Nature of Physical World and Measurement

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR
PHYSICS
VOLUME - I
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2018

Revised Edition - 2019, 2020, 2022
(Published Under New Syllabus)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational

Research and Training
© SCERT 2018
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
II

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CONTENTS
PHYSICS
UNIT TITLE Page No. Month
1 Nature of Physical World and Measurement 01 Jun
2 Kinematics 41 Jun-Jul
3 Laws of Motion 105Jul-Aug
4 Work, Energy and Power 167 Aug
5 Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Bodies 208 Sep
Appendix 1 266
Appendix 2 290
Appendix 3 297
Appendix 4 298
Glossary 300
E-book Assessment
III

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HOW TO USE THE BOOK

• Awareness on higher learning -courses, institutions and required
Scope of Physics competitive exams
• Financial assistance possible to help students to climb academic ladder
Learning Objectives:
• Overview of the unit
• Gives clarity on the goals and intention of the topics
• Additional facts related to the topics covered to facilitate

curiosity driven learning
• To ensure understanding, problems/illustrations are given at every stage

Example problems before advancing to next level
• Visual representation of concepts with illustrations

• Videos, animations, and tutorials
ICT • To harness the digital skills to class room learning and experimenting
Summary • Recap of salient points of the lesson
Concept Map • Schematic outline of salient learning of the unit
• Evaluate students’ understanding and get them acquainted with the

Evaluation application of physical concepts to numerical and conceptual questions
Books for Reference • List of relevant books for further reading
• Numerical/conceptual questions are solved to enable students to tackle

Solved examples standard problems in mechanics in appendix 1
Competitive • Model Questions - To motivate students aspiring to take up competitive

Exam corner examinations such as NEET, JEE, Physics Olympiad, JIPMER etc
• Additional information including the chronological development

Appendix of physics is provided
Glossary • Scientific terms frequently used with their Tamil equivalents
Physics learning - Correct method Value addition of the book

• The correct way to learn is to understand the concept, • Mathematical topics such as vectors, differentiation
express the same in the language of mathematics and integration are essential to understand and express
which are equations. physical phenomena.
• Each equation conveys the meaning of a phenomena • Inclusion of these topics and usage of vector notation
or relationship between various parameters in the wherever necessary is the salient feature of this book.
equations. Such relationship can be diagrammatically • Becoming familiar with vector notations and basic
expressed as graphs. mathematics for physics will solve a lot of difficulty
• This interlink should be clear in mind while going currently faced by students pursuing higher education
through the entire text. in engineering, technology and science disciplines.
IV

Scope of Physics - Higher Education
XI_Physics_First 8 pages Higher.indd 5

After completing
undergraduate course in Physics
Exams (B.Sc Physics)
After completing +2
• M.Sc. (Physics) (In Central and State

• JEE-Joint Entrance Examination • B.Sc (Physics) Universities and Colleges)
V
• Physics Olympiad Exam • Integrated M.Sc (Physics) (Central Universities) • M.Sc. Physics (JAM in IISc ,IITs and NITs)
• NEET- National Eligibility and Entrance Test • Integrated M.Sc (in Central Research Institutes through • M.Sc. (In State and Central Universities)
• NEST- National Entrance Screening Test NEST and KVPY with stipend) • Medical Physics
• AIEEE- All India Engineering Entrance Exam • B.Sc./B.S./B.Stat./B.Math./M.S. in Mathematics, • Materials Science
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• AIIMS- All India Institute of Medical Science (Entrance Chemistry and Biology. (KVPY) • Energy
Examination) • B.E/B.Tech/ B.Arch (JEE, AIEEE in IITs and NITs) • Earth Sciences
• JIPMER- Jawaharlal institute of Postgraduate Medical MBBS/ B.D.S/B.Pharm (NEET, JIPMER, AIIMS ) • Space science
Education and Research (Entrance Examination) • B.Sc. (Agriculture) (ICAR -AIEEA) • Oceanography
• KVPY- Kishore Vaigyanik Protsahan Yojana • Dual Degree Program BS & MS • Remote sensing
• JAM- Joint Admission Test (JEE, JEST in IITs and IISERs) • Electronics
• TIFR GS - Tata Institute of Fundamental Research • B.Sc (Hospitality administration) • Photonics
Graduate School Admissions Examination • B.Sc (Optoelectronics) • Optoelectronics
• JEST- Joint Entrance Screening Test • B.Sc (Optometry) • Acoustics
• NET- National Eligibility Test (CSIR and UGC) • B.Tech (Optics and Optoelectronics) • Applied electronics
• GATE-Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering • Astronomy and Astrophysics
• ICAR -AIEEA-Indian Council of Agricultural Research • Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
All India Entrance Examination
• Biostatistics
• Bio informatics
• Vacuum sciences
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Opportunities after B.Sc. Physics

Financial assistance to
Jobs in Government Sector
pursue higher education
VI
• Indian Forest Services
• Scientist Job in ISRO, DRDO, CSIR labs Scholarships for graduate and post
• Union Public Service Commission graduate courses
• Staff selection commission
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• Indian Defence services etc. • International Olympiad: for getting stipend for Higher
• Public sector Bank Education in Science and Mathematics
• State PCS • DST – INSPIRE Scholarships (for UG and PG)
• Grade III & Compiler Post • DST – INSPIRE Fellowships (for Ph.D)
• Tax Assistant • UGC National Fellowship (for Ph.D)
• Statistical Investigator • Indira Gandhi Fellowship for Single girl child
(for UG and PG)
• Combined Higher Secondary
• Moulana Azad Fellowship for minorities (for Ph.D)
• Combined Graduate Level Exam etc.
• In addition various fellowships for SC/ST/PWD,
OBC etc are available.
• Visit website of University Grants Commission
(UGC) and Department of Science and
Technology (DST)
05-01-2022 22:21:59
Institutes in india to pursue research in physics

Research Institutions in various areas of science
Name of the Institution Website
Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore www.iisc.ac.in
Raman Research Institute (RRI) Bangalore www.rri.res.in
Institute of Mathematical Sciences (IMSc) Chennai www.imsc.res.in
Indian Association for Cultivation of Science (IACS) Calcutta www.iacs.res.in
After completing Chennai Mathematical Institute (CMI) Chennai www.cmi.ac.in
Post Graduate course in Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) Mumbai www.tifr.res.in
Physics (M.Sc Physics) Bhaba Atomic Research centre (BARC) Mumbai www.barc.gov.in
SN Bose centre Basic Natural science Calcutta www.bose.res.in
Topics of Research Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) Trivandrum www.iist.ac.in
VII
• Quantum Physics and Quantum Optics Physics Research Laboratory (PRL) Ahmedabad www.prl.res.in
• Astrophysics, Astronomy
Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) Bangalore www.iiap.res.in
• String theory, Quantum gravity
Institute of Physics (IOP) Bhubaneswar www.iopb.res.in
• Mathematical Physics, Statistical Mechanics
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• Quantum Field Theory Institute for Plasma Research (IPR) Gujarat www.ipr.res.in
• Particle Physics and Quantum Thermodynamics Inter university centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA) Pune www.iucaa.in
• Quantum information theory Indira Gandhi centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam www.igcar.gov.in
• Condensed Matter Physics, Materials Science
Hyderabad central university, Hyderabad www.uohyd.ac.in
• Electro magnetic Theory
Delhi University, Delhi www.du.ac.in
• Black Holes, Cosmology
• Crystal Growth, Crystallography Mumbai University, Mumbai www.mu.ac.in
• Spectroscopy, Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics SavithiribaiPhule Pune university, Pune www.unipune.ac.in
• Nano Science and Nanotechnology National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER), Bhubaneshwar www.niser.ac.in
• Energy and Environment Studies
IISER Educational Institutions www.iiseradmission.in
• Biophysics, Medical Physics
• Cryptography, Spintronics
Indian Institute of Technology in various places (IIT’s) www.iitm.ac.in
• Optics and Photonics National Institute of Technology (NITs) www.nitt.edu
• Meteorology and Atmospheric Science Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) www.jnu.ac.in
Central Universities www.ugc.ac.in
State Universities https://www.ugc.ac.in
CSIR – Academy (National laboratories, Delhi,
Hyderabad, Trivandrum, Chennai, Calcutta etc)
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VIII

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UNIT NATURE OF PHYSICAL WORLD
1 AND MEASUREMENT
“Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think” – Albert Einstein
Learning Objectives
In this unit, the student is exposed to

• excitement generated by the discoveries in Physics
• an understanding of physical quantities of importance
• different system of units
• an understanding of errors and corrections in physics measurements
• the importance of significant figures
• usage of dimensions to check the homogeneity of physical quantities
1.1 (Physics and Chemistry), and that dealing

SCIENCE—INTRODUCTION with living things is biological science
(Botany, Zoology etc.).
The word ‘science’ has its root in the Latin
verb scientia, meaning “to know”. In Tamil Curiosity-driven observations of natural
language, it is ‘அறிவியல்’ (Ariviyal) happenings was the origin of science.
meaning ‘knowing the truth’. The human The word ‘science’ was coined only in
mind is always curious to know and the 19th century. Natural philosophy was
understand different phenomena like the the earlier name given to science, when
bright celestial objects in nature, cyclic ancient civilization knew and practised
changes in the seasons, occurrence of astronomy, chemistry, human physiology
rainbow, etc. The inquisitive mind looks for and agriculture. Oral communication
meaningful patterns and relations in such was the mode of conveying knowledge when
phenomena. Today’s modern science and writing systems were not yet developed.
technology is an offshoot of the understanding One of the oldest forerunners of
of nature. Science is the systematic scientific advancements, from astronomy to
organization of knowledge gained through medicine, were the Egyptians. Scientific and
observation, experimentation and logical mathematical excellence in India dates back
reasoning. The knowledge of science dealing to prehistoric human activity in the Indus
with non-living things is physical science Valley Civilization (3300 – 1300 BC(BCE).
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According to part IV Article 51A (h)

of Indian Constitution “It shall be the The name Physics
duty of every citizen of India to develop was introduced by
scientific temper, humanism and spirit of Aristotle in the year
350 BC
inquiry and reform’’. This is the aim of
our Science Education.
1.1.1 The Scientific Method

1.2
The scientific method is a step-by-step
PHYSICS - INTRODUCTION
approach in studying natural phenomena
and establishing laws which govern these The word ‘physics’ is derived from the
phenomena. Any scientific method involves Greek word “Fusis”, meaning nature. The
the following general features. study of nature and natural phenomena
is dealt within physics. Hence physics
(i) Systematic observation
is considered as the most basic of all
(ii) Controlled experimentation sciences.
(iii) Qualitative and quantitative reasoning
Unification and Reductionism are
(iv) Mathematical modeling
the two approaches in studying physics.
(v) Prediction and verification or Attempting to explain diverse physical
falsification of theories phenomena with a few concepts and laws
is unification. For example, Newton’s
Example
universal law of gravitation (in unit 6)
Consider a metalic rod being heated. When explains the motion of freely falling bodies
one end of the rod is heated, heat is felt at towards the Earth, motion of planets around
the other end. The following questions can the Sun, motion of the Moon around the
be asked on this observation Earth, thus unifying the fundamental
a) What happens within the rod when it forces of nature.
is heated? An attempt to explain a macroscopic
b) How does the heat reach the other system in terms of its microscopic
end? constituents is reductionism. For example,
c) Is this effect true for all materials? thermodynamics (unit 8) was developed
d) If heat flows through the material, is it to explain macroscopic properties
possible to visualize heat? like temperature, entropy, etc., of bulk
systems. The above properties have been
The process of finding the answers to these
interpreted in terms of the molecular
queries is scientific investigation.
constituents (microscopic) of the bulk
The basic phenomenon of heat is system by kinetic theory (unit 9) and
discussed in unit 8. statistical mechanics.
2 Unit 1 Nature of P hysi cal World and Measurement

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1.2.1 Branches of Physics Some of the fundamental concepts of

basic areas of physics are discussed in higher
Physics as a fundamental science helps to secondary first year physics books volume 1
uncover the laws of nature. The language of its and 2. Mechanics is covered in unit 1 to 6.
expression is mathematics. In ancient times, Unit 1 gives an idea of the development
humans lived with nature – their lifestyles of physics along with discussion on basic
were integrated with nature. They could elements such as measurement, units etc.
understand the signals from the movement Unit 2 gives the basic mathematics needed
of the stars and other celestial bodies. They to express the impact of physical principles
could determine the time to sow and reap and their governing laws. The impact of
by watching the sky. Thus, astronomy and forces acting on objects in terms of the
mathematics were the first disciplines to be fundamental laws of motion of Newton are
developed. The chronological development very systematically covered in unit 3. Work
of various branches of physics is presented and energy which are the basic parameters
in Appendix A1.1. The various branches of investigation of the mechanical world
of physics are schematically shown in are presented in unit 4. Unit 5 deals with
figure 1.1. The essential focus of different the mechanics of rigid bodies (in contrast,
areas is given in Table 1.1. objects are viewed as point objects in units
Physics
Classical Modern
Statics
Kinematics
Mechanics Quantum Physics
Dynamics Non-relativistic
Relativistic
Kinetics
Atomic Physics
Thermodynamics & Nuclear Physics

Kinetic Theory of Gases
Optics Molecular Physics
Electricity & Magnetism High Energy

Physics
Acoustics
Condensed Matter
Physics
Astrophysics
Relativity
Figure 1.1 Branches of Physics
Uni t 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement 3

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Table 1.1 Branches of Physics

Classical Physics Refers to traditional physics that was recognized and
developed before the beginning of the 20th century
Branch Major focus
1. Classical mechanics The study of forces acting on bodies whether at rest or in
motion
2. Thermodynamics The study of the relationship between heat and other forms
of energy
3. Optics The study of light
4. Electricity and The study of electricity and magnetism and their mutual
magnetism relationship
5. Acoustics The study of the production and propagation of sound waves
6. Astrophysics The branch of physics which deals with the study of the
physics of astronomical bodies
7. Relativity One of the branches of theoretical physics which deals with
the relationship between space, time and energy particularly
with respect to objects moving in different ways .
Modern Physics Refers to the concepts in physics that have surfaced since
the beginning of the 20th century.
1. *Quantum mechanics The study of the discrete nature of phenomena at the atomic
and subatomic levels
2. Atomic physics The branch of physics which deals with the structure and
properties of the atom
3. Nuclear physics The branch of physics which deals with the structure,
properties and reaction of the nuclei of atoms.
4. Condensed matter The study of the properties of condensed materials (solids,
physics liquids and those intermediate between them and dense
gas). It branches into various sub-divisions including
developing fields such as nano science, photonics etc.
It covers the basics of materials science, which aims at
developing new material with better properties for promising
applications.
5. High energy physics The study of the nature of the particles.
*Quantum mechanics is a broader approach; classical results can be reproduced in quantum mechanics also.
Detailed explanation is beyond the scope of this book.
3 and 4). The basics of gravitation and The impact of heat and investigations of its
its consequences are discussed in unit 6. consequences are covered in units 8 and 9.
Older branches of physics such as different Important features of oscillations and wave
properties of matter are discussed in unit 7. motion are covered in units 10 and 11.

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1.2.2 cope and Excitement

S
Range of masses: from heavenly bodies
of Physics to electron, 1055 kg (mass of known
observable universe) to 10−31 kg (mass
Discoveries in physics are of two types; of an electron) [the actual mass of an
accidental discoveries and well-analysed electron is 9.11×10–31 kg].
research outcome in the laboratory based
on intuitive thinking and prediction. For The study of physics is not only educative
example, magnetism was accidentally but also exciting in many ways.
observed but the reason for this strange A small number of basic concepts
behavior of magnets was later analysed and laws can explain diverse physical
theoretically. This analysis revealed the phenomena.
underlying phenomena of magnetism. With The most interesting part is the designing
this knowledge, artificial magnets were of useful devices based on the physical
prepared in the laboratories. Theoretical laws.
predictions are the most important
For example i) use of robotics
contribution of physics to the developments
ii) journey to Moon and to
in technology and medicine. For example, the
nearby planets with controls from
famous equation of Albert Einstein, E=mc2
the ground iii) technological
was a theoretical prediction in 1905 and
advances in health sciences etc.
experimentally proved in 1932 by Cockcroft
and Walton. Theoretical predictions aided Carrying out new challenging
with recent simulation and computation experiments to unfold the secrets of
procedures are widely used to identify the nature and in verifying or falsifying the
most suited materials for robust applications. existing theories.
The pharmaceutical industry uses this Probing and understanding the science
technique very effectively to design new behind natural phenomena like the
drugs. Biocompatible materials for organ eclipse, and why one feels the heat when
replacement are predicted using quantum there is a fire? (or) What causes the
prescriptions of physics before fabrication. wind, etc.
Thus, experiments and theory work hand in In today’s world of technological
hand complimenting one another. advancement, the building block of all
Physics has a huge scope as it covers a engineering and technical education is
tremendous range of magnitude of various physics which is explained with the help of
physical quantities (length, mass, time, mathematical tools.
energy etc). It deals with systems of very large
magnitude as in astronomical phenomena
as well as those with very small magnitude
involving electrons and protons.
Range of time scales: astronomical scales

to microscopic scales, 1018s to 10−22s.

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1.3 bonding and to understand the complex

PHYSICS IN RELATION chemical structures. Inter-disciplinary
TO TECHNOLOGY AND branches like Physical chemistry and
SOCIETY Quantum chemistry play important
roles here.
Technology is the application of the 2. Physics in relation to biology:
principles of physics for practical purposes. Biological studies are impossible
The application of knowledge for practical without a microscope designed using
purposes in various fields to invent and physics principles. The invention of
produce useful products or to solve the electron microscope has made it
problems is known as technology. Thus, possible to see even the structure of
physics and technology can both together a cell. X-ray and neutron diffraction
impact our society directly or indirectly. For techniques have helped us to
example, understand the structure of nucleic
acids, which help to control vital
i. Basic laws of electricity and
life processes. X-rays are used for
magnetism led to the discovery of
diagnostic purposes. Radio-isotopes
wireless communication technology
are used in radiotherapy for the cure
which has shrunk the world with
of cancer and other diseases. In recent
effective communication over large
years, biological processes are being
distances.
studied from the physics point of view.
ii. The launching of satellite into space
3. Physics in relation to mathematics:
has revolutionized the concept of
Physics is a quantitative science. It is
communication.
most closely related to mathematics as a
iii. Microelectronics, lasers, computers,
tool for its development.
superconductivity and nuclear energy
4. Physics in relation to astronomy:
have comprehensively changed the
Astronomical telescopes are used to
thinking and living style of human
study the motion of planets and other
beings.
heavenly bodies in the sky. Radio
Physics being a fundamental science has telescopes have enabled the astronomers
played a vital role in the development of all to observe distant points of the universe.
other sciences. A few examples: Studies of the universe are done using
physical principles.
1. Physics in relation to Chemistry: In 5. Physics in relation to geology:
physics, we study the structure of atom, Diffraction techniques help to study
radioactivity, X-ray diffraction etc. the crystal structure of various rocks.
Such studies have enabled researchers Radioactivity is used to estimate the age
in chemistry to arrange elements in of rocks, fossils and the age of the Earth.
the periodic table on the basis of their 6. Physics in relation to oceanography:
atomic numbers. This has further helped Oceanographers seek to understand the
to know the nature of valency, chemical physical and chemical processes of the

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oceans. They measure parameters such The comparison of any physical quantity
as temperature, salinity, current speed, with its standard unit is known as
gas fluxes, chemical components. measurement.
7. Physics in relation to psychology: All Measurement is the basis of all
psychological interactions can be derived scientific studies and experimentation.
from a physical process. The movements It plays an important role in our daily
of neurotransmitters are governed by life. Physics is a quantitative science
the physical properties of diffusion and and physicists always deal with numbers
molecular motion. The functioning of our which are the measurement of physical
brain is related to our underlying wave- quantities.
particle dualism.
Nature teaches true science with physics
as an efficient tool. Science and technology
1.4.1 efinition of Physical
D
should be used in a balanced manner
Quantity
so that they do not become weapons to
destroy nature which taught us science. Quantities that can be measured, and
Global warming and other negative impacts in terms of which, laws of physics are
of technology need to be checked. Safe described are called physical quantities.
science with moderate and appropriate use Examples are length, mass, time, force,
of technology is the need of this century. energy, etc.
The scope and opportunities for higher

education in physics and various fellowships
offered is given in the beginning of the book. 1.4.2 ypes of Physical
T
Quantities
Physical quantities are classified into two
types. They are fundamental and derived
quantities.
Fundamental or base quantities are
quantities which cannot be expressed in
1.4 terms of any other physical quantities. These
MEASUREMENT are length, mass, time, electric current,
temperature, luminous intensity and
“When you can measure what you are amount of substance.
speaking about and can express it in Quantities that can be expressed in terms
numbers, you know something about of fundamental quantities are called derived
it; but when you cannot express it in quantities. For example, area, volume,
numbers, your knowledge is of a meager velocity, acceleration, force, etc.
and unsatisfactory kind” - Lord Kelvin

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1.4.3 efinition of Unit and

D and second as the three basic units
its Types for measuring length, mass and time
respectively.
The process of measurement is basically
a process of comparison. To measure (c) The m.k.s system is based on metre,
a quantity, we always compare it with kilogram and second as the three basic
some reference standard. For example, units for measuring length, mass and
when we state that a rope is 10 meter long, time respectively.
it is to say that it is 10 times as long as an
object whose length is defined as 1 metre.
Such a standard is known as the unit of the The cgs, mks and SI
quantity. Here 1 metre is the unit of the are metric or decimal
quantity ‘length’. system of units. The
An arbitrarily chosen standard of fps system is not a
metric system.
measurement of a quantity, which is accepted
internationally is called unit of the quantity.
The units in which the fundamental
quantities are measured are called
1.4.5 SI unit System
fundamental or base units and the units
of measurement of all other physical The system of units used by scientists
quantities, which can be obtained by a and engineers around the world is
suitable multiplication or division of powers commonly called the metric system
of fundamental units, are called derived but, since 1960, it has been known
units. officially as the International System,
or SI (the abbreviation for its French
name, Système International). The SI
1.4.4 ifferent types of
D with a standard scheme of symbols, units
Measurement Systems and abbreviations, were developed and
A complete set of units which is used to recommended by the General Conference
measure all kinds of fundamental and on Weights and Measures in 1971 for
derived quantities is called a system of units. international usage in scientific, technical,
Here are the common system of units used industrial and commercial work. The
in mechanics: advantages of the SI system are,
(a) the f.p.s. system is the British i) This system makes use of only one unit
Engineering system of units, which uses for one physical quantity, which means
foot, pound and second as the three a rational system of units.
basic units for measuring length, mass ii) In this system, all the derived units
and time respectively. can be easily obtained from basic and
(b) The c.g.s system is the Gaussian supplementary units, which means it is
system, which uses centimeter, gram a coherent system of units.

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iii) It is a metric system which means that

multiples and submultiples can be
expressed as powers of 10.
In SI, there are seven fundamental units as FPO

given in Table 1.2
Table 1.2 SI Base Quantities and Units

Base SI Units
Quantity Unit Symbol Definition
Length metre m One metre is the length of the path travelled by light in
vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second (1983)
Mass kilogram kg One kilogram is the mass of the prototype cylinder
of platinum iridium alloy (whose height is equal to
its diameter), preserved at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures at Serves, near Paris, France. (1901)
Time second s One second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of
radiation corresponding to the transition between the
two hyperfine levels of the ground state of Cesium-133
atom.(1967)
Electric ampere A One ampere is the constant current, which when
current maintained in each of the two straight parallel conductors
of infinite length and negligible cross section, held one
metre apart in vacuum shall produce a force per unit
length of 2 × 10−7 N/m between them. (1948)
 1 
Temperature kelvin K One kelvin is the fraction  of the
 273.16 
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point* of
the water. (1967)
Amount of mole mol One mole is the amount of substance which contains as
substance many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg
of pure carbon-12. (1971)
Luminous candela cd One candela is the luminous intensity in a given direction,
intensity of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of
frequency 5.4 × 1014 Hz and that has a radiant intensity
1
of watt/steradian in that direction. (1979)
683
* Triple point of water is the temperature at which saturated vapour, pure water and melting
ice are all in equilibrium. The triple point temperature of water is 273.16K

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Table 1.3 lists some of the derived quantities and their units.
Table 1.3 Derived Quantities and their Units

Physical quantity Expression Unit
Plane angle arc / radius rad
Solid angle surface area/radius2 sr
Area length × breadth m2
Volume area × height m3
Velocity displacement / time m s−1
Acceleration velocity / time m s−2
Angular velocity angular displacement / time rad s−1
Angular acceleration angular velocity / time rad s−2
Density mass / volume kg m−3
Linear momentum mass × velocity kg m s−1
Moment of inertia mass × (distance)2 kg m2

Force mass × acceleration kg m s−2 or N
Pressure force / area N m−2 or Pa
Energy (work) force × distance N m or J
Power Work / time J s−1 or watt (W)
Impulse force × time Ns
Surface tension force / length N m−1
Moment of force (torque) force × distance Nm
Electric charge current × time A s or C
Current density current / area A m−2
Magnetic induction force / (current × length) N A−1 m−1 or tesla
Force constant force / displacement N m–1
Plank’s constant energy of photon / frequency Js
Specific heat (S) heat energy / (mass × temperature) J kg–1 K–1
Boltzmann constant (k) energy/temperature J K–1

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Note: The Radian (rad): One radian is the angle

π radian = 180° subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
equal in length to the radius of the circle.
180 180 7
1 radian 57. 27 The Steradian (sr): One steradian is
22 the solid angle subtended at the centre
Also, 1° (degree of arc) = 60′ (minute of a sphere, by that surface of the
of arc) and 1′ (minute of arc) = 60″ sphere, which is equal in area, to the
(seconds of arc) square of radius of the sphere
Relations between radian, degree and

in which both objects and distances
minutes: are large. On the contrary, objects like
molecules, atoms, proton, neutron,
π
1° = rad = 1.744 × 10-2 rad electron, bacteria etc., and their distances
180 constitute microcosm, which means a
small world in which both objects and
1 1.744 × 10 −2
∴1΄ = = = 2.906 ×10 −4 rad distances are small-sized.
60 60
≈ 2.91 ×10 −4 rad Distances ranging from 10−5 m to 102 m
can be measured by direct methods.
1 1.744 × 10 −2 For example, a metre scale can be used
∴1΄΄ = = = 4.844 × 10 −6rad
3600 3600 ≈ 4.84 × 10-6 rad to measure the distance from 10−3 m to 1
m, vernier calipers up to 10−4 m, a screw
gauge up to 10−5 m and so on. The atomic
and astronomical distances cannot be
1.5 measured by any of the above mentioned
MEASUREMENT OF BASIC direct methods. Hence, to measure the
QUANTITIES very small and the very large distances,
indirect methods have to be devised and
used. In Table 1.4, a list of powers of 10
1.5.1 easurement of
M (both positive and negative powers) is
length given. Prefixes for each power are also
The concept of length in physics is related mentioned. These prefixes are used along
to the concept of distance in everyday life. with units of length, and of mass.
Length is defined as the distance between
any two points in space. The SI unit of
The supplementary
length is metre. The objects of our interest
quantities of plane and
vary widely in sizes. For example, large
solid angle were converted
objects like the galaxy, stars, Sun, Earth,
into Derived quantities in
Moon etc., and their distances constitute
1995 (GCWM)
a macrocosm. It refers to a large world,

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Table 1.4 Prefixes for Powers of Ten

Multiple Prefix Symbol Sub multiple Prefix Symbol
101 deca da 10−1 deci d
102
hecto h 10−2 centi c
103 kilo k 10−3 milli m
106
mega M 10−6 micro µ
109 giga G 10−9 nano n
10 12
tera T 10−12 pico p
1015 peta P 10−15 femto f
10 18
exa E 10−18 atto a
1021 zetta Z 10−21 zepto z
10 24
yotta Y 10−24 yocto y
i) Measurement of small distances: the circular motion of a screw. The least

screw gauge and vernier caliper count of the screw gauge is 0.01 mm
Screw gauge: The screw gauge is Vernier caliper: A vernier caliper is a
an instrument used for measuring versatile instrument for measuring
accurately the dimensions of objects the dimensions of an object namely
up to a maximum of about 50 mm. diameter of a hole, or a depth of a
The principle of the instrument is the hole. The least count of the vernier
magnification of linear motion using caliper is 0.01 cm
5
0 5 10
95
0 1 2 15
3 20
4 5 6 7 8
Screw Gauge 0 5 10
er
Vernier Caliper
5 10
0
Main Scale
5
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
95 0
0 0 0
5 10 5 10 5 10
(a) No error (b) +ve error (a) No error (b) +ve error (c) - ve error
+0.03 cm –0.06 cm
Vernier Scale
Pitch Scale
0 45
0 1 2 3 4
95 40
0
90 35 0 5 10
(c) - ve error (d) screw gauge reading (d) Vernier reading

A model reading A model reading
PSR = 6 mm ; HSC=40 divisions; MSR = 2.2 cm ; VSC = 4 divisions;
Reading = [6mm+(40x0.01mm)]=6.40mm Reading = [2.2 cm+(4x0.01cm)] = 2.24 cm
Figure 1.2 Screw gauge and vernier caliper with errors

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ii) Measurement of large distances EX AM P L E 1 . 1

For measuring larger distances such as
the height of a tree, distance of the Moon From a point on the ground, the top of a tree
or a planet from the Earth, some special is seen to have an angle of elevation 60°. The
methods are adopted. Triangulation distance between the tree and a point is 50 m.
method, parallax method and radar Calculate the height of the tree?
method are used to determine very Solution
large distances.
Angle θ = 60°
Triangulation method for the height of an
The distance between the tree and a point
accessible object
x = 50 m
Let AB = h be the height of the tree or
tower to be measured. Let C be the point Height of the tree (h) = ?
of observation at distance x from B. Place a h
For triangulation method tan θ =
range finder at C and measure the angle of x
elevation, ∠ACB = θ as shown in Figure 1.3.
h = x tan θ
From right angled triangle ABC,
AB h = 50 × tan 60°
tanθ = = = 50 × 1.732
BC x
h = 86.6 m
(or)
The height of the tree is 86.6 m.
height h = x tan θ
Parallax method
Knowing the distance x, the height h can Very large distances, such as the distance
be determined. of a planet or a star from the Earth can be
A measured by the parallax method. Parallax
is the name given to the apparent change in
the position of an object with respect to the
background, when the object is seen from two
different positions. The distance between the
h two positions (i.e., points of observation) is
called the basis (b). Consider any object at
the location O (Figure 1.4)
θ Let L and R represent the positions
C x B
of the left and right eyes of the observer
respectively.
Figure 1.3 Triangulation method
The object (O) is viewed with the left
Range and order of lengths of various eye (L) keeping the right eye closed and the
objects are listed in Table 1.5 same object (O) is viewed with the right
eye (R) keeping the left eye closed.

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In Figure 1.4, LO and RO are the lines places on the surface of the Earth. From A
drawn from the positions of the left and and B, the parallaxes θ1 and θ2 respectively
right eyes to the object. These two lines of Moon M with respect to some distant
make an angle θ at O. This angle θ is called star are determined with the help of an
the angle of parallax. astronomical telescope. Thus, the total
OL and OR are considered as the radii parallax of the Moon subtended on Earth
(x) of a circle. For astronomical calculation, ∠AMB = θ1 + θ2 = θ.
the distance LR = b (basis) can be treated If θ is measured in radians, then
as an arc of this circle, then AB
θ= ; AM≈MC (AM is approximately
OL = OR = x AM
equal to MC)
as LR = b AB AB ; Knowing the
θ= or MC =
b MC θ
θ=
x values of AB and θ, we can calculate the
Knowing b and θ, x can be calculated distance MC of Moon from the Earth.
which is approximately the distance of the
object from the observer.
S1 M S2
If the object is the Moon or any near by
star, then the angle θ will be too small due
to the large astronomical distance and the
place of observation. In this case, the two θ
θ1 θ2
points of observation should be sufficiently
spaced on the surface of the Earth.
O
A C B
θ
Figure 1.5 Parallax
x x method: determination
of distance of Moon from
Earth
L b R
EX AM P L E 1 . 2
Figure 1.4 Parallax method
The Moon subtends an angle of 1° 55′ at
Determination of distance of Moon the base line equal to the diameter of the
from Earth Earth. What is the distance of the
In Figure 1.5, C is the centre of the Earth. Moon from the Earth? (Radius of the Earth
A and B are two diametrically opposite is 6.4 × 10 6 m)

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Solution to get the actual distance of the object. This

method can also be used to determine the
angle θ = 1° 55′= 115′ height, at which an aeroplane flies from the
=(115 × 60)˝ × (4.85 × 10-6) rad ground.
=3.34 × 10-2 rad
since 1˝ = 4.85 × 10-6 rad
Radius of the Earth = 6.4 × 10 6 m

From the Figure 1.5, AB is the diameter of
the Earth (b)= 2 × 6.4 × 10 6 m Distance of
the Moon from the Earth x = ?
b 2 × 6.4 × 106
x= =
θ 3.34 × 10 -2
x = 3.83 × 108m
Figure 1.6 RADAR method

RADAR method
The word RADAR stands for radio
detection and ranging. A radar can be used
to measure accurately the distance of a
nearby planet such as Mars. In this method, EX AM P L E 1 . 3
radio waves are sent from transmitters A RADAR signal is beamed towards a
which, after reflection from the planet, are planet and its echo is received 7 minutes
detected by the receiver. By measuring, later. If the distance between the planet
the time interval (t) between the instants and the Earth is 6.3 × 1010 m. Calculate the
the radio waves are sent and received, the speed of the signal?
distance of the planet can be determined as
Solution
Speed = distance travelled / time taken The distance of the planet from the Earth
(Speed is explained in unit 2) d = 6.3 × 1010 m
Distance(d) = Speed of radio
waves × time taken Time t = 7 minutes = 7 × 60 s.
the speed of signal v = ?
v ×t
d=
2
The speed of signal
where v is the speed of the radio wave.
As the time taken (t) is for the distance 2d 2 × 6.3 × 1010
covered during the forward and backward v= = = 3 × 108 ms -1
t 7 × 60
path of the radio waves, it is divided by 2

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Table 1.5 Range and Order of Lengths Some Common Practical

Size of objects and distances Length (m) Units
Distance to the boundary of observable 1026 (i) Fermi = 1 fm = 10−15 m
universe (ii) 1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10−10 m

Distance to the Andromeda galaxy 1022 (iii) 1 nanometer = 1 nm = 10−9 m
Size of our galaxy 1021 (iv) 1 micron = 1µm = 10−6 m
Distance from Earth to the nearest star 1016 (v) 1 Light year (Distance
(other than the Sun) travelled by light in vacuum
Average radius of Pluto’s orbit 10 12
in one year) 1 Light Year =
Distance of the Sun from the Earth 1011 9.467 × 1015 m
Distance of Moon from the Earth 108 (vi) 1 astronomical unit
Radius of the Earth 107 (the mean distance of
Height of the Mount Everest above sea level 104 the Earth from the Sun)
Length of a football field 102 1 AU = 1.496 × 1011 m
Thickness of a paper 10−4 (vii) 1 parsec (Parallactic
Diameter of a red blood cell 10−5 second) (Distance at
Wavelength of light 10−7 which an arc of length
Length of typical virus 10−8 1 AU subtends an angle
Diameter of the hydrogen atom 10−10 of 1 second of arc)
Size of atomic nucleus 10−14 1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016 m
Diameter of a proton 10−15 =3.26 light year
Why is the cylinder

used in defining
kilogram made up of
platinum-iridium alloy?
This is because the
platinum-iridium alloy is least affected
by environment and time.
Chandrasekhar Limit (CSL) is

the largest practical unit of mass.
Figure 1.7 The international
1 kg standard of mass, a 1 CSL = 1.4 times the mass of the Sun
platinum-iridium (9:1)
The smallest practical unit of time is Shake.
cylinder 3.9 cm in height and
diameter. 1 Shake = 10−8 s

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1.5.2 Measurement of mass that of planets, stars etc., we make use of

Mass is a property of matter. It does not gravitational methods. For measurement of
depend on temperature, pressure and small masses of atomic/subatomic particles
location of the body in space. Mass of a body etc., we make use of a mass spectrograph.
is defined as the quantity of matter contained Some of the weighing balances commonly
in a body. The SI unit of mass is kilogram used are common balance, spring balance,
(kg). The masses of objects which we shall electronic balance, etc.
study in this course vary over a wide range.
These may vary from a tiny mass of electron
(9.11×10−31kg) to the huge mass of the known 1.5.3 easurement of Time
M
universe (=1055 kg). The order of masses of intervals
various objects is shown in Table 1.6.
“Time flows uniformly forward”
Ordinarily, the mass of an object is – Sir Issac Newton
determined in kilograms using a common
“Time is what a clock reads”
balance like the one used in a grocery
– Albert Einstein
shop. For measuring larger masses like
A clock is used to measure the time interval.

Table 1.6 Range of masses An atomic standard of time, is based on the
Object Order of mass (kg) periodic vibration produced in a Cesium
Electron 10−30 atom. Some of the clocks developed later
are electric oscillators, electronic oscillators,
Proton or Neutron 10−27
solar clock, quartz crystal clock, atomic clock,
Uranium atom 10−25 decay of elementary particles, radioactive
Red blood corpuscle 10−14 dating etc. The order of time intervals are
A cell 10−10 tabulated in Table 1.7.
Dust particle 10−9
Raindrop 10−6
Mosquito 10−5
Grape 10−3
Frog 10−1
Human 102
Car 103
Ship 105
Moon 1023
Earth 1025
Figure 1.8 The atomic clock, which
Sun 1030 keeps time on the basis of radiation from
Milky way 1041 cesium atoms is accurate to about three
Observable Universe 1055 millionths of a second per year.

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Table 1.7 Order of Time Intervals

Event Order of time interval (s)
Lifespan of the most unstable particle 10−24
Time taken by light to cross a distance of nuclear size 10−22
Period of X-rays 10−19
Time period of electron in hydrogen atom 10−15
Period of visible light waves 10−15
Time taken by visible light to cross through a window pane 10−8
Lifetime of an excited state of an atom 10−8
Period of radio waves 10−6
Time period of audible sound waves 10−3
Wink of an eye 10−1
Time interval between two successive heart beats 100
Travel time of light from Moon to Earth 100
Travel time of light from Sun to Earth 102
Halflife time of a free neutron 103
Time period of a satellite 104
Time period of rotation of Earth around its axis (one day) 105
Time period of revolution of Earth around the Sun (one year) 107
Average life of a human being 109
Age of Egyptian pyramids 1011
Age of Universe 1017
1.6
THEORY OF ERRORS In India, the National
Physical Laboratory
The foundation of all experimental science (New Delhi) has
and technology is measurement. The the responsibility of
result obtained from any measurement maintenance and improvement of physical
will contain some uncertainty. Such an standards of length, mass, time, etc.
uncertainty is termed error. Any calculation
made using the measured values will also
have an error. It is not possible to make to be distinguished at this stage. Accuracy
exact measurements in an experiment. refers to how far we are from the true
In measurements, two different terms, value, and precision refers to how well we
accuracy and precision are used and need measure.

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temperature is 40oC, the thermometer is

1.6.1 Accuracy and Precision
accurate. If the thermometer consistently
Let us say, you know your true height is registers this exact temperature in a row, the
exactly 5′9″. You first measure your height thermometer is precise.
with a yardstick and get the value 5′0″.
Consider another example. Let the
Your measurement is hence not accurate.
temperature of a refrigerator repeatedly
Now you measure your height with a
measured by a thermometer be given as
laser yardstick and get 5′9″ as the value.
10.4oC, 10.2oC, 10.3oC, 10.1oC, 10.2oC,
Now your measurement is accurate. The
10.1oC, 10.1oC, 10.1oC. However, if the real
true value is also called theoretical value.
temperature inside the refrigerator is 9oC,
The level of accuracy required for each
we say that the thermometer is not accurate
application varies greatly. Highly accurate
(it is almost one degree off the true value),
data can be very difficult to produce and
but since all the measured values are close to
compile. For example, if you consistently
10oC, hence it is precise.
measure your height as 5′0″ with a yard
stick, your measurements are precise. The A visual example:
level of precision required for different Target shooting is an example which
applications vary to a great extent. explains the difference between accuracy
Engineering projects such as road and and precision. In Figure 1.9 (a), the shots
utility construction require very precise are focused so as to reach the bull’s eye
information measured to the millimeter (midpoint), but the arrows have reached
or one-tenth of an inch. only around this point. Hence the shots are
If a measurement is precise, that does not accurate and also not precise.
not necessarily mean that it is accurate. In Figure 1.9 (b), all the shots are close
However, if the measurement is consistently to each other but not at the central point.
accurate, it is also precise. Hence the shots are said to be precise but
For example, if the temperature outside not accurate. In Figure 1.9 (c), the shots are
a building is 40oC as measured by a weather closer and also at the central point. Hence
thermometer and if the real outside the shots are both precise and accurate.
(a) Not accurate (b) Not accurate (c) Accurate

Not precise Precise Precise
Figure 1.9 Visual example of accuracy and precision

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A numerical example performing experiments with a

The true value of a certain length is nearly calorimeter, if there is no proper
5.678 cm. In one experiment, using a insulation, there will be radiation
measuring instrument of resolution 0.1 cm, losses. This results in errors and to
the measured value is found to be 5.5 cm. overcome these, necessary correction
In another experiment using a measuring has to be applied.
instrument of greater resolution, say 0.01
3) Personal errors
cm, the length is found to be 5.38 cm. We
These errors are due to individuals
find that the first measurement is more
performing the experiment, may be
accurate as it is closer to the true value, but
due to incorrect initial setting up of
it has lesser precision. On the contrary, the
the experiment or carelessness of the
second measurement is less accurate, but it
individual making the observation
is more precise.
due to improper precautions.
4) Errors due to external causes
1.6.2 Errors in Measurement
The change in the external conditions
The uncertainty in a measurement is called during an experiment can cause
an error. Random error, systematic error error in measurement. For example,
and gross error are the three possible errors. changes in temperature, humidity, or
i) Systematic errors pressure during measurements may
Systematic errors are reproducible affect the result of the measurement.
inaccuracies that are consistently in the 5) Least count error
same direction. These occur often due Least count is the smallest value that
to a problem that persists throughout can be measured by the measuring
the experiment. Systematic errors can be instrument, and the error due to this
classified as follows measurement is least count error.
1) Instrumental errors The instrument’s resolution hence is
When an instrument is not the cause of this error. Least count
calibrated properly at the time of error can be reduced by using a
manufacture, instrumental errors high precision instrument for the
may arise. If a measurement is measurement.
made with a meter scale whose end ii) Random errors
is worn out, the result obtained Random errors may arise due to
will have errors. These errors random and unpredictable variations in
can be corrected by choosing the experimental conditions like pressure,
instrument carefully. temperature, voltage supply etc. Errors
Imperfections in experimental
2) may also be due to personal errors by the
technique or procedure observer who performs the experiment.
These errors arise due to the Random errors are sometimes called
limitations in the experimental “chance error”. When different readings
arrangement. As an example, while are obtained by a person every time he

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repeats the experiment, personal error Certain procedures to be followed

occurs. For example, consider the case of to minimize experimental errors,
the thickness of a wire measured using a along with examples are shown in
screw gauge. The readings taken may be Table 1.8.
different for different trials. In this case,
a large number of measurements are iii) Gross Error
made and then the arithmetic mean is The error caused due to the shear
taken. carelessness of an observer is called
If n number of trial readings are taken gross error.
in an experiment, and the readings For example
are a1, a2, a3,…………………. an. The (i) Reading an instrument without
arithmetic mean is setting it properly.
(ii) Taking observations in a wrong
a1 + a2 + a3 + .............an manner without bothering about
am = (1.1)
n the sources of errors and the
precautions.
or
(iii) Recording wrong observations.
n
1
am = ∑a
n i =1 i
(1.2) (iv) Using wrong values of the
observations in calculations.
Usually this arithmetic mean is taken These errors can be minimized only
as the best possible true value of the when an observer is careful and
quantity. mentally alert.
Table 1.8 Minimizing Experimental Error

Type of error Example How to minimize it
Random error Suppose you measure the mass of Take more data. Random errors
a ring three times using the same can be evaluated through
balance and get slightly different statistical analysis and can
values. 15.46 g, 15.42 g, 15.44 g be reduced by averaging
over a large number of
observations.
Systematic error Suppose the cloth tape measure Systematic errors are difficult to
that you use to measure the length detect and cannot be analysed
of an object has been stretched out statistically, because all of the data
from years of use. (As a result all of is in the same direction. (Either
the length measurements are not too high or too low)
correct).

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1.6.3 Error Analysis iii) Relative error

The ratio of the mean absolute error
i) Absolute Error to the mean value is called relative
The magnitude of difference between error. This is also called as fractional
the true value and the measured value of error. Thus
a quantity is called absolute error. If a1,
a2, a3, ……….an are the measured values
Mean absolute error
of any quantity ‘a’ in an experiment Relative error =
Mean value
performed n times, then the arithmetic
∆am
mean of these values is called the true =
am
value (am) of the quantity.
a1 + a2 + a3 + .............. + an Relative error expresses how large

am = or the absolute error is compared to
n
1 n the total size of the object measured.
am = ∑ ai For example, a driver’s speedometer
n i =1
shows that his car is travelling at
The absolute error in measured values 60 km h−1 when it is actually moving
is given by at 62 km h−1. Then absolute error of
speedometer is 62-60 km h−1 = 2 km h−1
|∆a1| = |am – a1| Relative error of the measurement is 2
km h−1 / 62 km h−1 = 0.032.
|∆a2| = |am – a2|
……………… iv) Percentage error
The relative error expressed as a
………………
percentage is called percentage error.
|∆an| = |am – an|
∆am
Percentage error = × 100%
ii) Mean Absolute error am
The arithmetic mean of absolute errors
in all the measurements is called the A percentage error very close to zero
mean absolute error. means one is close to the targeted value,
which is good and acceptable. It is always
∆a1 + ∆a2 + ∆a3 + ............... + ∆an necessary to understand whether error is
∆am = due to impression of equipment used or
n
a mistake in the experimentation.
1 n
or = ∑ ∆ai
n i =1
EXAM P L E 1 . 4
If am is the true value and ∆am is the In a series of successive measurements in
mean absolute error then the magnitude an experiment, the readings of the period
of the quantity may lie between am + of oscillation of a simple pendulum were
∆am and am - ∆am found to be 2.63s, 2.56 s, 2.42s, 2.71s and

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2.80s. Calculate (i) the mean value of (iv) Relative error:

the period of oscillation (ii) the absolute
error in each measurement (iii) the mean ∆Tm 0.11
absolute error (iv) the relative error (v) ST = = = 0.0 419
Tm 2.62
the percentage error. Express the result in
proper form. ST = 0.04
Solution Percentage error in T = 0.04

(v)
× 100% = 4%
t1 = 2.63 s, t 2 = 2.56 s, t 3 = 2.42 s, Time period of simple pendulum =
(vi)
t 4 = 2.71 s, t 5 = 2.80 s T = (2.62 ± 0.11)s
t1 + t 2 + t 3 + t 4 + t 5
(i) Tm =
5
2.63 + 2.56 + 2.42 + 2.71 + 2.80 1.6.4 Propagation of errors
=
5 A number of measured quantities may
13.12 be involved in the final calculation of an
Tm = = 2.624 s experiment. Different types of instruments
5
might have been used for taking readings.
Tm= 2.62s (Rounded off to 2nd Then we may have to look at the errors in
d
ecimal place) measuring various quantities, collectively.
The error in the final result depends on
(ii) Absolute error |ΔT| = |Tm - t| (i) The errors in the individual
measurements
∆T1 = 2.62 - 2.63 = +0.01s (ii) On the nature of mathematical
∆T2 = 2.62 - 2.56 = +0.06s operations performed to get the final
∆T3 = 2.62 - 2.42 = +0.20s result. So we should know the rules to
combine the errors.
∆T4 = 2.62 - 2.71 = +0.09s
∆T5 = 2.62 - 2.80 = +0.18s The various possibilities of the
propagation or combination of errors in
different mathematical operations are
Σ ∆Ti discussed below:
(iii) Mean absolute error =
n (i) Error in the sum of two quantities
Let ∆A and ∆B be the absolute errors in
0.01 + 0.06 + 0.20 + 0.09 + 0.18 the two quantities A and B respectively.
∆Tm =
5 Then,
0.54 Measured value of A = A ± ∆A

∆Tm = = 0.108s = 0.11s (Rounded
5 Measured value of B = B ± ∆B
off to 2nd decimal place) Consider the sum, Z = A + B

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The error ∆Z in Z is then given by ±

= (A − B) )± ∆A ∆B
±
Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B) = Z ± ∆A ∆B
(or) ∆Z = ∆A + ∆B………………(1.4)
= (A + B) ± (∆A + ∆B)
= Z ± (∆A + ∆B)
(or) ∆Z = ∆A + ∆B (1.3) The maximum error in difference of
two quantities is equal to the sum of
the absolute errors in the individual
The maximum possible error in the sum quantities.
of two quantities is equal to the sum
of the absolute errors in the individual EX AM P L E 1 . 6
quantities. The temperatures of two bodies measured
by a thermometer are t1 = (20 + 0.5)°C, t2 =
(50 ± 0.5)°C. Calculate the temperature
EXA MP LE 1 .5
difference and the error therein.
Two resistances R1 = (100 ± 3) W, R2 =
(150 ± 2) W, are connected in series. What Solution
is their equivalent resistance?
t1 = (20 ± 0.5)°C t2 = (50 ± 0.5)°C
Solution
temperature difference t=?
R1 = 100 ± 3W; R2 = 150 ± 2W t = t2 - t1 = (50 ± 0.5) - (20 ± 0.5)°C

(Using equation1.4)
Equivalent resistance R = ? = (50 – 20) ± (0.5 + 0.5)
Equivalent resistance R = R1 + R2
t = (30 ± 1)°C
= (100 ± 3) + (150 ± 2)
= (100 + 150) ± (3 + 2) (iii) Error in the product of two quantities

Let ∆A and ∆B be the absolute errors
R = (250 ± 5) W in the two quantities A, and B,
respectively. Consider the product
(ii) Error in the difference of two Z = AB
quantities The error ∆Z in Z is given by Z ± ∆Z =
Let ∆A and ∆B be the absolute (A ± ∆A) (B ± ∆B)
errors in the two quantities, A and B,
= (AB) ± (A ∆B) ± (B ∆A) ± (∆A . ∆B)
respectively. Then,
Measured value of A = A ± ∆A Dividing L.H.S by Z and R.H.S by AB,
Measured value of B = B ± ∆B we get,
Consider the difference, Z = A – B
The error ∆Z in Z is then given by ∆Z ∆B ∆A ∆A ∆B
1± = 1± ± ± .
Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) – (B ± ∆B) Z B A A B

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As ∆A /A, ∆B / B are both small (iv) Error in the division or quotient of

∆A ∆B two quantities
quantities, their product term .
A B Let ∆A and ∆B be the absolute errors in
can be neglected. The maximum the two quantities A and B respectively.
fractional error in Z is A
Consider the quotient, Z =
B
∆Z  ∆A ∆B  The error ∆Z in Z is given by
=± +  (1.5)
Z  A B 
 ∆A 
A 1 ± 
A ± ∆A  A
The maximum fractional error in the Z ± ∆Z = =
B ± ∆B  ∆B 
product of two quantities is equal to B 1 ± 
 B 
the sum of the fractional errors in the -1
individual quantities. A  ∆A   ∆B 
= 1 ±  1 ± 
B A  B 
[Alternative method is given in
Appendix A1.2]
 ∆A   ∆B 
or Z ± ∆Z = Z  1 ±  1   [using
EXA MP LE 1 .7  A  B 
(1+x)n ≈1+nx, when x<<1]
The length and breadth of a rectangle
are (5.7 ± 0.1) cm and (3.4 ± 0.2) cm Dividing both sides by Z, we get,
respectively. Calculate the area of the
rectangle with error limits. ∆Z  ∆A   ∆B 
1± = 1 ±  1  
Z  A  B 
Solutions
∆A ∆B ∆A ∆B
Length l = (5.7 ± 0.1) cm = 1±  ± .
A B A B
Breadth b =(3.4 ± 0.2) cm
Area A with error limit = A ± DA = ? As the terms ∆A/A and ∆B/B are small,
their product term can be neglected.
Area A = l × b = 5.7 × 3.4 = 19.38 = 19.4 cm2
The maximum fractional error in Z is
∆A ∆l ∆b
= + ∆Z  ∆A ∆B  (1.6)
A l b given by = + 
 ∆l ∆b  Z  A B 
∆A =  + A
 l b 
 0. 1 0. 2  The maximum fractional error in the
∆A =  + 19.4
 5.7 3.4  quotient of two quantities is equal to
= (0.0175+0.0588) × 19.4 the sum of their individual fractional
= 1.48 = 1.5 errors.
Area with error limit (Alternative method is given in
A = (19.4±1.5) cm2 Appendix A1.2)

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EXA MP LE 1 .8 We get [(1+x)n ≈1+nx, when x<<1]

neglecting remaining terms, Dividing
The voltage across a wire is (100 ± 5)V and both sides by Z
the current passing through it is (10±0.2)
∆Z ∆A
A. Find the resistance of the wire. 1± =1± n or
Z A
Solution ∆Z ∆A
= n. (1.7)
Z A
Voltage V = (100±5)V
Current I = (10±0.2) A
Resistance R = ? The fractional error in the nth power
of a quantity is n times the fractional
Then resistance R is given by Ohm’s law, error in that quantity.
V
R=
I
A p Bq
General rule: If Z = Then
100 Cr
= = 10W
10 maximum fractional error in Z is
∆R  ∆V ∆I  ∆Z ∆A ∆B ∆C
= +  given by =p +q +r
R  V I  Z A B C
The percentage error in Z is given by
 ∆V ∆I 
∆R =  + R
 V I  ∆Z ∆A ∆B
× 100 = p × 100 + q × 100
Z A B
 5 0. 2  ∆C
= + 10 +r × 100
 100 10  C
= (0.05 + 0.02)10
= 0.07 × 10 = 0.7 EX AM P L E 1 . 9
The resistance R = (10 ± 0.7)Ω a 2b3
A physical quantity x is given by x = .
c d
If the percentage errors of measurement
(v) Error in the power of a quantity in a, b, c and d are 4%, 2%, 3% and 1%
Consider the nth power of A, Z = An respectively, then calculate the percentage
The error ∆Z in Z is given by error in the calculation of x. (NEET 2013)
n ∆A 
n
n
Solution
Z ± ∆Z =( A ± ∆A) = A  1 ± 
 A a 2b3
 ∆A  Given x =
= Z 1 ± n  c d
 A
The percentage error in x is given by

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digit for 1230 is 3, significant digit for 1230

∆x ∆b ∆a ∆b
= +×3100 ×=100 2 × 100 +3 × 100 (with decimal) is 4 and significant digit for
x b a b
20000000 is 1 (because 20000000=2 × 107
∆c 1 ∆d + ∆ c 1 ∆d
+ × 100 + × 100c × 100 + 2 d × 100has only one significant digit, that is, 2).
c 2 d
In physical measurement, if the length of
= (2 × 4%) + (3 × 2%) + (1 × 3%) + an object is l = 1230 m, then significant digit
(½ ×1%) for l is 4.
The rules for counting significant figures
= 8% +6%+3% +0.5% are given in Table 1.9.
The percentage error is x = 17.5%
EXAM P L E 1 . 1 0
State the number of significant figures in
1.7 the following
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES i) 600800 iv) 5213.0
ii) 400 v) 2.65 × 10 24 m
1.7.1 efinition and
D iii) 0.007 vi) 0.0006032
Rules of Significant
Figures Solution: i) four ii) one iii) one
Suppose we ask three students to measure iv) five v) three vi) four
the length of a stick using metre scale (the
least count for metre scale is 1 mm or 0.1
1.7.2 Rounding Off
cm). So, the result of the measurement
(length of stick) can be any of the following, Calculators are widely used now-a-days
7.20 cm or 7.22 cm or 7.23 cm. Note that to do calculations. The result given by a
all the three students measured first two calculator has too many figures. In no case
digits correctly (with confidence) but should the result have more significant
last digit varies from person to person. figures than the figures involved in the data
So, the number of meaningful digits is 3 used for calculation. The result of calculation
which communicate both measurement with numbers containing more than one
(quantitative) and also the precision of the uncertain digit should be rounded off. The
instrument used. Therefore, significant rules for rounding off are shown in Table 1.10.
number or significant digit is 3. It is defined
as the number of meaningful digits which EXAM P L E 1 . 1 1
contain numbers that are known reliably Round off the following numbers as
and first uncertain number. indicated
Examples: The significant figure for the i) 18.35 up to 3 digits
digit 121.23 is 5, significant figure for the ii) 19.45 up to 3 digits
digit 1.2 is 2, significant figure for the digit iii) 101.55 × 10 6 up to 4 digits
0.123 is 3, significant digit for 0.1230 is 4, iv) 248337 up to digits 3 digits
significant digit for 0.0123 is 3, significant v) 12.653 up to 3 digits.

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Table 1.9 Rules for counting significant figures

Rule Example
i) All non-zero digits are significant 1342 has four significant figures
ii) All zeros between two non zero digits are significant 2008 has four significant figures
iii) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but 30700. has five significant figures
to the left of a decimal point are significant.
iv) For the number without a decimal point, the 30700 has three significant figures
terminal or trailing zero(s) are not significant.
v) If the number is less than 1, the zero (s) on the 0.00345 has three significant figures
right of the decimal point but to left of the first
non zero digit are not significant.
vi) All zeros to the right of a decimal point and 40.00 has four significant figures and
to the right of non-zero digit are significant. 0.030400 has five significant figures
vii) The number of significant figures does not 1.53 cm, 0.0153 m, 0.0000153 km,
depend on the system of units used all have three significant figures
Note 1: Multiplying or dividing factors, which are neither rounded numbers nor numbers representing
measured values, are exact and they have infinite numbers of significant figures as per the situation. For
example, circumference of circle S = 2πr, Here the factor 2 is exact number. It can be written as 2.0, 2.00 or
2.000 as required.
Note 2: The power of 10 is irrelevant to the determination of significant figures.
For example x = 5.70 m = 5.70 × 102 cm = 5.70 × 103 mm = 5.70 × 10−3 km.
In each case the number of significant figures is three.
Table 1.10 Rules for Rounding Off

Rule Example
i) If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5, then i) 7.32 is rounded off to 7.3
the preceding digit should be left unchanged. ii) 8.94 is rounded off to 8.9
ii) If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then i) 17.26 is rounded off to 17.3
the preceding digit should be increased by 1 ii) 11.89 is rounded off to 11.9
iii) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits i) 7.352, on being rounded off to
other than zero, then the preceding digit should first decimal becomes 7.4
be raised by 1 ii) 18.159 on being rounded off to
first decimal, become 18.2
iv) If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by i) 3.45 is rounded off to 3.4
zeros, then the preceding digit is not changed if ii) 8.250 is rounded off to 8.2
it is even
v) If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by i) 3.35 is rounded off to 3.4
zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by 1 if it ii) 8.350 is rounded off to 8.4
is odd

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Solution 1.8
i) 18.4 ii) 19.4 iii) 101.6 × 10 6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
iv) 248000 v) 12.7
1.8.1 imension of Physical
D
1.7.3 Arithmetical Quantities
Operations with In mechanics, we deal with the physical
Significant Figures quantities like mass, time, length, velocity,
(i) Addition and subtraction acceleration, etc. which can be expressed in

In addition and subtraction, the final
terms of three independent base quantities
result should retain as many decimal
such as M, L and T. So, the dimension of
places as there are in the number with
a physical quantity can be defined as ‘any
the smallest number of decimal places.
physical quantity which is expressed in
terms of base quantities whose exponent
Example: (power) represents the dimension of the
1. 3.1 + 1.780 + 2.046 = 6.926 physical quantity’. The notation used to
Here the least number of significant denote the dimension of a physical quantity
digits after the decimal is one. Hence the is [(physical quantity within square bracket)].
result will be 6.9. For an example, [length] means dimension of
length, [area] means dimension of area, etc.
2. 12.637 – 2.42 = 10.217
The dimension of length can be expressed in
Here the least number of significant
terms of base quantities as
digits after the decimal is two. Hence the
result will be 10.22 [length] = M0 LT0 = L
(ii) Multiplication and Division Similarly, [area] = M0 L2 T0 = L2

In multiplication or division, the Similarly, [volume] = M0 L3 T0 = L3
final result should retain as many
Note that in all the cases, the base quantity L
significant figures as there are in
is same but exponent (power) are different,
the original number with smallest
which means dimensions are different. For
number of significant figures.
a pure number, exponent of base quantity
Example: is zero. For example, consider the number
1. 1.21 × 36.72 = 44.4312 = 44.4 2, which has no dimension and can be
Here the least number of significant expressed as
digits in the measured values is three.
⇒[2]=M0 L0 T0(dimensionless)
Hence the result when rounded off to
three significant digits is 44.4 Let us write down the dimensions of a few
2. 36.72 ÷ 1.2 = 30.6 = 31 more physical quantities.
Here the least number of significant distance L
Speed, s = ⇒ [s ] = = LT−1
digits in the measured values is two. time taken T
Hence the result when rounded off to  displacement  L
significant digit becomes 31. Velocity , v = ⇒ [ v ] = = LT−1
time taken T

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Note that speed is a scalar quantity and level. Hence, [ PE ] = [m][ g ][h ] = ML2T −2 .
velocity is a vector quantity (scalar and Thus, for any kind of energy ( such as for
vector will be discussed in Unit 2) but both internal energy, total energy etc ), the
of them have the same dimensional formula. dimension is
 velocity  LT -1
Acceleration , a = ⇒ [a ] = = LT -2 [ Energy ] = ML2T −2
time taken T
Acceleration is velocity per time. The moment of force is known as torque,
Linear momentum or Momentum,    
τ = r × F ⇒ [ τ ] = ML2T −2 (Read the symbol τ
   as tau – Greek alphabet). Note that the
[ p ] = mv ⇒ [ p ] = MLT −1
  dimension of torque and dimension of
 Momentum
Force, F = ma ⇒  F  = MLT −2 = energy are identical but they are different
time
physical quantities. Further one of them is
This is true for any kind of force. There are a scalar (energy) and another one is a vector
only four types of forces that exist in nature (torque). This means that the dimensionally
viz strong force, electromagnetic force, same physical quantities need not be the
weak force and gravitational force. Further, same physical quantities.
frictional force, centripetal force, centrifugal
force, all have the dimension MLT−2.
   1. We may come across
Impulse, I = F t ⇒  I  = MLT −1 = dimensionof momentum
Note dimensions in different
   situations in physics, so we
se, I = F t ⇒  I  = MLT −1 = dimensionof momentum often confuse with the term
‘dimension’. For instance, we come across
Angular momentum is the moment of linear terms like ‘dimension of energy’, ‘motion in
momentum (discussed in unit 5). one dimension’ and ‘dimension of atom’. It
    should be kept in mind that dimension of
Angular Momentum,L = r × p ⇒  L = ML2T −1
physical quantity means expressing physical
Work done, quantity in terms of exponent of the base
  quantity. Motion in one dimension, two
W = F ⋅ d ⇒ [W ] = ML T 2 −2
dimensions and three dimensions implies

Kinetic energy that it gives dimension of space. Dimension
of atom implies the size of the atom. So,
1 2 1 simply writing dimension is meaningless.
KE = mv ⇒ [ KE ] =   [m ] v  2
2  2  Hence, the meaning should be taken with

the context we write.
1
Since, number is dimensionless,
2 2. All the trigonometric functions like
the dimension of kinetic energy sinθ, cosθ etc. are dimensionless (θ is
 2
[ KE ] = [m]v  = ML T . Similarly, to get
2 −2
dimensionless), exponential function ex and
the dimension of potential energy, let us logarithm function ln x are dimensionless
(x must be dimensionless). Suppose we
consider the gravitational potential energy,
expand a function in series expansion
PE = mgh ⇒ [ PE ] = [m ][ g ][h ], , where, m is the (finite or infinite) which contain terms like,
mass of the particle, g is the acceleration due xo, x1, x2, . . . . then x must be dimensionless
to gravity and h is the height from the ground quantity.

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Table 1.11 Dimensional Formula

Physical quantity Expression Dimensional formula
Area (Rectangle) length × breadth [L2]
Volume Area × height [L3]
Density mass / volume [ML−3]
Velocity displacement/time [LT−1]
Acceleration velocity / time [LT−2]
Momentum mass × velocity [MLT−1]
Force mass × acceleration [MLT−2]
Work force × distance [ML2T−2]
Power work / time [ML2T−3]
Energy Work [ML2T−2]
Impulse force × time [MLT−1]
Radius of gyration Distance [L]
Pressure (or) stress force / area [ML−1T−2]
Surface tension force / length [MT−2]
Frequency 1 / time period [T−1]
Moment of Inertia mass × (distance)2 [ML2]
Moment of force (or torque) force × distance [ML2T−2]
Angular velocity angular displacement / time [T−1]
Angular acceleration angular velocity / time [T−2]
Angular momentum linear momentum × distance [ML2T−1]
Co-efficient of Elasticity stress/strain [ML−1T−2]
Co-efficient of viscosity (force × distance) / (area × velocity) [ML−1T−1]
Surface energy work / area [MT−2]
Heat capacity heat energy / temperature [ML2T−2K−1]
Charge current × time [AT]
Magnetic induction force / (current × length) [MT−2A−1]
Force constant force / displacement [MT−2]
Gravitational constant [force × (distance)2] / (mass)2 [M−1L3T−2]
Planck’s constant energy / frequency [ML2T−1]
Faraday constant avogadro constant × elementary charge [AT mol−1]
Boltzmann constant energy / temperature [ML2 T–2 K–1]

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1.8.2 imensional
D 1.8.3 pplication and
A
Quantities, Limitations of the
Dimensionless Method of Dimensional
Quantities, Principle Analysis.
of Homogeneity This method is used to
(i) Convert a physical quantity from one
On the basis of dimension, we can classify system of units to another.
quantities into four categories. (ii) Check the dimensional correctness of a
given physical equation.
(1) Dimensional variables
(iii) Establish relations among various
Physical quantities, which possess
physical quantities.
dimensions and have variable values are
called dimensional variables. Examples (i) To convert a physical quantity from
are length, velocity, and acceleration one system of units to another
etc. This is based on the fact that the
(2) Dimensionless variables product of the numerical values (n)
and its corresponding unit (u) is

Physical quantities which have no
a constant. i.e, n [u] = constant (or)
dimensions, but have variable values
n1[u1] = n2[u2].
are called dimensionless variables.
Consider a physical quantity which
Examples are specific gravity, strain,
has dimension ‘a’ in mass, ‘b’ in length
refractive index etc.
and ‘c’ in time. If the fundamental
(3) Dimensional Constant units in one system are M1, L1 and T1

Physical quantities which possess and the other system are M2, L2 and T2
dimensions and have constant values respectively, then we can write, n1 [M1a
are called dimensional constants. L1b T1c] = n2 [M2a L2b T2c]
Examples are Gravitational constant, We have thus converted the numerical
Planck’s constant etc. value of physical quantity from one
(4) Dimensionless Constant system of units into the other system.

Quantities which have constant values
and also have no dimensions are called EXAM P L E 1 . 1 2
dimensionless constants. Examples are Convert 76 cm of mercury pressure
π, e (Euler’s number), numbers etc. into Nm−2 using the method of
dimensions.
Principle of homogeneity of dimensions
The principle of homogeneity of dimensions Solution
states that the dimensions of all the terms in In cgs system 76 cm of mercury
a physical expression should be the same. For pressure = 76 × 13.6 × 980 dyne cm−2
example, in the physical expression v2 = u2 + The dimensional formula of pressure P
2as, the dimensions of v2, u2 and 2 as are the is [ML−1T−2]
same and equal to [L2T−2].

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

XI_Physics_First 8 pages Higher.indd 1 05-01-2022 22:21:57

Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2018

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

XI_Physics_First 8 pages Higher.indd 2 05-01-2022 22:21:57

UNIT TITLE Page No. Month

1 Nature of Physical World and Measurement 01 Jun

2 Kinematics 41 Jun-Jul

3 Laws of Motion 105Jul-Aug

4 Work, Energy and Power 167 Aug

5 Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Bodies 208 Sep

XI_Physics_First 8 pages Higher.indd 3 05-01-2022 22:21:57

HOW TO USE THE BOOK

• Additional facts related to the topics covered to facilitate

• To ensure understanding, problems/illustrations are given at every stage

• Visual representation of concepts with illustrations

Summary • Recap of salient points of the lesson

Concept Map • Schematic outline of salient learning of the unit

• Evaluate students’ understanding and get them acquainted with the

Books for Reference • List of relevant books for further reading

• Numerical/conceptual questions are solved to enable students to tackle

Competitive • Model Questions - To motivate students aspiring to take up competitive

• Additional information including the chronological development

Glossary • Scientific terms frequently used with their Tamil equivalents

Physics learning - Correct method Value addition of the book

XI_Physics_First 8 pages Higher.indd 4 05-01-2022 22:21:58

XI_Physics_First 8 pages Higher.indd 5

• M.Sc. (Physics) (In Central and State

XI_Physics_First 8 pages Higher.indd 6

XI_Physics_First 8 pages Higher.indd 7

XI_Physics_First 8 pages Higher.indd 8 05-01-2022 22:21:59

UNIT NATURE OF PHYSICAL WORLD

In this unit, the student is exposed to

1.1 (Physics and Chemistry), and that dealing

UNIT-1(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 1 05-01-2022 22:11:38

According to part IV Article 51A (h)

1.1.1 The Scientific Method

2 Unit 1 Nature of P hysi cal World and Measurement

UNIT-1(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 2 05-01-2022 22:11:38

1.2.1 Branches of Physics Some of the fundamental concepts of

Thermodynamics & Nuclear Physics

Optics Molecular Physics

Electricity & Magnetism High Energy

Figure 1.1 Branches of Physics

Uni t 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement 3

UNIT-1(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 3 05-01-2022 22:11:38

Table 1.1 Branches of Physics

UNIT-1(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 4 05-01-2022 22:11:38

1.2.2  cope and Excitement

 Range of time scales: astronomical scales

Uni t 1 Nature of P hysical World and Measurement 5

UNIT-1(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 5 05-01-2022 22:11:38

UNIT TITLE Page No. Month

1 Nature of Physical World and Measurement 01 Jun

2 Kinematics 41 Jun-Jul

3 Laws of Motion 105Jul-Aug

4 Work, Energy and Power 167 Aug

5 Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Bodies 208 Sep

• Additional facts related to the topics covered to facilitate

• To ensure understanding, problems/illustrations are given at every stage

• Evaluate students’ understanding and get them acquainted with the

• Numerical/conceptual questions are solved to enable students to tackle

Competitive • Model Questions - To motivate students aspiring to take up competitive

• Additional information including the chronological development

1.2.2 cope and Excitement

Range of time scales: astronomical scales

1.4.3 efinition of Unit and

i) Measurement of small distances: the circular motion of a screw. The least