Trigonometry

An Overview of
Important Topics

1
Contents
Trigonometry – An Overview of Important Topics ....................................................................................... 4
UNDERSTAND HOW ANGLES ARE MEASURED ............................................................................................. 6
Degrees ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Radians ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
Unit Circle.................................................................................................................................................. 9
Practice Problems ............................................................................................................................... 10
Solutions.............................................................................................................................................. 11
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................... 12
Definitions of trig ratios and functions ................................................................................................... 12
Khan Academy video 2 ........................................................................................................................ 14
Find the value of trig functions given an angle measure ........................................................................ 15
Find a missing side length given an angle measure ................................................................................ 19
Khan Academy video 3 ........................................................................................................................ 19
Find an angle measure using trig functions ............................................................................................ 20
Practice Problems ............................................................................................................................... 21
Solutions.............................................................................................................................................. 24
USING DEFINITIONS AND FUNDAMENTAL IDENTITIES OF TRIG FUNCTIONS ............................................. 26
Fundamental Identities ........................................................................................................................... 26
Khan Academy video 4 ........................................................................................................................ 28
Sum and Difference Formulas................................................................................................................. 29
Khan Academy video 5 ........................................................................................................................ 31
Double and Half Angle Formulas ............................................................................................................ 32
Khan Academy video 6 ........................................................................................................................ 34
Product to Sum Formulas ....................................................................................................................... 35
Sum to Product Formulas ....................................................................................................................... 36
Law of Sines and Cosines ........................................................................................................................ 37
Practice Problems ............................................................................................................................... 39
Solutions.............................................................................................................................................. 42
UNDERSTAND KEY FEATURES OF GRAPHS OF TRIG FUNCTIONS ................................................................ 43
Graph of the sine function (𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙) ................................................................................................ 44
Graph of the cosine function (𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙) ............................................................................................ 45

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 Key features of the sine and cosine function.......................................................................................... 46
Khan Academy video 7 ........................................................................................................................ 51
Graph of the tangent function (𝒚 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙) ......................................................................................... 52
Key features of the tangent function ...................................................................................................... 53
Khan Academy video 8 ........................................................................................................................ 56
Graphing Trigonometric Functions using Technology ............................................................................ 57
Practice Problems ............................................................................................................................... 60
Solutions.............................................................................................................................................. 62

Rev. 05.06.2016-4

3
Trigonometry – An Overview of Important Topics
So I hear you’re going to take a Calculus course? Good idea to brush up on your
Trigonometry!!

Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that focuses on relationships between

the sides and angles of triangles. The word trigonometry comes from the Latin
derivative of Greek words for triangle (trigonon) and measure (metron).
Trigonometry (Trig) is an intricate piece of other branches of mathematics such
as, Geometry, Algebra, and Calculus.

In this tutorial we will go over the following topics.

 Understand how angles are measured

o Degrees
o Radians
o Unit circle
o Practice
 Solutions
 Use trig functions to find information about right triangles
o Definition of trig ratios and functions
o Find the value of trig functions given an angle measure
o Find a missing side length given an angle measure
o Find an angle measure using trig functions
o Practice
 Solutions
 Use definitions and fundamental Identities of trig functions
o Fundamental Identities
o Sum and Difference Formulas
o Double and Half Angle Formulas
o Product to Sum Formulas
o Sum to Product Formulas
o Law of Sines and Cosines
o Practice
 Solutions

4
 Understand key features of graphs of trig functions
o Graph of the sine function
o Graph of the cosine function
o Key features of the sine and cosine function
o Graph of the tangent function
o Key features of the tangent function
o Practice
 Solutions

Back to Table of Contents.

5
UNDERSTAND HOW ANGLES ARE MEASURED
Since Trigonometry focuses on relationships of sides and angles of a triangle, let’s
go over how angles are measured…

Angles are formed by an initial side and a terminal side. An initial side is said to
be in standard position when it’s vertex is located at the origin and the ray goes
along the positive x axis.

An angle is measured by the amount of rotation from the initial side to the
terminal side. A positive angle is made by a rotation in the counterclockwise
direction and a negative angle is made by a rotation in the clockwise direction.

Angles can be measured two ways:

1. Degrees
2. Radians

6
Degrees
A circle is comprised of 360°, which is called one revolution

Degrees are used primarily to describe the size of an angle.

The real mathematician is the radian, since most computations are done in
radians.

Radians
1 revolution measured in radians is 2π, where π is the constant approximately
3.14.

How can we convert between the two you ask?

Easy, since 360° = 2π radians (1 revolution)

Then, 180° = π radians

So that means that 1° = radians

7
And degrees = 1 radian

Example 1

Convert 60° into radians

60 ⋅ (1 degree) = 60 ⋅ = = radian

Example 2

Convert (-45°) into radians

-45 ⋅ = =− radian

Example 3

Convert radian into degrees

⋅ (1 radian) = ⋅ = = 270°

Example 4

Convert − radian into degrees

7𝜋 180 1260
− ⋅ = = 420°
3 𝜋 3

Before we move on to the next section, let’s take a look at the Unit Circle.

8
Unit Circle

The Unit Circle is a circle that is centered at the origin and always has a radius of
1. The unit circle will be helpful to us later when we define the trigonometric
ratios. You may remember from Algebra 2 that the equation of the Unit Circle is
𝑥² + 𝑦² = 1.

Need more help? Click below for a Khan Academy video

Khan Academy video 1

9
Practice Problems

10
Solutions

Back to Table of Contents.

11
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Definitions of trig ratios and functions

In Trigonometry there are six trigonometric ratios that relate the angle measures
of a right triangle to the length of its sides. (Remember a right triangle contains a
90° angle)

A right triangle can be formed from an initial side x and a terminal side r, where r
is the radius and hypotenuse of the right triangle. (see figure below) The
Pythagorean Theorem tells us that x² + y² = r², therefore r = 𝑥² + 𝑦². 𝜃 (theta) is
used to label a non-right angle. The six trigonometric functions can be used to
find the ratio of the side lengths. The six functions are sine (sin), cosine (cos),
tangent (tan), cosecant (csc), secant (sec), and cotangent (cot). Below you will see
the ratios formed by these functions.

sin 𝜃 = , also referred to as

cos 𝜃 = , also referred to as

tan 𝜃 = , also referred to as

These three functions have 3 reciprocal functions

csc 𝜃 = , which is the reciprocal of sin 𝜃

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sec 𝜃 = ,which is the reciprocal of cos 𝜃

cot 𝜃 = , which is the reciprocal of tan 𝜃

You may recall a little something called SOH-CAH-TOA to help your remember the
functions!

SOH… Sine = opposite/hypotenuse

…CAH… Cosine = adjacent/hypotenuse

…TOA Tangent = opposite/adjacent

Example: Find the values of the trigonometric ratios of angle 𝜃

Before we can find the values of the six trig ratios, we need to find the length of
the missing side. Any ideas? Good call, we can use r = 𝑥² + 𝑦² (from the
Pythagorean Theorem)

r = 5² + 12² = √25 + 144 = √169 = 13

Now we can find the values of the six trig functions

sin θ = = csc θ = =

cos θ = = sec θ = =

tan θ = = cot θ = =

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Example 5

a) Use the triangle below to find the six trig ratios

First use Pythagorean Theorem to find the hypotenuse

a² + b² = c², where a and b are legs of the right triangle and c is the
hypotenuse
sin 𝜃 = = = csc 𝜃 = =
6² + 8² = 𝑐²
cos 𝜃 = = = sec 𝜃 = =
36 + 64 = 𝑐²

100 = 𝑐² tan 𝜃 = = = cot 𝜃 = =

√100 = 𝑐²

10 = 𝑐

Example 6

Use the triangle below to find the six trig ratios

1² + 𝑏² = (√5 )² √ √
sin 𝜃 = = csc 𝜃 =
√
1 + 𝑏² = 5
√ √
cos 𝜃 = = sec 𝜃 = = √5
𝑏² = 4 √

𝑏 = 2 tan 𝜃 = =2 cot 𝜃 =

Need more help? Click below for a Khan Academy Video

Khan Academy video 2

14
Find the value of trig functions given an angle measure
Suppose you know the value of 𝜃 is 45°, how can this help you find the values of
the six trigonometric functions?

First way: You can familiarize yourself with the unit circle we talked about.

An ordered pair along the unit circle (x, y) can also be known as (cos 𝜃, sin 𝜃),
since the r value on the unit circle is always 1. So to find the trig function values
√ √
for 45° you can look on the unit circle and easily see that sin 45° = , cos 45° =

With that information we can easily find the values of the reciprocal functions
√
csc 45° = = = √2 , sec 45° = √2
√

We can also find the tangent and cotangent function values using the quotient
identities

15
 √
°
tan 45° = = =1
° √

cot 45° = 1

Example 7

Find sec = = √
= √2

Example 8

√
Find tan = √
=

Example 9

√
Find cot 240° = √
=

Using this method limits us to finding trig function values for angles that are
accessible on the unit circle, plus who wants to memorize it!!!
Second Way: If you are given a problem that has an angle measure of 45°, 30°, or
60°, you are in luck! These angle measures belong to special triangles.

If you remember these special triangles you can easily find the ratios for all the
trig functions.

Below are the two special right triangles and their side length ratios

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How do we use these special right triangles to find the trig ratios?

If the θ you are given has one of these angle measures it’s easy!

Example 10 Example 11 Example 12

Find sin 30° Find cos 45° Find tan 60°

√ √
sin 30° = cos 45° = tan 60° = = √3

Third way: This is not only the easiest way, but also this way you can find trig
values for angle measures that are less common. You can use your TI Graphing
calculator.

First make sure your TI Graphing calculator is set to degrees by pressing mode

17
Find a missing side length given an angle measure
Suppose you are given an angle measure and a side length, can you find the
remaining side lengths?

Yes. You can use the trig functions to formulate an equation to find missing side
lengths of a right triangle.

Example 16
First we know that sin 𝜃 = , therefore sin 30 =

Next we solve for x, 5 ⋅ sin 30 = 𝑥

Use your TI calculator to compute 5 ⋅ sin 30,

And you find out 𝑥 = 2.5

Let’s see another example,

Example 17 We are given information about the opposite and adjacent

sides of the triangle, so we will use tan

16
tan 52 =
𝑥
16
𝑥=
tan 52

𝑥 ≈ 12.5

Need more help? Click below for a Khan Academy video

Khan Academy video 3

19
Find an angle measure using trig functions

Wait a minute, what happens if you have the trig ratio, but you are asked to find
the angles measure? Grab your TI Graphing calculator and notice that above the
sin, cos, and tan buttons, there is 𝑠𝑖𝑛 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 . These are your inverse
trigonometric functions, also known as arcsine, arccosine, and arctangent. If you
use these buttons in conjunction with your trig ratio, you will get the angle
measure for 𝜃!

Let’s see some examples of this.

Example 18 We know that tan 𝜃 =

So to find the value of θ, press 2nd tan on your calculator

and then type in (8/6)

8
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ≈ 53.13
6

𝜃 ≈ 53.13°

How about another

Example 19
We are given information about the adjacent side and the
hypotenuse, so we will use the cosine function

1
cos 𝜃 =
2
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 60
2

𝜃 = 60°

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Practice Problems

21
22
23
Solutions

24
Back to Table of Contents.

25
USING DEFINITIONS AND FUNDAMENTAL IDENTITIES OF TRIG
FUNCTIONS

Fundamental Identities
Reciprocal Identities

sin 𝜃 = 1/(csc 𝜃) csc 𝜃 = 1/(sin 𝜃)

cos 𝜃 = 1/(sec 𝜃) sec 𝜃 = 1/(cos 𝜃)

tan 𝜃 = 1/(cot 𝜃) cot 𝜃 = 1/(tan 𝜃)

Quotient Identities

tan 𝜃 = (sin 𝜃)/(cos 𝜃) cot 𝜃 = (cos 𝜃)/(sin 𝜃)

Pythagorean Identities

sin²𝜃 + cos²𝜃 = 1

1+ tan²𝜃 = sec²𝜃

1+ cot²𝜃 = csc²𝜃

Negative Angle Identities

sin(−𝜃) = − sin 𝜃 cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 tan(−𝜃) = − tan 𝜃

csc(−𝜃) = − csc 𝜃 sec(−𝜃) = sec 𝜃 cot(−𝜃) = − cot 𝜃

Complementary Angle Theorem

If two acute angles add up to be 90°, they are considered complimentary.

The following are considered cofunctions:

sine and cosine tangent and cotangent secant and cosecant

The complementary angle theorem says that cofunctions of complimentary

angles are equal.

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Example 20) sin 54° = cos 36°

How can we use these identities to find exact values of trigonometric functions?

Follow these examples to find out! Examples 21-26

21) Find the exact value of the expression

sin² 30° + cos² 30°
Solution: Since sin² 𝜃 + cos² 𝜃 = 1, therefore sin² 30° + cos² 30° = 1
22) Find the exact value of the expression
sin 45°
tan 45° −
cos 45°
°
Solution: Since = tan 45°, therefore tan 45° − tan 45° = 0
°
23) tan 35° ⋅ cos 35° ⋅ csc 35°
° °
Solution: ⋅ ⋅ =1
° °
24) tan 22° − cot 68°
Solution: tan 22° = cot 68°, therefore cot 68° − cot 68° = 0

25) cot 𝜃 = − , find csc 𝜃, where 𝜃 is in quadrant II

Solution: Pick an identity that relates cotangent to cosecant, like the

Pythagorean identity 1 + cot² 𝜃 = csc² 𝜃.

1+ − = csc² θ

1 + = csc² 𝜃

= csc² 𝜃

= csc 𝜃

√13
= csc 𝜃
3
The positive square root is chosen because csc is positive in quadrant II

27
 26) Prove the following identity is true

cot 𝜃 ⋅ sin 𝜃 ∙ cos 𝜃 = cos² 𝜃

Solution: ∙ ∙ = cos² 𝜃

Need more help? Click below for a Khan Academy video

Khan Academy video 4

28
Sum and Difference Formulas
In this section we will use formulas that involve the sum or difference of two
angles, call the sum and difference formulas.

Sum and difference formulas for sines and cosines

sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽

sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽

cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽

cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽

How do we use these formulas?

Example 27 Find the exact value of cos 105°

Well we can break 105° into 60° and 45° since those values are relatively easy to
find the cosine of.

Therefore cos 105° = cos(60° + 45°)= cos 60° cos 45° − sin 60° sin 45°

Using the unit circle we obtain,

√ √ √
= ∙ − ∙

√ √
= − = (√2 − 6)

Example 28 Find the exact value of sin 15°

= sin(45° − 30°)

= sin 45° cos 30° − cos 45° sin 30°

√ √ √
= ∙ − ∙

√ √
= − = √6 − √2

29
Sum and difference formulas for tangent

tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) =

tan(𝛼 − 𝛽) =

Example 29 Find the exact value of tan 75°

tan 75° = tan(45° + 30°)

√
° ° √
= = = (rationalize the denominator)
° ° √ √

3 + √3 3 − √3 12 + 6√3
= ∙ = = 2 + √3
3 − √3 3 − √ 3 6

Example 30 Find tan

7𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
tan = tan + = tan +
12 12 12 4 3

√ √ √ √
= = = ∙ = = −2 − √3
⋅ √ √ √

Cofunction Identities

cos(90° − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃 sec(90° − 𝜃) = csc 𝜃

sin(90° − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 csc(90° − 𝜃) = sec 𝜃

tan(90° − 𝜃) = cot 𝜃 cot(90° − 𝜃) = tan 𝜃

Example 31

Find cos 30°

√3
cos 30° = sin(90° − 30°) = sin 60° =
2

30
Double and Half Angle Formulas
Below you will learn formulas that allow you to use the relationship between the
six trig functions for a particular angle and find the trig values of an angle that is
either half or double the original angle.

Double Angle Formulas

cos 2𝜃 = cos²𝜃 − sin²𝜃 =2cos²𝜃 − 1 = 1 − 2sin²𝜃

sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

2 tan 𝜃
tan 2𝜃 =
1 − tan² 𝜃
Half Angle Formulas

cos = ±

sin = ±

tan = ± tan = tan =

Lets see these formulas in action!

Example 32 Use the double angle formula to find the exact value of each
expression

sin 120°

√3
sin 120° = sin 2(60°) = 2 sin 60° ⋅ cos 60° =
2

32
Example 33

tan 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋 < 𝜃 < , 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 cos 2𝜃

First we need to find what the cos 𝜃 is. We know that tan 𝜃 is opposite leg over
adjacent leg, so we need to find the hypotenuse since cos is adjacent over
hypotenuse. We can use 𝑟 = 12² + 5² = 13 to find the length of the
hypotenuse. Now we know the cos 𝜃 = . Now use the double angle formula to
find cos 2𝜃.

5 25 50 119
cos 2𝜃 = 1 − 2sin² 𝜃 = 1 − 2 =1−2 =1− =
13 169 169 169
We take the positive answer since 𝜃 is in the third quadrant making the ratio a
negative over a negative.

Now lets try using the half angle formula

Example 34

cos 15°

√3
30 1 + cos 30 1+ 2 + √3
cos 15° = cos =± =± 2 =
2 2 2 2

Choose the positive root

Example 35

cos 𝜃 = − and 90° < 𝜃 < 180°. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 sin

First we use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the third side

4 +𝑥 =5

33
𝑥 =9

𝑥=3
3
sin 𝜃 =
5

4 9
𝜃 1− − 9 3√10
sin = ± 5 =± 5 =± =
2 2 2 10 10

Since sin is positive in the third quadrant we take the positive answer

Need more help? Click below for a Khan Academy video

Khan Academy video 6

34
Product to Sum Formulas
1
cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2
1
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)]
2
1
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = [sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2
1
cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = [sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2
Example 36 Use the product-to-sum formula to change sin 75° sin 15° to a sum
1 1
sin 75° sin 15° = [cos(75° − 15°) − cos(75° + 15°)] = [cos 60° − cos 90°]
2 2
1 1 1
= −0 =
2 2 4

35
Sum to Product Formulas
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 = 2 sin cos
2 2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
sin 𝐴 − sin 𝐵 = 2 cos sin
2 2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
cos 𝐴 + cos 𝐵 = 2 cos cos
2 2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
cos 𝐴 − cos 𝐵 = −2 sin sin
2 2
Example 37 Use the sum-to-product formula to change sin 70° − sin 30° into a
product
70° + 30° 70° − 30°
sin 70° − sin 30° = 2 cos sin = 2 cos 50° ⋅ sin 20°
2 2

36
Law of Sines and Cosines
These laws help us to find missing information when dealing with oblique
triangles (triangles that are not right triangles)

Law of Sines
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
= =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

You can use the Law of Sines when the problem is referring to two sets of angles
and their opposite sides.

Example 38 Find the length of AB. Round your answer to the nearest tenth.
Since we are given information about an angle, the side opposite of
that angle, another angle, and missing the side opposite of that angle,
we can apply the Law of Sines.

sin 92° sin 28°

=
15 𝐴𝐵

Multiply both sides by the common denominator in order to eliminate

the fractions. We do this so that we can solve for the unknown. This
gives us,

sin 92 ⋅ 𝐴𝐵 = sin 28 ⋅ 15

Then we can divide by sin 92. When we do this we find 𝐴𝐵 = 7

Law of Cosines

𝑐² = 𝑎² + 𝑏² − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶

𝑏² = 𝑎² + 𝑐² − 2𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐵

𝑎² = 𝑏² + 𝑐² − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴

You can use the Law of Cosines when the problem is referring to all three sides
and only one angle.

37
Example 39 Find the length of AB. Round to the nearest tenth.

Since all three sides of the triangle are referred to and information about one
angle is given, we can use the Law of Cosines.

Since AB is opposite of <C, we will call it c and use the following formula,

𝑐² = 𝑎² + 𝑏² − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝑐

𝑐² = 13² + 20² − 2(13)(20) cos 93°

𝑐 = 596

𝑐 = 14

38
Practice Problems

39
40
41
Solutions

Back to Table of Contents.

42
UNDERSTAND KEY FEATURES OF GRAPHS OF TRIG FUNCTIONS
In this section you will get a brief introduction to the graphs of the three main trig
functions, sine, cosine, and tangent. This section will not go over how to actually
graph these functions, but will go over how to identify key features of the graphs
of each function.

The graphs of sine and cosine are considered periodic functions, which basically
means their values repeat in regular intervals known as periods.

A periodic function is a function f such that

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑛𝑝)

We talked about the fact that one revolution of the unit circle is 2π radians, which
means that the circumference of the unit circle is 2π. Therefore, the sine and
cosine function have a period of 2π.

43
Graph of the sine function (𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙)

 If you notice, the range of the sine function is [-1, 1] and the domain is
(-∞, ∞)
 Also notice that the x-intercepts are always in the form nπ. Where n is an
integer
 This is an odd function because it is symmetric with respect to the origin
 The period is 2π because the sine wave repeats every 2π units

44
Graph of the cosine function (𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙)

• If you notice, the range of the cosine function is [-1, 1] and the domain is
(-∞, ∞)
• This is an even function because it is symmetric with respect to the y axis
therefore for all cos( -x ) = cos (x)
 The period is also 2π because the cosine wave repeats every 2π units

45
Key features of the sine and cosine function
Amplitude measures how many units above and below the midline of the graph
the function goes. For example, the sine wave has an amplitude of 1 because it
goes one unit up and one unit down from the x-axis.

Y = a sin x

AMPLITUDE:

a is the amplitude. The graph of y = a sin x and y = a cos x, where a≠0 will have a
range of [-|a|, |a|]

Below is the graph of y = sin x

46
What happens if you change the amplitude to 2? Below is the graph of y = 2 sin x.

You see how the graph stretched up right? Now the range is [-2, 2] instead of [-1,
1].

What do you think would happen if you changed the amplitude to ½? Or 3?

Check it out below

Does this happen with cosine as well? Recall the graph of y = cos x

47
Now lets take a look at y = 2 cos x

We can conclude that the amplitude vertically stretches or shrinks both the sine
and cosine graphs. Notice that when the amplitude was changed the function still
repeats every 2π units, therefore the amplitude does not affect the period of the
function.

PERIOD

Again lets look at the graph of y = sin x

Notice how the graph changes when we change the function to y = sin 2x

48
Did you notice that the sine wave repeats every π units now instead of every 2π
units? This means the function is finishing its cycle twice as fast, which means its
period is half as long. If you consider the function y = a sin bx, the b value affects
the period of the function. It will horizontally stretch or squish the graph.

Think about what the graph would look like if you changed it to y = sin 0.5x.

There is a general formula used to find the period (ω) of a sine or cosine function
2𝜋
𝜔=
|𝑏|

You will notice that the sine and cosine functions are affected the same by
changes made in the equations, so changing the b value will have the same effect
on the cosine function.

Just to show you, below are the graphs of y = cos x and y = cos 3x

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PHASE SHIFT

Not only can the graphs be contracted or stretched vertically and horizontally, but
they can also be shifted left and right and up and down. First we will focus on
shifting the graph left and right.

Since the sine function has been getting all the action, lets look at the cosine
function y = cos x

If we change the equation to y = cos 𝑥 − , watch what happens to the graph.

The blue wave is the original y = cos x and the green wave is the y = cos 𝑥 − .
You will notice that the graph was shifted units to the right. If the equation had
been y = cos 𝑥 + , the graph would have shifted units to the left. When the
graph is shifted to the left or right it is called a “phase shift”. If you consider the
equation y = a cos (bx – c), the phase shift can be found by taking c/b. Again the
sine function is affected the same.

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VERTICAL SHIFT

The last way we can alter the sine and cosine functions is by making a vertical
shift. Lets take a look at what happens to the function when we change it to

y = cos x + 3 (Notice the 3 is not in parenthesis)

The blue wave is the original y = cos x and the green wave is the function

y = cos x + 3. When you add a number at the end you shift the graph up that
many units and if you subtract a number at the end you shift the graph down that
many units. When the function is written in the form y = a cos (bx – c) + d, d
controls whether the function will be shifted up or down.

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Graph of the tangent function (𝒚 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙)

• If you notice, the range of the tangent function is (−∞, ∞) and the domain
is 𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝜋 + , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
• The x intercepts are always in the form of 𝑛𝜋
• The period is 𝜋
• The tangent will be zero wherever the numerator (sine) is zero
• The tangent will be undefined wherever the denominator (cosine) is zero
• The graph of the tangent function has vertical asymptotes at values of 𝑥 in
the form of 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 +
• Since the graph is symmetrical about the origin, the function is an odd
function

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Key features of the tangent function
AMPLITUDE

Amplitude does not apply to the tangent function since there aren’t any minimum
or maximum values.

PERIOD

Consider the tangent function in the form 𝑦 = 𝑎 tan 𝑏𝑥. To determine the period
use . Below is the graph of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥, notice that the tangent function repeats
every π units.

Now look if we graph the function 𝑦 = tan 2𝑥

Notice now that the function repeats every units.

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VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES

The tangent function has something called vertical asymptotes, which are
invisible vertical lines that the function approaches, but never crosses. To find the
two consecutive vertical asymptotes of a tangent function you can solve the two
equations 𝑏𝑥 = − and 𝑏𝑥 =

Consider the graph of the function 𝑦 = tan 0.5𝑥

You can see from the graph that there are vertical asymptotes at −𝜋 and 𝜋. You
could have also used the equations to obtain this information.

0.5𝑥 = − = −𝜋 and 0.5𝑥 = =𝜋

. .

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PHASE SHIFT

The phase shift for the tangent works the same way as the sine and cosine
function. Consider the graph of the function 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 −

The blue is the function 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 and the green is the function 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 − .
Notice that the functions appear the same except 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 − is shifted
units to the right.

VERTICAL SHIFT

Again this works the same for tangent as it did for sine and cosine. Consider the
graph of the function 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 + 1

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Again the function graphed in blue is the function 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 and the function
graphed in green is 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 + 1. As you can see the only difference between
the two graphed functions is that the function 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 + 1 is shifted up one
unit.

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Practice Problems

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61
Solutions

Back to Table of Contents.

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