Laws of Motion

www.tntextbooks.
in
CConcept
O N C E P T Map
MAP
Measuring Motion
Frame of Reference
Vector / Scalars
Position Vector Distance

Displacement Vector
Calculus
Velocity
Average Velocity
Speed, Average Speed
Acceleration Average Acceleration
Circular Motion Motion at constant

acceleration
Uniform circular Non-Uniform Circular Kinematic Equation

motion motion
Range(m)
Height(m)
Time(s)
Kinematic Equation Projectile Motion
Unit 2 Kinematics 97
UNIT-2(XI-Physics_Vol-1)-1.indd 97 05-01-2022 22:16:01

www.tntextbooks.in
E V AL U A T I O N
I. Multi Choice Question 5. If a particle has negative velocity and

1. Which one of the following Cartesian negative acceleration, its speed
coordinate systems is not followed in (a) increases (b) decreases
physics? (c) remains same (d) zero
ˆ 2ˆ
z y
6. If the velocity is v 2i t j 9k , then
the magnitude of acceleration at t = 0.5
s is
y x
x z (a) 1m s-2 (b) 2 m s-2
(a) (b)
(c) zero (d) -1 m s-2
x y
7. If an object is dropped from the top of
a building and it reaches the ground at t
z z
= 4 s , then the height of the building is
y x
(c) (d) (ignoring air resistance) (g = 9.8 ms–2)
2. Identify the unit vector in the following. (a) 77.3 m (b) 78.4 m
iˆ (c) 80.5 m (d) 79.2 m
(a) î ˆj (b)
2
ˆj iˆ ˆj 8. A ball is projected vertically upwards
ˆ
(c) k (d) with a velocity v. It comes back to ground
2 2
in time t. Which v-t graph shows the
3. Which one of the following physical
motion correctly? (NSEP 00-01)
quantities cannot be represented by a
scalar? v v
(a) Mass
(b) length t
t
(c) momentum
(a) (b)
(d) magnitude of acceleration
v v
4. Two objects of masses m1 and m2 fall
from the heights h1 and h2 respectively.
The ratio of the magnitude of their t t
momenta when they hit the ground is
(c) (d)
(AIPMT 2012)
9. If one object is dropped vertically
h1 m1h1 downward and another object is thrown
(a) (b)
h2 m2h2 horizontally from the same height, then
the ratio of vertical distance covered by
(c) m1 h1 (d) m1 both objects at any instant t is
m2 h2 m2
98 Unit 2 Kinematics

www.tntextbooks.in
(a) 1 (b) 2 13. If an object is thrown vertically up with

(c) 4 (d) 0.5 the initial speed u from the ground,
10. A ball is dropped from some height then the time taken by the object to
towards the ground. Which one of return back to ground is
the following represents the correct u2 u2
(a) (b)
motion of the ball? 2g g
y y u 2u
(c) (d)
2g g
14. Two objects are projected at angles 30°
x x
and 60° respectively with respect to the
(a) (b) horizontal direction. The range of two
y y objects are denoted as R300 and R600 .
Choose the correct relation from the
following
(a) R300 = R600
x x
(c) (d)
(b) R300 = 4 R600
11. If a particle executes uniform circular R600

(c)R300 =
motion in the xy plane in clock wise 2
direction, then the angular velocity is in (d) R300 =2 R600
(a) +y direction
(b) +z direction 15. An object is dropped in an unknown
(c) -z direction planet from height 50 m, it reaches the
ground in 2 s . The acceleration due to
(d) -x direction
gravity in this unknown planet is
12. If a particle executes uniform circular
(a) g = 20 m s-2 (b) g = 25 m s-2
motion, choose the correct statement
(NEET 2016) (c) g = 15 m s-2 (d) g = 30 m s-2
(a) The velocity and speed are constant.
(b)
The acceleration and speed are Answers
constant. 1) d 2) d 3) c 4) c 5) a
(c)
The velocity and acceleration are 6) a 7) b 8) c 9) a 10) a
constant. 11) c 12) d 13) d 14) a 15) b
(d)
The speed and magnitude of
acceleration are constant.
II. Short Answer Questions
1. Explain what is meant by Cartesian 3. Define a scalar. Give examples
coordinate system? 4. Write a short note on the scalar product
2. Define a vector. Give examples between two vectors.

www.tntextbooks.in
5. Write a short note on vector product 11. Define a radian.

between two vectors. 12. Define angular displacement and
6. How do you deduce that two vectors angular velocity.
are perpendicular? 13. What is non uniform circular motion?
7. Define displacement and distance. 14. Write down the kinematic equations
8. Define velocity and speed. for angular motion.
9. Define acceleration. 15. Write down the expression for angle
10. What is the difference between velocity made by resultant acceleration and
and average velocity. radius vector in the non uniform
circular motion.
III. Long Answer Questions
1. Explain in detail the triangle law of 5. Derive the equation of motion, range
addition. and maximum height reached by the
2. Discuss the properties of scalar and particle thrown at an oblique angle q
vector products. with respect to the horizontal direction.
3. Derive the kinematic equations of 6. Derive the expression for centripetal
motion for constant acceleration. acceleration.
4. Derive the equations of motion for 7. Derive the expression for total
a particle (a) falling vertically (b) acceleration in the non uniform
projected vertically circular motion.
IV. Exercises
1. The position vectors particle has length time 5 second.
3
1m and makes 30  with the x-axis.
What are the lengths of the x and y

[Ans: vavg iˆ ˆj ]
5

 ˆ ˆ
components of the position vector? 4. Convert the vector r 3i 2 j into a
3 unit vector.
=
[Ans: lx = , l y 0.5]
2
2. A particle has its position moved from [Ans: rˆ
3iˆ 2 ˆj
]
13
r1 3iˆ 4 ˆj to r2 iˆ 2 ˆj . Calculate
 5. What are the resultants of the vector
the displacement vector ( ∆r ) and
  product of two given vectors given by
draw the r1, r2 and r vector in a two
dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system. A 4iˆ 2 ˆj kˆ and B 5iˆ 3 ˆj 4kˆ?

[Ans: r 2iˆ 2 ˆj ] [Ans: 5iˆ 21 ˆj 22kˆ
3. Calculate the average velocity of the
particle whose position vector changes 6. An object at an angle such that the

from r1 5iˆ 6 ˆj to r2 2iˆ 3 ˆj in a horizontal range is 4 times of the

www.tntextbooks.in
maximum height. What is the angle of (d) Position vector – remains downward
projection of the object?
[Ans: v x = remains constant ,
[Ans: θ = 45°] v y = decreases and increases ,
7. The following graphs represent a = remains downward ,
velocity – time graph. Identify what r = varies]
kind of motion a particle undergoes in
10. A water fountain on the ground
each graph.
sprinkles water all around it. If the
v v v v speed of the water coming out of the
fountain is v. Calculate the total area
around the fountain that gets wet.
t t t t v4
(a) (b) (c) (d) [Ans: Area = 2 ]
g
  11. The following table gives the range of
[Ans: ( a) a = constant (b) v = constant
 a particle when thrown on different
(c) a = constant but greater than
 planets. All the particles are thrown at
first graph (d) a is variable ]
the same angle with the horizontal and
8. The following velocity–time graph
with the same initial speed. Arrange the
represents a particle moving in the
planets in ascending order according
positive x–direction. Analyse its
to their acceleration due to gravity,
motion from 0 to 7 s. Calculate the
(g value).
displacement covered and distance
travelled by the particle from 0 to 2 s. Planet Range
Jupiter 50 m
V(m s-1)
Earth 75 m
2 Mars 90 m
1 Mercury 95 m
t(s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 [Ans: g jupiter is greater, g mercury is
1 smaller]
2 12. The resultant of two vectors A and
B is perpendicular to vector A and
[Ans: distance=1.75 m, displacement = -1.25 m] its magnitude is equal to half of the
9. A particle is projected at an angle magnitude of vector B. Then the angle
of q with respect to the horizontal between A and B is
direction. Match the following for the a) 30° b) 45°
above motion. c) 150° d) 120°
(a) v x – decreases and increases [Ans: θ = 150°]
(b) v y – remains constant 13. Compare the components for the
(c) Acceleration – varies following vector equations

www.tntextbooks.in
    of a building of height 100 m. what is

a) Tjˆ mgjˆ majˆ b) T + F = A + B
    the horizontal distance covered by the
c) T − F = A − B d) Tjˆ mgjˆ majˆ
particle?
[Ans: (a) T − mg = ma
[Ans: R= 45 m]
(b) Tx + Fx = Ax + Bx etc.]
19. An object is executing uniform circular
14. Calculate the area of the triangle for
motion with an angular speed of
which two of its sides are given by the 12

vectors A 5iˆ 3 ˆj , B 4iˆ 6 ˆj radian per second. At t = 0 the object
[Ans: Area = 21 squared units] starts at an angle q = 0 What is the
angular displacement of the particle
15. If Earth completes one revolution in
after 4 s ?
24 hours, what is the angular displacement
made by Earth in one hour. Express your [Ans: 60°]
answer in both radian and degree. 20. Consider the x–axis as representing
π east, the y–axis as north and z–axis
[Ans: θ = 15° or ]
12 as vertically upwards. Give the vector
16. A object is thrown with initial speed
representing each of the following
5 m s-1 with an angle of projection 30°.
points.
What is the height and range reached by
the particle? a) 5 m north east and 2 m up
[Ans: height = 0.318 m Range =2.21 m] b) 4 m south east and 3 m up
17. A foot-ball player hits the ball with c) 2 m north west and 4 m up
speed 20 m s-1 with angle 30° with
respect to horizontal direction as shown [Ans: (a)

5 î ˆj 2kˆ (b) 4 î ˆj 3kˆ
in the figure. The goal post is at distance 2 2
of 40 m from him. Find out whether (c) ( ]
ball reaches the goal post?
21. The Moon is orbiting the Earth
y approximately once in 27 days, what is
the angle transversed by the Moon per
day?
[Ans: 13°3’]
22. An object of mass m has angular
acceleration α = 0.2 rad s−2. What is the
angular displacement covered by the
30
x
x object after 3 second? (Assume that the
object started with angle zero with zero
[Ans: Ball will not reach the goal angular velocity).
post. The range =35.3 m] [Ans: 0.9 rad or 51°]
18. If an object is thrown horizontally with
an initial speed 10 m s-1 from the top

www.tntextbooks.in
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
1. Charles Kittel, Walter Knight, Malvin Ruderman, Carl Helmholtz and Moyer,
Mechanics, 2nd edition, Mc Graw Hill Pvt Ltd,
2. A.P.French, Newtonian Mechanics, Viva-Norton Student edition
3. SomnathDatta, Mechanics, Pearson Publication
4. H.C.Verma, Concepts of physics volume 1 and Volume 2, Bharati Bhawan Publishers
5. Serway and Jewett, Physics for scientist and Engineers with modern physics, Brook/Coole
publishers, Eighth edition
6. Halliday, Resnick & Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Wiley Publishers, 10th edition

www.tntextbooks.in
ICT CORNER
Projectile motion
HIT THE TARGET

Through this activity you will be able to
understand the velocity variation and
Different angles of projection and range
STEPS:
• Type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code. You can see “Projectile Motion” PhET
simulation page. Click ‘Intro’ to initiate the activity.
• Click the red coloured shoot button. Blast a ball out of a cannon, and challenge yourself to
hit the target.
• Drag ‘up & down’ button to change the height of the cylinder. Click left and right button to
change the speed of the cannon ball.
• Drag the target box and fix the target to measure time, range and height. Drag the Meter
tape to measure the length from cannon. On the right side top, mark in the corresponding
boxes to know the velocity vectors and acceleration vectors.
Step1 Step2
Step3 Step4
Timeline Project’s URL:

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/projectile-motion/latest/
projectile-motion_en.html
* Pictures are indicative only.
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

www.tntextbooks.in
UNIT
3 LAWS OF MOTION
“In the beginning there was a mechanics” – Von Laue
Learning Objectives
In this unit, the student is exposed to

• Newton’s laws
• logical connection between laws of Newton
• free body diagram and related problems
• law of conservation of momentum
• role of frictional forces
• centripetal and centrifugal forces
• origin of centrifugal force
3.1 Objects move because something pushes

INTRODUCTION or pulls them. For example, if a book is at rest,
it will not move unless a force is applied on
Each and every object in the universe interacts it. In other words, to move an object a force
with every other object. The cool breeze must be applied on it. About 2500 years ago,
interacts with the tree. The tree interacts with the famous philosopher, Aristotle, said that
the Earth. In fact, all species interact with ‘Force causes motion’. This statement is based
nature. But, what is the difference between on common sense. But any scientific answer
a human’s interaction with nature and that cannot be based on common sense. It must
of an animal’s. Human’s interaction has be endorsed with quantitative experimental
one extra quality. We not only interact with proof.
nature but also try to understand and explain In the 15th century, Galileo challenged
natural phenomena scientifically. Aristotle’s idea by doing a series of
In the history of mankind, the most experiments. He said force is not required
curiosity driven scientific question asked was to maintain motion.
about motion of objects–‘How things move?’ Galileo demonstrated his own idea using
and ‘Why things move?’ Surprisingly, these the following simple experiment. When a
simple questions have paved the way for ball rolls from the top of an inclined plane
development from early civilization to the to its bottom, after reaching the ground
modern technological era of the 21st century. it moves some distance and continues
105
UNIT-3(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 105 05-01-2022 22:17:21

www.tntextbooks.in
to move on to another inclined plane of force acted on it in the horizontal direction.

same angle of inclination as shown in the From this simple experiment, Galileo
Figure 3.1(a). By increasing the smoothness proved that force is not required to maintain
of both the inclined planes, the ball reach motion. An object can be in motion even
almost the same height(h) from where it without a force acting on it.
was released (L1) in the second plane (L2) In essence, Aristotle coupled the motion
(Figure 3.1(b)). The motion of the ball with force while Galileo decoupled the
is then observed by varying the angle of motion and force.
inclination of the second plane keeping the
same smoothness. If the angle of inclination
is reduced, the ball travels longer distance in
the second plane to reach the same height
(Figure 3.1 (c)). When the angle of inclination
is made zero, the ball moves forever in the
horizontal direction (Figure 3.1(d)). If the
Aristotelian idea were true, the ball would
not have moved in the second plane even if
its smoothness is made maximum since no
3.2
Initial position Final position
NEWTON’S LAWS
L1 L2
h Newton analysed the views of Galileo, and

rough surface
other scientist like Kepler and Copernicus

(a)
on motion and provided much deeper
Initial position Final position
L1 L2 insights in the form of three laws.
h
smooth surface
(b) 3.2.1 Newton’s First Law

Initial position
L1
Final position Every object continues to be in the state
L2
h
of rest or of uniform motion (constant
velocity) unless there is external force acting
smooth surface
(c) on it.
Initial position This inability of objects to move on its
L1
own or change its state of motion is called
Ball goes to infinity
smooth surface
inertia. Inertia means resistance to change
(d) its state. Depending on the circumstances,
there can be three types of inertia.
Figure 3.1 Galileo’s experiment with the
second plane (a) at same inclination angle 1. Inertia of rest: When a stationary bus
as the first (b) with increased smoothness starts to move, the passengers experience
(c) with reduced angle of inclination a sudden backward push. Due to inertia,
(d) with zero angle of inclination
the body (of a passenger) will try to
106 Unit 3 L aws of Motion

www.tntextbooks.in
motion, and if the string is cut suddenly,

the stone will not continue to move in
circular motion but moves tangential
to the circle as illustrated in Figure 3.4.
This is because the body cannot change
its direction of motion without any force
acting on it. The inability of an object to
change its direction of motion on its own
Figure 3.2 Passengers experience a is called inertia of direction.
backward push due to inertia of rest
When we say that an object is at rest or
in motion with constant velocity, it has a
continue in the state of rest, while the
meaning only if it is specified with respect to
bus moves forward. This appears as a
some reference frames. In physics, any motion
backward push as shown in Figure 3.2.
has to be stated with respect to a reference
The inability of an object to change its
frame. It is to be noted that Newton’s first law is
state of rest is called inertia of rest.
valid only in certain special reference frames
2. Inertia of motion: When the bus is
called inertial frames. In fact, Newton’s first
in motion, and if the brake is applied
law defines an inertial frame.
suddenly, passengers move forward
and hit against the front seat. In this
case, the bus comes to a stop, while the
body (of a passenger) continues to move
forward due to the property of inertia
as shown in Figure 3.3. The inability of
an object to change its state of uniform
speed (constant speed) on its own is called
inertia of motion.
3. Inertia of direction: When a stone If a string is released when
attached to a string is in whirling the ball is here, it goes
straight forward toward A,
not toward B,
not toward C.
B
A
C
Force
needed
to
overcome
inertia
Side View Top View
Figure 3.3 Passengers experience a Figure 3.4 A stone moves tangential to

forward push due to inertia of motion circle due to inertia of direction
Unit 3 L aws of Motion 107

www.tntextbooks.in
Inertial Frames with constant velocity relative to each other. If

If an object is free from all forces, then it an object appears to be at rest in one inertial
moves with constant velocity or remains at frame, it may appear to move with constant
rest when seen from inertial frames. Thus, velocity with respect to another inertial frame.
there exists some special set of frames in For example, in Figure 3.5, the car is moving
which, if an object experiences no force, it with uniform velocity v with respect to a person
moves with constant velocity or remains at standing (at rest) on the ground. As the car is
rest. But how do we know whether an object moving with constant velocity with respect to
is experiencing a force or not? All the objects the person at rest on the ground, both frames
in the Earth experience Earth’s gravitational (with respect to the car and to the ground) are
force. In the ideal case, if an object is in deep inertial frames.
space (very far away from any other object),
then Newton’s first law will be certainly valid.
Such deep space can be treated as an inertial
frame. But practically it is not possible to reach
such deep space and verify Newton’s first law.
For all practical purposes, we can treat

Earth as an inertial frame because an object on
the table in the laboratory appears to be at rest Figure 3.5 The person and
always. This object never picks up acceleration vehicle are inertial frames
in the horizontal direction since no force
acts on it in the horizontal direction. So the Suppose an object remains at rest on a
laboratory can be taken as an inertial frame for smooth table kept inside the train, and if the
all physics experiments and calculations. For train suddenly accelerates (which we may
making these conclusions, we analyse only the not sense), the object appears to accelerate
horizontal motion of the object as there is no backwards even without any force acting on
horizontal force that acts on it. We should not it. It is a clear violation of Newton’s first law
analyse the motion in vertical direction as the as the object gets accelerated without being
two forces (gravitational force in the downward acted upon by a force. It implies that the train
direction and normal force in upward is not an inertial frame when it is accelerated.
direction) that act on it makes the net force is For example, Figure 3.6 shows that car 2 is
zero in vertical direction. Newton’s first law a non-inertial frame since it moves with
deals with the motion of objects in the absence 
acceleration a with respect to the ground.
of any force and not the motion under zero net
force. Suppose a train is moving with constant
velocity with respect to an inertial frame, then
an object at rest in the inertial frame (outside
1 2
the train) appears to move with constant
velocity with respect to the train (viewed from
within the train). So the train can be treated as Figure 3.6 Car 2 is a non-inertial
an inertial frame. All inertial frames are moving frame

www.tntextbooks.in
These kinds of accelerated frames are called The above equation conveys the fact that

non-inertial frames. A rotating frame is also if there is an acceleration a on the body,
a non inertial frame since rotation requires then there must be a force acting on it. This
acceleration. In this sense, Earth is not really implies that if there is a change in velocity,
an inertial frame since it has self-rotation then there must be a force acting on the
and orbital motion. But these rotational body. The force and acceleration are always
effects of Earth can be ignored for the motion in the same direction. Newton’s second law
involved in our day-to-day life. For example, was a paradigm shift from Aristotle’s idea
when an object is thrown, or the time of motion. According to Newton, the force
period of a simple pendulum is measured need not cause the motion but only a change
in the physics laboratory, the Earth’s self- in motion. It is to be noted that Newton’s
rotation has very negligible effect on it. In second law is valid only in inertial frames.
this sense, Earth can be treated as an inertial In non-inertial frames Newton’s second law
frame. But at the same time, to analyse cannot be used in this form. It requires some
the motion of satellites and wind patterns modification.
around the Earth, we cannot treat Earth as In the SI system of units, the unit of force
an inertial frame since its self-rotation has is measured in newtons and it is denoted by
a strong influence on wind patterns and symbol ‘N’.
satellite motion.
One Newton is defined as the force which
acts on 1 kg of mass to give an acceleration
3.2.2 Newton’s Second Law 1 m s-2 in the direction of the force.
This law states that
The force acting on an object is equal to Aristotle vs. Newton’s approach on
the rate of change of its momentum sliding object
Newton’s second law gives the correct
 dp explanation for the experiment on the
F= (3.1) inclined plane that was discussed in
dt
section 3.1. In normal cases, where friction
In simple words, whenever the momentum is not negligible, once the object reaches the
of the body changes, there must be a force bottom of the inclined plane (Figure 3.1),
acting on it. The momentum of the object is it travels some distance and stops. Note
  that it stops because there is a frictional
defined as p = mv . In most cases, the mass
of the object remains constant during the force acting in the direction opposite to
motion. In such cases, the above equation its velocity. It is this frictional force that
gets modified into a simpler form reduces the velocity of the object to zero and
brings it to rest. As per Aristotle’s idea, as
soon as the body reaches the bottom of the
 
 d mv dv  plane, it can travel only a small distance and
F m ma .
dt dt stops because there is no force acting on the
  object. Essentially, he did not consider the
F = ma . (3.2)
frictional force acting on the object.

www.tntextbooks.in
3.2.3 Newton’s Third Law

Aristotle
Consider Figure 3.8(a) whenever an
External force needs to be
object 1 exerts a force on the object 2 ( F21),
applied to move an object
with constant velocity v then object 2 must also exert equal
 and
opposite force on the object 1 ( F12). These
Fext v forces must lie along the line joining the
two objects.
 
F12 F21
net force = Fext
Newton’s third law assures that the
forces occur as equal and opposite pairs.
Galileo and Newton
An isolated force or a single force cannot
There is zero net force exist in nature. Newton’s third law states
on the object when it moves
that for every action there is an equal and
with constant velocity v
opposite reaction. Here, action and reaction
pair of forces do not act on the same body
Fext v but on two different bodies. Any one of the
forces can be called as an action force and
Ffriction
the other the reaction force. Newton’s third
law is valid in both inertial and non-inertial
frames.
net force = zero
These action-reaction forces are not
cause and effect forces. It means that when
Figure 3.7 Aristotle, Galileo and the object 1 exerts force on the object 2, the
Newton’s approach
object 2 exerts equal and opposite force on
the body 1 at the same instant.
Object 1
Wall ACTION
F 21 Ball force exerted by the feet
on ground
Object 2 F 12
F wall on ball F ball on wall
F 12 - force exerted by the nail on the hammer

REACTION
F 21 - force exerted by the hammer on the the nail force exerted by the Earth
on the feet
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.8 Demonstration of Newton’s third law (a) Hammer and the nail (b) Ball
bouncing off the wall (c) Walking on the floor with friction

www.tntextbooks.in
ACTIVITY
Verification of Newton’s third law
Attach two spring balances as shown in the figure. Fix one end with rigid support and
leave the other end free, which can be pulled with the hand.
Pull one end with some
force and note the reading
on both the balances.
A B
Repeat the exercise a
10
15
20
N
5
0
number of times.
15
10
0
N
20
as Fxxiˆ Fyy ˆj Fzzkˆ maxxiˆ ma yy ˆj mazzkˆ.
The reading in the spring
By comparing both sides, the three scalar
Note balance A is due to the force
given by spring balance B. The equations are
reading in the spring balance
B is due to the reaction force given by
Fx = max The acceleration along the x
spring balance A. Note that according to direction depends only on the component
Newton’s third law, both readings (force) of force acting along the x-direction.
are equal. Fy = ma y The acceleration along the y
direction depends only on the component
of force acting along the y-direction.
Fz = maz The acceleration along the z
direction depends only on the component
of force acting along the z-direction.
From the above equations, we can infer
that the force acting along y direction
cannot alter the acceleration along x
direction. In the same way, Fz cannot
affect a y and ax . This understanding is
3.2.4 Discussion on essential for solving problems.
Newton’s Laws 2. The acceleration experienced by the
1. Newton’s laws are vector laws. The body at time t depends on the force

equation F = ma is a vector equation which acts on the body at that instant
and essentially it is equivalent to of time. It does not depend on the force
three scalar equations. In Cartesian which acted on the body before the time
coordinates, this equation can be written t. This can be expressed as

www.tntextbooks.in
  Case 2: Force and motion not in the

F t ma t
same direction
The Moon experiences a force towards
Acceleration of the object does not
the Earth. But it actually moves in
depend on the previous history of
elliptical orbit. In this case, the direction
the force. For example, when a spin
of the force is different from the direction
bowler or a fast bowler throws the ball
of motion as shown in Figure 3.9 (b).
to the batsman, once the ball leaves
the hand of the bowler, it experiences
only gravitational force and air
frictional force. The acceleration of
Earth
the ball is independent of how the ball
was bowled (with a lower or a higher Direction of
Direction of force
speed). Moon
Motion
3. In general, the direction of a force

may be different from the direction
of motion. Though in some cases, the
object may move in the same direction Figure 3.9 (b) Moon orbiting in elliptical
as the direction of the force, it is not orbit around the Earth
always true. A few examples are given
Case 3: Force and motion in opposite
below.
direction
Case 1: Force and motion in the same If an object is thrown vertically upward,
direction the direction of motion is upward,
When an apple falls towards the Earth, but gravitational force is downward as
the direction of motion (direction of shown in the Figure 3.9 (c).
velocity) of the apple and that of force
are in the same downward direction as
shown in the Figure 3.9 (a). V
v
F
Figure 3.9 (c) Force and

Figure 3.9 (a) Force and motion in the direction of motion are in
same direction opposite directions

www.tntextbooks.in
Case 4: Zero net force, but there is

motion
c
When a raindrop gets detached from
b
the cloud it experiences both downward
gravitational force and upward air drag a
force. As it descends towards the Earth,
the upward air drag force increases and Vector addition of forces
a + b give resultant c.
after a certain time, the upward air drag
force cancels the downward gravity. From Figure 3.10 Vector addition of forces
then on the raindrop moves at constant
velocity till it touches the surface of
Newton’s second law for this case is
the Earth. Hence the raindrop comes
with zero net force, therefore with zero  
Fnet = ma

acceleration but with non-zero terminal
velocity. It is shown in the Figure 3.9 (d). In this case the direction of acceleration
is in the direction of net force.
Example
Bow and arrow
Air drag
(Bow and arrow) Vectorial addition
Gravity (Bow and arrow) Vectorial addition
F1
Air drag
F1 F2
F net
Gravity
F2
F net
Air drag
Figure 3.11 Bow and arrow – Net force
Gravity is on the arrow
Figure 3.9 (d) Zero net force and non

zero terminal velocity 5. Newton’s second law can also be written
in the following form.
    Since the acceleration is the second
4. If multiple forces F1 , F2 , F3 ….Fn act on
the derivative of position vector of the body
 same body, then the total force 
 d 2r
( Fnet ) is equivalent to the vectorial sum a 2 , the force on the body is
of the individual forces. Their net force dt
provides the acceleration.
 
     d 2r
Fnet F1 F2 F3 Fn F =m 2 .

dt

www.tntextbooks.in
From this expression, we can infer that 3. Draw the vectors representing the forces
Newton’s second law is basically a second acting on the object.
order ordinary differential equation
and whenever the second derivative of When we draw the free body diagram for
position vector is not zero, there must be an object or a system, the forces exerted by
a force acting on the body. the object should not be included in the free
6. If no force acts on the body then Newton’s body diagram.

dv
second law, m = 0.
dt
 EX AM P L E 3 . 1
It implies that v = constant . It is
essentially Newton’s first law. It implies A book of mass m is at rest on the table.
that the second law is consistent with (1) What are the forces acting on the book?
the first law. However, it should not be (2) What are the forces exerted by the
thought of as the reduction of second book? (3) Draw the free body diagram for
law to the first when no force acts on the the book.
object. Newton’s first and second laws are
independent laws. They can internally Solution
be consistent with each other but cannot
(1) There are two forces acting on the book.
be derived from each other.
7. Newton’s second law is cause and (i) Gravitational force (mg) acting
effect relation. Force is the cause and downwards on the book
acceleration is the effect. Conventionally, (ii) Normal contact force (N) exerted by
the effect should be written on the left the surface of the table on the book. It
and cause on the right hand side of the acts upwards as shown in the figure.
equation. So the correct way of writing

  dp  Free body diagram
Newton’s second law is ma = F or =F
dt N
3.3
Book
APPLICATION OF
NEWTON’S LAWS
mg
3.3.1 Free Body Diagram

Free body diagram is a simple tool to analyse
the motion of the object using Newton’s In the free body diagram,
laws. as the magnitudes of the
Note
normal force and the
The following systematic steps are followed
gravitational force are
for developing the free body diagram: same, the lengths of both these vectors
1. Identify the forces acting on the object. are also same.
2. Represent the object as a point.

www.tntextbooks.in
(2) According to Newton’s third law, there

are two reaction forces exerted by the Even though the force
book. Note applied on both the objects
is the same, acceleration
(i)
The book exerts an equal and experienced by each object
opposite force (mg) on the Earth differs. The acceleration is inversely
which acts upwards. proportional to mass. For the same
(ii)
The book exerts a force which force, the heavier mass experiences
is equal and opposite to normal lesser acceleration and the lighter mass
force on the surface of the table experiences greater acceleration.
(N) acting downwards.
When an apple falls, it experiences

It is to be emphasized that Earth’s gravitational force. According
Note while applying Newton’s to Newton’s third law, the apple exerts
third law it is wrong to equal and opposite force on the Earth.
conclude that the book on
Even though both the apple and
the table is at rest due to the downward
Earth experience the same force, their
gravitational force exerted by the
acceleration is different. The mass of
Earth and the equal and opposite
Earth is enormous compared to that of
reacting normal force exerted by the
table on the book. Action and reaction an apple. So an apple experiences larger
forces never act on the same body. acceleration and the Earth experiences
almost negligible acceleration. Due to the
negligible acceleration, Earth appears to be
(3) The free body diagram of the book is stationary when an apple falls.
shown in the figure.
EX AM P L E 3 . 3
EXA M P LE 3 .2
Which isthe greatest force among the three
If two objects of masses 2.5 kg and 100 kg force F1 , F2 , F3 shown below
experience the same force 5 N, what is the
acceleration experienced by each of them? →
F1
Solution →
F2
From Newton’s second law (in →
magnitude form), F = ma F3
For the object of mass 2.5 kg, the

F 5 Solution
acceleration is a = = = 2 m s -2 Force is a vector and magnitude of the
m 2. 5
vector is represented
 by the length of the
For the object of mass 100 kg, the vector. Here F1 hasgreater length compared
F 5 to other two. So F1 is largest of the three.
acceleration is a = = = 0.05 m s -2
m 100

www.tntextbooks.in
EXA MP LE 3 .4 By following the above steps:
Apply Newton’s second law to a mango We fix the inertial coordinate system on
hanging from a tree. (Mass of the mango the ground as shown in the figure.
is 400 gm) y
Solution
Note: Before applying Newton’s laws,
the following steps have to be followed:
1) Choose a suitable inertial coordinate ĵ

system to analyse the problem. For x
î
most of the cases we can take Earth as
an inertial coordinate system. The forces acting on the mango are
2) Identify the system to which Newton’s i)
Gravitational force exerted by
laws need to be applied. The system can the Earth on the mango acting
be a single object or more than one object. downward along negative y axis
3) Draw the free body diagram.
ii) Tension (in the cord attached to the
4) Once the forces acting on the system are
mango) acts upward along positive
identified, and the free body diagram
y axis.
is drawn, apply Newton’s second law.
In the left hand side of the equation, The free body diagram for the mango is
write the forces acting on the system shown in the figure
in vector notation and equate it to the
right hand side of equation which is y
the product of mass and acceleration.
Here, acceleration should also be in
T
vector notation. x
5) If acceleration is given, the force can be
calculated. If the force is given,
Mango
acceleration can be calculated.
mg

Tension force (T)

Fg mg ˆj mgjˆ
Earth’s gravitational Here, mg is the magnitude of the gravitational

force (mg)
force and ĵ represents the unit vector in
y negative y direction

x T Tjˆ

www.tntextbooks.in
Here T is the magnitude of the tension EXAM P L E 3 . 6

force and ĵ represents the unit vector in
The position vector of a particle is given
positive y direction
by r 3tiˆ 5t 2 ˆj 7kˆ. Find the direction in
   which the particle experiences net force?
Fnet Fg T = mgjˆ Tjˆ T mg ˆj
Solution
 
From Newton’s second law Fnet = ma Velocity of the particle,
Since the mango is at rest with respect
 dr d 3t iˆ d 5t 2 ˆj d 7 kˆ
to us (inertial coordinate system) the v=
dt dt

dt
dt


acceleration is zero (a = 0).
dr
  3iˆ 10tjˆ
So F=net ma= 0 dt
Acceleration of the particle
T mg ˆj 0
dv d 2r

a 2 10 ˆj
By comparing the components on both sides dt dt
of the above equation, we get T mg 0
Here, the particle has acceleration only along
So the tension force acting on the positive y direction. According to Newton’s
mango is given by T = mg second law, net force must also act along
ass of the mango m = 400g and
M positive y direction. In addition, the particle
g = 9.8 m s–2 has constant velocity in positive x direction
Tension acting on the mango is and no velocity in z direction. Hence, there
T = 0.4 × 9.8 = 3.92 N are no net force along x or z direction.
EXAM P L E 3 . 7
EXA M P LE 3 .5 Consider a bob attached to a string,

hanging from a stand. It oscillates as
A person rides a bike with a constant
 shown in the figure.
velocity v with respect to ground and
another biker accelerates with acceleration a) Identify the forces that act on the bob?
 b) What is the acceleration experienced by
a with respect to ground. Who can apply
Newton’s second law with respect to a the bob?
stationary observer on the ground?
Solution
Second biker cannot apply Newton’s
second law, because he is moving with


acceleration a with respect to Earth (he is
A C
not in inertial frame). But the first biker B
can apply Newton’s second law because he

is moving at constant velocity with respect
to Earth (he is in inertial frame).

www.tntextbooks.in
Solution EX AM P L E 3 . 8
Two forces act on the bob.
The velocity of a particle moving in a plane
(i)
Gravitational force (mg) acting
is given by the following diagram. Find out
downwards
the direction of force acting on the particle?
(ii) Tension (T) exerted by the string on
y
the bob, whose position determines
x
the direction of T as shown in figure.
t = 0 sec t = 1 sec t = 2 sec t = 3 sec
T T T
A C Solution

The velocity of the particle is v v xiˆ v y ˆj v z kˆ.
B
mg mg mg

v v xiˆ v y ˆj v z kˆ. As shown in the figure, the particle
is moving in the xy plane, there is no motion
in the z direction. So velocity in the z direction
The bob is moving in a circular arc as
is zero (v z = 0). The velocity of the particle
shown in the above figure. Hence it has
has x component (v x ) and y component (v y ).
centripetal acceleration. At a point A and
From figure, as time increases from t = 0
C, the bob comes to rest momentarily and
sec to t = 3 sec, the length of the vector in y
then its velocity increases when it moves
direction is changing (increasing). It means
towards point B. Hence, there is a tangential
acceleration along the arc. The gravitational
y component of velocity v y is increasing
with respect to time. According to Newton’s
force can be resolved into two components
second law, if velocity changes with respect
(mg cosθ, mg sinθ) as shown below
T
to time then there must be acceleration. In
T
this case, the particle has acceleration in the
T
A Fres Fres C
y direction since the y component of velocity
m
θ m θ
θ
changes. So the particle experiences force in

θ
s
gs
co
sin
co
inθ Fres
s
mg
θ
m
mg
B
mg the y direction. The length of the vector in
x direction does not change. It means that
mg the particle has constant velocity in the x
direction. So no force or zero net force acts
Note that the bob does not
Note move in the direction of in the x direction.
the resultant force. At the
points A and C, tension T = mg cosθ. EX AM P L E 3 . 9
At all other points, tension T is greater than
mg cosθ, since it has non zero centripetal Apply Newton’s second law for an object at
acceleration. At point B, the resultant rest on Earth and analyse the result.
force acts upward along the string. It is an Solution
example of a non uniform circular motion
because the bob has both the centripetal The object is at rest with respect to
and tangential accelerations. Earth (inertial coordinate system). There
are two forces that act on the object.

www.tntextbooks.in
y
By comparing the components on both
sides of the equation, we get
x
mg N 0
Normal force(N) N = mg
We can conclude that if the object is at rest,

the magnitude of normal force is exactly
Gravity(mg)
equal to the magnitude of gravity.
i) Gravity acting downward (negative

EXAM P L E 3 . 1 0
y-direction)
ii) Normal force by the surface of the Earth A particle of mass 2 kg experiences two

acting upward (positive y-direction) forces,F1 5iˆ 8 ˆj 7kˆ and F2 3iˆ 4 ˆj 3kˆ .
The free body diagram for this object is What is the acceleration of the particle?
Solution
 
y We use Newton’s second law, Fnet = ma
  
where Fnet F1 F2 . From the above

 Fnet
N x
equations the acceleration is a = , where
m

Fnet 5 3 iˆ 8 4 ˆj 7 3 kˆ
Object
Fnet 8iˆ 4 ˆj 10kˆ
8 4 10
a iˆ ˆj kˆ
mg 2 2 2

a 4iˆ 2 ˆj 5kˆ

Fg mgjˆ EXAM P L E 3 . 1 1

N Njˆ Identify the forces acting on blocks A, B
and C shown in the figure.
Net force F mgjˆ Njˆ
net
But there is no acceleration on the ball.


So a = 0. By applying Newton’s second law

( Fnet = ma )

Since a 0, Fnet mgjˆ Njˆ
(mg N ) ˆj 0

www.tntextbooks.in
Solution EX AM P L E 3 . 1 2
Forces on block A: Consider a horse attached to the cart which
(i) Downward gravitational force exerted is initially at rest. If the horse starts walking
by the Earth (mAg) forward, the cart also accelerates in the
(ii) Upward normal force exerted by block forward direction. If the horse pulls the
B (NB) cart with force Fh in forward direction, then
according to Newton’s third law, the cart also
The free body diagram for block A is as
pulls the horse by equivalent opposite force
shown in the following picture.
Fc = Fh in backward direction. Then total
Force on block A
force on ‘cart+horse’ is zero. Why is it then the
NB ‘cart+horse’ accelerates and moves forward?
A
Solution
This paradox arises due to wrong
mAg application of Newton’s second and third
Forces on block B : laws. Before applying Newton’s laws, we
should decide ‘what is the system?’. Once
(i) Downward gravitational force exerted
we identify the ‘system’, then it is possible to
by Earth (mBg)
identify all the forces acting on the system.
(ii) Downward force exerted by block A (NA)
We should not consider the force exerted
(iii) Upward normal force exerted by
by the system. If there is an unbalanced
block C (NC)
force acting on the system, then it should
Force on block B
have acceleration in the direction of the
NC resultant force. By following these steps we
will analyse the horse and cart motion.
B
If we decide on the cart+horse as a
NA
‘system’, then we should not consider the
mBg force exerted by the horse on the cart or
Forces onblock C: the force exerted by cart on the horse.
(i) Downward gravitational force exerted Both are internal forces acting on each
by Earth (mCg) other. According to Newton’s third law,
(ii) Downward force exerted by block B (NB) total internal force acting on the system is
(iii) Upward force exerted by the table (Ntable) zero and it cannot accelerate the system.
The acceleration of the system is caused
Force on block C
by some external force. In this case, the
Ntable
force exerted by the road on the system is
the external force acting on the system. It
C
is wrong to conclude that the total force
NB acting on the system (cart+horse) is zero
mCg
without including all the forces acting on
the system. The road is pushing the horse

www.tntextbooks.in
and cart forward with acceleration. As there The force exerted by the road can be
is an external force acting on the system, resolved into parallel and perpendicular
Newton’s second law has to be applied and components. The perpendicular
not Newton’s third law. component balances the downward
The following figures illustrates this. gravitational force. There is parallel
component along the forward direction. It

is greater than the backward force (Fc ). So

there is net force along the forward direction
Fh
Fc
which causes the forward movement of the
horse.

N= Fr
Fr

N= Fr
Lorem ipsum
road
Fr
If we take the cart as the system, then
Fr (Forward motion)
there are three forces acting on the cart.

Fr
mh g
(i) Downward gravitational force (mc g )
’
(ii) Force exerted by the road (Fr )
mC g
(iii) Force exerted by the horse (Fh )

If we consider the horse as the ‘system’,
then there are three forces acting on the It is shown in the figure
horse.
Force on the cart
(i) Downward gravitational force (mh g )
(ii) Force exerted by the road (Fr )
Fr′ N = F⊥′
(iii) Backward force exerted by the cart (Fc ) r
It is shown in the following figure.

′ Fh
F||r Cart
Fr
mcg
Fc Horse F||r
The force exerted by the road ( Fr’ ) can

be resolved into parallel and perpendicular
components. The perpendicular
mh g component cancels the downward gravity
(mc g ). Parallel component acts backwards

Fr – Force exerted by the road on the horse
and the force exerted
by the horse (Fh)
Fc – Force exerted by the cart on the horse acts forward. Force (Fh ) is greater than the
parallel component acting in the opposite
F⊥r – Perpendicular component of Fr = N
direction. So there is an overall unbalanced
F||r – Parallel component of Fr which is reason force in the forward direction which causes
for forward movement the cart to accelerate forward.

www.tntextbooks.in
If we take the cart+horse as a system, d2 y

then there are two forces acting on the The acceleration is given by a = 2
dt
system. dv
(or) a =
(i)
Downward gravitational force dt
(mh + mc )g Here
(ii) The force exerted by the road (Fr ) on
the system. v = velocity of the particle in y direction
dy
It is shown in the following figure. v= = u - gt
dt
F
r N
Fr
The momentum of the particle = mv = m
(u-gt).
F||r Parallel component of
Cart+Horse
force exerted by road.
It is the reason for forward
dv
movement of Cart + Horse a g
dt
(mh mc)g
The force acting on the object is given by

(iii)
In this case the force exerted
F ma mg
by the road (Fr ) on the system
(cart+horse) is resolved in to parallel The negative sign implies that the force
and perpendicular components. is acting on the negative y direction. This is
The perpendicular component is exactly the force that acts on the object in
the normal force which cancels projectile motion.
the downward gravitational force
(mh + mc )g. The parallel component
of the force is not balanced, hence the 3.3.2 article Moving in an
P
system (cart+horse) accelerates and Inclined Plane
moves forward due to this force.
When an object of mass m slides on a
frictionless surface inclined at an angle θ as
shown in the Figure 3.12, the forces acting
EXA MP LE 3 .1 3 on it decides the
The position of the particle is represented
a) acceleration of the object
1 b) speed of the object when it reaches the
by y ut gt 2 .
2 bottom
a) What is the force acting on the particle?
The force acting on the object is
b) What is the momentum of the particle?
(i) Downward gravitational force (mg)
Solution (ii) Normal force perpendicular to inclined
To find the force, we need to find the surface (N)
acceleration experienced by the particle.

www.tntextbooks.in
There is no motion(acceleration) along

m the y axis. Applying Newton’s second law in
the y direction
h a
s
mg cos ˆj Njˆ 0 No acceleration

sides, N mg cos 0
L
Figure 3.12 Object moving
in an inclined plane N mg cos
The magnitude of normal force (N) exerted

To draw the free body diagram, the block is
by the surface is equivalent to mg cosθ .
assumed to be a point mass (Figure 3.13 (a)).
Since the motion is on the inclined surface, The object slides (with an acceleration)
we have to choose the coordinate system along the x direction. Applying Newton’s
parallel to the inclined surface as shown in second law in the x direction
Figure 3.13 (b).
The gravitational force mg is resolved mg sin iˆ maiˆ
in to parallel component mg sin θ along
the inclined plane and perpendicular By comparing the components on both
component mg cos θ perpendicular to the sides, we can equate
inclined surface (Figure 3.13 (b)).
mg sin ma
Note that the angle made by the
gravitational force (mg) with the The acceleration of the sliding object is
perpendicular to the surface is equal to the
angle of inclination θ ’ as shown in Figure a = g sinθ
3.13 (c).
y
Free body
diagram In the triangle ABC
x total angle 90° 1 180°
N N
m From the above equation
A 1 180° 90° 90°
m But from the figure 2 1 90°
mg sin so 2 90° 1 90° (90° )
mg cos E 1 D
2 It given 2
mg
mg 90°
B C
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.13 (a) Free body diagram, (b) mg resolved into parallel and perpendicular
components (c) The angle θ2 is equal to θ2

www.tntextbooks.in
Note that the acceleration depends on the

angle of inclination .. If the angle is 90
degree, the block will move vertically with a
acceleration a = g. m1
y m2
Newton’s kinematic equation is used to F f12
find the speed of the object when it reaches f21
the bottom. The acceleration is constant x
throughout the motion.
v 2 u2 2as along the x direction (3.3) Figure 3.14 (a) Two blocks of masses
m1 and m2 (m1> m2) kept in contact
The acceleration a is equal to g sinθ. The with each other on a smooth, horizontal
initial speed (u) is equal to zero as it starts frictionless surface
from rest. Here s is the length of the inclined
surface. By the application of a horizontal force
The speed (v) when it reaches the bottom F, both the blocks are set into motion
is (using equation (3.3)) with acceleration ‘a’ simultaneously in the
direction of the force F.

v = 2sg sinθ (3.4) To find the acceleration a, Newton’s
second law has to be applied to the system
(combined mass m = m1 + m2)
Here we choose the  

Note F = ma
coordinate system along the
inclined plane. Even if we
If we choose the motion of the two masses
choose the coordinate system parallel
to the horizontal surface, we will get
along the positive x direction,
the same result. But the mathematics
will be quite complicated. Choosing a Fiˆ maiˆ
suitable inertial coordinate system for
the given problem is very important. By comparing components on both sides of
the above equation
F = ma where m = m1 + m2
3.3.3 wo Bodies in Contact
T
on a Horizontal Surface The acceleration of the system is given by
Consider two blocks of masses m1 and m2
(m1> m2) kept in contact with each other on F
a (3.5)
a smooth, horizontal frictionless surface as m1 m2
shown in Figure 3.14.

www.tntextbooks.in
The force exerted by the block m1 on m2 Equation (3.7) shows that the magnitude
due
 to its motion is called force of contact of contact force depends on mass m2 which
( f 21). According to Newton’s third law, the provides the reaction force. Note that
block m2 will exert
 an equivalent opposite this force is acting along the negative
reaction force ( f12 ) on block m1. x direction.
Figure 3.14 (b) shows the free body In vector notation, the reaction force on
diagram of block m1. Fm2 ˆ
mass m1 is given by f12 i
m1 m2
Free body diagram
for mass m1 For mass m2 there is only one force acting
on
 it in the x direction and it is denoted by
y m1
f12
N f 21. This force is exerted by mass m1. The
F
m1 free body diagram for mass m2 is shown in
f12 F
x m1g Figure 3.14 (c).
Figure 3.14 (b) Free body diagram of

block of mass m1 Free body diagram
for mass m2
y f21 m2 N
Fiˆ f12iˆ m1aiˆ x mg

f21
By comparing the components on both sides Figure 3.14 (c) Free body diagram of
of the above equation, we get block of mass m2
F f12 m1a Applying Newton’s second law for mass

f12 F m1a (3.6)
m2 f iˆ m aiˆ
21 2

Substituting the value of acceleration from sides of the above equation
equation (3.5) in (3.6) we get
f 21 = m2a (3.8)
F Substituting for acceleration from equation

f12 F m1
m
1 m2 Fm2
(3.5) in equation (3.8), we get f 21
m1 m2
m1
f12 F 1
m1 m2 In this case the magnitude of the contact
force is
Fm2 Fm2
f12 (3.7) f 21 The direction of this force
m1 m2 m1 m2
is along the positive x direction.

www.tntextbooks.in
In vector notation, the force acting on The upward direction is chosen as y

Fm2 ˆ direction. The free body diagrams of both
mass m2exerted by mass m1is f 21 i
m1 m2 masses are shown in Figure 3.16.
 
Note f12 f 21 which confirms Newton’s
Free body diagram
third law.
y
3.3.4 otion of Connected
M T
T
Bodies
m1
When objects are connected by strings x m2
and a force F is applied either vertically or
horizontally or along an inclined plane, it m1g m2g
produces a tension T in the string, which
affects the acceleration to an extent. Let us
discuss various cases for the same. Figure 3.16 Free body
diagrams of masses m1 and m2
Case 1: Vertical motion
Consider two blocks of masses m1 and
m2 (m1> m2) connected by a light and Applying Newton’s second law for
inextensible string that passes over a pulley mass m2
as shown in Figure 3.15.
Tjˆ m2 gjˆ m2ajˆ
The left hand side of the above equation

is the total force that acts on m2 and the
T
right hand side is the product of mass and
m2 a
T
acceleration of m2 in y direction.
m2 g
m1 a By comparing the components on both

(m1>m2) sides, we get
m1g
T m2 g m2a (3.9)
Figure 3.15 Two blocks
connected by a string
over a pulley Similarly, applying Newton’s second law for
mass m1
Let the tension in the string be T and
acceleration a. When the system is released,
Tjˆ m1 gjˆ m1ajˆ
both the blocks start moving, m2 vertically
upward and m1 downward with same
acceleration a. The gravitational force m1g As mass m1 moves downward ( ˆj), its
on mass m1 is used in lifting the mass m2. acceleration is along ( ˆj)

www.tntextbooks.in

sides, we get m m2
T m2 g 1 1
m1 m2
T m1 g m1a m m2 m1 m2
T m2 g 1
m1 g T m1a (3.10) m1 m2
2m1m2
Adding equations (3.9) and (3.10), we get T g
m1 m2
m1 g m2 g m1a m2a
Equation (3.12) gives only magnitude of
m1 m2 g = (m1 + m2 )a (3.11) acceleration.
For mass m1 , the acceleration vector is
From equation (3.11), the acceleration of
m m2 ˆ
both the masses is given by a 1 gj
m
1 m2
m m2 For mass m2 , the acceleration vector is

a 1 g (3.12)
m
1 m2 m m2 ˆ
given by a 1 gj
m1 m2
If both the masses are equal (m1=m2), from
equation (3.12) Case 2: Horizontal motion
In this case, mass m2 is kept on a horizontal
table and mass m1 is hanging through
a=0
a small pulley as shown in Figure 3.17.
Assume that there is no friction on the
This shows that if the masses are equal, there
surface.
is no acceleration and the system as a whole
will be at rest.
To find the tension acting on the string,
substitute the acceleration from the equation
(3.12) into the equation (3.9). m2
T=m1g
 m - m2  T
T - m2 g = m2  1 g
 m1 + m2 
m1
m1g
y
m m2
T m2 g m2 1 g (3.13)
m
1 m2
x
By taking m2g common in the RHS of Figure 3.17 Blocks in horizontal

motion
equation (3.13)

www.tntextbooks.in
As both the blocks are connected to the By comparing the components on both sides
unstretchable string, if m1 moves with an of above equation,
acceleration a downward then m2 also moves
with the same acceleration a horizontally. T = m2a (3.15)
The forces acting on mass m2 are
There is no acceleration along y direction
(i) Downward gravitational force (m2g) for m2 .
(ii) Upward normal force (N) exerted by
the surface Njˆ m2 gjˆ 0
(iii) Horizontal tension (T) exerted by the
string By comparing the components on both sides
of the above equation
The forces acting on mass m1 are
(i) Downward gravitational force (m1g) N m2 g 0

(ii) Tension (T) acting upwards
N = m2 g (3.16)
The free body diagrams for both the masses
is shown in Figure 3.18. By substituting equation (3.15) in equation
(3.14), we can find the tension T
Free body diagram y
m2a m1 g m1a
N T
m2a m1a m1 g
x
T m1
m2 m1 a= g (3.17)
m1 + m2
m2g m1g
Tension in the string can be obtained by
Figure 3.18 Free body diagrams of substituting equation (3.17) in equation
masses m1 and m2 (3.15)
Applying Newton’s second law for m1 m1m2

T g (3.18)
m1 m2
Tjˆ m1 gjˆ m1ajˆ (along y direction)
Comparing motion in both cases, it is clear
By comparing the components on both sides that the tension in the string for horizontal
of the above equation, motion is half of the tension for vertical
motion for same set of masses and strings.
T m1 g m1a (3.14)
This result has an important application
Applying Newton’s second law for m2 in industries. The ropes used in conveyor
belts (horizontal motion) work for longer
duration than those of cranes and lifts
Tiˆ m2aiˆ (along x direction)
(vertical motion).

www.tntextbooks.in
a common point O as shown in Figure 3.20.

3.3.5 oncurrent Forces and
C
If the point is at equilibrium, then according
Lami’s Theorem
to Lami’s theorem
A collection of forces is said to be
concurrent, if the lines of forces act at
F1
a common point. Figure 3.19 illustrates
concurrent forces.
γ
Concurrent forces need not be in the F2
o
same plane. If they are in the same plane, β α
they are concurrent as well as coplanar
forces.
F1 F2 F3
Figure 3.20 Three

coplanar
 and concurrent

forces F1 , F2 and F3
O acting at O

F3 F1 sin

F2 sin
O
45° 30° F3 sin
45° 30° F3
F2
F1 F2 F3
Figure 3.19 Concurrent forces Therefore, (3.19)
sin sin sin
Lami’s theorem is useful to analyse the

3.4 forces acting on objects which are in static
LAMI’S THEOREM equilibrium.
If a system of three concurrent and coplanar Application of Lami’s Theorem

forces is in equilibrium, then Lami’s theorem
states that the magnitude of each force of the EXAM P L E 3 . 1 4
system is proportional to sine of the angle
between the other two forces. The constant A baby is playing in a swing which is hanging
of proportionality is same for all three forces. with the help of two identical chains is at rest.
Identify the forces acting on the baby. Apply
Let us consider three coplanar and Lami’s theorem and find out the tension
  
concurrent forces F1 , F2 and F3 which act at acting on the chain.

www.tntextbooks.in
From this, the tension on each string is

mg
Rigid support T .
Rigid support
2cos
Modeled to
T T
When 0, the strings are

Note
mg vertical and the tension on
mg
each string is T =
2
Solution
The baby and the chains are modeled as a
particle hung by two strings as shown in the 3.5
figure. There are three forces acting on the LAW OF CONSERVATION
baby. OF TOTAL LINEAR
MOMENTUM
i)
Downward gravitational force along
negative y direction (mg) In nature, conservation laws play a very
ii) Tension (T) along the two strings important role. The dynamics of motion
of bodies can be analysed very effectively
These three forces are coplanar as well as
using conservation laws. There are
concurrent as shown in the following figure.
three conservation laws in mechanics.
Conservation of total energy, conservation of
total linear momentum, and conservation of
2T cosθ
y angular momentum. By combining Newton’s

T T second and third laws, we can derive the law
θ θ
x of conservation of total linear momentum.
When two particles interact with each
T sinθ mg T sinθ
other, they exert equal and opposite forces 
on each other. The particle 1 exerts force F21
on particle 2 and particle 2 exerts an exactly
By using Lami’s theorem equal and opposite force F12 on particle 1,
according to Newton’s third law.
T T mg
 
sin 180 sin 180 sin 2 F21 F12 (3.20)
Since sin 180 sin and sin 2 2 sin Incosterms

of momentum of particles, the
sin 2 2 sin cos force on each particle (Newton’s second law)
can be written as
T mg  
 dp1  dp2
We get sin 2 sin cos F12 = and F21 = . (3.21)
dt dt

www.tntextbooks.in

Here p1 is the momentum of particle 1 EX AM P L E 3 . 1 5

which changes due to the force F12 exerted Identify the internal and external forces

by particle 2. Further p2 is the momentum acting on the following systems.

of particle 2. This changes due to F21 exerted
by particle 1. a) Earth alone as a system
b) Earth and Sun as a system
Substitute equation (3.21) in equation c) Our body as a system while walking
(3.20) d) Our body + Earth as a system
 
dp1 dp2
(3.22) Solution
dt dt
  a) Earth alone as a system
dp1 dp2 Earth orbits the Sun due to gravitational
0 (3.23)
dt dt attraction of the Sun. If we consider
d   Earth as a system, then Sun’s
p1 p2 0 gravitational force is an external force.
dt
If we take the Moon into account, it
  also exerts an external force on Earth.
It implies that p1 p2 constant vector
(always). System
 
p1 + p2 is the total linear momentum of Sun
External
   Earth
the two particles ( ptot p1 p2). It is also Force exerted
called as total linear momentum of the by the sun
system. Here, the two particles constitute

the system. From this result, the law of b) (Earth + Sun) as a system
conservation of linear momentum can be In this case, there are two internal forces
stated as follows. which form an action and reaction pair-
the gravitational force exerted by the
If there are no external forces acting on the
Sun on Earth and gravitational force
system, then the total linear momentum of
 exerted by the Earth on the Sun.
the system ( ptot ) is always a constant vector.
In otherwords, the total linear momentum of
System
the system is conserved in time. Here the word
 
‘conserve’ means that p1 and p2 can vary,in Sun
  Internal force Internal force
Earth
such a way that p1 + p2 is a constant vector. exerted by the earth exerted by the sun
 
The forces F12 and F21 are called the
internal forces of the system, because they
act only between the two particles. There is c) Our body as a system
no external force acting on the two particles While walking, we exert a force on the
from outside. In such a case the total linear Earth and Earth exerts an equal and
momentum of the system is a constant opposite force on our body. If our body
vector or is conserved. alone is considered as a system, then

www.tntextbooks.in
the force exerted by the Earth on our the forces involved in the process.
body is external. This is difficult to specify in real
System situations. But conservation of
linear momentum does not require
any force involved in the process. It
is covenient and hence important.
For example, when two particles collide,

External force the forces exerted by these two particles
exerted by earth
on each other is difficult to specify. But it
Our body as a system is easier to apply conservation of linear
momentum during the collision process.
d) (Our body + Earth) as a system
Before collision
In this case, there are two internal
forces present in the system. One is the
force exerted by our body on the Earth
and the other is the equal and opposite Collision
force exerted by the Earth on our body.
System
After collision
Internal Internal
force exerted force exerted
by Earth by body Collision of two particles
Our body + Earth as a Examples

system • Consider the firing of a gun. Here the
system is Gun+bullet. Initially the gun
Meaning of law of conservation of and bullet are at rest, hence the total linear
momentum
momentum of the system is zero. Let 1p
1) The Law of conservation of linear be the momentum of the bullet and p2 the
momentum is a vector law. It momentum of the gun before firing. Since
implies that both the magnitude and initially both are at rest,
direction of total linear momentum Recoil force Accelerating force on
on the gun the bullet
are constant. In some cases, this M
m
total momentum can also be zero. v
2) To analyse the motion of a particle,
we can either use Newton’s second
law or the law of conservation
of linear momentum. Newton’s
p1 0, p2 0.
second law requires us to specify

www.tntextbooks.in
Total momentum
before firing the gun is after collision also has to be in the forward
zero, p1 p 2 0. direction. The following figure explains this.
According to the law of conservation of v1
m1
linear momentum, total linear momemtum v
m1 m2
has to be zero after the firing also. Ptot rest m2
Ptot
v2
When the gun is fired, a force is exerted Before collision After collision
by the gun on the bullet in forward
A more accurate calculation is covered in
direction. Now the momentum of the
section 4.4. It is to be noted that the total
bullet changes from p1 to p1. To conserve
momentum vector before and after collison
the total linear momentum of the system,
points in the same direction. This simply
the momentum

of the gun must also change
means that the total linear momentum is
from p2 to p2′ . Due to the conservation of constant before and after the collision. At
linear momentum, p1 p 2 0. It implies
the time of collision, each particle exerts a
that p1 p2 , the momentum of the gun is
force on the other. As the two particles are
exactly equal, but in the opposite direction
considered as a system, these forces are only
to the momentum of the bullet. This is the
internal, and the total linear momentum
reason after firing, the gun suddenly moves
cannot be altered by internal forces.
backward with the momentum p2’ . It
is called ‘recoil momemtum’. This is an
example of conservation of total linear 3.5.1 Impulse
momentum.
If a very large force acts on an object for a
very short duration, then the force is called
impulsive force or impulse.
If a force (F) acts on the object in a very
short interval of time (Dt), from Newton’s
second law in magnitude form
Fdt = dp
Integrating over time from an initial time t i

to a final time t f , we get
• Consider two particles. One is at rest and f tf
the other moves towards the first particle dp = F dt

i ti
(which is at rest). They collide and after
tf
collison move in some arbitrary directions.
In this case, before collision, the total linear p f pi F dt
ti
momentum of the system is equal to the
initial linear momentum of the moving pi = initial momentum of the object at time t i
particle. According to conservation of p f = final momentum of the object at time t f
momentum, the total linear momentum

www.tntextbooks.in
p f pi p change in momentum
J Favg t (3.26)
of the object during the time interval
t f t i t . The graphical representation of constant
tf force impulse and variable force impulse is
The integral F dt J is called the impulse given in Figure 3.21.
ti
and it is equal to change in momentum of For constant force
F
the object. Area under graph =
impulse = F∆t
If the force is constant over the time
interval, then
tf tf Favg
F dt F dt F t
ti ti
f
t i = F t
F t p (3.24) ti tf t
Equation (3.24) is called the ‘impulse-

momentum equation’. F
For variable force
tf
Area under graph =
For a constant force, the impulse is
denoted as J F t and it is also equal to
impulse (J) = F dt
∫
ti
=J
Fpeak
change in momentum (p) of the object
over the time interval t.
Favg
Impulse is a vector quantity and its unit is Ns.
The average force acted on the object
over the short interval of time is defined by
ti tf t
Figure 3.21 Constant force impulse

p and variable force impulse
Favg (3.25)
t
From equation (3.25), the average force Illustration

that act on the object is greater if t is
1. When a cricket player catches the ball, he
smaller. Whenever the momentum of the
pulls his hands gradually in the direction
body changes very quickly, the average force
of the ball’s motion. Why?
becomes larger.
If he stops his hands soon after
The impulse can also be written in terms catching the ball, the ball comes to
of the average force. Since p is change in rest very quickly. It means that the
momentum of the object and is equal to momentum of the ball is brought to rest
impulse (J), we have very quickly. So the average force acting

www.tntextbooks.in
on the body will be very large. Due to there is a bump on the road, a sudden
this large average force, the hands will force is transferred to the vehicle. The
get hurt. To avoid getting hurt, the player shock absorber prolongs the period of
brings the ball to rest slowly. transfer of force on to the body of the
rider. Vehicles without shock absorbers
will harm the body due to this reason.
4. Jumping on a concrete cemented floor
is more dangerous than jumping on the
sand. Sand brings the body to rest slowly
than the concrete floor, so that the
average force experienced by the body
will be lesser.
2. When a car meets with an accident, its

momentum reduces drastically in a very
short time. This is very dangerous for the
passengers inside the car since they will
experience a large force. To prevent this Impulse
fatal shock, cars are designed with air
bags in such a way that when the car
meets with an accident, the momentum
of the passengers will reduce slowly so
that the average force acting on them
will be smaller.
If an egg is thrown, can you catch the

egg safely without breaking it? How?
Air
ir
ba
bag
EX AM P L E 3 . 1 6
An object of mass 10 kg moving with a
speed of 15 m s−1 hits the wall and comes
to rest within
3. The shock absorbers in two wheelers play a) 0.03 second

the same role as airbags in the car. When b) 10 second

www.tntextbooks.in
Calculate the impulse and average force

Fext
acting on the object in both the cases.
Friction
Solution
Initial momentum of the object
pi =10 × 15 =150 k gm s−1
Final momentum of the object p f = 0
Dp = 150 - 0 = 150 kg m s -1
Fext
Friction
(a) Impulse J = Dp = 150 N s.

(b) Impulse J = Dp = 150 N s
p 150
(a) Average force Favg = = 5000 N
t 0.03
150
(b) Average force F=
avg = 15 N
10
Figure 3.22 Frictional force
We see that, impulse is the same in both
cases, but the average force is different.
by the surface by exerting a frictional force
on the object in a direction opposite to
3.6 applied force. Frictional force always acts on
FRICTION the object parallel to the surface on which
the object is placed. There are two kinds
of friction namely 1) Static friction and 2)
3.6.1 Introduction
Kinetic friction.
If a very gentle force in the horizontal
direction is given to an object at rest on the 
table, it does not move. It is because of the 3.6.2 Static Friction (fs)
opposing force exerted by the surface on the Static friction is the force which opposes
object which resists its motion. This force the initiation of motion of an object on the
is called the frictional force which always surface. When the object is at rest on the
opposes the relative motion between an object surface, only two forces act on it. They are the
and the surface where it is placed. If the force downward gravitational force and upward
applied is increased, the object moves after a normal force. The resultant of these two
certain limit. forces on the object is zero. As a result the
Relative motion: when a force parallel object is at rest as shown in Figure 3.23.
to the surface is applied on the object, the If some external force Fext is applied on
force tries to move the object with respect to the object parallel to the surface on which
the surface. This ‘relative motion’ is opposed the object is at rest, the surface exerts

www.tntextbooks.in
exactly an equal and opposite force on the The static and kinetic frictions (which
object to resist its motion and tries to keep we discuss later) depend on the normal
the object at rest. It implies that external force acting on the object. If the object is
force and frictional force are exactly equal pressed hard on the surface then the normal
and opposite. Therefore, no motion parallel force acting on the object will increase. As
to the surface takes place. But if the external a consequence it is more difficult to move
force is increased above a particular limit, the the object. This is shown in Figure 3.23 (a)
surface cannot provide sufficient opposing and (b). The static friction does not depend
frictional force to balance the external force upon the area of contact.
on the object. Then the object starts to slide.
This is the maximal static friction that can be F
exerted by the surface. Experimentally, it is m1
found that the magnitude of static frictional friction
force f s satisfies the following empirical N = m1g
relation.
(a) Easier to move
0 f s s N , (3.27)
m2
where µs is the coefficient of static friction. F
m1
It depends on the nature of the surfaces in
contact. N is normal force exerted by the friction
surface on the body and sometimes it is N = m1g + m2g
equal to mg. But it need not be equal to mg (b) Harder to move
always.
Fig 3.23 Static friction and
Equation (3.27) implies that the force of kinetic friction (a) Easier to
static friction can take any value from zero move (b) Harder to move
to µsN.
If the object is at rest and no external EX AM P L E 3 . 1 7
force is applied on the object, the static
Consider an object of mass 2 kg resting on
friction acting on the object is zero ( f s = 0).
the floor. The coefficient of static friction
If the object is at rest, and there is between the object and the floor is s 0.8.
an external force applied parallel to the What force must be applied on the object
surface, then the force of static friction to move it?
acting on the object is exactly equal to
Solution
the external force applied on the object
( f s = Fext ). But still the static friction f s is Since the object is at rest, the gravitational
less than µsN. force experienced by an object is balanced
by normal force exerted by floor.
When object begins to slide, the static
friction ( f s ) acting on the object attains N = mg
maximum,

www.tntextbooks.in
The maximum static frictional force f smax = m2 should be used so that mass 7 kg begins
s N s mg to slide on the table?
Solution
f smax 0.8 2 9.8 15.68 N As shown in the figure, there are four
forces acting on the mass m1
Therefore to move the object the external force a) Downward gravitational force along the
should be greater than maximum static friction. negative y-axis (m1g)
b) Upward normal force along the positive
Fext > 15.68 N y axis (N)
c) Tension force due to mass m2 along the
positive x axis
EXA MP LE 3 .1 8 d) Frictional force along the negative x axis
Consider an object of mass 50 kg at rest on Since the mass m1 has no vertical motion,
the floor. A Force of 5 N is applied on the m1g = N
object but it does not move. What is the y
frictional force that acts on the object? T = m 2g x
m1
Solution f
When the object is at rest, the external

force and the static frictional force are
equal and opposite. m2
The magnitudes of these two forces are

m2 g
equal, f s = Fext
Therefore, the static frictional force
Free body diagram for mass m
acting on the object is 1
y
N = m 1g
f s = 5N . x
f T
m1
The direction of this frictional force is
m1 g
opposite to the direction of Fext .
To determine whether the mass m1
moves on the surface, calculate the
EXA MP LE 3 .1 9 maximum static friction exerted by the table
on the mass m1. If the tension on the mass
Two bodies of masses 7 kg and 5 kg are
m1 is equal to or greater than this maximum
connected by a light string passing over
static friction, the object will move.
a smooth pulley at the edge of the table
as shown in the figure. The coefficient of
f smax s N s m1 g
static friction between the surfaces (body
and table) is 0.9. Will the mass m1 = 7 kg f smax = 0.9 × 7 × 9.8 = 61.74 N
on the surface move? If not what value of

www.tntextbooks.in
The tension T = m2 g = 5 × 9.8 = 49 N 3.6.3 Kinetic Friction

If the external force acting on the object
T < f smax is greater than maximum static friction,
the objects begin to slide. When an object
The tension acting on the mass m1 is less slides, the surface exerts a frictional force
than the maximum static friction. So the called kinetic friction f k (also called
mass m1 will not move. sliding friction or dynamic friction). To
To move the mass m1, T > f smax where move an object at constant velocity we must
T = m2g apply a force which is equal in magnitude
and opposite to the direction of kinetic
s m1 g friction.
m2 s m1
g F ext V
m2 = 0.9 × 7 = 6.3 kg
fk
If the mass m2 is greater than 6.3 kg then
the mass m1 will begin to slide. Note that if
there is no friction on the surface, the mass V Fext
m1 will move even when m2 is just 1 kg.

The values of coefficient of static fk
friction for pairs of materials are presented
Figure 3.24 Kinetic
in Table 3.1. Note that the ice and ice pair friction
have very low coefficient of static friction.
This means a block of ice can move easily
Experimentally it was found that the
over another block of ice.
magnitude of kinetic friction satisfies the
relation
Table 3.1 C oefficient of Static Friction
for a Pair of Materials
f k k N (3.28)
Material Coefficient of
Static Friction
where µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction
Glass and glass 1.0 and N the normal force exerted by the
Ice and ice 0.10 surface on the object,
Steel and steel 0.75
Wood and wood 0.35 and k s
Rubber tyre and dry 1.0
concrete road This implies that starting of a motion is
Rubber tyre and wet 0.7 more difficult than maintaining it. The
road salient features of static and kinetic friction
are given in Table 3.2.

www.tntextbooks.in
Table 3.2 Salient Features of Static and Kinetic Friction

Static friction Kinetic friction
It opposes the starting of motion It opposes the relative motion of the object
with respect to the surface
Independent of surface area of contact Independent of surface area of contact
ms depends on the nature of materials in mk depends on nature of materials and
mutual contact temperature of the surface
Depends on the magnitude of applied Independent of magnitude of applied force
force
It can take values from zero to µs N It can never be zero and always equals to mkN
whatever be the speed (true v <10 ms-1)
f smax > f k It is less than maximum value of static friction
s k Coefficient of kinetic friction is less than

coefficient of static friction
The variation of both static and kinetic

frictional forces with external applied force Note The relation f s s N is not
is graphically shown in Figure 3.25. a vector relation. This is
because the normal force N
f and f s are not in the same direction
even though f s is equal to µ s times the
fmax normal force. This is also true in the
s fk kN
case of kinetic friction.
fs Fext
3.6.4 o Move an Object -
T
Fext
Push or pull?
Figure 3.25 Variation of Which is easier?
static and kinetic frictional
forces with external applied When a body is pushed at an arbitrary angle θ
force
0 to 2 , the applied force F can be resolved

The Figure 3.25 shows that static friction into two components as F sinθ parallel to the
increases linearly with external applied surface and F cosθ perpendicular to the surface
force till it reaches the maximum. If the as shown in Figure 3.26. The total downward
object begins to move then the kinetic force acting on the body is mg + Fcosθ. It
friction is slightly lesser than the maximum implies that the normal force acting on the
static friction. Note that the kinetic friction body increases. Since there is no acceleration
is constant and it is independent of applied along the vertical direction the normal force
force. N is equal to

www.tntextbooks.in
Equation (3.31) shows that the normal force

N push mg Fcos (3.29)
is less than Npush. From equations (3.29) and
(3.31), it is easier to pull an object than to
As a result the maximal static friction also push to make it move.
increases and is equal to
3.6.5 Angle of Friction

f max
s N push s mg F cos (3.30)
s The angle of friction is defined as the
angle between the normal force (N) and
Equation (3.30) shows that a greater force the resultant force (R) of normal force and
needs to be applied to push the object into maximum friction force ( f smax )
motion.

R
Free body diagram N
N
F sin θ

F cos θ
θ F
F Block θ
fs
F
fs mg max
fs R = resultant force

R = N + fsmax
Figure 3.26 An object is pushed at an
angle θ Figure 3.28 Angle of Friction
When an object is pulled at an angle In Figure 3.28 the resultant force is

θ, the applied force is resolved into two
f
2
max
R s N2
components as shown in Figure 3.27.
The total downward force acting on the
object is f smax
tan (3.32)
N
Npull = mg Fcos (3.31)
But from the frictional relation, the object
Free body diagram
begins to slide when f smax s N
F F cos θ N
F
θ f smax
or when s (3.33)
fs N
F sin θ
From equations (3.32) and (3.33) the

fs
mg coefficient of static friction is
Figure 3.27 An object is pulled at an
angle θ s tan (3.34)

www.tntextbooks.in
The coefficient of static friction is equal to The component of force parallel to the
tangent of the angle of friction inclined plane (mg sinθ) tries to move the
object down.
The component of force perpendicular
to the inclined plane (mg cosθ) is balanced
by the Normal force (N).
N = mg cos θ
When the object just begins to move,

the static friction attains its maximum
3.6.6 Angle of Repose value
Consider an inclined plane on which an
object is placed, as shown in Figure 3.29. f s = f smax = s N = s mg cosθ (3.35)
Let the angle which this plane makes with
the horizontal be θ . For small angles of θ ,
the object may not slide down. As θ is This friction also satisfies the relation
increased, for a particular value of θ , the
object begins to slide down. This value is f smax = mg sinθ (3.36)
called angle of repose. Hence, the angle of
repose is the angle of inclined plane with the
horizontal such that an object placed on it Dividing equations (3.35) and (3.36),
begins to slide. we get
N
max s = sin / cos
fs
mg sin θ From the definition of angle of friction, we

mg cos θ θ also know that
mg tan s, (3.37)

θ
Figure 3.29 Angle of repose

in which θ is the angle of friction.
Let us consider the various forces in action Thus the angle of repose is the same as
here. The gravitational force mg is resolved angle of friction. But the difference is that the
into components parallel (mg sin θ ) and angle of repose refers to inclined surfaces
perpendicular (mg cos θ ) to the inclined and the angle of friction is applicable to any
plane. type of surface.

www.tntextbooks.in
EXA MP LE 3 .2 0 mg cos θ = N = mg/2

A block of mass m slides down the plane
f K = mK N = mK mg/2
inclined at an angle 60° with an acceleration
g
. Find the coefficient of kinetic friction? 3 1
2 mg
Solution 2
K
Kinetic friction comes to play as the mg
block is moving on the surface. 2
The forces acting on the mass are the K 3 1
normal force perpendicular to surface,
downward gravitational force and kinetic
friction f k along the surface.
3.6.7 pplication of Angle of
A
y
y
Repose
N 1. Antlions make sand traps in such a way that
x fk
x when an insect enters the edge of the trap, it
starts to slide towards the bottom where the
mg sin θ antilon hide itself. The angle of inclination
mg cos θ θ of sand trap is made to be equal to angle of
repose. It is shown in the Figure 3.30.
mg θ
Along the x-direction
mg sin f k = ma
But a = g/2
mg sin60 f k = mg/2
3 mg – f = mg/2
k
2
3 1
f k mg
2 2

3 1
fK mg
2

Figure 3.30 Sand trap of antlions
There is no motion along the y-direction
as normal force is exactly balanced by the 2. Children are fond of playing on sliding
mg cos θ . board (Figure 3.31). Sliding will be easier

www.tntextbooks.in
when the angle of inclination of the board is

greater than the angle of repose. At the same
time if inclination angle is much larger than
the angle of repose, the slider will reach the
bottom at greater speed and get hurt.

order to observe that the coefficient
of static friction differs from case
to case.
Note At the point of sliding

tanθ s = ms
To measure the
coefficient of kinetic friction, reduce
the inclination of the book after it
starts sliding, such that the coin/
eraser moves with uniform velocity.
Figure 3.31 Sliding board
Now measure the angle from which
coefficient of kinetic friction can be
ACTIVITY
Activity: calculated as
mK = tanθ k
Measuring the coefficients
of friction Observe that K S
Take a hard bound note book and a
coin. Keep the coin on the note book.
The note book cover has to be in an
inclined position as shown in the 3.6.8 Rolling Friction
figure. Slowly increase the angle of
inclination of the cover with respect The invention of the wheel plays a crucial
to rest of the pages. When the angle role in human civilization. One of the
of inclination reaches the angle of important applications is suitcases with
repose, the parallel component of rolling on coasters. Rolling wheels makes
gravitational force (mg sinθ ) to book it easier than carrying luggage. When an
surface becomes equal to the frictional object moves on a surface, essentially it is
force and the coin begins to slide sliding on it. But wheels move on the surface
down. Measure the angle of inclination through rolling motion. In rolling motion
and take the tangent of this angle. It when a wheel moves on a surface, the point
gives the coefficient of static friction of contact with surface is always at rest.
between the surface of the cover and Since the point of contact is at rest, there is
coin. The same can be repeated with no relative motion between the wheel and
other objects such as an eraser in surface. Hence the frictional force is very
less. At the same time if an object moves

www.tntextbooks.in
without a wheel, there is a relative motion

3.6.9 ethods to Reduce
M
between the object and the surface. As a
Friction
result frictional force is larger. This makes
it difficult to move the object. The Figure Frictional force has both positive and
3.32 shows the difference between rolling negative effects. In some cases it is absolutely
and kinetic friction. necessary. Walking is possible because of
frictional force. Vehicles (bicycle, car) can
move because of the frictional force between
Rolling friction
the tyre and the road. In the braking system,
kinetic friction plays a major role. As we
have already seen, the frictional force comes
into effect whenever there is relative motion
between two surfaces. In big machines
Kinetic friction
used in industries, relative motion between
different parts of the machine produce
unwanted heat which reduces its efficiency.
To reduce this kinetic friction lubricants are
used as shown in Figure 3.34.
Figure 3.32 Rolling and kinetic friction
Ideally in pure rolling, motion of the

point of contact with the surface should be Without oil
at rest, but in practice it is not so. Due to
the elastic nature of the surface at the point Viewed through a microscope
of contact there will be some deformation
on the object at this point on the wheel or
surface as shown in Figure 3.33. Due to this
deformation, there will be minimal friction With oil
between wheel and surface. It is called
‘rolling friction’. In fact, ‘rolling friction’ is
much smaller than kinetic friction. Effect of lubricants
Figure 3.34 Reducing kinetic

friction using lubricant
Ball bearings provides another effective

way to reduce the kinetic friction (Figure 3.35)
in machines. If ball bearings are fixed between
two surfaces, during the relative motion only
the rolling friction comes to effect and not
Figure 3.33 Rolling friction kinetic friction. As we have seen earlier, the
rolling friction is much smaller than kinetic

www.tntextbooks.in
friction; hence the machines are protected in the twentieth century, the understanding
from wear and tear over the years. on atoms, electron and protons has changed
the perspective. The frictional force is
actually the electromagnetic force between
the atoms on the two surfaces. Even well
polished surfaces have irregularities on the
surface at the microscopic level as seen in
the Figure 3.36.
Points to Ponder
When you walk on the tiled floor

where water is spilled, you are likely
to slip. Why?
Figure 3.35 Reducing kinetic

friction using ball bearing
During the time of Newton and Galileo,

frictional force was considered as one of the
natural forces like gravitational force. But
N
Nominal contact area
True contact
area
Block
Force
Friction
Table
Figure 3.36 Irregularities on the surface at the microscopic level

www.tntextbooks.in
Solution
Frictional force in the motion of a bicycle
When a bicycle moves in the forward If an object moves with constant velocity,
direction, what is the direction of frictional then it has no acceleration. According to
force in the rear and front wheels? Newton’s second law there is no net force
acting on the object. The external force is
balanced by the kinetic friction.
Front wheel Rear wheel
NR
Note It is not that ‘no force acts
on the object’. In fact there
NF mg NR mg are two forces acting on the
fF fR object. Only the net force acting on
the object is zero.
When we pedal a bicycle, we try to push

the surface backward and the velocity
of point of contact in the rear wheel is
backwards. So, the frictional force pushes
3.7
the rear wheel to move forward. But as DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR
the front wheel is connected with a rigid MOTION
support to the back wheel, the forward
In the previous sections we have studied
motion of back wheel pushes the front
how to analyse linear motion using
wheel in the forward direction. So, the
Newton’s laws. It is also important to know
frictional forces act backward. Remember
how to apply Newton’s laws to circular
both frictional forces correspond to only
motion, since circular motion is one of
static friction and not kinetic friction. If
the very common types of motion that we
the wheel slips then kinetic friction comes
come across in our daily life. A particle
into effect. In addition to static friction,
can be in linear motion with or without
the rolling friction also acts on both
any external force. But when circular
wheels in the backward direction.
motion occurs there must necessarily be
some force acting on the object. There is
EXA MP LE 3 .2 1 no Newton’s first law for circular motion.
In other words without a force, circular
Consider an object moving on a horizontal
motion cannot occur in nature. A force
surface with a constant velocity. Some
can change the velocity of a particle in
external force is applied on the object to keep
three different ways.
the object moving with a constant velocity.
What is the net force acting on the object? 1. The magnitude of the velocity can be
Fext v changed without changing the direction
of the velocity. In this case the particle
will move in the same direction but with
fk acceleration.

www.tntextbooks.in
Examples
For uniform circular motion Fcp m 2r rˆ
Particle falling down vertically,
bike moving in a straight road with
The direction –r̂ points towards the centre
acceleration.
of the circle which is the direction of
2. The direction of motion alone can be centripetal force as shown in Figure 3.38.
changed without changing the magnitude
(speed). If this happens continuously v
then we call it ‘uniform circular motion’. rˆ
3. Both the direction and magnitude Fcp
rˆ rˆ Fcp v
(speed) of velocity can be changed. If this Fcp
rˆ o rˆ rˆ o
happens non circular motion occurs. For rˆ v
Fcp
example oscillation of a swing or simple r
pendulum, elliptical motion of planets
v
around the Sun.
Figure 3.38 Centripetal force
In this section we will deal with uniform
circular motion and non-uniform circular
It should be noted that ‘centripetal force’ is
motion.
not other forces like gravitational force or
spring force. It can be said as ‘force towards
3.7.1 Centripetal force centre’. The origin of the centripetal force
can be gravitational force, tension in the
If a particle is in uniform circular motion,
string, frictional force, Coulomb force etc.
there must be centripetal acceleration
Any of these forces can act as a centripetal
towards the centre of the circle. If there is
force.
acceleration then there must be some force
acting on it with respect to an inertial frame. 1. In the case of whirling motion of a stone
This force is called centripetal force. tied to a string, the centripetal force
As we have seen in chapter 2, the on the particle is provided by the
centripetal acceleration of a particle in the tensional force on the string. In circular
v2 motion in an amusement park, the
circular motion is given by a = and it acts
r centripetal force is provided by the
towards centre of the circle. According to tension in the iron ropes.
Newton’s second law, the centripetal force is 2. In motion of satellites around the Earth,
given by the centripetal force is given by Earth’s
gravitational force on the satellites.
mv 2 Newton’s second law for satellite motion is
= =
Fcp macp
r
mv 2
The word Centripetal force means centre F earths gravitational force
r
seeking force.
mv 2
In vector notation Fcp rˆ Where r- distance of the planet from the
r centre of the Earth.

www.tntextbooks.in
Newton’s second law for this case is
F mv 2
Frictional force =
r
m-mass of the car
v-speed of the car
r-radius of curvature of track
Even when the car moves on a curved

track, the car experiences the centripetal
force which is provided by frictional
force between the surface and the tyre of
the car. This is shown in the Figure 3.41.
Curvy
road
Fcp
Figure 3.39 Whirling motion of objects
Fcp
m-mass of the satellite
v-speed of the satellite
3. When a car is moving on a circular

track the centripetal force is given by the
frictional force between the road and the Figure 3.41 Centripetal force
tyres. due to frictional force between
the road and tyre
4. When the planets orbit around the Sun,

they experience centripetal force towards
curved road
straight road
N
the centre of the Sun. Here gravitational
N
force of the Sun acts as centripetal force
on the planets as shown in Figure 3.42
Fs Planet
Centripetal force
mg
mg
SUN
Figure 3.40 Car in the circular track

Figure 3.42 Centripetal force on the
orbiting planet due Sun’s gravity

www.tntextbooks.in
Newton’s second law for this motion

Rm 60R 60 6.4 106 384 106 m
Gravitational force of Sun on the
mv 2
planet =
r 2
As we know the angular velocity
T
EXA MP LE 3 .2 2 and T = 27.3 days = 27.3 × 24 × 60 × 60
If a stone of mass 0.25 kg tied to a string second = 2.358 × 106 sec

executes uniform circular motion with a speed By substituting these values in the formula
of 2 m s-1 of radius 3 m, what is the magnitude for acceleration
of tensional force acting on the stone?
mv 2 am
4 384 10 0.00272 m s
2 6
Solution: Fcp = -2
2.358 10
2
r 6
1
× (2)
2
Fcp = 4 = 0.333 N. The centripetal acceleration of Moon

3 towards the Earth is 0.00272 m s-2
EXA M P LE 3 .2 3 Note This result was calculated

by Newton himself. In
The Moon orbits the Earth once in unit 6 we will use this
27.3 days in an almost circular orbit. result.
Calculate the centripetal acceleration
experienced by the Moon? (Radius of
the Earth is 6.4 × 106 m)
3.7.2 ehicle on a leveled
V
circular road
Solution
The centripetal acceleration is given by When a vehicle travels in a curved path,
v2 there must be a centripetal force acting on
a = . This expression explicitly depends
r it. This centripetal force is provided by the
on Moon’s speed which is non trivial. We frictional force between tyre and surface
can work with the formula of the road. Consider a vehicle of mass ‘m’
moving at a speed ‘v’ in the circular track
2 Rm am of radius ‘r’. There are three forces acting on
the vehicle when it moves as shown in the
am is centripetal acceleration of the Figure 3.43
Moon due to Earth’s gravity.
1. Gravitational force (mg) acting
ω is angular velocity. downwards
Rm is the distance between Earth and 2. Normal force (N) acting upwards
the Moon, which is 60 times the radius of 3. Frictional force (Fs) acting horizontally
the Earth. inwards along the road

www.tntextbooks.in
curved road
straight road
N
N
Fs
mg
mg
Figure 3.43 Forces acting on the vehicle on a leveled circular road
Suppose the road is horizontal then the car on the road. So the coefficient of static
normal force and gravitational force are friction between the tyre and the surface of
exactly equal and opposite. The centripetal the road determines what maximum speed
force is provided by the force of static the car can have for safe turn.
friction Fs between the tyre and surface of
the road which acts towards the centre of
mv 2 v2
the circular track, b) If s mg , or s (skid)
r rg
mv 2
= Fs If the static friction is not able to provide
r
enough centripetal force to turn, the vehicle
will start to skid.
As we have already seen in the previous
section, the static friction can increase from
zero to a maximum value EX AM P L E 3 . 2 4
Consider a circular leveled road of
Fs s mg . radius 10 m having coefficient of static
friction 0.81. Three cars (A, B and C) are
There are two conditions possible: travelling with speed 7 m s-1, 8 m s-1 and
10 ms-1 respectively. Which car will skid
when it moves in the circular level road?
mv 2 v2
a) If s mg , or s or s rg v (g =10 m s-2)
r rg
(Safe turn) Solution
From the safe turn condition the speed
The static friction would be able to provide of the vehicle (v) must be less than or equal
necessary centripetal force to bend the to s rg v

www.tntextbooks.in
Let the surface of the road make angle θ

v s rg with horizontal surface. Then the normal
force makes the same angle θ with the
v s rg = 0.81 10 10 9 m s 1
vertical. When the car takes a turn, there are
two forces acting on the car:
s rg is less than v
For CarvC, a) Gravitational force mg (downwards)
The speed of car A, B and C are 7 m s-1, b)
Normal force N (perpendicular to
8 m s-1 and 10 m s-1 respectively. The cars surface)
A and B will have safe turns. But the car
We can resolve the normal force into two
C has speed 10 m s-1 while it turns which
components. N cos θ and N sin θ as shown
exceeds the safe turning speed. Hence, the
in Figure 3.46. The component N cos θ
car C will skid.
balances the downward gravitational force
‘mg’ and component N sin θ will provide the
necessary centripetal acceleration. By using
3.7.3 Banking of Tracks Newton second law
In a leveled circular road, skidding mainly
depends on the coefficient of static friction N cos θ = mg
ms The coefficient of static friction depends
on the nature of the surface which has a mv 2
N sin θ =
maximum limiting value. To avoid this r
problem, usually the outer edge of the road v2
is slightly raised compared to inner edge By dividing the equations we get tan
rg
as shown in the Figure 3.44. This is called
banking of roads or tracks. This introduces v rg tan
an inclination, and the angle is called
banking angle.
The banking angle θ and radius of curvature
of the road or track determines the safe
speed of the car at the turning. If the speed
of car exceeds this safe speed, then it starts to
skid outward but frictional force comes into
effect and provides an additional centripetal
force to prevent the outward skidding. At
the same time, if the speed of the car is little
lesser than safe speed, it starts to skid inward
and frictional force comes into effect, which
reduces centripetal force to prevent inward
skidding. However if the speed of the vehicle
is sufficiently greater than the correct speed,
Figure 3.44 Outer edge of the road is then frictional force cannot stop the car
slightly raised to avoid skidding from skidding.

www.tntextbooks.in
EXA MP LE 3 .2 5 inward centripetal force m 2r there must

Consider a circular road of radius 20 meter be an equal and opposite force that acts on
banked at an angle of 15 degree. With what the stone outward with value +m 2r . So the
speed a car has to move on the turn so that total force acting on the stone in a rotating
it will have safe turn? frame is equal to zero (m 2r m 2r = 0).
This outward force +mω 2r is called the
Solution centrifugal force. The word ‘centrifugal’
means ‘flee from centre’. Note that the
v rg tan = 20 9.8 tan 15 ‘centrifugal force’ appears to act on the
particle, only when we analyse the motion
= 20 9.8 0.26 7.1 m s-1 from a rotating frame. With respect to an
inertial frame there is only centripetal force
The safe speed for the car on this road is 7.1 m s-1 which is given by the tension in the string.
For this reason centrifugal force is called as a
‘pseudo force’. A pseudo force has no origin.
3.7.4 Centrifugal Force It arises due to the non inertial nature of the
frame considered. When circular motion
Circular motion can be analysed from two
problems are solved from a rotating frame
different frames of reference. One is the
of reference, while drawing free body
inertial frame (which is either at rest or in
diagram of a particle, the centrifugal force
uniform motion) where Newton’s laws are
should necessarily be included as shown in
obeyed. The other is the rotating frame of
the Figure 3.45.
reference which is a non-inertial frame
of reference as it is accelerating. When we
examine the circular motion from these 3.7.5 ffects of Centrifugal
E
frames of reference the situations are entirely Force
different. To use Newton’s first and second Although centrifugal force is a pseudo force,
laws in the rotational frame of reference, its effects are real. When a car takes a turn in
we need to include a pseudo force called a curved road, person inside the car feels an
‘centrifugal force’. This ‘centrifugal force’ outward force which pushes the person away.
appears to act on the object with respect to This outward force is also called centrifugal
rotating frames. To understand the concept force. If there is sufficient friction between
of centrifugal force, we can take a specific the person and the seat, it will prevent the
case and discuss as done below. person from moving outwards. When a car
Consider the case of a whirling motion moving in a straight line suddenly takes
of a stone tied to a string. Assume that the a turn, the objects not fixed to the car try
stone has angular velocity ω in the inertial to continue in linear motion due to their
frame (at rest). If the motion of the stone is inertia of direction. While observing this
observed from a frame which is also rotating motion from an inertial frame, it appears as
along with the stone with same angular a straight line as shown in Figure 3.46. But,
velocity ω then, the stone appears to be when it is observed from the rotating frame
at rest. This implies that in addition to the it appears to move outwards.

www.tntextbooks.in
(a)
N
Centripetal force
m (-mω 2 r)
(-mω 2 r)
m
r
Observer in inertial frame

mg
N
(b)
(-mω 2 r) m (+mω2 r)
r m
Centripetal force
(-mω 2 r) Centrifugal force
(+mω2 r)
Observer in non-inertial frame mg
Figure 3.45 Free body diagram of a particle including the centrifugal force
Inertial frame (with respect observer

out side the car)
Free body N
diagram
mg
Non Inertial frame (with respect to car)

N
Free body
diagram
“Centrifugal force”
mg
Figure 3.46 Effects of centrifugal force
A person standing on a rotating platform

Caution!
feels an outward centrifugal force and is
likely to be pushed away from the platform. It is dangerous to stand near the open
Many a time the frictional force between door (or) steps while travelling in the
the platform and the person is not sufficient bus. When the bus takes a sudden turn
to overcome outward push. To avoid this, in a curved road, due to centrifugal
usually the outer edge of the platform force the person is pushed away from
is little inclined upwards which exerts a the bus. Even though centrifugal force is
normal force on the person which prevents a pseudo force, its effects are real.
the person from falling as illustrated in
Figures 3.47.

www.tntextbooks.in
Free body diagram

with respect to
rotating platform
N
N
mω2R
R Centrifugal force
(+mω2 R)
mg
Net outward push
Rotating flat platform (outward push experienced)
mg Ftot = mg + mω2 R
Free body diagram

with respect to
rotating edge lifted
plateform
N
N
Centrifugal force
(+mω2 R) mω2R
2
Fnet = mg + mω R = N
Rotating edge lifted platform (no outward push experienced)
mg mg
Figure 3.47 Outward centrifugal force in rotating platform
3.7.6 entrifugal Force due

C Here R = radius of the Earth
to Rotation of the and latitude of the Earth where the
Earth man is standing.
Even though Earth is treated as an
inertial frame, it is actually not so. Earth
spins about its own axis with an angular
velocity ω. Any object on the surface of
Earth (rotational frame) experiences a
centrifugal force. The centrifugal force
appears to act exactly in opposite direction
from the axis of rotation. It is shown in the
Figure 3.48.
The centrifugal force on a man standing
2
on the surface of the Earth is Fcf = mw r
where r is perpendicular distance of the
man from the axis of rotation. By using right Figure 3. 48 Centrifugal force
angle triangle as shown in the Figure 3.48, acting on a man on the surface of
the distance r = R cos θ Earth

www.tntextbooks.in
EXA MP LE 3 .2 6 Latitude of Chennai = 13°
Calculate the centrifugal force experienced

6400 10
2
Fcf 60 7.268 10
5 3
by a man of 60 kg standing at Chennai?
(Given: Latitude of Chennai is 13° cos 13 1.9678 N
Solution
The centrifugal force is given by A 60 kg man experiences centrifugal force
Fc m 2 R cos of approximately 2 Newton. But due to
2 Earth’s gravity a man of 60 kg experiences a
The angular velocity (ω ) of Earth = , force = mg = 60 × 9.8 = 588N. This force is
T
where T is time period of the Earth (24 hours) very much larger than the centrifugal force.
2 2

24 60 60 86400 3.7.7 C
entripetal Force Versus
7.268 10 5 radsec 1 Centrifugal Force
The radius of the Earth R = 6400 Salient features of centripetal and centrifugal
Km = 6400 × 103 m forces are compared in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Salient Features of Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

Centripetal force Centrifugal force
It is a real force which is exerted on It is a pseudo force or fictitious force which
the body by the external agencies cannot arise from gravitational force, tension
like gravitational force, tension in the force, normal force etc.
string, normal force etc.
Acts in both inertial and non-inertial Acts only in rotating frames (non-inertial frame)
frames
It acts towards the axis of rotation It acts outwards from the axis of rotation or radially
or centre of the circle in circular motion outwards from the centre of the circular motion
2
mv 2 mv
Fcp = mw2r = Fcf = m 2r
r r
Real force and has real effects Pseudo force but has real effects
Origin of centripetal force is interaction Origin of centrifugal force is inertia. It does not
between two objects. arise from interaction.
In an inertial frame the object’s inertial motion
appears as centrifugal force in the rotating frame.
In inertial frames centripetal force In inertial frames there is no centrifugal force.
has to be included when free body In rotating frames, both centripetal and
diagrams are drawn. centrifugal force have to be included when free
body diagrams are drawn.

www.tntextbooks.in
SUMMARY
Aristotle’s idea of motion: To maintain motion, a force is required

Galileo’s idea of motion: To maintain motion, a force is not required
Mass is a measure of inertia of the body
Newton’s first law states that under no external force, the object continues its state of
motion or state of rest.
Newton’s second law states that to change the momentum of the body, external force
is required
 dp
Mathematically it is defined as F =
dt
Both Newton’s first and second laws are valid only in inertial frames
Inertial frame is the one in which if there is no force on the object, the object moves
at constant velocity.
Newton’s third law states that for every force there is an equivalent and opposite
force and such a pair of forces is called action and reaction pair.
To draw a free body diagram for an object,
 Isolate the object from other objects and identify the forces acting on it
 The force exerted by that object should not be taken into account
 Draw the direction of each force with relative magnitude
 Apply Newton’s second law in each direction
If no net external force acts on a collection of particles (system), then the total
momentum of the collection of particles (system) is a constant vector.
Internal forces acting in the system cannot change the total momentum of the system.
Lami’s theorem states that if an object is in equilibrium under the concurrent forces,
then the ratio of each force with the sine of corresponding opposite angle is same.
An impulse acting on a body is equal to the change in momentum of the body.
Whenever a force acts on the object for a very short time, it is difficult to calculate
the force. But impulse can be calculated.
Static friction is the force which always opposes the movement of the object from
rest. It can take values from zero to msN. If an external force is greater than msN then
object begins to move.
If the object begins to move, kinetic friction comes into effect. To move an object
with constant velocity, the external force must be applied to overcome the kinetic
friction. The kinetic friction is mkN.
Rolling friction is much smaller than static and kinetic friction. This is the reason
that to move an object roller coaster is fixed in the bottom of the object. Example:
Rolling suitcase

www.tntextbooks.in
S U M M A R Y (cont)
The origin of friction is electromagnetic interaction between the atoms of two

surfaces which are touching each other.
Whenever there is a motion along a curve, there must be a centripetal force that acts
towards the centre of the curve. In uniform circular motion the centripetal force acts
at the centre of the circle.
The centripetal force is not a separate natural force. Any natural force can behave
as centripetal force. In planetary motion, Sun’s gravitational force acts as centripetal
force. In the whirling motion of a stone attached to a string, the centripetal force is
given by the string. When Moon orbits the Earth, it experiences Earth’s gravitational
force as centripetal force.
Centrifugal force arises whenever the motion is analysed from rotating frame. It is
a pseudo force. The inertial motion of the object appears as centrifugal force in the
rotating frame.
The magnitude of centrifugal and centripetal force is mω 2r . But centripetal force
acts towards centre of the circular motion and centrifugal force appears to acts in
the opposite direction to centripetal force.

Laws of Motion

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Laws of Motion

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Laws of Motion

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

www.tntextbooks.

Position Vector Distance

Acceleration Average Acceleration

Circular Motion Motion at constant

Uniform circular Non-Uniform Circular Kinematic Equation

Kinematic Equation Projectile Motion

UNIT-2(XI-Physics_Vol-1)-1.indd 97 05-01-2022 22:16:01

I. Multi Choice Question 5. If a particle has negative velocity and

UNIT-2(XI-Physics_Vol-1)-1.indd 98 05-01-2022 22:16:03

(a) 1 (b) 2 13. If an object is thrown vertically up with

11. If a particle executes uniform circular R600

UNIT-2(XI-Physics_Vol-1)-1.indd 99 05-01-2022 22:16:06

5. Write a short note on vector product 11. Define a radian.

100 Unit 2 Kinematics

UNIT-2(XI-Physics_Vol-1)-1.indd 100 05-01-2022 22:16:08

Unit 2 Kinematics 101

UNIT-2(XI-Physics_Vol-1)-1.indd 101 05-01-2022 22:16:10

    of a building of height 100 m. what is

102 Unit 2 Kinematics

UNIT-2(XI-Physics_Vol-1)-1.indd 102 05-01-2022 22:16:12

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE

Unit 2 Kinematics 103

UNIT-2(XI-Physics_Vol-1)-1.indd 103 05-01-2022 22:16:12

HIT THE TARGET

Timeline Project’s URL:

104 Unit 2 Kinematics

UNIT-2(XI-Physics_Vol-1)-1.indd 104 05-01-2022 22:16:14

“In the beginning there was a mechanics” – Von Laue

In this unit, the student is exposed to

3.1 Objects move because something pushes

UNIT-3(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 105 05-01-2022 22:17:21

to move on to another inclined plane of force acted on it in the horizontal direction.

h Newton analysed the views of Galileo, and

other scientist like Kepler and Copernicus

(b) 3.2.1 Newton’s First Law

UNIT-3(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 106 05-01-2022 22:17:21

motion, and if the string is cut suddenly,

Side View Top View

Figure 3.3 Passengers experience a Figure 3.4 A stone moves tangential to

Unit 3 L aws of Motion 107

UNIT-3(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 107 05-01-2022 22:17:21

Inertial Frames with constant velocity relative to each other. If

For all practical purposes, we can treat

108 Unit 3 L aws of Motion

UNIT-3(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 108 05-01-2022 22:17:22

UNIT-3(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 109 05-01-2022 22:17:23

3.2.3 Newton’s Third Law

F 12 - force exerted by the nail on the hammer

(a) (b) (c)

110 Unit 3 L aws of Motion

UNIT-3(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 110 05-01-2022 22:17:24

UNIT-3(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 111 05-01-2022 22:17:25

  Case 2: Force and motion not in the

3. In general, the direction of a force

Figure 3.9 (c) Force and

112 Unit 3 L aws of Motion

UNIT-3(XI-Physics_Vol-1).indd 112 05-01-2022 22:17:26

Case 4: Zero net force, but there is

Figure 3.9 (d) Zero net force and non

Unit 3 L aws of Motion 113

(2) According to Newton’s third law, there

t = 0 sec t = 1 sec t = 2 sec t = 3 sec

i) Gravity acting downward (negative

Fiˆ f12iˆ m1aiˆ x mg

F f12 m1a Applying Newton’s second law for mass

F Substituting for acceleration from equation

m1 a By comparing the components on both

m m2 For mass m2 , the acceleration vector is

(i) Downward gravitational force (m1g) N m2 g 0