AVC for On-Load Tapchangers –

An Introduction
Technical White Paper
Vincent Thornley and Elizabeth T. Macharia – Fundamentals Ltd.

Abstract
Due to increasing demand for energy, considerable pressure is being exerted on the power grid. This
is making it progressively difficult for network operators to ensure the precise control of fluctuating
voltages.
One means of controlling these fluctuating voltages is by using tapchanging transformers to safely
switch between the tapped windings of a power transformer and modify its output voltage.
This technical white paper is one of a series which describes how to extract best value from
tapchanging transformers.
The paper introduces Fundamentals, describing its origins and expertise, outlining some of the key
constraints of automatic voltage control (AVC or AVR) with on-load tapchanging (OLTC) transformers,
and the opportunities which present if these constraints are overcome. The paper then goes into detail
on how transformers can be operated flexibly with the Enhanced Transformer Automatic Paralleling
Package (TAPP) method, without the constraints of the traditional master-follower control method.
Two sections then follow outlining the network and increased engineering benefits of security of
supply, reduced losses, increased network utilisation, and more efficient substation expansion. Finally,
the paper draws this together in a succinct plan for network operators to enhance their AVC by using
the Enhanced TAPP method.

1 Introduction For network engineers to improve their network

Fundamentals was founded on learning from past operation and stabilise fluctuating voltages to
experiences to provide future-proof, present maintain constant voltage levels for industrial and
solutions; since 1992 we have been doing just that. domestic consumers, on-load voltage control is
Our primary focus has been on improving the control utilised.
of electrical power grid voltage, and we have built our
Although voltage control has historically been used to
expertise to become the leading authority on voltage
regulate generator voltage, it is now common practice
control and voltage regulation using on-load
for automatic voltage control (AVC1) to be performed
tapchangers (OLTCs).
at all stages of the grid via on-load tapchanging
transformers.
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ................................................. 1 However, a lot of the problems with on-load
2 Flexible Operation ........................................ 2 tapchanging transformers can be related to external
2.1 The Master-follower method .......................... 2 motor-drive mechanism and control schemes.
2.2 The Enhanced TAPP method........................... 2 Five key problems that we frequently hear about from
3 Security of Supply ........................................ 2 engineers around the world who are trying to improve
4 Losses .......................................................... 3 their network operation and automatically control
5 Network Utilisation ...................................... 4 their tapchangers include:
6 Engineering Efficiency Benefits .................... 4
 I don’t know how to set them up
7 Conclusions .................................................. 4
 I can’t keep my transformers in step

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Technical White Paper
AVC for On-Load Tapchangers – An Introduction

 The tapchangers keep “running away” leading to  Transformers may be paralleled across networks
extremely high or low voltage conditions  Different transformer types may be operated in
 No-one understands how they work parallel
 AVC/AVR puts constraints on my network  The voltage control scheme is easy to implement,
operation even for multiple transformer busbar
arrangements with multiple operating
The last point is key to this paper - the AVC system
configurations
should not act as a constraint for network operation
but in fact should facilitate other opportunities  There is an inherent fail-safe fallback which will
relating to: never permit transformer tap positions to run
apart
 Complete flexibility on how to operate the
network At the heart of the Enhanced TAPP method is the
 Improved security of supply principle that each transformer selects the correct tap
 Increased network utilisation position for itself to cause the busbar to be at the
correct voltage while minimising circulating current.
 Reduction of system losses
The method ignores the physical tap position as a
measure but rather looks at the power factor of the
But a good AVC system needs to go further than transformer current to determine when this is
this. achieved.

2 Flexible Operation 3 Security of Supply

Most of the challenges for effective AVC surround the A standard design objective for power systems with
operation of transformers in parallel. normal requirements for supply security uses the n-1
criterion, whereupon the network can safely operate
2.1 The Master-follower method with the loss of any one item of the grid. Transformers
Traditionally the most common method of controlling are key areas of the network to consider in this
parallel transformers is the master-follower method regard.
in which the controller for one transformer (the
master) decides on the tap position and the other Figure 1 Two-transformer substation operated with
transformers (the followers) make identical tap bus section CB open
changes. However, this method has severe
limitations which are often cited as the reason that
transformers cannot be operated in parallel.
 The master-follower method does not work if the
parallel transformers are not identical. If the
transformers have different capacities,
impedances or tap spacings but are on the same
tap position number, a circulating current is
invariably induced
 If the transformers are fed from different
sources, then master-follower does not work Sometimes it is enough to operate transformers
independently with their interconnecting busbar CB
 A master-follower scheme is complicated to
open (as in Figure 1), however this will result in a
operate with lots of wiring and potential for
supply interruption for the loss of one transformer,
errors
until a changeover can be instigated to resupply the
The above limitations are all driven from the fact that dead segment. However, on many occasions it is
master-follower is an artificial method of selecting the preferred to operate the substation with the busbar
tap position, as it is, from a mechanical position CB closed, but this is prevented by poor voltage
rather than observance of electrical measurements. control imposing operating limitations.
Using the Auto Transfer Switching (ATS) method, the
2.2 The Enhanced TAPP method
relays monitor each transformer and send
After almost three decades of constant development, information to each other. For example, if
Fundamentals can confidently state that the patented transformer T1 went out of service, the relay
Enhanced TAPP method, which makes use of an connected to T1 will send a message to the relay
innovative combination of modified negative connected to transformer T2, which would then send
reactance and circulating current methods produces a signal to close the busbar circuit breaker CB and
a superior outcome using a scheme which is provide supply to the feeders relating to the out of
inherently simple to implement. service transformer T1. Therefore, it follows that,
since it is always possible to parallel transformers2 as
The benefits of the Enhanced TAPP methodology over
outlined above, it is always possible to operate with
master-follower methods include:
n-1 security.

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Technical White Paper
AVC for On-Load Tapchangers – An Introduction

4 Losses this are (i) inefficiencies and losses within customer

loads which have a design voltage at the lower end of
Many LV distribution systems are designed for a wide
the range, and (ii) no room to accommodate any
operating range, and consequently so are equipment connected generation, for instance in the form of
and appliances. For example, in the EU the operating
rooftop solar panels.
range is 230 V +10% -6%, which equates to a range
of 216 V to 253 V, while all equipment must be Often the distribution transformer furthest from the
designed to operate at 230 V ± 10%, or 207 V to primary substation will have a higher tap selected
253 V. In order to operate across this range, than the closer distribution transformer. The reasons
equipment will have a design or reference voltage at for this can be seen in the graph of Figure 2(b) which
the lower end. In many cases, upper limit voltages on shows the per unit voltage through the system (solid
the range will result in increased losses within the sky-blue line). The dashed lines show the full load
equipment, but if the voltage of the LV system can be situation where even with the boost through the
maintained at the lower end of the permitted range, distribution transformers, the voltage approaches the
then losses will be reduced. lower limit in the LV system of the further
transformer.
Figure 2(a) shows how AVC and LDC play a significant
role in facilitating this. The example shows a primary Figure 2(c) and 2(d) provides the answer for this in
substation transformer (sky blue line), which is the form of LDC, or line/load drop compensation. The
usually the last point for regulation of voltage, and AVC system is set with a target voltage below
two distribution transformers with fixed taps, one nominal, but with an LDC boost to bring it back near
close to the primary transformer (navy blue line) and to nominal. For example, a basic voltage target of
one some distance from it (light blue line). 97%, and a boost to the target at full load of +4%
means that when there is no load the system will be
The no load situation, as shown by the solid lines, close to the lower end of the permitted range, with
shows the disadvantage, in that the voltage at the far
plenty of headroom for the connection of PV. When
end is close to the upper voltage limit. The results of the load is full, the voltage is boosted back to just

Figure 2 Voltage regulation

(a) no load situation without LDC (b) full load situation without LDC

(c) no load situation with LDC (d) full load situation with LDC

©2020 Fundamentals Ltd. All rights reserved. Page 3

TWP-VC01-202010
Technical White Paper
AVC for On-Load Tapchangers – An Introduction

above nominal to ensure that the network stays is used this will require the approach of Figure 4(a)
within its limits. where an identical transformer is used and it is
connected to the same source with no infeed
5 Network Utilisation arrangements on the incoming line. If the existing
transformer is old, it may be unnecessarily expensive
Increasing the utilisation of expensive assets such as to source an identical transformer from the same
transformers is an effective way to increase capacity. supplier. The master-follower method also imposes a
Paralleling across networks is an easy method to constraint in how the new line is brought to the
achieve this, while maintaining n-1 security criteria, substation – the source impedance needs to be the
as highlighted in Figure 3. same on both lines and there can be no tees which
may draw load or inject generation.

Figure 3 Network utilisation for (a) independent Figure 4 Substation expansion (a) with master-
substations and (b) interconnected follower constraints and (b) flexible
substations expansion options

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

Because the Enhanced TAPP method allows the use of

differing transformers and voltage sources, these
In Figure 3(a) to operate with n-1 security, it is only constraints are removed. The operator can source a
possible to plan loading of the network to 50% of its transformer from their current framework or supply
capacity (for the loss of 1 of 2 transformers), whereas arrangements, without concern over matching it with
in Figure 3(b) if the networks are interconnected then the existing transformer, therefore getting cost
the loss of 1 of 4 transformers allows a loading of 75% efficiencies. This is illustrated in Figure 4(b) showing
of capacity. differences in transformer rating, impedance, tap
In order to achieve this, the AVC system needs to be spacing, number of taps, and with different infeed
capable of supporting the paralleling of transformers arrangements.
across networks. For this, a negative reactance-based
system is required, which minimises circulating 7 Conclusions
current flows between the parallel transformers. The Electrical Power System has remained largely
unchanged for the past century. However, due to the
6 Engineering Efficiency Benefits ever increasing strain that we put on the grid as
The previous sections discussed the efficiency demand for energy increases, it has become
benefits that an optimal AVC system can bring to the absolutely necessary for network operators to
network and customers. However, there are also reinforce the system and maintain a steady supply of
efficiency benefits to network operators in the form of electricity to customers, preventing premature loss of
lower expansion costs. life of network assets.

Figure 4 shows the expansion of a substation with an Using the Enhanced TAPP methodology of voltage
existing transformer T1, and the addition of a second control provides additional options to the network
transformer T2. If the master-follower method of AVC operator with the benefits of:

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Technical White Paper
AVC for On-Load Tapchangers – An Introduction

 Always maintaining at least n-1 security of About the Authors

supply,
Vincent Thornley has 20 years'
 Extending substations more cost-effectively using
experience of energy-orientated
any available transformer (no need to match technology crossing many fields,
transformers), including nuclear generation,
 Increasing network utilisation (while maintaining connection of renewable energy,
security of supply) through paralleling smart grid technologies, and
substations across the network, integration of heat, power and
transport. He gained a doctorate
 Reducing losses in customer load by operating
for his research in voltage control
closer to the target voltage,
and active network management, a forerunner of the
These features help to extend the lifetime of key smartgrids of today. Dr Thornley is a chartered
network reinforcement costs and meet the networks engineer (CEng) and a member of the Institution of
ever-changing obligations. Engineering and Technology (MIET).

Elizabeth T. Macharia is an
Notes electrical and electronics
engineer with technical and
1 AVC and AVR (C=control, R=regulation) are leadership experience within the
both used to refer to the control system for smart transformer technology,
on-load tapchangers in different parts of the electricity utility, building
world. In this paper AVC is used throughout. services, and grid control
industries. Miss Macharia is a
2 Except for fault level restrictions. member of the Institution of
Engineering and Technology (IET) and volunteers as
Abbreviations the Young Professionals ambassador for her local
network. Her interests include but are not limited to
AVC automatic voltage control
power systems, sustainable energy, innovative
AVR automatic voltage regulation, equivalent to technologies that drive change within the engineering
automatic voltage control industry, and STEM education and outreach.

CB circuit breaker
EU European Union
LDC line, or load, drop compensation
LV low voltage, i.e. less than 1 kV
OLTC on-load tapchanger
PV photovoltaic generation

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Technical White Paper
AVC for On-Load Tapchangers – An Introduction

Fundamentals’ Services
Fundamentals’ Application Support
When you buy a Fundamentals product you can expect to receive expert assistance to apply your relay. Please
contact your sales office or agent and we will do our best to advise you. We will gladly provide you with advice
on an ad hoc basis, or if you have an extensive requirement for support, we can offer services for scheme design,
panel build, installation and commissioning.
Our global partners are carefully chosen to ensure that they have application support capabilities which are backed
up by Fundamentals voltage control experts.
Other Services
Fundamentals can assist with all aspects of voltage control applications and transformer and tapchanger
management:
 Design and engineering
 Panel/cubicle build
 Site surveys, installation and commissioning
 Tapchanger health check, maintenance and reverse power assessments
 Transformer online dissolved gas analysis (DGA)
 Technical support and troubleshooting
 Power system analysis
 Generation connection assessment

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TWP-VC01-202010
©2020 Fundamentals Ltd.

Fundamentals Ltd
Unit 2, Hillmead Enterprise Park
Marshall Road, Swindon
Wiltshire, SN5 5FZ
United Kingdom
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www.fundamentalsltd.co.uk
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