Human-Computer Interaction

Human
In this lecture
● The Human
○ Information Processing Model
■ The perceptual system
■ The motor system
■ The cognitive system
Human Modeling
Model Human Processor; Card, Moran and Newell, 1983

The model comprises three subsystems:

○ the perceptual system, handling sensory stimulus from the outside world.

○ the motor system, which controls actions.

○ the cognitive system, which provides the processing needed to connect the two.
Human Modeling
We will use the analogy of the user as an information processing system

- Input–Output,
- Memory and
- Processing

unlike the computer, is also influenced by external factors such as the social and
organizational environment
The Perceptual
System
(Input)
Cones vs Rods

120 million are rods vs 6 million are cones

3–4% of the fovea is occupied by cones which are sensitive to blue light
Peripheral Vision
Peripheral Vision
● Peripheral vision: Side vision. The ability to see objects and movement
outside of the direct line of vision. Peripheral vision is the work of the rods,
nerve cells located largely outside the macula (the center) of the retina. The
rods are also responsible for night vision and low-light vision but are
insensitive to color.

A B C D E F H I J K
● Fixate on the dot in the center
● The letters should be equally readable
 Design Choices: Peripherals
● So if you want a user to see an error message at the bottom of the screen it
had better be flashing.
● Moving fancy impressive icons will be distracting even when the user is not
looking directly at them
● In TV or Computer screens, the larger the display (and consequently the
more peripheral vision that it occupies), the more it will appear to flicker.
● A negative contrast (dark characters on a light screen) provides higher
luminance and, therefore, increased acuity. On the other hand, if the
luminance increases, the flicker also increases!
 Design Choice: Where is the Middle
● We tend to see the center of a page as being a little above the actual center
● In graphic design this is known as the optical center — and bottom page
margins tend to be increased by 50% to compensate.
Reading
Adults read approximately 250 words a
minute. It is unlikely that words are scanned The quick brown
serially, character by character.

Experiments have shown that words can be fox jumps over the
recognized as quickly as single characters.

Familiar words are recognized using word

shape.
lazy dog.
Reading
Adults read approximately 250 words a
minute. It is unlikely that words are scanned “It deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the Itteers in
serially, character by character. a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the
frist and Isat Itteer be at the rghit pclae. The
rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed
Experiments have shown that words can be if wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn
recognized as quickly as single characters. mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but
the wrod as a wlohe. "
Familiar words are recognized using word
shape.
Reading
Adults read approximately 250 words a
minute. It is unlikely that words are scanned "A doOtCr has aimTTded
serially, character by character. the maglTHeuansr of a
Experiments have shown that words can be taGeene cEacNR
recognized as quickly as single characters. pinTAEt who deID
Familiar words are recognized using word
AeTFr a haTOspiL duRG
shape. bLENdur"
 Design Choice: Reading
● Removing the word shape clues (for example, by capitalizing words) reduces
the reading speed and accuracy
● Experiments have shown that standard font sizes of 9 to 12 points are equally
legible
● Reading from a computer screen is slower than from a book (longer line
length, fewer words to a page, familiarity of the medium of the page)
 Design Choice: Sounds
Attention – to attract the user’s attention to a critical situation or to the end of a
process.

Status information – continuous background sounds can be used to convey

status information. For example, monitoring the progress of a process.

Confirmation – a sound associated with an action to confirm that the action has
been carried out. For example, associating a sound with deleting a file.

Navigation – using changing sound to indicate where the user is in a system. For
example, what about sound to support navigation in hypertext?
The Motor
System
(output)
Reaction
A person can react to an

● A visual signal in 200 ms,

● Auditory signal in 150 ms, and
● Pain in 700 ms

Combination of signals produce faster

response

Practice improves reaction time

Response Accuracy
Is whether speed of reaction results in reduced accuracy?

Answer: not always

‒ Arcade and video games where less skilled users fail at levels of play that require
faster responses.

‒ Keyboard operators have shown that, although the faster operators were up to twice
as fast as the others, the slower ones made 10 times the errors.

--
Response Accuracy

Fitts’ Law

Movement_Time = a + b * ID
Response Accuracy

Fitts’ Law

Movement_Time = a + b * ID
 Design Choices: Size
● Size is exponentially proportional to movement time
● Distance is logarithmically proportional to movement time
The Cognitive
System
Brain = Processor
Memory = RAM/HDD
The Human Memory Types
● Sensory Memories
● Short Term Memory (or working memory)
● Long Term Memory
Sensory Memories

Sparkler Trail Stereo Sound (Playback) Hot Surfaces

Iconic memory Echoic memory Haptic memory
(visual stimuli) (aural stimuli) (tactile stimuli)
Sensory Memories
Properties

- Continuously overwritten (Buffer)

- Information Decay (~ 0.5 seconds)
Attention
● Asking someone to repeat unheart question
● Cocktail Party Phenomenon

Attention
Sensory Memory Short Term Memory
Short-Term Memory (or working memory)
Digit Span

2653976208134

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Short-Term Memory (or working memory)
Digit Span [7 +/- 2]
Short-Term Memory (or working memory)
Chunks Span

265 397 620 8134

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Short-Term Memory (or working memory)
Chunks Span [7 +/- 2] that is near the Digit Span!!!

Our subconscious desire to create chunks to optimize memory capacity

The successful formation of a chunk is known as "Closure"

Short-Term Memory (or working memory)
Chunks Span

HEC ATR ANU PTH ETR EET

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Short-Term Memory (or working memory)
Chunks Span

Try to recall the chunks. How many did you get?

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Short-Term Memory (or working memory)
Chunks Span

THE CAT RAN UP THE TREE

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Short-Term Memory (or working memory)
Chunks Span

HEC ATR ANU PTH ETR EET

THE CAT RAN UP THE TREE
Chunks Span increased by the “Familiarity Effect”
Short-Term Memory (or working memory)
● Recency Effect

Short term memory tends to remember the last events

● Interference Effect Visuo-spatial

Articulatory loop
scratch-pad

Inputs at the same channel affects capacity

Central executive

Auditory imaging
system
Short-Term Memory (or working memory)
Properties

- Scratch Pad for temporary recall

- Limited Capacity (7 +/- 2)
- Rapid access ~ 70ms
- Rapid decay ~ 200ms
- Increased with Familiarity Effect
- Increased with Recency Effect
- Affected by interference at the same channel
 Design Choices: Short-Term Memory

- Menus shouldn’t have more than 7 +/- 2 items

- Function calls while coding shouldn’t have more than 7 parameters (Check
Style guide)
- The “Closure” of some use-case (e.g., ATM) must be designed carefully
Rehearsal
● Spending more time eliminate recency effect
● Interference doesn’t cause losing all information

Rehearsal
Short Term Memory Long Term Memory
Long Term Memory
There are two types:

- Episodic: represents our memory of events and experiences in a serial form

- Semantic: skills, concepts and facts extracted from the Episodic.
Long Term Memory
Properties

- Huge (or infinite)

- Slow access time 0.1 second
- Slow (or no) decay
Long Term Memory - Process

Memorization Forgetness Retrieval

Ebbinghaus Experiments Decay Theory Recall
Jost's law Interference Theory Recognition
Baddeley Experiments We Never Forget Theory
Bartlett Experiment
Long Term Memory - Memorization
Ebbinghaus Experiments

- Ability to learn and repeat nonsense syllable

- Comparing his recall minutes, hours and days after the
learning process

Conclusion

“The amount learned was directly proportional to the amount

of time spent learning” → Total time hypothesis
“Non-sense Information in memory decayed logarithmically”
“If two memory traces are equally strong at a given time the
older one will be more durable.” → Jost’s law
Long Term Memory - Memorization

‘’Practice Makes Perfect’’

Long Term Memory - Memorization
Baddeley Experiments

- Post Office workers were taught to type

- Weekly sessions of one hour each, vs
- Two or four hours in a week

Conclusion

“Learning time is most effective if it is distributed over time”

→Distribution of Practice Effect

Long Term Memory - Memorization

Rate of learning a typing skill for a range of training schedules: 1 × 1 equals one session of 1 hour per day, 2 × 1
equals two such sessions, 1 × 2 is one session of 2 hours and 2 × 2 two 2-hour sessions.
Long Term Memory - Memorization
"Learning time is most effective if it is distributed over time"

→Distribution of Practice Effect

Is it better to repeatedly study and test items on a list in close
succession or spread apart? There are two competing factors

1. Spaced presentation (i.e. study) enhances memory

2. Successfully testing yourself strengthens memories more
than passively studying items
 Long Term Memory - Memorization
Chap2, Chap3, Chap4, Chap5, Chap6, Chap7, Chap8,
review review review review review review review all
Chap1 Chap1 Chap1-2 Chap2-3 Chap2-4 Chap3-5 Chap4-6 Chapters

First day of Midterm

class

Four months (28 days)

Optimum spacing is 10-20%, so .1 x 28 = 2.8 and .2 x 28 = 5.6 so
optimal study time of each piece of information is every 2.8 to 5.6
days. This includes review of previous material not just new
presentations.
Long Term Memory - Memorization
Bartlett Experiment

- Learn a story about an unfamiliar culture and then retell it.

- Retell the story replacing unfamiliar words and concepts
with words which were meaningful to them

Conclusion

“If information is meaningful and familiar, it can be related to

existing structures and more easily incorporated into memory”

→Familiarity
Long Term Memory - Memorization
Exercise:

Try to memorize the following lists:

Faith Age Cold Tenet Quiet Logic Idea Value Past Large

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Long Term Memory - Memorization
Exercise:

Try to recall the chunks. How many did you get?

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Long Term Memory - Memorization
Exercise:

Try to memorize the following lists:

Boat Tree Cat Child Rug Plate Church Gun Flame Head

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Long Term Memory - Memorization
Exercise:

Try to recall the chunks. How many did you get?

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Long Term Memory - Memorization
Exercise:

Try to memorize the following lists:

Child Red Plane Dog Friend Blood Cold Tree Big Angry

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Long Term Memory - Memorization
Exercise:

Try to recall the chunks. How many did you get?

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Long Term Memory - Memorization
Exercise:

Faith Age Cold Tenet Quiet Logic Idea Value Past Large

Boat Tree Cat Child Rug Plate Church Gun Flame Head

Child Red Plane Dog Friend Blood Cold Tree Big Angry

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Long Term Memory - Memorization
Summary
Information Memorization is affected by

- Structure (non-sense or sense),

- Familiarity,
- Concreteness, and
- Time spent
- Time span/distribution
Long Term Memory - Forgetness

Theory #1: Decay Theory #2: Interference

● Ebbinghaus Experiments “If we acquire new information it

● Jost’s law causes the loss of old information”

● Retroactive interference
● Proactive inhibition

Forgetting is also affected by

emotional factors. “Nostalgia”
Long Term Memory - Forgetness

Theory #3: We don’t forget!

“Just becomes increasingly difficult to

access certain items from memory”

● Proactive inhibition
● Tip of the tongue (or TOT)
● Information may not be recalled
but may be recognized
Long Term Memory - Retrieval
Recall: information is reproduced from memory

Recognition: the presentation of the information provides the knowledge that the
information has been seen before
Long Term Memory - Memorization
Exercise:

Try to memorize the following lists:

Child Red Plane Dog Friend Blood Cold Tree Big Angry

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Long Term Memory - Memorization
Exercise:

Try to recall the chunks. How many did you get?

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Long Term Memory - Retrieval
Exercise:

Try to memorize the following lists:

Child Angry Dog Friend Red Blood Cold Plane Tree Big
Long Term Memory - Memorization
Exercise:

Try to recall the chunks. How many did you get?

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Long Term Memory - Retrieval
Exercise:

Try to memorize the following lists:

Child Red Plane Dog Friend Blood Cold Tree Big Angry

Child Angry Dog Friend Red Blood Cold Plane Tree Big
Long Term Memory - Retrieval
Exercise:

Read the following paragraph then answer the question in the next slide

“He walked into the airport, past the banks of monitors. Already he felt
as if he'd lost something, some beautiful perspective, some lovely
dream fallen away. He had come to Chicago to see his wife, whom he
had not seen in twenty years. Outside the terminal the sky was thick
and gray and hurried by wind. Snow was coming. A woman from the
university met him and escorted him to her Jeep. He kept his gaze out
the window.”
Long Term Memory - Retrieval
Exercise - cont:

At what time of the day the man returned?

- Night
- Noon
- Morning
Long Term Memory - Retrieval
Exercise - cont:

If you could answer that question you have visualized the scene, including the
time of the scene. In fact, that is not mentioned in the description at all.
 Design Choices: Long Term Memory
- Memorizing passwords:
- What people usually use?
- How to balance between security and memorability
 Attention Rehearsal
Sensory Memory Short Term Memory Long Term Memory
The Human Thinking
● Reasoning
● Problem Solving
● Analogy

Animals receive and store information, why they can’t use it in quite the same way
as humans!!

Human thought is conscious and self-aware

Reasoning
“Is the process by which we use the knowledge we have to draw
conclusions or infer something new about the domain of interest”

Types:

● Deductive, ‫إستنتاج‬
● Inductive, and ‫إستقراء‬
● Abductive ‫إستدالل‬
Reasoning
Types:

● Deductive: reliable, but Truth may conflict with Validity.

● Inductive: unreliable, but is needed in learning about our environment.
● Abductive: unreliable, but is needed to build a theory or explanation.
Problem Solving
Gestalt Theory

“Problem solving involves both reuse of knowledge and insight. It is both

productive and reproductive”

● Maier’s pendulum
problem
Problem Solving
Problem Space Theory

“The problem space comprises problem states, and problem solving

involves generating these states using legal state transition operators”

Searching the problem space is limited by the capacity of

short-term memory, and the information retrieval speed.

Experience let us solve problems easily as:

● We can structure the problem space appropriately
● Choose operators efficiently
Problem Solving
Analogy

“Mapping knowledge relating to a similar known domain to the new problem

‒ called analogical mapping”

● Gick and Holyoak experiment

o Only 10% reached the solution
o 80% reached it when told an analogous story

● Aids Gestalt theory of productive restructuring

Skills Acquisition
How skills acquired and what difference does it make to our problem-solving
performance?

● Deep Blue, a chess-playing computer, vs Gary Kasparov

● Experienced Players vs Novice ones
● Senior Developers vs. Juniors

What is the difference?

● Choosing between many moves, or

● Look ahead several moves, or
● Pattern matching
Skills Acquisition
Anderson's ACT* model

1. The learner uses general-purpose rules which interpret facts about a problem.
This is slow and demanding on memory access.

Proceduralization

2. The learner develops rules specific to the task.

Generalization

3. The rules are tuned to speed up performance.

Skills Acquisition
Example: Cooking

Proceduralization

Generalization
Mental Model
A "mental model" is a set of beliefs of a how a system works
Errors and Mental models
What's an error?

o Slip tends to occur in those cases where the user does have the right
mental model but accidentally does the wrong thing
o Mistake, the user has the wrong mental model.
Errors and Mental models
Why do we make mistakes and can we avoid them?

● Changes in the context of skilled behavior

o Example: World War a new cockpit design: fuel 'drop' tanks and for the canopy
release
● Incorrect understanding, or model, of a situation or system (Mental Model)
o Mental models are often partial
o Mental models are often unscientific and may be based on superstition rather than
evidence.
Exercises
- Is this design for menus better than the
standard dropdown menus? Why? [1 point]

- Write a program to simulate Fitt's experiment. Your Program need to show up buttons on
screen that it's width and distance is changed and user clicks on it. Use it to do this
experiment with multiple people, and capture this in a scatter plot [4 points]

- There are some techniques to improve our memorization procedure. Explain and
demonstrate one. (Hint: the textbook presented one) [1 point]

- Comparse by examples the difference between the three types of Reasoning (Deductive,
Inductive, and Abductive) [2 points]