.e. 100 years). ZS40 shows a
reduction of 27% in required cover compared to the control sample. The results show that the effective height (d) for reinforced
concrete increases by decreasing compressive strength, where all other parameters are constant. A decrease in the 28-day compressive
strength of ZS40 by 21% resulted in an increase of 1% in the effective height compared to the control specimen. Eventually, the total
height (h = d + e) is affected by a combination of compressive strength and chloride ion permeability resistance. As a result, the Z15
specimen had an average 2% drop in total beam height, which resulted in a 2% reduction in FU volume compared to the control
specimen. The internally normalized volume results (Table 4) clearly show that the volume did not dramatically change for FU when
chloride penetration and compressive strength were incorporated.

3.3.2. GWP results

It can be seen from Fig. 12 that cement content accounts for more than 85% of GHG emission (kg CO2-eq) of SCC mixtures.
Therefore, the decrease in Portland cement content can directly reduce the climate change impact of the SCC mixtures. Replacing
cement in the SCC mixes by 5, 10, and 15% of NZ reduced GWP up to 4%, 9%, and 13%, respectively. Furthermore, adding 10% NZ to
ternary specimens with different amounts of GGBFS could reduce GWP up to 38%. Replacing cement with NZ has a relatively lower
environmental impact than that of GGBFS, because of less GHG emission in the production and transportation in the selected location

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H. Bayat et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108737

Fig. 11. The relationship between water sorptivity and chloride migration coefficient (Left), and surface electrical resistivity and chloride migration coefficient (Right)
for all SCC mixes containing SCM.

Table 4
The structural design requirement for a reinforced concrete beam for a service life of 100 years and corresponding concrete volume for FU of the LCA study.

Concrete mix Unit R Z5 Z10 Z15 S20 S30 S40 ZS20 ZS30 ZS40

Service life Years 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
CMC at 28 days 10^− 12 m2/ 16.8 16.6 12.4 10.2 14.2 13.24 14.35 12.8 10.5 8.9
s
Concrete cover mm 62.8 62.4 53.9 48.9 57.7 55.7 58 54.8 49.6 45.7
Reinforcement bars cm 6Φ20 6Φ20 6Φ20 6Φ20 6Φ20 6Φ20 6Φ20 6Φ20 6Φ20 6Φ20
Width (b) mm 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350
Compressive strength (28d) MPa 38.7 38.1 37.8 36.4 37.6 37.5 31.1 36 32.8 30.6
Effective height (d) mm 636.9 637.4 637.7 638.9 637.8 637.9 644.7 639.3 642.7 645.4
Reinforcement diameter Φ20/2 + mm 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
UΦ10
Total height h mm 701.7 701.8 693.6 689.8 697.5 695.6 704.7 696.1 694.3 693
Length of beam m 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Volume of FU m3 1.4735 1.4737 1.4566 1.4486 1.4648 1.4608 1.4799 1.4618 1.4581 1.4554
Relative volume of FU m3/m3 1 1.0001 0.9885 0.9831 0.9941 0.9914 1.0043 0.9921 0.9895 0.9877

Fig. 12. The comparison of GHG emissions of SCC mixtures made with various SCMs. (kg of CO2eq).

of LCA study. The increase in CO2 emission for transportation is higher for ternary concrete since transportation is required for both NZ
and GGBFS. Therefore, the total transport distance for ternary mixes is higher compared to binary mixes. Although transportation is the
second contribution to the total CO2-eq of all mixtures, it is essential to note that the impact of transportation depends on local
conditions and can vary considerably [80]. While the replacement of cement content in ZS30 and S40 were similar, the environmental
impact of ZS30 (352 Kg CO2-eq) is slightly lower than S40 (356 Kg CO2-eq) mainly because NZ production uses less energy compared to
GGBFS. The results of this study showed that the global warming index compared to conventional SCC decreased dramatically by
replacing Portland cement with NZ and GGBFS, which indicates the effectiveness of the consumption of these SCMs to make SCC more
environmentally friendly.

4. Conclusions
This study investigates the feasibility of the utilization of SCMs such as natural zeolite (NZ) and ground granulated blast furnace
slag (GGBFS) in low-embodied-carbon self-compacting concrete (SCC). Ten SCC mixtures with various binder compositions were
prepared to evaluate the workability, mechanical, and durability properties. In addition, the life cycle assessment (LCA) with
consideration of elaborated functional unit based on structural design durability was evaluated to compare the mixtures in terms of
greenhouse gas emissions. The following conclusions are drawn from this study.

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H. Bayat et al. Journal of Building Engineering 86 (2024) 108737

1. The SCC with PC replacement of 30% GGBFS and 10% NZ in ternary mixtures led to a reduced superplasticizer demand (up to 9%)
compared to the binary mixture containing 10% NZ with 1.8% SP demand.
2. The SCC mixtures containing GGBFS and NZ showed a significant enhancement in compressive strength growth from 7 to 180 days,
ranging from 1.39 times (for Z5) to 2.15 times (for ZS30) compared to the control mixture without SCMs.
3. The synergic effect of ternary blends containing NZ and GGBFS resulted in the best performance in water sorptivity, chloride ions
migration, and electrical resistivity among studied SCC mixtures. Overall, the ternary SCC mixture of 10% NZ and 40% GGBFS was
the most durable.
4. In binary mixes, the NZ-contained mixtures with lower replacement ratios (up to 15% replacement) exhibited more effective
performance in decreasing chloride ions penetration than GGBFS mixtures (up to 30% replacement) due to the finer particles and
internal curing ability of NZ.
5. The chloride migration coefficient of all mixes is revealed to have a strong relationship with the water sorptivity and electrical
resistivity with R2 of 0.92 and 0.95, respectively.
6. Replacement of Portland cement with SCMs (GGBFS and NZ) decreased GHG emissions more than the control sample because of
reduced cement content and durability enhancement (although it was partially offset by reduced compressive strength).
7. A ternary SCC mixture with PC replacements of 10% NZ, and 40% GGBFS could reduce global warming potential by up to 38%
compared to the control mixture without SCM. So a cleaner SCC with enhanced properties and reduced environmental footprint can
be achieved by replacing PC with a ternary blend of GGBFS and NZ up to 50 wt%.
8. The ternary mix of 10% NZ and 30% GGBFS shows lower GHG emissions than 40% GGBFS with the same amount of cement
substitution due to the lower energy consumption during the production process of NZ than GGBFS and lower transportation
distance.

Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Hamid Bayat: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing – original draft. Rasoul Banar:
Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Morteza Nikravan: Conceptualization, Formal
analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Pedram Farnood: Investigation, Methodology. Amir
Mohammad Ramezanianpour: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Alireza Kashani: Project administra­
tion, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgement
This paper is dedicated to Prof. Aliakbar Ramezanianpour (1951–2021), the supervisor of this research in the Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering at Amirkabir University of Technology. There will be a place in our hearts for Prof. Ramezanianpour
due to his wisdom, kindness and efforts. Also, Morteza Nikravan acknowledges the support of the Alexander von Humboldt
Foundation.

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