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in

orderly manner from starting to end. But, technology they use to hold data. Dynamic
in random access, any byte of memory can RAM being a common type needs to be
be accessed directly without navigating refreshed frequently. Static RAM needs
through previous bytes. Different to be refreshed less often, which makes
memory devices are arranged according it faster. Hence, Static RAM is more
to the capacity, speed and cost as shown in expensive than Dynamic RAM.
Figure 3.6. 3.5.3 Read Only Memory (ROM)
Read Only Memory refers to special
lar ess t
acc
ger im
ost

memory in a computer with pre-recorded

hig ter
rc

cap e an data at manufacturing time which cannot

nd fas
he

Cache aci d L
e a ity,

Memory ty,s ow be modified. The stored programs that start

tim pac

low er
the computer and perform diagnostics are
ess ca

er cost
Main Memory
acc aller

available in ROMs. ROM stores critical

programs such as the program that boots
Sm

Hard Disk
the computer. Once the data has been
Figure 3.6 Memory Hierarchy written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be
modified or removed and can only be
3.5.1 Random-Access Memory (RAM)
read. ROM retains its contents even when
The main memory is otherwise
the computer is turned off. So, ROM is
called as Random Access Memory. This
called as a non-volatile memory.
is available in computers in the form of
Integrated Circuits (ICs). It is the place in 3.5.3.1Programmable Read Only Memory
a computer where the Operating System, (PROM)
Application Programs and the data in Programmable read only memory is
current use are kept temporarily so that also a non-volatile memory on which data
they can be accessed by the computer’s can be written only once. Once a program
processor. The smallest unit of information has been written onto a PROM, it remains
that can be stored in the memory is called there forever. Unlike the main memory,
as a bit. The memory can be accessed by PROMs retain their contents even when
a collection of 8 bits which is called as a the computer is turned off.
byte. The PROM differs from ROM.
RAM is a volatile memory, which PROM is manufactured as a blank
means that the information stored in it is memory, whereas a ROM is programmed
not permanent. As soon as the power is during the manufacturing process itself.
turned off, whatever data that resides in PROM programmer or a PROM burner is
RAM is lost. It allows both read and write used to write data to a PROM chip. The
operations. process of programming a PROM is called
3.5.2 Types of RAM burning the PROM.
There are two basic types of RAM 3.5.3.2 Erasable Programmable Read
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Only Memory (EPROM)
• Static RAM (SRAM) Erasable Programmable Read Only
These two types differ in the Memory is a special type of memory which
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serves as a PROM, but the content can up the memory retrieval process. Due to its
be erased using ultraviolet rays. EPROM higher cost, the CPU comes with a smaller
retains its contents until it is exposed to size of cache memory compared with the size
ultraviolet light. The ultraviolet light of the main memory. Without cache memory,
clears its contents, making it possible to every time the CPU requests the data, it has to
reprogram the memory. be fetched from the main memory which will
An EPROM differs from a PROM, consume more time. The idea of introducing
PROM can be written only once and a cache is that, this extremely fast memory
cannot be erased. EPROMs are used would store data that is frequently accessed
widely in personal computers because and if possible, the data that is closer to it.
they enable the manufacturer to change This helps to achieve the fast response time,
the contents of the PROM to replace with Where response Time, (Access Time) refers
updated versions or erase the contents to how quickly the memory can respond to
before the computer is delivered. a read / write request. Figure 3.8 shows the
arrangement of cache memory between the
CPU and the main memory.

Main
CPU Cache
Memory
Fast Slow
Figure 3.8 Cache Memory Arrangement
Figure 3.7 Erasable Programmable Read
3.6 Secondary Storage Devices
Only Memory
Most of the EPROM chips A computer generally has limited amount of
have a transparent area at the main memory which is expensive and volatile.
top surface which is covered To store data and programs permanently,
by stickers. If it gets removed, the secondary storage devices are used. Secondary
ultraviolet light in the sunlight may storage devices serve as a supportive storage
erase the contents. to main memory and they are non-volatile
in nature, secondary storage is also called as
3.5.3.3 Electrically Erasable Programmable Backup storage
Read Only Memory (EEPROM) 3.6.1 Hard Disks
Electrically Erasable Programmable Hard disk is a magnetic disk on which
Read Only Memory is a special type of you can store data. The hard disk has the
PROM that can be erased by exposing it stacked arrangement of disks accessed by a
to an electrical charge. Like other types of pair of heads for each of the disks. The hard
PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even disks come with a single or double sided disk.
when the power is turned off. Comparing 3.6.2 Compact Disc (CD)
with all other types of ROM, EEPROM is A CD or CD-ROM is made from 1.2
slower in performance. millimeters thick, polycarbonate plastic
3.5.4 Cache Memory material. A thin layer of aluminium or
The cache memory is a very high speed gold is applied to the surface. CD data is
and expensive memory, which is used to speed represented as tiny indentations known as
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"pits", encoded in a spiral track moulded players, digital cameras and mobile phones.
into the top of the polycarbonate layer. The Flash memory offers fast access times. The
areas between pits are known as "lands". time taken to read or write a character in
A motor within the CD player rotates the memory is called access time. The capacity
disk. The capacity of an ordinary CD- of the flash memories vary from 1 Gigabytes
ROM is 700MB. (GB) to 2 Terabytes (TB). A sample of flash
memory is shown in Figure 3.11.

Fig 3.9 Compact Disc

Figure 3.11 Flash Memory
3.6.3 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) 3.6.5 Blu-Ray Disc
A DVD (Digital Versatile Disc or Blu-Ray Disc is a high-density optical
Digital Video Disc) is an optical disc capable disc similar to DVD. Blu-ray is the type
of storing up to 4.7 GB of data, more than six of disc used for PlayStation games and for
times what a CD can hold. DVDs are often playing High-Definition (HD) movies. A
used to store movies at a better quality. Like double-layer Blu-Ray disc can store up to
CDs, DVDs are read with a laser. 50GB (gigabytes) of data. DVD uses a red
The disc can have one or two sides, laser to read and write data. But, Blu-ray uses
and one or two layers of data per side; the a blue-violet laser to write. Hence, it is called
number of sides and layers determines how as Blu-Ray.
much it can hold. Double-layered sides are
usually gold-coloured, while single-layered
sides are usually silver-coloured, like a CD.

Fig 3.10 Digital Versatile Disc Fig 3.12 Blu- Ray Disc
3.6.4 Flash Memory Devices 3.7 Ports and Interfaces
Flash memory is an electronic
(solid-state) non-volatile computer storage The Motherboard of a computer
medium that can be electrically erased and has many I/O sockets that are connected
reprogrammed. They are either EEPROM or to the ports and interfaces found on the
EPROM. Examples for Flash memories are rear side of a computer (Figure 3.13). The
pendrives, memory cards etc. Flash memories external devices can be connected to the
can be used in personal computers, Personal ports and interfaces. The various types of
Digital Assistants (PDA), digital audio ports are given below:

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Serial Port: To connect the external USB Port

devices, found in old computers. Mouse Port Network Port
Parallel Port: To connect the printers,
found in old computers.
USB Ports: To connect external devices VGA Serial
like cameras, scanners, mobile phones, Port Port Power Supply
external hard disks and printers to the Keyboard Port
computer. HDMI Port
USB 3.0 is the third major version of the
Universal Serial Bus (USB) standard to Fig 3.14 Ports and Interfaces
connect computers with other electronic High Definition Multimedia Interface
gadgets as shown in Figure 3.13. USB 3.0 (HDMI)
can transfer data up to 5 Giga byte/second. High-Definition Multimedia
USB3.1 and USB 3.2 are also released. Interface is an audio/video interface
which transfers the uncompressed video
and audio data from a video controller,
to a compatible computer monitor, LCD
projector, digital television etc.

Micro HDMI HDMI

Figure 3.13 USB 3.0 Ports Figure 3.15 HDMI Ports

Activity
VGA Connector: To connect a monitor or
any display device like LCD projector. Student Activity
Audio Plugs: To connect sound speakers, • Identify the components of a computer
microphone and headphones. • Connecting external devices like
PS/2 Port: To connect mouse and printer/LCD projector.
keyboard to PC.
Teacher Activity
SCSI Port: To connect the hard disk • Show the components of a computer
drives and network connectors.
• Display different ROM ICs
• Display the flash memory
• Demonstrate various ports and their
usage

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Evaluation

Part – I 7. How many memory locations are

Choose the correct answer identified by a processor with 8 bits
1. Which of the following is sadi to be address bus at a time?
the brain of a computer? (a) 28 (b) 1024
(a) Input devices (c) 256 (d) 8000
(b) Output devices 8. What is the capacity of 12cm
(c) Memory device diameter DVD with single sided
(d) Microprocessor and single layer?
2. Which of the following is not the (a) 4.7 GB (b) 5.5 GB
part of a microprocessor unit? (c) 7.8GB (d) 2.2 GB
(a) ALU (b) Control unit 9. What is the smallest size of data
(c) Cache memory (d) register represented in a CD?
3. How many bits constitute a word? (a) blocks (b) sectors
(a) 8 (c) pits (d) tracks
(b) 16 10. Display devices are connected to
(c) 32 the computer through.
determined by the processor
(d)  (a) USB port
used. (b) Ps/2 port
4. Which of the following device (c) SCSI port
identifies the location when address (d) VGA connector
is placed in the memory address
Part – II
register?
(a) Locator (b) encoder (1) 
What are the parameters which
influence the characteristics of a
(c) decoder (d) multiplexer
microprocessor?
5. Which of the following is a CISC
(2) What is an instruction?
processor?
(3) What is a program counter?
(a) Intel P6 (b) AMD K6
(4) What is HDMI?
(c) Pentium III (d) Pentium IV
(5) Which source is used to erase the
6. Which is the fastest memory?
content of a EPROM?
(a) Hard disk
Part – III
(b) Main memory
(1) Differentiate Computer
(c) Cache memory Organisation from Computer
(d) Blue-Ray disc Architecture.

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(2) Classify the microprocessor based Part – IV

on the size of the data. (1) Explain the characteristics of a
(3) 
Write down the classifications microprocessor.
of microprocessors based on the (2) How the read and write operations
instruction set. are performed by a processor? Explain.
(4) Differentiate PROM and EPROM. (3) Arrange the memory devices in
(5) Write down the interfaces and ports ascending order based on the access time.
available in a computer. (4) Explain the types of ROM.
(6) Differentiate CD and DVD
(7) How will you differentiate a flash
memory and an EEPROM?

The physical parts or components of a computer, such as

Computer hardware
the CPU, mother board, monitor, keyboard, etc.
Intel Corporation is an American multinational
corporation and technology company involving in
Intel
hardware manufacturing, especially mother board and
processors
Silicon chip is an integrated , set of electronic circuits on
Silicon chip
one small flat piece of semiconductor material, silicon.
Multipurpose Multipurpose is several purpose
Address bus is a collection of wires that carry the address
Address bus
as bits
Data bus Data bus is a collection of wires to carry data in bits
Control bus is a control line/collection of wires to control
Control bus
the operations/functions
Arithmetic operations are the mathematical operations on
Arithmetic operations
data like add, subtract etc
Data Transfer means moving data from one component to
Data Transfer
another
Logical operations are the operations on binary/Boolean
Logical operations
data like AND, OR , NOT
Bidirectional Bidirectional means both the directions/ways
Unidirectional Unidirectional means only one direction
Access time is the time delay or latency between a request
Access time to an electronic system, and the access being completed or
the requested data returned

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Unit I Fundamentals of Computers CHAPTER

4
Theoretical concepts of Operating System

Learning objectives This controls input, output and

other peripheral devices such as disk
99 To know the concept of Operating
drives, printers and electronic gadgets.
Systems and their types.
The functions of an Operating System
99 To acquire the basic Knowledge of
include file management, memory
Operating Systems and its functions.
management, process management and
4.1 Introduction to Software
device management and many more.
A software is set of instructions that
perform specific task. It interacts basically with
the hardware to generate the desired output.
4.1.1 Types of Software
Software is classified into two types: Monitor
Hard drive
1) Application Software APPS
2) System Software Operating
Application Software: System Mo
use
Application software
is a set of programs to
Printer Keyboard
perform specific task.
For example MS-word is an application
software to create text document and VLC
player is familiar application software to
play audio, video files and many more. Figure: 4.1 Operating System
System Software:
System software is a type of Without an Operating System, a
computer program that is designed to run computer cannot effectively manage all the
the computer’s hardware and application resources. When a computer is switched
programs. Example Operating System and on, the operating system is loaded in to the
Language Processor memory automatically.

4.2 Introduction to Operating

System (OS): Some of the popular Operating
Systems used in personal computers and
An Operating System (OS) is laptops are Windows, UNIX and Linux.
a system software which serves as an The mobile devices mostly use Android
interface between a user and a computer. and ioS as mobile OS.

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