14.indian Geography

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Table of Contents
Page | 1
India As A Geographical Unit...................4

India's Frontiers......................................6
Rock System Based on Geological History Of India 7
Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks) 7
Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic).........9
Aryan Rock System................................10
Major Physical Divisions of India...........11
Division of the Himalayas......................11
Himalayan Ranges.................................12
Middle or the Lesser Himalaya...............13
The Great Himalaya...............................14
The Trans Himalayas.............................15
Purvanchal or Eastern Hills...................16
Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas..........16
Himalayas Regional Divisions..............16
Important Valleys in Himalayas.............19
Snow in Himalayas - Snowline...............20
Glaciers in Himalayas............................20
Significance of the Himalayas................21
Major Passes in India and Indian Sub-continent 23
Major Passes of the Himalayas...............24
Formation of Indo Gangetic Brahmaputra Plain 27
Features of Indo Gangetic Brahmaputra Plain 30
Geomorphological features of Indo Gangetic Brahmaputra Plain 30
Regional Divisions of the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains [Great Plains] 31
Significance of the Plain.........................34
Peninsular Plateau.................................34
Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau36
Deccan Plateau......................................38
Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau....39
Coastline of India Indian Coastline......43
Coastlines..............................................44
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Western Coastal
Page |Plains
2 of India..............44
Eastern Coastal Plains of India..............45
Significance of the Coastal Plains..........46
Indian Islands........................................46
Andaman and Nicobar Islands...............47
Lakshadweep Islands.............................48
New Moore Island..................................49
Drainage basin......................................49
Drainage patterns..................................51
Discordant drainage patterns................51
Concordant Drainage Patterns...............52
Contribution of Water by Various Rivers 55
Classification of Drainage Systems of India55
Major River System or Drainage Systems in India56
Himalayan River Systems.......................59
Indus River System................................60
Indus River............................................60
Major Tributaries of Indus River............61
Indus water treaty.................................63
Ganga River System...............................63
Ganga River...........................................65
Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga.....65
Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River67
Brahmaputra River System....................69
Peninsular River System or Peninsular Drainage 70
Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage.....70
Peninsular River System........................71
Himalayan River System vs. Peninsular River System 71
East Flowing Peninsular Rivers..............72
Mahanadi River.....................................72
Godavari River.......................................74
Krishna River.........................................75
Cauvery River........................................77
Pennar River..........................................79
Subarnarekha.......................................80
Page | 3
Brahamani River....................................80
Ponnaiyar River.....................................81
Vaigai River............................................81
West Flowing Rivers of The Peninsular India 81
Estuary.................................................81
Narmada River.......................................82
Tapti River.............................................83
Sabarmati River.....................................84
Mahi River.............................................85
Luni River..............................................85
West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris (Western Ghats) 85
Ghaggar River Inland Drainage...........85
Usability of Rivers..................................86
Indian Monsoons...................................86
Mechanism of Indian Monsoons.............87
Indian Monsoons Classical Theory: Sir Edmund Halleys Theory 87
Indian Monsoons Modern theory: Air Mass Theory 88
Indian Monsoon Mechanism Jet Stream Theory89
Indian Monsoon Mechanism Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STJ) 91
Indian Monsoons Role of Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) [African Easterly Jet] 93
Indian Monsoons Role of Tibet............94
Indian Monsoons Role of Somali Jet....95
Indian Monsoons Role of Indian Ocean Dipole 96
How Jet Streams affect Indian Monsoons? [Indian Monsoon Mechanism] 96
Indian Monsoons Seasonal Variations....97
Projects to understand monsoons........103
Western Disturbances..........................104
Cloudburst in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand 106
Indian Climate - What type of Climate Does India Have? 107
Features of Indian Climate...................108
Factors Influencing Indian Climate......108
Indian Climate Seasons.....................111
Winter Season in India.........................111
Summer Season
Page |in4 India......................114
Isoline, Isobar, Isotherm & Isohyet.......120
Rainy Season South West Monsoon Season 120
Retreating Monsoon Season North East Monsoon Season 125
Annual Rainfall [South West Monsoons + Retreating Monsoons] 128
Climatic Regions of India.....................131
Stamp's Classification of Climatic Regions of India 131
Koeppen's Classification of Climatic Regions of India 133
Forests Natural Vegetation of India....136
Classification of Natural Vegetation of India 136
Moist Tropical Forests..........................137
Dry Tropical Forests.............................140
Montane Sub-Tropical Forests..............142
Montane Temperate Forests.................143
Alpine Forests......................................144
Soil......................................................144
Soil Types Sandy-Clayey-Loamy.........144
Factors that influence soil formation in Indian Conditions 146
Major Soil Types of India......................148
Alluvial Soils........................................149
Black Soils...........................................151
Red Soils..............................................151
Laterite Lateritic Soils.......................152
Forest Mountain Soils.......................153
Arid Desert Soils...............................153
Saline Alkaline Soils..........................154
Peaty Marshy Soils............................156
Characteristics of Indian Soils.............156
Problems Of Indian Soils......................157
Soil Degradation..................................158
Soil Erosion.........................................158
Extent Of Soil Erosion In India............159
Factors affecting Soil Erosion...............159
Effects of Soil Erosion..........................159
Deforestation.......................................159
Page | 5
Overgrazing.........................................159
Faulty Methods of Agriculture..............160
Soil Salinity and Soil Alkalinity............160
Desertification.....................................161
Waterlogging........................................162
Soil Conservation.................................162
In this post: Indian Geography: India Geographical Extent, Frontiers Border with
Neighbors.
India As A Geographical Unit

East-West Extent of Main Land India (Including 68 7' east to 97 25' east longitude
Page | 6
Pak occupied Kashmir-POK):
South-North Extent of Main Land India: 8 4' north to 37 6' north latitude
Locational Extent: 8 4' N to 37 6' N latitude and 68 7' E
to 97 25' East longitude.
The southernmost point of the East-west width from the Rann of

country is the Pygmalion Point or Indira Kachachh to Arunachal Pradesh is
Point is located at 6 45' N latitude. 2,933 km.
North-south extent from Indira Col With an area of 32,87,263 sq km,

in Kashmir to Kanniyakumari is 3,214 India is the seventh largest country of
km. the world.
India accounts for about 2.4 per

cent of the total surface area of the world.
Page | 7
The Tropic of Cancer passes through most point is 30 x 4 = 120 minutes or 2

the middle of the country dividing it into hours.
two latitudinal halves.
India, Tropical or Temperate
The area to the north of Tropic of
Country?
Cancer is nearly twice the area which lies
to the south of it.
The temperate part (north of Tropic
of Cancer) is twice the area of tropical
South of 22 north latitude, the
part.
country tapers off over 800 km into the
Indian Ocean as a peninsula.
But India has always been treated
as a tropical country for two different
East-West time difference is nearly 2
reasons physical and cultural.
hrs.
Physical Geographical Reasons
The earth moves [rotation and
revolution] around its axis through 360 in
The country is separated from the
24 hours. Thus, a difference of 1
rest of Asia by Himalayas.
longitude will make a difference of 4
minutes in time. Its climate is dominated by
the tropical monsoons and the temperate
Therefore the difference of local time
air masses are blocked by Himalayas.
between western-most point and eastern-
Entire area
Page | 8south of the Himalayas The length of Indias land borders
is essentially tropical from climatic point with neighboring countries is as under:
of view: Although the night temperatures
in Winter at several places in North India
may come down to the level of those
prevailing in temperate lands, yet clear
skies and intense insolation raise the day
temperatures to a tropical level.
Cultural Geographical Reasons

Border with China
Settlements, diseases, agricultural
and primary economic activities are all
This is the second longest border of
tropical in nature.
India, next only to its border with
Bangladesh.
It is primarily because of Himalayas that
India is a tropical country. Five Indian states, namely Jammu

and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal
India's Frontiers Pradesh touch the Indian boundary with
China.
Data from Ministry Of Home Affairs
The Sino-Indian border is generally
(Department Of Border Management)
divided into three sectors namely : (i) the
Western sector, (ii) the Middle sector, and
India has 15106.7 Km of land (iii) the Eastern sector.
border running through 92 districts in 17
States and a coastline of 7516.6 Km The Western Sector
[6100 km of mainland coastline +
coastline of 1197 Indian Separates Jammu and Kashmir
state of India from the Sinkiang (Xinjiang)
islands] touching 13 States and Union
province of China.
Territories (UTs).
The western sector boundary is
Barring Madhya Pradesh,
largely the outcome of the British policy
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Delhi and
towards the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Haryana, all other States in the country
have one or more international borders or China claims the Aksai Chin
a coastline and can be regarded district, the Changmo valley, Pangong
as frontline States from the point of view Tso and the Sponggar Tso area of north-
of border management. east Ladakh as well as a strip of about
5,000 sq km down the entire length of
India's longest border is
eastern Ladakh.
with BANGLADESH while the shortest
border is with Afghanistan.
China | 9claims a part of Huza-

also
Page Quite peaceful border and there is
Gilgit area in North Kashmir (ceded to it no boundary dispute between the two
in 1963 by Pakistan). countries.
The Middle Sector The Indo-Pakistan Boundary
Two Indian states of Himachal The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the

Pradesh and Uttarakhand touch this result of partition of the country in 1947
border. under the Radcliffe award of which Sir
Cyril Radcliffe was the chairman.
The Eastern Sector
Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are
The 1,140 km long boundary
the major disputed regions.
between India and China runs from the
eastern limit of Bhutan to a point
near Talu-Pass at the trijunction of India,
Tibet and Myanmar.
This line is usually referred to as

the Mc Mahon Line after Sir Henry Mc
Mahon, then foreign secretary of British
India, who negotiated the boundary
agreement between Great Britain and
Tibet at Shimla accord in 1913-14.
The India-Nepal Boundary
Five states of India, namely

Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
Bengal and Sikkim touch the Nepalese
border with India. The border is
a porous one with unrestricted movement The India-Bangladesh Border
of goods and people between Indian and
Nepal. India's 4,096 km long border with
Bangladesh is the longest.
Major portion of Indo-Nepalese
border runs in the east-west direction This boundary has been determined
almost along the foothill of the Shiwalik under the Radcliffe Award which divided
Range. the erstwhile province of Bengal into two
parts.
The India-Bhutan Boundary
India-Myanmar Boundary
This Page
boundary
| 10 runs roughly along 3. The Dravidian Rock System.
the watershed between the Brahmaputra
and Ayeyarwady [Irrawaddy]. 4. The Aryan Rock System.
It passes through thickly forested Archaean Rock System (Pre-

regions, with Mizo Hills, Manipur and
Cambrian Rocks)
Nagaland on the Indian side and Chin
Hills, Naga Hills and Kachin state on the
Rocks formed prior to the Cambrian
Myanmar side.
system.
India-Sri Lanka Boundary The Archaean rock system includes:
India and Sri Lanka are separated

Archaean Gneisses and Schists [4
from each other by a narrow and shallow
sea called Palk Strait.
Billion Years]
Gneiss == Mineral composition varies from

Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu
coast in India is only 32 km away granite to gabbro.
from Talaimanar in Jaffna peninsula in
Sri Lanka. These two points are joined by Schists == mostly crystalline, include
a group of islets forming Adam's Bridge.
mica, talc, hornblende, chlorite, etc.
In this post: Archaean Rock System,
Archaean Gneisses and Schists, Dharwar These rocks are:
System, Purana Rock System, Cuddapah

Oldest rocks [pre-Cambrian era]
System, Vindhyan System, Dravidian Rock [formed about 4 billion years ago].
System, Carboniferous rocks,
Rocks formed due to solidification of
Carboniferous Coal, Aryan Rock System, molten magma the earths surface was
very hot then.
Gondwana System, Gondwana Coal,
Jurassic System, Deccan Trap, Tertiary Known as the Basement

Complex [They are the oldest and forms
System etc..
the base for new layers]
Rock System Based on Geological Azoic or unfossiliferous,

History Of India Foliated (consisting of thin sheets),
1. The Archaean Rock System. Thoroughly crystalline (because they

are volcanic in origin),
2. The Purana Rock System.
Plutonic intrusions
Page | 11 (volcanic rocks found
deep inside).
Dharwar System
Page | 12[4 1 Billion Includes two divisions:
the Cuddapah System and the Vindhyan
Years]
System.
Formation period ranges from 4
Cuddapah System
billion years ago to 1 billion years ago.
Unfossiliferous clay, slates,

sandstones and limestones was deposited
in synclinal basins [depression between
two folds {Fold mountain}].
Outcrops best observed in

Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh.
These rocks contain ores of iron,

manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc.
They contain large deposits of

cement grade limestones.
Vindhyan System (1300-600 million

years)
This system derives its name from

the great Vindhyan mountains.
H
ighly metamorphosed sedimentary rock- The system comprises of ancient
system. [formed due to metamorphosis of sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick)
sediments of Archaean gneisses and schists]. superimposed on the Archaean base.
They are the oldest Mostly Unfossiliferous.

metamorphosed rocks.
Large area of this belt is covered by
Found in abundance in the Dharwar the Deccan trap.
district of Karnataka.
The Vindhayan system have
Economically the most important diamond bearing regions from which
rocks because they possess valuable Panna and Golconda diamonds have
minerals like high grade iron-ore, been mined.
manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc.
It is devoid of metalliferous
Purana Rock System (1400 600 minerals but provides large quantities of
durable stones, ornamental stones,
Million Years)
limestone, pure glass making sand etc..
Dravidian Rock
Page | 13System Upper Carboniferous to the
(Palaeozoic) Recent.
Formed about 600 300 million

Gondwana System
years ago.
The Gondwana System [derives its
Found in the Extra Peninsular name Gonds, the most primitive people of
region (Himalayas and Ganga plain) and Telangana and Andhra Pradesh]
are very rare in Peninsular India. [The
They are deposits laid down
name Dravidian doesnt mean they are
in synclinal troughs on ancient plateau
found in South India]
surface.
Abundant fossils.
As the sediments accumulated, the
The rocks of Cambrian, Ordovician, loaded troughs subsided.
Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous
periods are fall under Dravidian system. Fresh water and sediments
(All these are not important, accumulated in these trough and
terrestrial plants and animals thrived.
only Carboniferous is important)
This happened since Permian period
Carboniferous rocks (350 million (250 million years ago).
years)
Gondwana Coal
The Carboniferous rocks (350
million years) comprise mainly of Gondwana rocks contain nearly 98
limestone, shale and quartzite. per cent of Indias coal reserves.
Mount Everest is composed of Gondwana coal is much

Upper Carboniferous limestones. younger than the Carboniferous coal and
hence its carbon content is low.
Coal formation started in the
Carboniferous age. They have rich deposits of iron ore,
copper, uranium and antimony also.
Carboniferous in geology
means coal bearing. [most of the coal Sandstones, slates and
found in India is not of Carboniferous conglomerates are used as building
period; High quality coal of Great Lakes materials.
Region-USA, U.K and Ruhr region is
Carboniferous coal]. Jurassic System
Aryan Rock System The marine transgression in the

latter part of the Jurassic gave rise to
thick series of shallow

Page | 14 water deposits in The weathering of these rocks for a
Rajasthan and in Kuchchh. long time has given birth to black cotton
soil known as regur.
Coral limestone, sandstone,
conglomerates and shales occur in The Deccan Trap has been divided into
Kuchchh.
three groups:
Another transgression on the east
coast of the Peninsula is found
between Guntur and Rajahmundry.
Deccan Trap
Volcanic outburst over a vast area of

the Peninsular India from the end of
the Cretaceous till the beginning of
the Eocene gave rise to Deccan Traps.
Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures

covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq
km.
These volcanic deposits have flat top

and steep sides and therefore
called trap meaning a stair or step in
Swedish.
The process of weathering and

erosion (denudation) since millions of
years has reduced the Deccan Trap to
almost half of its original size.
Present Deccan Trap covers about 5

lakh sq km mainly in parts of Kuchchh,
Saurashtra, Maharashtra, the Malwa
plateau and northern Karnataka.
Thickness of the Deccan Traps is

3,000 metres along the west which is
reduced to 600-800 metres towards the
south, 800 metres in Kuchchh and only
150 metres at the eastern limit.
Group Found in
Page | 15 Inter-trappean beds Layers of volcanic
ash
The UpperSystem
Tertiary Trap Maharashtra and Present Present
Peninsular Plateau
Saurashtra
Eocene
The Middle to Pliocene
Trap aboutand
Central India 60 Malwa
to 7 Very rareIncludes
to absentthe Present
entire south India,
million years
The Lower ago.
Trap central India, Aravalis,
Present Rajmahal
Very rare hills,
to absent
Meghalaya plateau, Kuchchh-Kathiawar
The tertiary is the most significant region (Gujarat) etc..
period in India's geological history because
the Himalayas were born and India's It is the oldest and the
present form came into being in this most stable landmass of India.
period.
Himalayas
In his post: Major Physical Divisions of
India Himalayas - Himalayan Ranges: Includes the Himalayas, Purvanchal

and their extensions Arakan Yoma
Shiwaliks or outer Himalayas, Lesser or (Myanmar) and Andaman and Nicobar
Middle Himalayas, Greater Himalayas, Islands (but we will consider these as
islands only).
Trans-Himalayas or Tibetan Himalayas
and Eastern Hills or Purvanchal. It is the youngest and highly

unstable landmass of India. [Continent
Continent Convergence]
Major Physical Divisions of India
Tectonic movements are very
1. The Himalayas (young fold common.
mountains),
Indo-Gangetic Plain
2. Indo-Gangetic Plain (monotonous
topography featureless topography), Between Peninsular and Himalayan
region.
3. The Peninsular Plateau (one of the
most stable landmasses; one of the oldest Most youthful, monotonous [lack of
plateaus of the world), change or variety] region prone to tectonic
forces.
4. Coastal Plains (Sediments due to
fluvial action).
Coastal Plains
5. The Indian Islands [Coral Islands ==
coral reef built up on atolls Eastern Coastal Plains and Western
Lakshadweep. Tectonic == Andaman and Coastal Plains.
Nicobar Islands Interaction between
Indian Plate and Eurasian plate] and
Formed
Page due
| 16 to consolidation of
sediments brought by rivers (fluvial
deposits).
Highly stable just like peninsular

plateau.
Indian Islands
Two major groups Lakshadweep

and, Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Lakshadweep [Hotspot] are group of

atolls occupied by coral reefs. No
significant volcanism or tectonic activity in
recent past. Highly vulnerable to sea-level
rise.
Andaman and Nicobar islands

Continuation of Arakan Yoma. Has active
volcanoes and is tectonically active.
Type of Topography
Page | 17 Extent in %
Mountainous
Division (more
of the than 2135 m above sea level)
Himalayas 10.7
Himalayas between Tibet and Ganga
Hilly area (305 2135 m above sea level) 18.6
Plain is a succession of three parallel
Plateau (305
Formation of 915 m above explained
Himalayas sea level) in ranges. 27.7
Plains 43
Continent Continent Convergence.
Shiwalik Range
1. Shiwaliks or outer Himalayas Also known as Outer Himalayas.
2. Lesser or Middle Himalayas Located in between the Great Plains

and Lesser Himalayas.
3. The Greater Himalayas
The altitude varies from 600 to
4. The Trans-Himalayas Tibetan 1500 metres.
Himalayas.
Runs for a distance of 2,400 km
5. The Eastern Hills Purvanchal: A from the Potwar Plateau to
chain of hills in North-East India. the Brahmaputra valley.
Himalayan Ranges The southern slopes are steep while

the northern slopes are gentle.
Series of several parallel or
converging ranges. The width of the Shiwaliks varies
from 50 km in Himachal Pradesh to less
The ranges are separated by deep than 15 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
valleys creating a highly dissected
topography [(of a plateau or upland) They are almost unbroken chain of
divided by a number of deep valleys]. low hills except for a gap of 80-90 km
which is occupied by the valley of
The southern slopes have steep the Tista River and Raidak River.
gradients and northern slopes have
Shiwalik range from North-East
comparatively gentler slopes. [Scaling
India up to Nepal are covered with thick
Mount Everest is less hectic from the
forests but the forest cover decreases
northern side. But China puts restrictions
towards west from Nepal (The quantum of
so climbers take the steeper southern
rainfall decreases from east to west in
slopes from Nepal]
Shiwaliks and Ganga Plains).
Most of the Himalayan ranges fall in
The southern slopes of Shiwalik
India, Nepal and Bhutan. The northern
range in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh
slopes are partly situated in Tibet (trans-
are almost devoid of forest cover. These
Himalayas) while the western extremity
slopes are highly dissected by seasonal
lies in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central
Asia. streams called Chos.
Valleys
Pageare part of synclines and
| 18
hills are part of anticlines or antisynclines.
Formation (Formation of Himalayas

already explained)
Shiwaliks were formed last of all the

ranges (2-20 million years ago).
The Shiwaliks are consolidated

sands, gravels and conglomerate deposits
[Alluvial fans] which were brought by the
rivers flowing from the higher ranges.
These deposits were folded and

hardened due to compression offered by
the northward movement of Indian plate.
The Shiwaliks are known by different

names in different areas
Region Page | 19 Name of Shiwaliks

Jammu
ExplainRegion
the formation of Duns (Duras) RunsJammu Hills
almost parallel to both the
Dafla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi Hills ranges. Arunachal Pradesh
The Dhang
ShiwalikRange,
HillsDundwa Range by the
were formed Uttarakhand
Churia Ghat Hills
accumulation of conglomerates (sand, It is also called the Himachal or
Nepal
stone, silt, gravel, debris etc.). Lower Himalaya.
These conglomerates, in the initial Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80

stages of deposition, obstructed the km wide and about 2400 km in length.
courses of the rivers draining from the
higher reaches of the Himalayas and Elevations vary from 3,500 to
formed temporary lakes. 4,500 m above sea level.
With passage of time, these Many peaks are more than 5,050 m
temporary lakes accumulated more and above sea level and are snow covered
more conglomerates. The conglomerates throughout the year.
were well settled at the bottom of the
lakes. Lower Himalayas have steep, bare
southern slopes [steep slopes prevents
When the rivers were able to cut soil formation] and more gentle, forest
their courses through the lakes filled with covered northern slopes.
conglomerate deposits, the lakes were
drained away leaving behind plains In Uttarakhand, the Middle
called duns or doons in the west Himalayas are marked by
and duars in the east. the Mussoorie and the Nag Tibba ranges.
Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand is the The Mahabharat Lekh, in southern

best example [75 km long and 15-20 km Nepal is a continuation of the Mussoorie
wide] Range
Kotah, Patli Kothri, Chumbi, East of the Kosi River, the Sapt Kosi,
Kyarda, Chaukhamba, Udhampur and Sikkim, Bhutan, Miri, Abor and Mishmi
Kotli are other important duns. hills represent the lower Himalayas.
Middle or the Lesser Himalaya The Middle Himalayan ranges are

more friendly to human contact.
In between the Shiwaliks in the
south and the Greater Himalayas in the Majority of the Himalayan hill resorts
north. like Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet,
Nainital, Almora and Darjeeling, etc. are
located here.
ImportantPage
ranges of Lesser Himalayas
| 20 Region
The Pir Panjal

PageRange
| 21 Jammu and Kashmir (They are to the south of
Kashmir Valley)
The Dhaola Dhar Range Himachal Pradesh
The Mussoorie Range and The Nag Tiba Uttarakhand
Range
Mahabharat Lekh Nepal
The Pir Panjal range The synclinal basin of the valley is
floored with alluvial, lacustrine [lake
The Pir Panjal range in Kashmir is deposits], fluvial [river action] and glacial
deposits. {Fluvial Landforms, Glacial
the longest and the most important range.
Landforms}
It extends from the Jhelum river to
Jehlum River meanders through
the upper Beas river for over 300 km.
these deposits and cuts a deep gorge in Pir
Panjal through which it drains. (Kashmir
It rises to 5,000 metres and
is like a basin with very few outlets)
contains mostly volcanic rocks.
In Himachal Pradesh there
Passes in Pir Panjal
is Kangra Valley. It is a strike valley and
extends from the foot of the Dhaola Dhar
Pir Panjal Pass (3,480 m), the Bidil
Range to the south of Beas.
(4,270 m), Golabghar Pass (3,812 m) and
Banihal Pass (2,835 m).
On the other hand, the Kulu
The Banihal Pass is used by the Valley in the upper course of the Ravi
Jammu-Srinagar highway and Jammu- is transverse valley.
Baramula railway.
Strike valley vs. Transverse valley
The Kishanganga, the Jhelum and
the Chenab cut through the range. A valley perpendicular to the slope
or parallel to the ridge [also called as
Southeast of the Ravi, the Pir Panjal longitudinal valley]
continues as Dhaola Dhar range, passing
In contrast, transverse streams
through Dalhousie, Dharmshala, and
cut valleys parallel to the slope (along
Shimla.
the dip).
Important Valleys
Between the Pir Panjal and the

Zaskar Range of the main Himalayas, lies
the valley of Kashmir. (average elevation is
1,585 m above mean sea level)
Page | 22 gentle north slope giving 'hog back (a long,

steep hill or mountain ridge)' topography.
This mountain arc convexes to the

south just like the other two.
Terminates abruptly at
the syntaxial bends. One in the Nanga
Parbat in north-west and the other in
the Namcha Barwa in the north-east.
This mountain range boasts of the

The Great Himalaya tallest peaks of the world, most of which
remain under perpetual snow.
Also known as Inner Himalaya,
Central Himalaya or Himadri. Regional name of Mount Region
Everest
Average elevation of 6,100 m above Sagarmatha (The Goddess Nepal
sea level and an average width of about 25
of the Sky)
km.
Chomlungma (Mother of the China
World) (Tibet)
It is mainly formed of the central
crystallines (granites and gneisses)
overlain by metamorphosed sediments Mount Everest was first located by
[limestone]. {Rock System} George Everest, the then Surveyor General
of India in 1841 and in 1852 it was
The folds in this range are established as the highest peak of the
asymmetrical with steep south slope and world by the Great Trigonometrical Survey
of India.
Passes inPage
the |
Greater
23 Himalayas The passes because they are
generally higher than 4,570 m above sea
level and are snowbound for most of the
year.
State Page | Passes

24 of Greater Himalayas
Jammu and
Kashmir 1. Burzil Pass
2. Zoji La [La means pass]

Himachal
Pradesh 1. Bara Lacha La
2. Shipki La [The Hindustan-Tibet Road connecting Shimla with

Gartok in Western Tibet]
Uttarakhand
1. Thaga La
2. Niti Pass
3. Lipu Lekh
Sikkim
1. Nathu La
2. Jelep La [important trade route connecting Kalimpong (near

Darjeeling) with Lhasa in Tibet, passes through Jelep La (4,386 m)]
The Trans Himalayas The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is an
important range which is in The Zaskar
The Himalayan ranges immediately Range.
north of the Great Himalayan range.
North of the Zaskar Range and
Also called the Tibetan running parallel to it is the Ladakh Range.
Only a few peaks of this range attain
Himalaya because most of it lies in Tibet.
heights of over 6000 metres.
The Zaskar, the Ladakh,
The Kailas Range (Gangdise in
the Kailas and the Karakoram are the
Chinese) in western Tibet is an offshoot of
main ranges.
the Ladakh Range. The highest peak is
It stretches for a distance of about Mount Kailas (6714 m). River Indus
1,000 km in east-west direction. originates from the northern slopes of
the Kailas range.
Average elevation is 3000 m above
mean sea level. The northern most range of the
Trans-Himalayan Ranges in India is the
The average width of this region is Great Karakoram Range also known as
40 km at the extremities and about 225 the Krishnagiri range.
km in the central part.
Karakoram Range extends
eastwards from the Pamir for about 800
km. It is a range with lofty peaks
[elevation Page
5,500 m and above]. It is
| 25 Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the
the abode of some of the greatest watershed between India and Myanmar.
glaciers of the world outside the polar
regions. South of Naga Hills are the Manipur
hills which are generally less than 2,500
Some of the peaks are more than metres in elevation.
8,000 metre above sea level. K2 (8,611 m)
The Barail range separates Naga
[Godwin Austen or Qogir] is the second
Hills from Manipur Hills.
highest peak in the world and the highest
peak in the Indian Union.
Further south the Barail Range
swings to west into Jaintia, Khasi and
The Ladakh Plateau lies to the
north-east of the Karakoram Range. It has Garo hills which are an eastward
been dissected into a number of plains continuation of the Indian peninsular
and mountains [Soda Plains, Aksai Chin, block. They are separated from the main
Lingzi Tang, Depsang Plains and Chang block by Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.
Chenmo]
South of the Manipur Hills are the
Purvanchal or Eastern Hills Mizo Hills (previously known as
the Lushai hills) which have an elevation
of less than 1,500 metres. The highest
Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal are
the southward extension of Himalayas point is the Blue Mountain (2,157 m) in
running along the north-eastern edge of the south.
India.
Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas
At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas
take a sudden southward bend and form a Himalayas extend in the east-west
series of comparatively low hills which are direction from the Indus gorge in the west
collectively called as the Purvanchal. to the Brahmaputra gorge in the east.
Purvanchal hills are convex to the Himalayan ranges take sharp

west. southward bends at these gorges. These
bends are called syntaxial bends of the
They run along the India-Myanmar Himalayas.
Border extending from Arunachal Pradesh
in the north to Mizoram in the south. The western syntaxial bend occurs
near the Naga Parbat (Karakoram
Patkai Bum hills are made up of range) where the Indus river has cut a
strong sandstone; elevation varying from deep gorge.
2,000 m to 3,000 m; merges into Naga
Hills where Saramati (3,826 m) is the The eastern syntaxial bend occurs
highest peak. near the Namche Barwa.
In this post: | 26
Page Himalayas Regional All the major rivers of Indus river
system flow through Punjab Himalayas.
Divisions Punjab Himalayas, Assam
Himalayas, Western Himalayas, Central A large portion of Punjab Himalayas

is in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
Himalayas and Eastern Himalayas.
Pradesh. Hence they are also called
the Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya.
Himalayas Regional Divisions
Karakoram, Ladakh, Pir Panjal,
Punjab Himalayas Zaskar and Dhaola Dhar are the major
ranges in this section.
Between the Indus and
The general elevation falls westwards.
the Satluj rivers [560 km long].
Assam Himalayas The southern slopes are very steep

but the northern slopes are gentle.
Spreads over Sikkim, Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh. The Lesser Himalayas are very
narrow and are very close to the Great
Elevation here is much lesser than Himalayas.
that of the Nepal Himalayas.
Western Himalayas
Page | 27 range, lesser Himalaya by Pir
Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges and the
Between the Indus in the west and Outer Himalaya by the Shiwalik range.
the Kali river in the east (880 km).
The southern slopes are rugged,
Spread across three states of steep and forested while the northern
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh slopes are bare, gentle and show plains
and Uttarakhand. with lakes.
It encompasses three physiographic The Kumaon Himalayas lie in

provinces namely Kashmir Himalaya, Uttarakhand and extend from the Satluj
Himachal Himalaya and Kumaon to the Kali river.
Himalaya (Uttarakhand Himalayas).
The Lesser Himalayas in Kumaon
The Ladakh plateau and the Himalaya is represented by the Mussoorie
Kashmir valley are two important areas of and Nag Tiba ranges.
the Kashmir Himalayan region.
The Shiwalik in this region runs
In Himachal Himalayas, The Greater south of the Mussoori range between the
Himalaya is represented by the Zaskar Ganga and the Yamuna rivers.

Page | 28
The flat valleys between the Lesser 800 km between river Kali in the
Himalaya and the Shiwalik range are west and river Tista in the east.
called doons or Duns of which Dehra
The Great Himalaya range attains
Dun is the most famous.
maximum height in this portion.
Central Himalayas
SomePage
of the world famous peaks Mt.
| 29 These are known by various local
Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu,
Annapurna, Gosainthan and Dhaulagiri names such as Patkai Bum, Naga
are located here. hills, Kohima hills, Manipur hills,
The Lesser Himalaya is known Mizo hills (previously known as

as Mahabharat Lekh in this region.
the Lushai hills), Tripura hills and
The range is crossed by rivers like
Barail range.
Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, etc.
In between the Great and the Lesser

Himalayas, there are Kathmandu and
Pokhra lacustrine valleys (previously, The extension of the Purvanchal
they were lakes). Himalaya continues southwards upto
Andaman and Nicobar Islands through the
The Shiwalik range come very close Myanmar range (Arakan Yoma) and even
to the lesser Himalaya towards the east upto the Indonesian archipelago.
and is almost non-existent beyond
Narayani (Gandak). In the eastern section the Himalayas
rise abruptly from the plains of Bengal
Eastern Himalayas and Oudh and suddenly attain great
elevations within a short distance from the
This part of the Himalayas lies foot of the mountains. Thus the peaks
between the Tista river in the west and the of Kanchenjunga and Everest are only a
Brahmaputra river in the east and few kilometres from the plains and are
stretches for a distance of about 720 km. clearly visible from there.
Also known as the Assam In contrast, the western Himalayas

Himalayas, the Eastern Himalayas occupy rise gradually from the plains through a
mainly the areas of Arunachal Pradesh series of ranges. Their peaks of perpetual
and Bhutan. snow are 150 to 200 km away from the
plain areas.
The Assam Himalayas show a
marked dominance of fluvial erosion due
to heavy rainfall.
The Himalayas take a sudden

southward turn after the Dihang gorge
and the hill ranges running in more or
less north-south direction along India's
border with Myanmar are collectively
known as the Purvanchal.
Page | 30
the Kangra and Kulu valley in
Himachal Pradesh;
the Dun valley (Doon valley,

Dehradun valley); the Bhagirathi valley
(near Gangotri) and the Mandakini valley
(near Kedarnath) in Uttarakhand and
the Kathmandu valley in Nepal.
Karewas
Karewas are lacustrine deposits

[deposits in lake] in the Valley of Kashmir
and in Bhadarwah Valley of the Jammu
Division.
These are the flat topped mounds

that border the Kashmir Valley on all
sides.
They are characterized with fossils

of mammals and at places by peat.
Formation
In this post: Important Valleys in During the Pleistocene Period (1

million years ago), the entire Valley of
Himalayas Karewas, Snow in Kashmir was under water.
Himalayas Snowline, Glaciers in
Subsequently, due to endogenetic
Himalayas and Significance of the forces, the Baramullah Gorge was created
Himalayas. and the lake was drained through this
gorge.
Important Valleys in The deposits left in the process are

Himalayas known as karewas.
The most important valleys in the The thickness of karewas is about

1400 m.
Himalayan region are
In fact, the karewas have been
the valley of Kashmir and the elevated, dissected and removed by
Karewas, subaerial denudation as well as by the
Jhelum river
Page giving
| 31 them the present There are about 15,000 glaciers in
position. the Himalayas.
Economic Significance Total area of Himalayas is about five

lakh square kilometres (Area of India is
The karewas are mainly devoted to nearly 32 lakh sq km). About 33,000 sq
the cultivation of saffron, almond, walnut, km area is covered by snow.
apple and orchards.
The snow line (the lowest level of
The karewas, devoted to saffron perpetual snow) varies in different parts of
cultivation are fetching good income to the Himalayas depending upon latitude,
the growers. amount of precipitation and local
topography.
Snow in Himalayas -
Snowline Glaciers of the Karakoram
Range
In Eastern Himalayas and Kumaon
Himalays the snowline is around 3,500 m Maximum development of glaciers
above sea level whereas in western occurs in the Karakoram range.
Himalays snowline is about 2,500 m above
sea level. Some of the largest glaciers outside
the polar and sub-polar regions are found
This difference in snowline is partly in this range. The southern side of this
due to the increase in latitude from 28 range has many gigantic glaciers.
N in Kanchenjunga to 36 N in the
Karakoram. The 75 km long Siachen
Glacier in Nubra valley has the
But the major factor distinction of being the largest glacier
is precipitation. Precipitation in western outside the polar and the sub-polar
Himalayas is comparatively low and occurs regions.
mostly as snowfall where as in eastern
Himalayas the precipitation is greater and The second largest is the 74 km
occurs mostly in the form of rain. long Fedchenko Glacier (Pamirs)
In the Great Himalayan ranges, Third largest is the Hispar Glacier. It

the snow line is at lower elevation on is 62 km long and occupies a tributary of
the southern slopes than on the the Hunza River.
northern slopes because the southern
slopes are steeper and receive more Glaciers of the Pir Panjal
precipitation as compared to the northern Range
slopes.
The glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range
Glaciers in Himalayas are less numerous and smaller in size as
compared Page
to those
| 32 of the Karakoram east by Kumaon region, on the south by
Range. Uttar Pradesh state, and on
the northwest by Himachal Pradesh state.
The longest Sonapani Glacier in
the Chandra Valley of Lahul and Spiti It includes the districts of Chamoli,
region is only 15 km long. Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri
Garhwal, Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal,
Glaciers of the Kumaon- and Uttarkashi.
Garhwal Region
Glaciers of Central Nepal
In the Kumaon-Garhwal region of
Zemu and the Kanchenjunga
the Himalayas, the largest is the 30 km
glaciers are the major ones.
long Gangotri Glacier which is the source
of the holy Ganga.
Significance of the
Himalayas
Influence on Indian Climate
They intercept the summer

monsoons coming from the Bay of Bengal
and Arabian Sea causing precipitation in
the entire Ganga Plains, North-Eastern
Hills.
They direct the monsoon

winds towards north-western
India (Punjab, Haryana etc.. But these
regions receive most of the rainfall due
to Western Disturbances coming from the
Mediterranean regions).
They protect northern-plains from

the cold continental air masses of central
Asia.
The Himalayas influence the path of

Sub-tropical Jet stream flowing in the
region. They split the jet stream and this
split jet stream plays an important role in
Garhwal Region
bring monsoons to India.
Lying in the Himalayas, it is
Had there been no Himalayas, the
bounded on the north by Tibet, on the
whole of India would have been a desert
and its winters would have been very

Page | 33 Forest Wealth
severe. [Mechanism of monsoons will be
explained in detail later] The Himalayan host rich coniferous
and evergreen forests. Lower levels have
Defense tropical evergreen forests and higher levels
have Alpine vegetation (Coniferous).
The Himalayas are a natural defense
barrier. The Himalayan forests provide fuel
wood and a large variety of timber for
But the Chinese aggression on India industries.
in 1962 has reduced the defense
significance of the Himalayas. Himalayan forests host wide variety
of medicinal plants.
Source of Rivers
Several patches are covered with
Rivers that feed nearly half a billion grass offering rich pastures for grazing
population of India originate in Himalayas. animals.
[we will study this in detail later in
drainage system] Agriculture
All the rivers are perennial Due to rugged and sloped terrain,
supplying water year round. the Himalayas are not potential
agricultural sites.
Fertile Soil
Some slopes are terraced for
The swift flowing rivers from cultivation. Rice is the main crop on the
Himalayas bring enormous amount of silt terraced slopes. The other crops are
(alluvium) which constantly enrich the wheat, maize, potatoes, etc.
Ganaga and Bramhaputra plains.
Tea is a unique crop which can be
Hydroelectricity grown only on the Shiwalik hill slopes in
the region.
Due to its natural topography and
Fruit cultivation is a major
swift flowing perennial rivers, the
occupation. A wide variety of fruits such
Himalayan region offers several natural
as apples, pears, grapes, mulberry,
sites with great hydroelectric power
walnut, cherries, peaches, apricot, etc. are
generation potential.
also grown in the Himalayan region.
Many hydroelectric power plants
have already been constructed. Tourism
But all this comes at a great Himalayan ranges have a large

environmental costs. number of tourist spots.
The hilly
Page areas
| 34 in the Himalayas are Geosynclinical deposits in tertiary
not affected by hot winds like loo. Hence rocks are regions of potential coal and oil
they offer cool and comfortable climate. reserves.
The increasing popularity of winter Coal is found in Kashmir, Copper,

sports has increased the rush of tourists lead, zinc, gold, silver, limestone, semi-
in winters. precious and precious stones occur at
some places in the Himalayas.
Srinagar, Dalhousie, Dharamshala,
Chamba, Shimla, Kulu, Manali, But the exploitation of these
Mussoorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora, resources require advanced technologies
Darjeeling, Mirik, Gangtok, etc. are which are not yet available.
important tourist centres in the
Himalayas. Also, disturbing such a fragile
environment leads to more pain than gain
Cultural Tourism (present hydroelectric power projects have
already proved this).
Himalayas host many Hindu and
In this post: Major Passes India,
Buddist shrines.
Himalayas, Indian Sub-continent
Kailas, Amarnath, Badrinath,
Kedarnath, Vaishnu Devi, Jwalaji, -- Khyber pass, Gomal pass, Bolan
Uttarkashi, Gangotri, Yamunotri, etc. are pass, Banihal Pass, Pensi La, Zoji
important places of pilgrimage.
La, Bara Lacha La, Rohtang Pass,
Mineral Resources in Shipki La, Nathu La, Jelep La, Bom
Himalayas Di La, Dihang Pass, Pal Ghat, Bhor
Ghat etc. and Major Passes of the
Himalayas.
Major Passes in India and Indian Sub-continent

Page | 35
Page | 36
Major Passes of the Himalayas Most of the passes remain closed in

winter (Nov Apr) due to heavy snow fall.
Passes of Page
the |Western
37 Himalayas
Jammu and Kashmir
NAME SIGNIFICANCE COMMENTS
(CONNECTS)
Mintaka Pass Kashmir and China
Trijunction of India-China and
Afghanistan border
Parpik Pass Kashmir and China
East of Mintaka pass on the Indo-China
border
Khunjerab Kashmir and China
Pass Indo-China border
Aghil Pass Ladakh region of India
with the Xinjiang 5000 m above sea level.
(Sinkiang) Province of
China north of K2 Peak (the highest peak in India
and the second highest peak in the world)
Banihal Pass Jammu and Srinigar
2832 m
across the Pir-Panjal Range
remains snow covered during winter

season
The road from Jammu to Srinagar transversed Banihal Pass until

1956 when Jawahar Tunnel was constructed under the pass. The road
now passes through the tunnel and the Banihal Pass is no longer used
for road transport.
Another 11 km long tunnel provides railway link between Banihal

and Kazigund. It was thrown open to railway transport in July, 2013
Chang-La Ladakh with Tibet
altitude of 5360 m
This has a temple dedicated to Chang-La

Baba after whom the temple has been named
Khardung La near Leh in the
Ladakh range 5602 m
The world's highest motorable road passes
through this pass

Page | 38
remains closed in winter due to heavy
snowfall
Lanak La India and China

(Akasai-Chin area of this pass provides passage between Ladak
Jammu and Kashmir) and Lhasa. A road to connect Xinjiang Province
with Tibet has been constructed by the Chinese
Pir-Panjal across the Pir Panjal provides the shortest and the easiest metal
pass range road between Jammu and Kashmir Valley. But
this route had to be closed down as a result of
partition of the subcontinent
Qara Tag La Indo-China borer
across the Karakoram located at an elevation of over six thousand
Range metres
Imis La Ladakh region of India
and Tibet in China
Pensi La vital link between the
Kashmir Valley and remains closed to traffic from November to
Kargil mid-May due to heavy snowfall
Zoji La important road link
between Srinagar on The road passing through this pass has
one side and Kargil been designated at the National Highway (NH-
and Leh on the other 1D)
side
Border Road Organisation (BRO) is
responsible for maintaining the road and
cleaning it off snow during winter. In spite of all
these efforts, the road through this pass remains
closed from December to mid-May
Himachal Pradesh
Bara Lacha La Himachal Pradesh
and Jammu and Elevation: 4,890 m
Kashmir
National highway connecting Mandi in
Himachal Pradesh with Leh in Jammu and
Kashmir passes through this pass. Being
situated at high altitude, it remains snow covered
in winter and is not used as a transport route.
Debsa Pass link between Kullu
and Spiti districts elevation of 5270 m above sea level
It offers a much easier and shorter

alternative route to traditional Pin-Parbati Pass
Page | 39
route between Kullu and Spiti
Rohtang Pass road link between
Kullu, Lahul and Spiti Elevation: 3979 m
Valleys
Border Road Organisation (BRO) is
responsible for constructing and maintaining
roads in this area. Rohtang pass is a great
tourist attraction and traffic jams are very
common because this route is widely used by
military, public and private vehicles.
Shipki La Himachal Pradesh
and Tibet Elevation: 6000 m
Remains closed in winter season (Nov -

Apr)
Uttarakhand
Lipu Lekh trijunction of This pass is used by pilgrims to Kailash-
Uttarakhand (India), Mansarowar.
Tibet (China) and
Nepal borders
Mana Pass Uttarakhand with
Tibet elevation of 5610
Situated a little north of the holy place of

Badhrinath
Remains closed in winter season (Nov -

Apr)
Mangsha Uttarakhand with It is used by pilgrims going to Kailash-
Dhura Tibet Mansarowar
Niti Pass Uttarakhand with
Tibet Remains closed in winter season (Nov -
Apr)
Muling La Uttarakhand and
Tibet situated in the north of Gangotri
at an elevation of 5669 m in the Great

Himalayas
Passes of the Eastern Himalayas
Sikkim
Nathu La Sikkim with Tibet
altitude of 4310 m
Page | 40
it forms part of an offshoot of the ancient
Silk Route
an important trade route between India

and China
It was closed after the Chinese aggression

on India in 1962 but was reopened in 2006 as
the governments of the two countries decided to
enhance their trade through land routes
Jelep La Sikkim-Bhutan border
altitude of 4538 m
passes through Chumbi Valley
important link between Sikkim and Lhasa

Arunachal Pradesh
Bom Di La Arunachal Pradesh
with Bhutan altitude of 4331 m
Situated at an altitude of 4331 m near the

western boundary of Bhutan in the Greater
Himalayas, this pass connects Arunachal
Pradesh with Lhasa
Dihang Pass Arunachal Pradesh
and Myanmar. elevation of more than 4000 m it provides
passage
Yonggyap Arunachal Pradesh
Pass with Tibet
Dipher Pass trijunction of India,
China and Myanmar easy access between Arunachal Pradesh
and Mandalay in Myanmar. It is an important
land trade route between India and Myanmar
and remains open throughout the year.
Kumjawng Arunachal Pradesh
Pass with Myanmar
Hpungan Pass Arunachal Pradesh
with Myanmar
Chankan Pass Arunachal Pradesh
with Myanmar
In this post: Formation of Indo Gangetic Gangetic Brahmaputra Plain,
Brahmaputra Plain, Features of Indo Geomorphological features of Indo

Gangetic Page
Brahmaputra
| 41 Plain: Bhabar,
Terai, Bhangar, Khadar and Reh or Kollar.
Formation of Indo Gangetic

Brahmaputra Plain
The formation of Indo-Gangetic

plain is closely related to the formation of
Himalayas.
Formation of Indo Gangetic

Brahmaputra trough
The rivers which were previously

flowing into Tethys sea (Before Indian
Plate collided with Eurasian Plate
continental drift, plate tectonics) deposited
huge amount of sediments in the Tethys
Geosyncline. [Geosyncline a huge
depression]
Himalayas are formed out of these

sediments which were uplifted, folded and
compressed due to northern movement of
Indian Plate.
Northern movement of Indian Plate also created a

trough to the south of Himalayas.
Depositional Activity
During the initial stages of

upliftment of sediments, the already
existing rivers changed their course
several times and they
were rejuvenated each time (perpetual
youth stage of rivers {Fluvial Landforms}).
The rejuvenation is associated with

intense headward and vertical
downcutting of the soft strata overlying
the harder rock stratum.
Headward erosion and vertical

Page | 42 The raising of Himalayas and
erosion of the river valley in the initial subsequent formation of glaciers gave rise
stages, lateral erosion in later stages to many new rivers. These rivers along
contributed huge amount of with glacial erosion {Glacial Landforms},
conglomerates (detritus)(rock debris, silt, supplied more alluvium which intensified
clay etc.) which were carried downslope. the filling of the depression.
[Head ward erosion == Erosion at With the accumulation of more and

the origin of a stream channel, which more sediments (conglomerates), the
causes the origin to move back away from Tethys sea started receding.
the direction of the stream flow, and so
causes the stream channel to lengthen] With passage of the time, the
depression was completely filled with
These conglomerates were deposited alluvium, gravel, rock debris
in the depression (Indo-Gangetic Trough (conglomerates) and the Tethys completely
or Indo-Gangetic syncline) (the base of disappeared leaving behind a monotonous
the geosyncline is a hard crystalline aggradational plain.
rock) between peninsular India and the
[monotonous == featureless
convergent boundary (the region of
topography; aggradational plain == plain
present day Himalayas).
formed due to depositional activity. Indo-
Gangetic plain is a monotonous
New rivers and more alluvium
aggradational plain formed due to fluvial
depositions].
Page | 43
Page | 44 The width of the plain varies from

region to region. It is widest in the west
where it stretches for about 500 km. Its
width decreases in the east.
The thickness of the alluvium

deposits also vary from place to place. The
maximum depth of the alluvium up to the
basement rocks is about 6,100 m (not
Upper peninsular rivers have also
uniform and varies greatly from place to
contributed to the formation of plains, but
place).
to a very small extent.
The cones or alluvial fans of Kosi in
During the recent times (since few
the north and those of Son in the south
million years), depositional work of three
exhibit greater alluvial thickness while the
major river systems viz., the Indus, the
intra-cone areas have relatively shallower
Ganga and the Brahmaputra have become
deposits.
predominant.
Extreme horizontality of this
Hence this arcuate (curved) plain is
monotonous plain is its chief
also known as Indo-Gangetic- characteristic.
Brahmaputra Plain.
Its average elevation is about 200 m
Features of Indo Gangetic above mean sea level, highest elevation
Brahmaputra Plain being 291 m above mean sea level
near Ambala (This elevation forms the
Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain is drainage divide or watershed between
the largest alluvial tract of the world. Indus system and Ganga system).
It stretches for about 3,200 Its average gradient from

Saharanpur to Kolkata is only 20 cm per
km from the mouth of the Indus to the
km and it decreases to 15 cm per km from
mouth of the Ganga. Indian sector of the
Varanasi to the Ganga delta.
plain accounts for 2,400 km.
The northern boundary is well Geomorphological features of Indo

marked by the Shiwaliks and the Gangetic Brahmaputra Plain
southern boundary is a wavy irregular line
along the northern edge of the Peninsular The Bhabar
India.
It is a narrow, porous, northern
The western boarder is marked most stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain.
by Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. On the
eastern side, the plains are bordered by
Purvanchal hills.
It is Page
about| 8-16
45 km wide running in extensive in the western and north-
east-west direction along the western hilly region.
foothills (alluvial fans) of the Shiwaliks.
The area is not suitable for agriculture
They show a remarkable continuity
and only big trees with large roots
from the Indus to the Tista.
thrive in this belt.
Rivers descending from the
Himalayas deposit their load along the
foothills in the form of alluvial fans. The Terai
These alluvial fans have merged Terai is an ill-drained, damp

together to build up the bhabar belt. (marshy) and thickly forested narrow
tract to the south of Bhabar running
The porosity of bhabar is the most parallel to it.
unique feature.
The Terai is about15-30 km wide.
The porosity is due to deposition of
huge number of pebbles and rock The underground streams of the
debris across the alluvial fans. Bhabar belt re-emerge in this belt.
The streams disappear once they This thickly forested region provides
reach the bhabar region because of this
porosity. shelter to a variety of wild life. [Jim
Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand

Therefore, the area is marked by dry
river courses except in the rainy season. and Kaziranga National Park in Assam
The Bhabar belt is lie in terai region]

comparatively narrow in the east and
The Page
Terai| is
46 more marked in the The Khadar is composed of newer
eastern part than in the west because the alluvium and forms the flood
eastern parts receive comparatively higher plains along the river banks.
amount of rainfall.
A new layer of alluvium is
Most of the Terai land, especially in
deposited by river flood almost every year.
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand,
has been turned into agricultural land
This makes them the most fertile
which gives good crops of sugarcane, rice
soils of Ganges.
and wheat.
Reh or Kollar
The Bhangar
Reh or Kollar comprises saline
The Bhangar is the older
efflorescences of drier areas in Haryana.
alluvium along the river beds forming
terraces higher than the flood plain. Reh areas have spread in recent
times with increase in irrigation (capillary
The terraces are often impregnated action brings salts to the surface).
with calcareous concretions known
as KANKAR. Regional Divisions of the Indo-
Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains
The Barind plains in the deltaic
region of Bengal and the bhur [Great Plains]
formations in the middle Ganga and
Yamuna doab are regional variations of 1. Sindh Plain
Bhangar.
2. Rajasthan Plain.
[Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land
3. Punjab Plain.
situated along the banks of the Ganga
river especially in the upper Ganga- 4. Ganga Plain.
Yamuna Doab. This has been formed due 5. Brahmaputra Plain.

to accumulation of wind-blown sands
6. Ganga Brahmaputra Delta
during the hot dry months of the year]
Sindh Plain [Pakistan]
Bhangar contains fossils of animals
like rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephants, Mainly formed of Bhangar Plains.
etc.
Dhors: Long narrow depressions
The Khadar which are the remnants of the course of
former rivers.
Dhand:
Page Alkaline
| 47 lakes on some Occupied by Thar or the Great
dhors. Indian Desert.
Rajasthan Plain This plain is an undulating plain

[wave like] whose average elevation is
about 325 m above mean sea level.
The Page |desert

48 region is This plain is formed by five
called Marusthali and forms a greater important rivers of Indus system.
part of the Marwar plain.
The plain is primarily made up of
It has a few outcrops of gneisses, doabs the land between two rivers.
schists and granites which proves that
geologically it is a part of the Peninsular The depositional process by the
Plateau. It is only at the surface that it rivers has united these doabs giving an
looks like an aggradational plain. homogenous appearance.
In general, the eastern part of the Punjab literally means "(The Land
Marusthali is rocky while its western part of) Five Waters" referring to the following
is covered by shifting sand dunes locally rivers: the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej,
known as and Beas.
The eastern part of the Thar Desert The total area of this plain is about
up to the Aravali Range is a semi-arid 1.75 lakh sq km.
plain known as Rajasthan Bagar.
The average elevation of the plain is
It is drained by a number of short about 250 m above mean sea level.
seasonal streams originating from the
The eastern boundary of Punjab
Aravali and supports agriculture in some
Haryana plain is marked by
patches of fertile tracts.
subsurface Delhi-Aravali ridge.
Luni is an important seasonal
The northern part of this plain
stream which flows into Rann of Kuchchh.
[Shiwalik hills] has been intensively
The tract north of the Luni is known
eroded by numerous streams called Chos.
as thali or sandy plain.
This has led to enormous gullying [Arid
Landforms].
Saline Lakes
To the south of the Satluj river there
North of the Luni, there is inland
is Malwa plain of Punjab.
drainage having several saline lakes. They
are a source of common salt and many The area between the Ghaggar and
other salts. the Yamuna rivers lies in Haryana and
often termed as Haryana Tract. It acts as
Sambhar, Didwana, Degana,
water-divide between the Yamuna and the
Kuchaman, etc. are some of the important
Satluj rivers.
lakes. The largest is the Sambhar lake
near Jaipur.
The only river between the
Yamuna and the Satluj is the Ghaggar
Punjab Plain
which is considered to be the present
day Successor of the legendary
Saraswati River
Ganga Plain
Page | 49 Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta
This is the largest unit of the Great This is the largest delta in the
Plain of India stretching from Delhi to world.
Kolkata (about 3.75 lakh sq km).
The Ganga river divides itself into
The Ganga along with its large several channels in the delta area. The
number of tributaries originating in the slope of the land here is a mere 2 cm per
Himalayans have brought large quantities km. Two thirds of the area is below 30 m
of alluvium from the mountains and above mean sea level. [Highly vulnerable to
deposited it here to build this extensive sea level changes]
plain.
The seaward face of the delta is
The peninsular rivers such as studded with a large number of estuaries,
Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Son, etc. joining the mud flats, mangrove swamps, sandbanks,
Ganga river system have also contributed islands and forelands.
to the formation of this plain.
Large part of the coastal delta is
The general slope of the entire plain covered tidal forests. These are called
is to the east and south east. the Sunderbans because of the
predominance of Sundri tree here.
Rivers flow sluggishly in the lower
sections of Ganges as a result of which the
Brahmaputra Plain
area is marked by local prominences such
as levees, bluffs, oxbow lakes, marshes,
This is also known as the
ravines, etc. {Fluvial Landforms, Arid
Brahmaputra valley or Assam
Landfroms}
Valley or Assam Plain as most of the
Almost all the rivers keep on shifting Brahmaputra valley is situated in Assam.
their courses making this area prone to
Its western boundary is formed by
frequent floods. The Kosi river is very
the Indo-Bangladesh border as well as the
notorious in this respect. It has long been
boundary of the lower Ganga Plain. Its
called the Sorrow of Bihar.
eastern boundary is formed
by Purvanchal hills.
Regional divisions of Ganga plains
It is an aggradational plain built up

Rohilkhand plains
by the depositional work of the
Avadh Plains Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
The innumerable tributaries of the

Mithila Plain
Brahmaputra river coming from the north
form a number of alluvial fans.
Magadh Plain.
Consequently, the tributaries branch out
in many channels giving birth to river
meandering leading
Page | 50 to formation of bill Plateau, Meghalaya Plateau, Deccan
and ox-bow lakes.
Plateau, Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka
There are large marshy tracts in this Plateau, Telangana plateau and
area. The alluvial fans formed by the
Chhattisgarh Plain.
coarse alluvial debris have led to the
formation of terai or semi-terai conditions.
Peninsular Plateau
Significance of the Plain
This one fourth of the land of the

country hosts half of the Indian
Features of the Peninsular Plateau
population.
Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, Roughly triangular in shape with its
slow moving perennial rivers and favorable base coinciding with the southern edge of
climate facilitate intense agricultural the great plain of North India. Apex of the
activity. triangular plateau is at Kanniyakumari.
The extensive use of irrigation has It covers a total area of about 16

made Punjab, Haryana and western part lakh sq km (India as a whole is 32 lakh sq
of Uttar Pradesh the granary of India km).
(Prairies are called the granaries of the
world). The average height of the plateau
is 600-900 m above sea level (varies from
The entire plain except the Thar region to region).
Desert, has a close network of roads and
railways which has led to large scale Most of the peninsular rivers flow
industrialization and urbanization. west to east indicating its general slope.
Cultural tourism: There are many Narmada-Tapti are the exceptions

religious places along the banks of the which flow from east to west in a rift (rift
sacred rivers like the Ganga and the is caused by divergent boundary (Go
Yamuna which are very dear to Hindus. back to Interaction of plates).
Here flourished the religions of Budha and
Mahavira and the movements of Bhakti The Peninsular Plateau is a one of
and Sufism. the oldest landforms of earth.
In this post: Peninsular Plateau Features It is a highly stable block composed

mostly of the Archaean gneisses and
of the Peninsular Plateau Marwar
schists {Rock System}.
Plateau or Mewar Plateau, Central
It has been a stable shield which
Highland, Bundelkhand Upland, Malwa
has gone through little structural changes
Plateau, Baghelkhand, Chotanagpur since its formation.
SincePage
few| 51
hundred million years, Peninsular Plateau is an aggregation
Peninsular block has been a land area and of several smaller plateaus, hill ranges
has never been submerged beneath the interspersed with river basins and valleys.
sea except in a few places.
Minor Plateaus
Page | 52in the Peninsular The Kali Sindh, flowing from Rana
Plateau Prataph Sagar, The Banas flowing
through Mewar plateau and
Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau The Parwan and the Parbati flowing from
Madhya Pradesh are its main tributaries.
It is the plateau of eastern
It is a rolling plateau with rounded
Rajasthan. [Marwar plain is to the west of
hills composed of sandstone. Thick forests
Aravalis whereas Marwar plateau is to the
grow here.
east].
To the north are the ravines or
The average elevation is 250-500 m
badlands of the Chambal river [They are
above sea level and it slopes down
typical to Chambal river basin]{ Arid
eastwards.
landforms}.
It is made up of sandstone, shales
and limestones of the Vindhayan period. Bundelkhand Upland
The Banas river, along with its Yamuna river to the north, Madhya
tributaries [Berach river, Khari Bharat Pathar to the west, Vindhyan
rivers] originate in the Aravali Range and Scarplands to the east and south-east and
flow towards northwest into Chambal Malwa Plateau to the south.
river. The erosional activity of these rives
It is the old dissected (divided by a
make the plateau top appear like a rolling
number of deep valleys) upland of the
plain.
Bundelkhand gneiss comprising
of granite and gneiss.
[Rolling Plain: Rolling plains are not
completely flat: there are slight rises Spreads over five districts of Uttar
Pradesh and four districts of Madhya
and fall in the land form. Ex: Prairies of Pradesh.
USA]
Average elevation of 300-600 m
above sea level, this area slopes down from
Central Highland the Vindhyan Scarp toward the Yamuna
River.
Also called the Madhya Bharat
The area is marked by a chain of
Pathar or Madhya Bharat Plateau. hillocks (small hill) made of granite and
sandstone.
It is to the east of the Marwar or
Mewar Upland. The erosional work of the rivers
flowing here have converted it into an
Most of plateau comprises the basin
undulating (wave like surface) area and
of the Chambal river which flows in a rift
rendered it unfit for cultivation.
valley.
The region
Page | is
53characterized by senile Made of limestones and sandstones
(characteristic of or caused by old age) on the west and granite in the east.
topography.
It is bounded by the Son river on
Streams like Betwa, the north.
Dhasan and Ken flow through the
plateau. The central part of the plateau acts
as a water divide between
Malwa Plateau the Son drainage system in the north and
the Mahanadi river system in the south.
The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a
The region is uneven with general
triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills,
elevation varying from 150 m to 1,200 m.
bounded by the Aravali Range in the west
and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the north
The Bhanrer and Kaimur are
and Bundelkhand to the east.
located close to the trough-axis.
This plateau has two systems of
The general horizontality of the
drainage; one towards the Arabian sea
strata shows that this area has not
(The Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahi),
undergone any major disturbance.
and the other towards the Bay of Bengal
(Chambal and Betwa, joining the Yamuna).
Chotanagpur Plateau
In the north it is drained by the
Chambal and many of its right bank Chotanagpur plateau represents the
tributaries like the Kali, the Sindh and the north-eastern projection of the Indian
Parbati. It also includes the upper courses Peninsula.
of the Sindh, the Ken and the Betwa.
Mostly in Jharkhand, northern part
It is composed of extensive lava flow of Chhatisgarh and Purulia district of West
Bengal.
and is covered with black soils.
The Son river flows in the north-

The general slope is towards the
north [decreases from 600 m in the south west of the plateau and joins the Ganga.
to less than 500 m in the north]
The average elevation of the plateau
This is a rolling plateau dissected by is 700 m above sea level.
rivers. In the north, the plateau is marked
This plateau is composed mainly
by the Chambal ravines.
of Gondwana rocks.
Baghelkhand The plateau is drained by numerous

rivers and streams in different directions
North of the Maikal Range is the and presents a radial drainage
Baghelkhand. pattern. {Drainage Pattern}
Rivers like
Page | 54 the Damodar, Garo-Rajmahal Gap separates this
the Subarnrekaha, the North Koel, plateau from the main block.
the South Koel and the Barkar have
developed extensive drainage basins. This gap was formed by down-
faulting (normal fault: a block of earth
The Damodar river flows through slides downwards). It was later filled by
the middle of this region in a rift valley sediments deposited by the Ganga and
from west to east. Here are found Brahmaputa.
the Gondwana coal fields which provide
bulk of coal in India. The plateau is formed by Archaean
quartzites, shales and schists.
North of the Damodar river is
the Hazaribagh plateau with an average The plateau slopes down to
elevation of 600 m above mean sea level. Brahmaputra valley in the north and the
This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like Surma and Meghna valleys in the south.
a peneplain due to large scale erosion.
Its western boundary more or less
The Ranchi Plateau to the south of coincides with the Bangladesh border.
the Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m
The western, central and the eastern
above mean sea level. Most of the surface
parts of the plateau are known as
is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661 m)
the Garo Hills (900 m), the Khasi-Jaintia
is located.
Hills (1,500 m) and the Mikir Hills (700
At places it is interruped m).
by monadnocks (an isolated hill or ridge
Shillong (1,961 m) is the highest
of erosion-resistant rock rising above a
peneplain. Ex: Ayers Rock in Australia) point of the plateau.
and conical hills.
Deccan Plateau
The Rajmahal Hills forming the
north eastern edge of the Chotanagpur It covers an area of about five lakh
Plateau are mostly made of basalt and are sq km.
covered by lava flows {Basaltic Lava}.
It is triangular in shape and is
They run in north-south direction bounded by the Satpura and
and rise to average elevation of 400 m the Vindhya in the north-west,
(highest mount is 567 m). These hills have
the Mahadev and the Maikal in the north,
been dissected into separate plateaus.
the Western Ghats in the west and
the Eastern Ghats in the east.
Meghalaya Plateau
Its average elevation is 600 m.
The peninsular plateau extends
further east beyond the Rajmahal hills to It rises to 1000 m in the south but
from Meghalaya or the Shillong plateau. dips to 500 m in the north.
Its general
Page | slope
55 is from west to east It is highly dissected by numerous
which is indicated by the flow of its major rivers rising from the Western Ghats.
rivers.
The general trend of the hills is
Rivers have further subdivided this either parallel to the Western Ghats or
plateau into a number of smaller plateaus. across it.
Maharashtra Plateau The highest peak (1913 m) is at

Mulangiri in Baba Budan Hills in
The Maharashtra Plateau lies in Chikmaglur district.
Maharashtra.
The plateau is divided into two parts
It forms the northern part of the called Malnad and Maidan.
Deccan Plateau.
The Malnad in Kannada means hill
Much of the region is underlain country. It is dissected into deep valleys
by basaltic rocks of lava origin [Most of covered with dense forests.
the Deccan Traps lies in this region].
The Maidan on the other hand is
The area looks like a rolling plain formed of rolling plain with low granite
due to weathering. hills.
The horizontal lava sheets have led The plateau tapers between the
to the formation of typical Deccan Trap Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats in
topography [step like]. the south and merges with the Niligiri
hills there.
The broad and shallow valleys of the
Godavari, the Bhima and the Krishna are Telangana plateau
flanked [bordered on the opposite sides] by
flat-topped steep sided hills and ridges. The Telangana plateau consists of
Archaean gneisses.
The entire area is covered by black
cotton soil known as regur. Its average elevation is 500-600 m.
Karnataka Plateau The southern part is higher than its

northern counterpart.
The Karnataka Plateau is also
known as the Mysore plateau. The region is drained by three river
systems, the Godavari, the Krishna and
Lies to the south of the Maharashtra the Penneru.
plateau.
The entire plateau is divided into
The area looks like a rolling plateau Ghats and the Peneplains (a vast
with an average elevation of 600-900 m. featureless, undulating plain which the
last stage of deposition process).
Chhattisgarh Plain
Page | 56 (horst: uplifted block; graben: subsided
block).
The Chhattisgarh plain is the only
The plateaus of the Peninsular
plain worth the name in the Peninsular
region are separated from one another by
plateau.
these hill ranges and various river valleys.
It is a saucer shaped depression
drained by the upper Mahanadi. Aravali Range
The whole basin lies between They are aligned in north-east to

the Maikala Range and the Odisha hills. south-west direction.
The region was once ruled They run for about 800 km
by Haithaivanshi Rajputs from whose between Delhi and Palanpur in Gujarat.
thirty six forts (Chhattisgarh) it derives its
name. They are one of the oldest (very
old) fold mountains of the world and the
The basin is laid with nearly oldest in India. {Fold Mountains Block
horizontal beds of limestone and shales. Mountains}
The general elevation of the plain After its formation in Archaean Era
ranges from 250 m in the east to 330 m in (several 100 million years ago), its
the west. summits were nourishing glaciers and
several summits were probably higher
In this post: Hills of Peninsular India - than the present day Himalayas.
Aravalis, Vindhyas, Satpuras, Western
Now they are relict (remnants after
Ghats, Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats. Hill severe weathering and erosion since
millions of years) of the world's oldest
Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau - Aravali
mountain formed as a result of folding
Range, Vindhyan Range, Satpura Range, (Archaean Era).
Western Ghats [Sahyadris] and Eastern
They continue up
Ghats. to Hariddwar buried under the alluvium
of Ganga Plains.
Hill Ranges of the Peninsular The range is conspicuous in

Plateau Rajasthan (continuous range south of
Ajmer where it rises to 900 m.) but
Most of the hills in the peninsular becomes less distinct in Haryana and
region are of the relict type (residual Delhi (characterized by a chain of
hills). detached and discontinuous ridges beyond
Ajmer).
They are the remnants of the hills
and horsts formed many million years ago
According
Page |to
57some geographers, one the northern edge of the Narmada-Son
Branch of the Aravalis extends to the Trough (the rift through which the
Lakshadweep Archipelago through the Narmada river flows)(trough is opposite of
Gulf of Khambhat and the other into ridge. It is a narrow depression).
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
It runs more or less parallel to
Its general elevation is only 400-600 the Narmada Valley in an east-west
m, with few hills well above 1,000 m. direction from Jobat in Gujarat to
Sasaram in Bihar for a distance of over
At the south-west extremity the 1,200 km.
range rises to over 1,000 m. Here Mt. Abu
(1,158 m), a small hilly block, is The general elevation of the
separated from the main range by Vindhyan Range is 300 to 650 m.
the valley of the Banas. Guru Sikhar
(1,722 m), the highest peak, is situated in Most parts of the Vindhayan Range
are composed of horizontally bedded
Mt. Abu.
sedimentary rocks of ancient age. {Rock
Pipli Ghat, Dewair and Desuri System}
passes allow movement by roads and
The Vindhyas are continued
railways.
eastwards as the Bharner and Kaimur
hills.
Vindhyan Range
This range acts as a watershed
The Vindhyan Range, overlooking
between the Ganga system and the river
(have a view of from above) the Narmada
systems of south India.
valley, rises as an escarpment (a long,
steep slope at the edge of a plateau or The rivers Chambal,
separating areas of land at different
Betwa and Ken rise within 30 km of the
heights) flanking (neighboring on one side)
Narmada.
Page | 58
Satpura Range It runs in an east-west direction

south of the Vindhyas and in between the
Satpura range is a series of seven Narmada and the Tapi, roughly parallel to
mountains (Sat = seven and pura = these rivers.
mountains)
It stretches for a distance of about
900 km.
PartsPage
of |the
59 Satpuras have been The northern section
folded and upheaved. They are regarded as
structural uplift or horst. The northern section of the Ghats
from Tapi valley to a little north of Goa is
Dhupgarh (1,350 made of horizontal sheets of Deccan lavas
m) near Pachmarhi on Mahadev Hills is (Deccan Traps).
the highest peak.
The average height of this section of
Amarkantak (1,127 m) is another the Ghats is 1,200 m above mean sea
important peak. level, but some peaks attain more heights.
Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris) Kalasubai (1,646 m) near Igatpuri,

Salher (1,567 m) about 90 km north of
They form the western edge of the Nashik, Mahabaleshwar (1,438 m) and
Deccan tableland. Harishchandragarh (1,424 m) are
important peaks.
Run from the Tapi valley (21 N
latitude) to a little north of Kanniyakumari Thal ghat and Bhor ghat are
(11 N latitude) for a distance of 1,600 km. important passes which provide passage
by road and rail between the Konkan
The Western Ghats are steep-sided, Plains in the west and the Deccan Plateau
terraced, flat-topped hills presenting a in the east.
stepped topography facing the Arabian Sea
coast. [Konkan coast == Maharashtra coast
This is due to the horizontally and Goa coast;

bedded lavas, which on weathering, have
given a characteristic landing stair Malabar Coast == Kerala and Karnataka
aspect to the relief of this mountain
chain. coast]
The Western Ghats abruptly rise as The Middle Sahyadri

a sheer wall to an average elevation of
1,000 m from the Western Coastal Plain. The Middle Sahyadri runs from
16N latitude upto Nilgiri hills.
But they slope gently on their
eastern flank and hardly appear to be a This part is made of granites and
mountain when viewed from the Deccan gneisses.
tableland.
This area is covered with dense
South of Malabar, the Nilgiris,
forests.
Anamalai, etc. present quite different
landscape due to the difference in
geological structure.
The Page
western
| 60 scarp is considerably South of the Pal ghat Gap there is
dissected by headward erosion of the west an intricate system of steep and rugged
flowing streams. slopes on both the eastern and western
sides of the Ghats.
The average height is 1200 m but
many peaks exceed 1500 m. Anai Mudi (2,695 m) is the highest
peak in the whole of southern India.
The Vavul Mala (2,339 m),
the Kudremukh (1,892 Three ranges radiate in different
m) and Pashpagiri (1,714 m) are directions from Anai Mudi. These ranges
important peaks. are the Anaimalai (1800-2000 m) to the
north, the Palani (900-1,200 m) to the
The Nilgiri Hills which join the north-east and the Cardamom Hills or
Sahyadris near the trijunction of the Ealaimalai to the south.
Karnataka, Kerala and TN, rise abruptly
to over 2,000 m.
Eastern Ghats
They mark the junction of the
Eastern Ghats run almost parallel to
Western Ghats with Eastern Ghats.
the east coast of India leaving broad plains
Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Makurti between their base and the coast.
(2,554 m) are important peaks of this
It is a chain of highly broken and
area.
detached hills starting from
the Mahanadi in Odisha to the Vagai in
The southern section
Tamil Nadu. They almost disappear
between the Godavari and the Krishna.
The southern part of the Western
Ghats is separated from the main
They neither have structural unity
Sahyadri range by Pal ghat nor physiographic continuity. Therefore
Gap [Palakkad Gap]. these hill groups are generally treated as
independent units.
The high ranges terminate abruptly
on either side of this gap. It is only in the northern part,
between the Mahanadi and the Godavari
Pal ghat Gap it is a rift valley. This that the Eastern Ghats exhibit true
gap is used by a number of roads and mountain character. This part comprises
railway lines to connect the plains of Tamil the Maliya and the Madugula
Nadu with the coastal plain of Kerala.
Konda ranges.
It is through this gap that moist-
The peaks and ridges of the Maliya
bearing clouds of the south-west monsoon
range have a general elevation of 900-
can penetrate some distance inland,
1,200 m and Mahendra Giri (1,501 m) is
bringing rain to Mysore region.
the tallest peak here.
The Page
Madugula
| 61 Konda range has 98 per cent of the Gondwana coal
higher elevations ranging from 1,100 m deposits of India are found in the
and 1,400 m with several peaks exceeding Peninsular Plateau.
1,600 m. Jindhagada Peak (1690
m) in Araku Valley Arma Konda (1,680 Besides there are large reserves of
m), Gali Konda (1,643 m) and Sinkram slate, shale, sandstones, marbles, etc.
Gutta (1,620 m) are important peaks.
A large part of north-west plateau is
covered with fertile black lava soil which is
Between the Godavari and the
extremely useful for growing cotton.
Krishna rivers, the Eastern Ghats lose
their hilly character and are occupied
Some hilly regions in south India
by Gondwana formations (KG Basin is are suitable for the cultivation of
here). plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber,
etc..
The Eastern Ghats reappear as
more or less a continuous hill range in
Some low lying areas of the plateau
Cuddapah and Kurnool districts of
are suitable for growing rice.
Andhra Pradesh where they are called
as Nallamalai Range [Naxalite hideout in The highlands of the plateau are
AP] with general elevation of 600-850 m. covered with different types of forests
which provide a large variety of forest
The southern part of this range is
products.
called the Palkodna range.
The rivers originating in the Western
To the south, the hills and plateaus Ghats offer great opportunity for
attain very low altitudes; only Javadi developing hydroelectricity and providing
Hills and the Shevroy-Kalrayan irrigation facilities to the agricultural
Hills form two distinct features of 1,000 m crops.
elevation.
The plateau is also known for its hill
The Biligiri Rangan Hills in resorts such as Udagamangalam (Ooty),
Coimbatore district attain a height of Panchmarhi, Kodaikanal,
1,279 m. Mahabaleshwar, Khandala, Matheron,
Mount Abu, etc.
Further south, the Eastern Ghats
merge with the Western Ghats. In this post: Coastline of India Indian
Significance of the Peninsular Coastline - East Coast of India, West Coast
Plateau of India, Coastlines: Coastlines of
Emergence and Submergence; Western

There are huge deposits of iron,
manganese. copper, bauxite, chromium, Coastal Plains Kutch and Kathiawar
mica, gold, etc. region: Gujarat Plain, Konkan Plain,
KarnatakaPage
Coastal
| 62Plain and Kerala Plain; Gondwanaland during the Cretaceous
period. {Continental Drift}
Eastern Coastal Plains of India: Utkal
Plain, Andhra Plain and Tamil Nadu Plain; As such the coast of India does not
offer many sites for good natural
Significance of the Coastal Plains.
harbours.
Coastline of India Indian [Indented coastlines of Europe provide

Coastline
good natural harbours whereas African
India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km and Indian coastlines are not indented].
[6100 km of mainland coastline +
coastline of 1197 Indian The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
islands] touching 13 States and Union Sea came into being during
Territories (UTs). the Cretaceous or early Tertiary period
after the disintegration of
The straight and regular coastline of
Gondwanaland.
India is the result of faulting of the
East Coast of |India

Page 63 the Karnataka coast and (iii) the Kerala
cost.
Lies between the Eastern Ghats and
the Bay of Bengal. It is made up of alluvium brought
down by the short streams originating
It extends from the Ganga delta to from the Western Ghats.
Kanniyakumari.
It is dotted with a large number
It is marked by deltas of rivers like of coves (a very small bay), creeks (a
the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna narrow, sheltered waterway such as an
and the Cauvery. inlet in a shoreline or channel in a marsh)
and a few estuaries. {Marine Landforms}
Chilka lake and the Pulicat lake
(lagoon) are the important geographical The estuaries, of the Narmada and
features of east coast. the Tapi are the major ones.
Regional Names of The East Coast of The Kerala coast (Malabar Coast)
India has some lakes, lagoons and backwaters,
the largest being the Vembanad Lake.
In Orissa (Odisha) it is known
as Utkal coast. Regional Names of The West Coast of
India
From the southern limit of the Utkal
plain, stretch the Andhra coast.
Konkan coast == Maharashtra
coast and Goa coast;
In the south of the Andhra plain is
the Tamil Nadu coast.
Malabar Coast == Kerala and
The Tamil Nadu coast and parts of Karnataka coast.
Andhra coast together are known
as Coramandal Coast or Payan Coastlines
Ghat [False Divi Point in AP (Krishna River
Already explained in Marine Landforms. I
Delta) in the north to Kanyakumari in the
south.]. am discussing here for continuity.
West Coast of India 1. Coastline of Emergence
The west coast strip extends from 2. Coastline of Submergence

the Gulf of Cambay (Gulf of
Khambhat) in the north to Cape Coastlines of Emergence and
Comorin (Kanniyakumari). Submergence
Starting from north to south, it is
divided into (i) the Konkan coast, (ii)
Coastline
Page |of
64 emergence is formed Kathiawar is made of the Deccan Lava and
either by an uplift of the land or by the there are tertiary rocks in the Kutch area),
lowering of the sea level. Coastline of they are still treated as integral part of the
submergence is an exact opposite case. Western Coastal Plains as they are now
levelled down.
Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes,
beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the The Kutch Peninsula was an island
typical features of emergence. {Marine surrounded by seas and lagoons. These
Landforms} seas and lagoons were later filled by
sediment brought by the Indus River
The east coast of India, especially its which used to flow through this area. Lack
south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast), of rains in recent times has turned it into
appears to be a coast of emergence. arid and semi-arid landscape.
The west coast of India, on the other Salt-soaked plain to the north of
hand, is both emergent and submergent. Kutch is the Great Rann. Its southern
continuation, known as the Little
The northern portion of the coast is Rann lies on the coast and south-east of
submerged as a result of faulting and the Kachchh.
southern portion, that is the Kerala coast,
is an example of an emergent coast. The Kathiawar Peninsula lies to the
south of the Kachchh. The central part is
1. Coramandal coast (Tamil Nadu) a highland of Mandav Hills from which
==> Coastline of emergence small streams radiate in all directions
(Radial Drainage). Mt. Girnar (1,117
2. Malabar coast (Kerala Coast) ==>
m) is the highest point and is of volcanic
Coastline of emergence
origin.
3. Konkan coast (Maharashtra and

The Gir Range is located in the
Goa Coast) ==> Coastline of southern part of the Kathiawar peninsula.
submergence. It is covered with dense forests and is
famous as home of the Gir lion.
Western Coastal Plains of India
Gujarat Plain
Rann of Kachchh in the north to
Kanniyakumari in the South. The Gujarat Plain lies east of
Kachchh and Kathiawar and slopes
These are narrow plains with an towards the west and south west.
average width of about 65 km.
Formed by the rivers Narmada,
Kutch and Kathiawar region Tapi, Mahi and Sabarmati, the plain
includes the southern part of Gujarat and
Kutch and Kathiawar, though an the coastal areas of the Gulf of Khambhat.
extension of Peninsular plateau (because
The Page
eastern
| 65part of this plain is Kerala Plain
fertile enough to support agriculture, but
the greater part near the coast is covered The Kerala Plain also known as
by windblown loess (heaps of sand). the Malabar Plain.
Konkan Plain Between Mangalore and

Kanniyakumari.
The Konkan Plain south of the
Gujarat plain extends from Daman to Goa This is much wider than the
(50 to 80 km wide). Karnataka plain. It is a low lying plain.
It has some features of marine The existence of lakes, lagoons,

erosion including cliffs, shoals, reefs and backwaters, spits, etc. is a significant
islands in the Arabian Sea. characteristic of the Kerala coast.
The Thane creek around Mumbai is The backwaters, locally known

an important embayment (a recess in a as kayals are the shallow lagoons or
coastline forming a bay) which provides inlets of the sea, lying parallel to the
an excellent natural harbour. coastline.
Karnataka Coastal Plain The largest among these is

the Vembanad Lake which is about 75 km
Goa to Mangalore. long and 5-10 km wide and gives rise to a
55 km long spit {Marine Landforms}.
It is a narrow plain with an average
width of 30-50 km, the maximum being Eastern Coastal Plains of India
70 km near Mangalore.
Extending from
At some places the streams the Subarnarekha river along the West
originating in the Western Ghats descend Bengal-Odisha border to Kanniyakumari.
along steep slopes and make waterfalls.
A major part of the plains is formed
The Sharavati while descending as a result of the alluvial fillings of the
over such a steep slope makes an littoral zone (relating to or on the shore of
impressive waterfall known as Gersoppa the sea or a lake) by the rivers Mahanadi,
(Jog) Falls which is 271 m high. [Angel Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery
falls (979 m) in Venezuela is the highest comprising some of the largest deltas.
waterfall on earth. Tugela Falls (948 m) in
Drakensberg mountains in South Africa is In contrast to the West Coastal
the second highest.] Plains, these are extensive plains with an
average width of 120 km.
Marine topography is quite marked
on the coast. This plain is known as the Northern
Circars between the Mahanadi and the
Krishna rivers 66 Carnatic between the

Page |and This part of the plain has a straight
Krishna and the Cauvery rivers. coast and badly lacks good harbours with
the exception
Utkal Plain of Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam.
The Utkal Plain comprises coastal Tamil Nadu Plain

areas of Odisha.
The Tamil Nadu Plain stretches for
It includes the Mahanadi delta. 675 km from Pulicat lake to
Kanniyakumari along the coast of Tamil
The most prominent physiographic Nadu. Its average width is 100 km.
feature of this plain is the Chilka Lake.
The most important feature of this
It is the biggest lake in the country plain is the Cauvery delta where the plain
and its area varies between 780 sq km in is 130 km wide.
winter to 1,144 sq km in the monsoon
months. The fertile soil and large scale
irrigation facilities have made the Cauvery
South of Chilka Lake, low hills dot delta the granary of South India.
the plain.
Significance of the Coastal Plains
Andhra Plain
Large parts of the coastal plains of
South of the Utkal Plain and India are covered by fertile soils on which
extends upto Pulicat Lake. This lake has different crops are grown. Rice is the main
been barred by a long sand spit known crop of these areas.
as Sriharikota Island (ISRO launch
facility). Coconut trees grow all along the
coast.
The most significant feature of this
plain is the delta formation by the rivers The entire length of the coast is
Godavari and Krishna. dotted with big and small ports which help
in carrying out trade.
The two deltas have merged with
each other and formed a single The sedimentary rocks of these
physiographic unit. plains are said to contain large deposits of
mineral oil (KG Basin).
The combined delta has advanced
by about 35 km towards the sea during The sands of Kerala coast have large
the recent years. This is clear from the quantity of MONAZITE which is used
present location of the Kolleru for nuclear power.
Lake which was once a lagoon at the
shore but now lies far inland {Coastline of Fishing is an important occupation
Emergence}. of the people living in the coastal areas.
Low Page
lying| 67
areas of Gujarat are
famous for producing salt.
Kerala backwaters are important

tourist destinations.
Goa provides good beaches. This is

also an important tourist destination.
In this post: Indian Islands - Andaman
and Nicobar Islands - Lakshadweep
Islands - New Moore Island.
Indian Islands
The major islands groups of India

are Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago (A
chain of islands similar in origin) in Bay of
Bengal and Lakshadweep islands in
Arabian Sea.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands were

formed due to collision between Indian
Plate and Burma Minor Plate [part of
Eurasian Plate][Similar to formation of
Himalayas].
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are

southward extension of Arakan Yoma Andaman and Nicobar Islands
range [Myanmar][Arakan Yoma in itself
is an extension of Purvanchal Hills]. This archipelago is composed of 265
big and small islands [203 Andaman
Lakshadweep Islands are coral islands + 62 Nicobar Islands][Numbers are
islands. These islands are a part Reunion just for understanding. You need not
Hotspot volcanism. [Both these concepts remember trivial facts].
are explained in previous posts]
The Andaman and Nicobar islands
Other than these two groups there extend from 6 45' N to 13 45' N and from
are islands in Indo-Gangetic Delta [they 92 10' E to 94 15' E for a distance of
are more a part of delta than islands] and about 590 km.
between India and Sri Lanka [Remnants of
Adams Bridge; formed due to
submergence].
The Page
Andaman
| 68 islands are divided Most of these islands are made of
into three main islands i.e. North, tertiary sandstone, limestone and shale
Middle and South. resting on basic and ultrabasic volcanoes
[Similar to Himalayas].
Duncan passage separates Little
Andaman from South Andaman. THE BARREN AND NARCONDAM
ISLANDS, north of Port Blair, are volcanic
The Great Andaman group of islands [these are the only active
islands in the north is separated by volcanoes in India][There are no active
the Ten Degree Channel from the Nicobar volcanoes in main land India].
group in the south [Prelims 2014].
Some of the islands are fringed
Port Blair, the capital of Andaman with coral reefs. Many of them are
Nicobar Islands lies in the South covered with thick forests. Most of the
Andaman. islands are mountainous.
Among the Nicobar islands, Saddle peak (737 m) in North

the Great Nicobar is the largest. It is the Andaman is the highest peak.
southernmost island and is very close to
Sumatra island of Indonesia. The Car
Nicobar is the northernmost.
Page | 69 They are widely scattered about

200-500 km south-west of the Kerala
coast.
Amendivi Islands are the northern

most while the Minicoy island is the
southernmost.
All are tiny islands of coral origin

{Atoll} and are surrounded by fringing
reefs.
The largest and the most advanced

is the Minicoy island with an area of 4.53
sq km.
Most of the islands have low

elevation and do not rise more than five
metre above sea level (Extremely
Vulnerable to sea level change).
Lakshadweep Islands Their topography is flat and relief

features such as hills, streams, valleys,
In the Arabian Sea, there are three etc. are absent.
types of islands.
New Moore Island
1. Amindivi Islands (consisting of six
main islands of Amini, Keltan, Chetlat,
Kadmat, Bitra and Perumul Par). [dont
have to remember all these names]
2. Laccadive Islands (consisting of five

major islands of Androth,
Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Pitti and Suheli Par)
and
3. Minicoy Island.
At present these islands are

collectively known as Lakshadweep.
The Lakshadweep Islands are a

group of 25 small islands.
It isPage
a small
| 70 uninhabited offshore
sandbar landform {Marine Landforms} in
the Bay of Bengal, off the coast of the
Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta region.
It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in

the aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in
1970. It keeps on emerging and
disappearing.
Although the island was

uninhabited and there were no permanent
settlements or stations located on it,
both India and Bangladesh claimed
sovereignty over it because of
speculation over the existence of oil
and natural gas in the region.
The issue of sovereignty was also a

part of the larger dispute over
the Radcliffe Award methodology of
settling the maritime boundary between
the two nations.
Drainage basin, Drainage Divide, The drainage basin includes both

Difference between a River Basin and a the streams and rivers and the land
surface.
Watershed. Drainage patterns
Discordant drainage patterns and The drainage basin acts as

a funnel by collecting all the water within
Concordant Drainage Patterns. the area covered by the basin and
channeling it to a single point.
Drainage basin
In closed ("endorheic")
drainage basins the water converges to a
Other terms that are used to
single point inside the basin, known as
describe drainage basins are catchment,
a sink, which may be a permanent lake
catchment area, catchment basin,
[Lake Aral], dry lake [some desert lakes],
drainage area, river basin, and water
or a point where surface water is lost
basin.
underground [sink holes in Karst
landforms]. Other Examples: Lake Chad
[Africa], Dead Sea etc.
Drainage Page
Divide
| 71
Adjacent drainage basins are

separated from one another by a drainage
divide. Drainage divide is usually a ridge
or a high platform.
Drainage divide is conspicuous in

case of youthful topography
[Himalayas] and it is not well marked in
plains [Ganga plains] and senile
topography [old featureless landforms
Rolling plateaus of Peninsular region
though which South Indian rivers flow].
Some important drainage basins

across the world
This is Wiki stuff. So cant guarantee
accuracy.
Basin Page | 72 Type Continent Drains to Basin
Area
km2
Amazon River Primary River South Atlantic Ocean 6,144,72
Difference between a River Basin Discordant drainage patterns are
America classified into two 7 main
and a Watershed
Hudson Bay Mediterranean North antecedent
types:Atlantic Oceanand superimposed.
3,861,40
Both river basinssea and watershedsAmerica 0
are areas of land that drain to a particular
Antecedent Drainage or
Congo River Primary River Africa Atlantic Ocean 3,730,47
water body, such as a lake, stream, river Inconsequent Drainage
4
or estuary.
Caspian Sea Lake Asia/Europ
(endorheic
A part of abasin
river == 3,626,00
slope and the
In a river basin, all the water drains
e surrounding area gets uplifted0 and the
not outlet)
to a large river. The term watershed is river sticks to its original slope, cutting
Nile River Primary River Africa Mediterranean Sea 3,254,55
used to describe a smaller area of land through the uplifted portion like a saw
that drains to a smaller stream, lake or 5 cutting],
[Vertical erosion or Vertical down
wetland. There
Mississippi-Missouri arePrimary
manyRiversmaller
North and Gulf of Mexico
forming deep gorges: this3,202,23
type of
watersheds within a river basin. drainage is called Antecedent drainage.
River America 0
Lake Chad
Example: watershedLake of YamunaAfrica+ n/a (endorheic basin) 2,497,91
Example: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra and
water shed of Chambal + watershed of 8
Gandak + . = Drainage basin of Ganga.multiple other Himalayan rivers that are older than
Black Sea Mediterranean Mediterranean Sea 2,400,00
the Himalayas themselves. There are
Drainage patterns sea 0
Niger River Primary River Africa Atlantic
usually calledOcean
as ANTECEDENT2,261,76
RIVERS.
Based on the shape and formation 3
of river patters, there
Yangtze areRiver
Primary different
Asia Superimposed or Epigenetic
Pacific Ocean 1,722,15
drainage patterns.
River (Chang Jiang) (Discordant) or Superinduced5
Baltic Sea Mediterranean Europe Drainage
Atlantic Ocean[4] 1,700,00
Discordant drainage patterns
sea 0
Ganges Primary River Asia When a river
Bay of Bengal flowing over a softer
1,621,00
A drainage pattern is described as
rock stratum reaches the harder basal
discordant
Brahmaputra if it does not correlate to the
rocks but continues to follow0 the initial
topology
Indus River [surface
Primary River relief
Asia slope,Arabian
it seemsSea 1,081,73
to have no relation with the
features] and geology [geological features harder rock bed. This type of 3drainage is
based on both Endogenetic movements called superimposed drainage.
and exogenetic movements] of the area.
Usually, the drainage patterns
In simple words: In a discordant (dendritic, trellis, etc.) are strongly
drainage pattern, the river follows its initial influenced by the hardness and softness
path irrespective of the changes in of the rock and patterns of faults or
topography. fractures.
Sometimes, however, the land rises

Page | 73 [In simple words, the river flow
rapidly relative to the base level of the becomes independent of present
stream. This increases the gradient of the Topography. It flows in its initial paths
stream and therefore, gives the stream without being influenced by changing
more erosive power. topography].
The stream has enough erosive Antecedent Drainage == Cut through the
power that it cuts its way through any
newly formed landform and maintain the
kind of bedrock, maintaining its former
drainage pattern. same path == Himalayan Rivers.
You get a situation, then, where the

Superimposed Drainage == Cut deeper
drainage pattern does not correspond to
the hardness or softness of the bedrock or through the existing landform and
to the locations of faults and fractures.
maintain the same path == Some medium
In other words, it is a drainage scale rivers of the Northern and Eastern
pattern which exhibits discordance with
peninsular India.
the underlying rock structure because it
originally developed on a cover of rocks
that has now disappeared due to Antecedent Drainage == The soil formed
denudation.
is weak and it is easily eroded by the
Consequently, river directions relate rivers.
to the former cover rocks and, as the latter
were being eroded, the rivers have been
able to retain their courses unaffected by Superimposed Drainage == The rivers
the newly exposed structures. have high erosive power so that they can
The stream pattern is thus superposed on, cut through the underlying strata.
or placed on structural features that were

Usually, rivers in both these drainage
previously buried.
types flow through a highly sloping
The Damodar, the Subarnarekha, surface.

the Chambal, the Banas and the rivers
flowing at the Rewa Plateau present some
Concordant Drainage Patterns
good examples of superimposed drainage.
Examples: The Damodar, the A drainage pattern is described as

Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the Banas concordant if it correlates to the
and the rivers flowing at the Rewa Plateau, topology and geology of the area.
rivers of eastern USA and southern
France.
In simple words: In a concordant

Page | 74 Dendritic or Pinnate Drainage
drainage pattern, the path of the river is
Pattern
highly dependent on the slope of the river
and topography.
Concordant drainage patterns are

the most commonly found drainage
patterns and are classified into many
types.
Consequent Rivers
The rivers which follow the general

direction of slope are known as the
consequent rivers.
Most of the rivers of peninsular

India are consequent rivers. This is an irregular tree branch
shaped pattern.
For example, rivers like Godavari,
Krishna and Cauvery, descending from the Drainage which is branching or
Western Ghats and flowing into the Bay of ramifying (branch out or cause to branch
Bengal, are some of the consequent rivers out) thereby giving the appearance of a
of Peninsular India. tree.
A dendritic pattern develops in a

Subsequent Rivers terrain which has uniform lithology, and
where faulting and jointing are
A tributary stream that is insignificant.
eroded along an underlying belt of non-
resistant rock after the main drainage Examples: Indus, Godavari,
pattern (Consequent River) has been Mahanadi, Cauvery, Krishna.
established is known as a subsequent
river. Trellis Drainage Pattern
The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa,
Tons and Son meet the Yamuna and the
Ganga at right angles. They are the
subsequent drainage of the Ganga
drainage system.
These streams have generally

developed after the original stream.
In this
Pagetype
| 75 of pattern the short The main stream bends at right
subsequent streams meet the main stream angles and the tributaries join at right
at right angles, and differential erosion angles creating rectangular patterns.
through soft rocks paves the way for
tributaries. This pattern has a subsequent
origin.
Examples: The old folded mountains
of the Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Example: Colorado river (USA),
Plateau) and Seine and its tributaries in streams found is the Vindhyan Mountains
of India.
Paris basin (France) have a drainage of
trellis pattern.
Radial Drainage Pattern
Angular Drainage Pattern
The tributaries from a summit
follow the slope downwards and drain
down in all directions.
Examples: Streams of Saurashtra

region, Central French Plateau, Mt.
Kilimanjaro.
A good example of a radial drainage

pattern is provided by the rivers
originating from the Amarkantak
Mountain.
The tributaries join the main stream
at acute angles.
This pattern is common in

Himalayan foothill regions.
Rectangular Drainage Pattern
Rivers like Narmada, Son and

Mahanadi originating from Amarkantak
Hills flow in different directions and are
good examples of radial pattern.
Radial drainage
Page | 76 patterns are also Example: Rivers of lesser Himalayas
found/in the Girnar Hills (Kathiwar, and The small and swift rivers originating
Gujarat), and Mikir Hills of Assam. in the Western Ghats that flow into
Arabian Sea.
Annular Drainage Pattern
Centripetal Drainage Pattern
In a low lying basin the streams

converge from all sides.
When the upland has an outer soft
stratum, the radial streams develop Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet,
subsequent tributaries which try to follow and the Baghmati and its tributaries in
a circular drainage around the summit. Nepal.
Example: Black Hill streams of

Deranged Drainage Pattern
South Dakota.
This is not a very common drainage This is an uncoordinated pattern of

pattern in India. Some examples of this drainage characteristic of a region recently
vacated by an ice-sheet.
are however found in Pithoragarh
(Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills in Tamil
This type of drainage is found in the
Nadu and Kerala. glaciated valleys of Karakoram.
Parallel Drainage Pattern Barbed Drainage Pattern
A pattern of drainage in which the

confluence of a tributary with the main
river is characterized by a discordant
junctionas if the tributary intends to
flow upstream and not downstream.
This pattern is the result of capture

The tributaries seem to be running
of the main river which completely
parallel to each other in a uniformly
reverses its direction of flow, while the
sloping region.
tributariesPage
continue
| 77 to point in the The Himalayan Rivers: Perennial
direction of former flow. rivers: Indus, the Ganga, the
Brahmaputra and their tributaries.
The Arun River (Nepal), a tributary
of the Kosi is an interesting example of The Peninsular Rivers: Non-
barbed drainage pattern. Perennial rivers: Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the
In this post: Contribution of Water by
Narmada and the Tapi and their
Various Rivers, Classification of Drainage tributaries.
Systems of India and Major River System

Drainage Systems Based on the
or Drainage Systems in India. Type of Drainage
The river systems of India can be classified

Contribution of Water by Various
Rivers into four groups viz.
River % Contribution of Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers and

water Coastal rivers that drain into the sea.
Brahmaputr ~ 40
a Rivers of the inland drainage basin
Ganga ~ 25 (endorheic basin). Streams like the
Godavari ~ 6.4 Sambhar in western Rajasthan are mainly
seasonal in character, draining into the
Mahanadi ~ 3.5
inland basins and salt lakes. In the Rann
Krishna ~ 3.4
of Kutch, the only river that flows through
Narmada ~ 2.9 the salt desert is the Luni.
Rest ~ 20
Classification of Drainage Drainage Systems Based on
Systems of India Orientation to the sea
Drainage Systems Based on the The Bay of Bengal drainage (Rivers

Size of the Catchment Area that drain into Bay of Bengal)(East flowing
rivers)
Division Size of catchment area in
Arabian sea drainage (Rivers that
sq km
drain into Arabian sea)(West flowing
Major river 20,000
rivers).
Medium 20,000 2,000
river The rivers Narmada (Indias holiest
Minor 2,000 and below river) and Tapti flow almost parallel to
river each other but empty themselves in
opposite directions (West flowing). The two
Drainage Systems Based on Origin
rivers make the|valley

Page 78 rich in alluvial soil
and teak forests cover much of the land.
The Bay of Bengal drainage Arabian Sea drainage

Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal Rivers that drain into Arabian sea
East flowing rivers West flowing rivers
~ 77 per cent of the drainage area of the ~ 23 per cent of the drainage area of the
country is oriented towards the Bay of country is oriented towards the Arabian sea
Bengal
The Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the The Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi,
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Sabarmati, the Mahi and the large
the Cauvery, the Penneru, the number of swift flowing western coast rivers
Penneiyar, the Vaigai, etc. descending from the Sahyadris.
The area covered by The Bay of Indian Rivers that flow into Arabian
Bengal drainage and Arabian Sea drainage Sea are seasonal or non-perennial (Luni,
are not proportional to the amount of Narmada, etc.).
water that drains trough them.
Occurrence of more cyclonic rainfall
Over 90 per cent of the water in the eastern parts is another major
reason.
drains into the Bay of Bengal; the
rest is drained into the Arabian Major River System or

Drainage Systems in India
Sea or forms inland drainage.
Himalayan River systems
Lop sided distribution
Indus River System
The Arabian Sea drainage or
Brahmaputra River System
Western drainage receive less rainfall
[Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab receive
Ganga River System
very low rainfall].
Peninsular River Systems
The Eastern drainage or the Bay of
Bengal drainage receives rainfall both from
Godavari River System
South-west and North-east monsoons.
Krishna River System
Most of the Himalayan waters
(perennial rivers) flow into eastern Cauvery River System
drainage (Ganges and Brahmaputra).
Mahanadi River System
WestPage
Flowing
| 79 Peninsular River Narmada River System
Systems
Tapti River System

Page | 80


Page | 81


Page | 82
High Resolution Image. View in a New Indus River, Jhelum River, Chenab
Tab
River, Ravi River, Beas River and
In this post: Himalayan River
Satluj River.
System Indus River System
Himalayan
Page | 83River Systems
The Indus, the Ganga and the

Brahmaputra comprise the Himalayan
river systems.
The Himalayan Rivers existed even

before the formation of Himalayas i.e.
before the collision of Indian Plate with
the Eurasian plate. {Antecedent Drainage}
They were flowing into the Tethys

Sea. These rivers had their source in the
now Tibetan region.
The deep gorges of the Indus, the

Satluj, the Brahmaputra etc. clearly
indicate that these rivers are older than
the Himalayas.
They continued to flow throughout

the building phase of the Himalayas; their
banks rising steeply while the beds went
lower and lower due to vertical erosion
(Vertical down cutting was significant and
was occurring at a rate faster than the
rising of Himalayas), thus cutting deep
gorges.
Thus, many of the Himalayan Rivers

are typical examples of antecedent
drainage.
Indus River System

Sindhu
Page | 84 Sanskrit
Sinthos Greek
Indus River The gradient of the river in J&K is
Sindus Latin very gentle (about 30 cm per km).
Major Rivers
India got of Indus
her name Source
from Indus. Length
River System Average elevation at which the Indus
IndusIndus Valley Civilization
The Glaciers
was offlows through
Kailas JK is about
Range 28804000
km m above
total.
born around this river. sea level.
(Close to Manasarovar Lake) 710 km in
It flows in north-west direction from Zaskar River at
It is joined by the India
its source
Jhelum (Glaciers of Kailas Range
Verinag Leh (these kind of points are important
720 km for
Kailash
Chenab range in Tibet near Lake Lachaprelims).
Bara Pass 1180 km
Ravi
Manasarovar) till Near Rohtang Pass
Nanga
the 725 km
Beas
Parbhat Range. Near Rohtang Pass
Near Skardu, it 460
is kmjoined by
Satluj the Shyok
Manasarovar-Rakas at an elevation
Lakes 1450 of about 2,700
km total
Its length is about 2,900 km. Its m.
List of important passes 1050 km in
total drainage area is about 1,165,000
square km [more than half of it lies in inpreviousThe
given Gilgit, Gartang,
posts Dras, Shiger,
India
semiarid plains of Pakistan]. It is joined Hunza are the other Himalayan
by Dhar River near Indo-China border. tributaries of the Indus.
After entering J&K it flows between It crosses the Himalayas (ends its
the Ladakh and the Zaskar Ranges. It mountainous journey) through a 5181 m
flows through the regions of Ladakh, deep gorge near Attock, lying north of
Baltistan and Gilgit. the Nanga Parbat. It takes a sharp
southerly bend here (syntaxial bend).
Page | 85
Kabul river from Afghanistan joins accumulated waters of the five eastern
Indus near Attock. Thereafter it flows tributariesthe Jhelum, the Chenab, the
through the Potwar plateau and crosses Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj.
the Salt Range (South Eastern edge of
The river empties into the Arabian
Potwar Plateau).
Sea south of Karachi after forming a huge
Some of the important tributaries delta.
below Attock include the Kurram,
Toch and the Zhob-Gomal. Major Tributaries of Indus River
Just above Mithankot, the Indus Jhelum River

receives from Panjnad (Panchnad), the
The Page
Jhelum
| 86 has its source in It joins the Chenab at Trimmu.
a spring at Verinag in the south-eastern
part of the Kashmir Valley. The river is navigable for about
160 km out of a total length of 724 km.
Chenab River
The Chenab originates from near

the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul-
Spiti part of the Zaskar Range.
Two small streams on opposite sides

of the pass, namely Chandra and Bhaga,
form its headwaters at an altitude of 4,900
m.
The united
stream Chandrabhaga flows in the north-
west direction through the Pangi valley,
parallel to the Pir Panjal range.
It flows northwards into Wular
Lake (north-western part of Kashmir Near Kistwar, it cuts a deep gorge.
Valley). From Wular Lake, it changes its
It enters the plain area
course southwards. At Baramulla the
near Akhnur in Jammu and Kashmir.
river enters a gorge in the hills.
From here it through the plains of
The river forms steep-sided narrow
Pakistani Punjab to reach Panchnad
gorge through Pir Panjal
where it joins the Satluj after receiving the
Range below Baramula.
waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers.
At Muzaffarabad, the river takes a
Ravi River
sharp hairpin bend southward.
Thereafter, it forms the India- The Ravi has its source in Kullu
Pakistan boundary for 170 km and hills near the Rohtang Pass in Himachal
emerges at the Potwar Plateau near Pradesh.
Mirpur.
It drains the area between the Pir
After flowing through the spurs of Panjal and the Dhaola Dhar ranges.
the Salt Range it debouches (emerge
from a confined space into a wide, open After crossing Chamba, it takes a
area) on the plains near the city of south-westerly turn and cuts a deep gorge
Jhelum. in the Dhaola Dhar range.
It Page
enters
| 87 Punjab Plains famous Bhakra dam has been
near Madhopur and later enters Pakistan constructed.
below Amritsar.
After entering the plain at Rupnagar
It debouches into the Chenab a little (Ropar), it turns westwards and is joined
above Rangpur in Pakistani Punjab. by the Beas at Harike.
Beas River From near Ferozepur to Fazilka it

forms the boundary between India and
The Beas originates near Pakistan for nearly 120 km.
the Rohtang Pass, at a height of 4,062 m
During its onward journey it
above sea level, on the southern end of
receives the collective drainage of the Ravi,
the Pir Panjal Range, close to the
Chenab and Jhelum rivers. It joins the
source of the Ravi.
Indus a few kilometres above Mithankot.
It crosses the Dhaola Dhar range

Out of its total length of 1,450 km,
and it takes a south-westerly direction and
it flows for 1,050 km in Indian territory.
meets the Satluj river at Harike in
Punjab. Indus water treaty
It is a comparatively small river
The waters of the Indus river system
which is only 460 km long but lies
are shared by India and Pakistan
entirely within the Indian territory.
according to the Indus Water Treaty signed
between the two countries on 19th
Satluj River
September, 1960.
The Satluj rises from According to this treaty, India can

the Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes in western utilize only 20 per cent of its total
Tibet at a height of 4,570 m within 80 km discharge of water.
of the source of the Indus.
In this post: Ganga Brahmaputra River
Like the Indus, it takes a north-
westerly course upto the Shipki La on the System - Ganga River: Ganga
Tibet-Himachal Pradesh boundary. Brahmaputra Delta. Right Bank
It cuts deep gorges where it pierces Tributaries of The Ganga, Left Bank
the Great Himalaya and the other
Tributaries of The Ganga River.
Himalayan ranges.
Before entering the Punjab plain, it Ganga River System

cuts a gorge in Naina Devi Dhar, where the
Page | 88
River Source
Bhagirathi (Ganga) Gangotri glacier
Yamuna Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak
Chambal Janapao Hills in the Vindhya Range
Banas Aravali Range
Betwa Page | 89 Bhopal district

Ken Barner Range
Son Amarkantak Plateau
Damodar (Sorrow of Bengal) Chotanagpur plateau
Ramganga River Garhwal district of Uttarakhand
Ghaghra River Gurla Mandhata peak, south of
Manasarovar in Tibet (river of the trans-
Himalayan origin)
The Kali River (border between Nepal and Glaciers of trans-Himalayas
Uttarakhand)
Gandak River Tibet-Nepal border
Burhi Gandak Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border
Kosi (Sorrow of Bihar) Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi unite at Triveni
north of the Mahabharata Range to form the
Kosi.
Ganga River
Karan Prayag)
The Ganga originates

Pindar (rises from Nanda Devi)
as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri
glacier in Uttar Kashi District of Mandakini or Kali Ganga (joins
Uttarakhand at an elevation of 7,010 m. Alaknanda at Rudra Prayag)
Alaknanda River Dhauliganga

joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag.
Bishenganga.
From Devapryag the river is
called as Ganga. [Kishenganga is the tributary of Jhelum]
Ganga debouches [emerge from a

The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluted
confined river of the
space world
into a in 2007.
wide, open area]
from the hills into plain area at
Pollution threatens many fish species and amphibian species and the
endangered Ganges river dolphin (Blind Dolphin)
It is joined by
the Yamuna at Allahabad.
The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been a
major failure thus far, due to corruption, lack
of technical expertise, Hills
Near Rajmahal poor itenvironmental
turns to the
planning, and lack of support from religious authorities.
south-east.
Major tributaries of Alaknanda Major tributaries of Bhagirathi
At Farraka, it bifurcates
East Trisul (joins Alaknanda at into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West
Bengal and Padma-Meghna in
Bangladesh (it ceases

Page | 90 to be known as the Most of them except
Ganga after Farraka). Yamuna originate in the peninsular
region.
Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it
is known here) joins Padma-Meghna at Yamuna River
The total length of the Ganga river
Largest and the most important
from its source to its mouth (measured
tributary.
along the Hugli) is 2,525 km.
It originates from the Yamnotri
Ganga Brahmaputra Delta
glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak in the
Garhwal region in Uttarakhand at an
Before entering the Bay of Bengal,
elevation of about 6,000 meters.
the Ganga, along with the Brahmaputra,
forms the largest delta of the It cuts across the Nag Tibba,
world between the Bhagirathi/Hugli and the Mussoorie and the Shiwalik ranges.
the Padma/Meghna covering an area of
58,752 sq km. It emerges out of the hilly area and
enters plains near
The coastline of delta is a highly
indented area. Its main affluent in the upper
reaches is the Tons which also rises from
The delta is made of a web of the Bandarpunch glacier.
distributaries and islands and is covered
by dense forests called the It joins Yamuna below Kalsi before
the latter leaves the hills.
A major part of the delta is a low-
lying swamp which is flooded by marine At this site, the water carried by the
water during high tide. Tons is twice the water carried by the
Yamuna.
Right Bank Tributaries of The
Ganga
Page | 91
Non Peninsular Tributaries Peninsular Tributaries

1. Rishiganga Most of the Peninsular rivers flow into the
2. Uma Yamuna between Agra and Allahabad.
3. Hanuman Ganga and 1. Chambal
4. Tons join it in the mountains. 2. Sind
5. Hindon joins at Ghaziabad in the plain area 3. Betwa
4. Ken.
It unites with the Ganga The Chambal rises in the highlands

near Triveni Sangam, Allahabad. of Janapao Hills (700 m) in the Vindhyan
Range.
The total length of the Yamuna from
its origin till Allahabad is 1,376 km. It flows through the Malwa Plateau.
It creates the highly fertile It joins the Yamuna in Etawah

alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges Doab region district of Uttar Pradesh.
between itself and the Ganges in the Indo-
Gangetic plain. The river flows much below its
banks due to severe erosion because of
Chambal River poor rainfall and numerous deep ravines
have been Page

formed
| 92in the Chambal Valley, It join the Chambal on Rajasthan
giving rise to badland topography. {Arid Madhya Pradesh border near Sawai
Landforms} Madhopur.
The total length of the river is 1,050 Sind River

km.
The Sind originates in Vidisha
Dams on the Chambal
Plateau of Madhya Pradesh.
The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first
It flows for a distance of 415 km
of the four dams built on the Chambal
before it joins the Yamuna.
River, located on the Rajasthan-Madhya
Pradesh border. Betwa River
The Rana Pratap Sagar dam is a

The Betwa rises in Bhopal district
dam located 52 km downstream of Gandhi
(Vindhyan Range) and joins the Yamuna
Sagar dam on across the Chambal River in
near
Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan.
It has a total length of 590 km.
The Jawahar Sagar Dam is the
third dam in the series of Chambal Valley
The Dhasan is its important
Projects, located 29 km upstream of Kota
tributary.
city and 26 km downstream of Rana
Pratap Sagar dam.
Ken River
The Kota Barrage is the fourth in

The Ken river rising from the Barner
the series of Chambal Valley Projects,
Range of Madhya Pradesh joins the
located about 0.8 km upstream of Kota
Yamuna near Chila.
City in Rajasthan.
Water released after power Son River

generation at Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana
Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar The Son River rises in
Dams, is diverted by Kota Barrage for the Amarkantak Plateau.
irrigation in Rajasthan and in Madhya
Pradesh through canals. Its source is close to the origin of
the Narmada.
Keoladeo National Park is supplied with water from Chambal river irrigation project.
It passes along the Kaimur Range.
Banas River
It joins the Ganga near Danapur in
The Banas is a tributary of the Patna district of Bihar.
Chambal.
It flows for a distance of 784 km
It originates in the southern part of from its source.
the Aravali Range.
The important
Page | 93 tributaries of the Son These rivers originate in the
are the Johilla, the Gopat, the Rihand, the Himalayas.
Kanhar and the North Koel. Almost all the
tributaries join it on its right bank. The major tributaries apart from the
Yamuna, are the Ramganga, the Gomati,
Damodar river the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Burhi
Gandak, the Bagmati, and the Kosi.
The Damodar river rises in the hills
of the Chotanagpur plateau and flows Ramganga River
through a rift valley.
The Ramganga river rises in
Rich in mineral resources, the valley the Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.
is home to large-scale mining and
industrial activity. It enters the Ganga Plain near
Kalagarh.
It has a number of tributaries and
subtributaries, such as Barakar, Konar, It joins the Ganga at
Bokaro, Haharo, etc.
The Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril, the
The Barakar is the most important Kosi, and the Deoha (Gorra) are important
tributary of the Damodar. tributaries of Ramganga.
Several dams have been constructed Ghaghra River

in the valley, for the generation of
hydroelectric power. The valley is Its source is near Gurla Mandhata
called the Ruhr of India. peak, south of Manasarovar in
Tibet (river of the trans-Himalayan
The first dam was built across the origin).
Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar
river. It is known as the Karnaili in
Western Nepal.
It used to cause devastating floods
as a result of which it earned the name Its important tributaries are
Sorrow of Bengal. Now the river is tamed
the Sarda, the Sarju (Ayodhya is located
by constructing numerous dams.
on its bank) and the Rapti.
It joins the Hugli River 48 km
The Ghaghara joins the Ganga a few
below Kolkata.
kilometres downstream of Chhapra in
Bihar.
The total length of the river is 541
km.
After reaching the plain area, its
stream gets divided into many branches of
Left Bank Tributaries of The which, Koriyab and Garwa are important.
Ganga River
The Page
river |bed
94 is sandy and sudden Kosi River
bends start occurring in the stream.
The Kosi river consists of seven
The river has a high flood frequency
streams namely Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi,
and has shifted its course several times.
Talkha, Doodh Kosi, Botia Kosi, Arun
and Tamber and is popularly known as
Kali River
These streams flow through eastern
Rises in the high glaciers of trans-
Nepal which is known as the Sapt
Himalaya.
Kaushik region.
It forms the boundary
The sources of seven streams of the
between Nepal and Kumaon.
Kosi are located in snow covered areas
which also receive heavy rainfall.
It is known as the Sarda after it
reaches the plains near Tanakpur. Consequently, huge volume of water
flows with tremendous speed.
It joins the
Seven streams mingle with each
Gandak River other to form three streams named the
Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi.
Originates near the Tibet-Nepal
border at a height of 7,620 m They unite at Triveni north of
the Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.
It receives a large number of
tributaries in Nepal Himalaya. The river enters the Tarai of Nepal
after cutting a narrow gorge in the
Its important tributaries are Mahabharata Range.
the Kali Gandak, the Mayangadi, the
Bari and the Trishuli. The joins the Ganga near
It debouches into the plains at Soon after debouching onto the

plain the river becomes sluggish.
It flows into Ganga at Hajipur in
Bihar. Large scale deposition of eroded
material takes place in the plain region.
Burhi Gandak
The river channel is braided and it
shifts its course frequently. This has
Originates from the western slopes
resulted in frequent devastating floods and
of Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal
has converted large tracts of cultivable
border. land into waste land in Bihar. Thus the
river is often termed as the Sorrow of
It joins the Ganga near Monghyr
Bihar.
town.
In order
Pageto| tame
95 this river, a barrage
was constructed in 1965 near Hanuman
Nagar in Nepal.
Embankments for flood control have

been constructed as a joint venture of
India and Nepal.
Brahmaputra River System

Region
Page | 96 Name
Tibet Tsangpo (meaning 'The Purifier')
ChinaThe Brahmaputra (meaning
Yarlung the son
Zangbo Jiangin
Here it cuts across the eastern
of Brahma).
Assam Valley Himalaya
Dihang or Siong, South of through the Dihang or Siang
Sadiya: Brahmaputra
Bangladesh Jamuna River Gorge and emerges from the mountains
It is 2,900 km in length. near Sadiya in the Assam Valley.
Padma River: Combined Waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra
Meghana: From
Source: Chemayungdung the confluence of Padma and Meghna [View
glacier Here it first flows under the name of
(Kailas Range) at an image
elevation of
above] about Siong and then as the Dihang.
5,150 m. Its source is very close to the
sources of Indus and Satluj. In the north-eastern parts of Assam
Valley, it is joined by two important
Mariam La separates the source of tributaries viz, the Dibang (or
the Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Sikang) from the north and Lohit from
Lake. the south.
Brahmaputra flows eastwards in

From Sadiya (Assam Valley)
Southern Tibet for about 1,800 km.
onwards, this mighty river is known as the
In Tibet it passes through
The main streams merging with the
the depression formed by the Indus- Brahmaputra from the north are,
Tsangpo Structure Zone between the Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri (north),
Great Himalayas in the south and the Raidak, Tista etc..
Kailas Range in the north.
The Tista was a tributary of the
Inspite of the exceptionally high Ganga prior to the floods of 1787 after
altitude, the Tsangpo has a gentle which it diverted its course eastwards to
slope. The river is sluggish and has a wide join the Brahmaputra.
navigable channel for about 640 km.
The Brahmaputra has a braided
It receives a large number of channel (flow into shallow interconnected
tributaries in Tibet. The first major channels divided by deposited earth) for
tributary is the Raga Tsangpo meeting the most of its passage through Assam where
Tsangpo near Lhatse Dzong. channels keep shifting. It carries a lot of
silt and there is excessive meandering.
The river Ngangchu flows through
the trade centre of Gyantse in the south The river is nearly 16 km wide at
and joins the main river. Dibrugarh and forms many islands, the
most important of which is MAJULI. It is
Towards the end of its journey in 90 km long and measures 20 km at its
Tibet, its course abruptly takes a south widest.
ward turn around Namcha Barwa (7,756
m)(Syntaxial Bend). With rainfall concentrated during
the monsoon months only the river has to
carry enormous quantities of water and

Page | 97 Peninsula rivers are
silt which results in disastrous floods. The much older than the Himalayan rivers
Brahmaputra is thus truly a River of {Discordant}.
Sorrow.
The peninsular drainage is mainly
The river is navigable for a distance Concordant except for few rivers in the
of 1,384 km upto Dibrugarh from its upper peninsular region.
mouth and serves as an excellent inland
water transport route. They are non-perennial rivers with
a maximum discharge in the rainy season.
Brahmaputra bends southwards
and enters Bangladesh near Dhubri. The peninsular rivers have
reached mature stage {Fluvial Landforms}
It flows for a distance of 270 km in and have almost reached their base
the name of Jamuna river and joins the level. [Vertical downcutting is
Ganga at negligible].
The united stream of the Jamuna The rivers are characterized

and the Ganga flows further in the name by broad and shallow valleys.
of
The river banks have gentle slopes
About 105 km further downstream, except for a limited tract where faulting
the Padma is joined on the left bank by forms steep sides.
the Meghna, originating in the
mountainous region of Assam. The main water divide in
peninsular rivers is formed by the Western
From the confluence of Padma and Ghats, which run from north to south
Meghna, the combined river is known as close to the western coast.
the Meghna which makes a very broad
estuary before pouring into the Bay of The velocity of water in the rivers
Bengal. and the load carrying capacity of the
streams is low due to low gradient.
In this post: Peninsular River
System or Peninsular Drainage Most of the major rivers of the

peninsula such as the Mahanadi, the
Evolution of the Peninsular Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery
Drainage, Peninsular River Systems, flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of
Bengal. These rivers make deltas at their
Himalayan River System vs.
mouths.
Peninsular River System.
But the west flowing rivers of
Narmada and Tapi as well as those
Peninsular River System or originating from the Western Ghats and
Peninsular Drainage
falling in the | 98 Sea form estuaries

PageArabian to subsidence in few regions creating a
in place of deltas. series of rifts (trough, faults).
There are few places where rivers The now west flowing rivers of the
form superimposed and rejuvenated
Peninsula, namely the Narmada
drainage which are represented by
and the Tapi flow through these
Examples: The Jog on the
Sharvati (289 m), Yenna of rifts.
Mahabaleshwar (183 m), Sivasamundram
on the Cauvery (101 m), Gokak on the Straight coastline, steep western
Gokak (55 m), Kapildhara (23 m) slope of the Western Ghats, and
and Dhuandar (15 m) on the Narmada are the absence of delta formations on the
the major waterfalls in the Peninsular western coast makes this theory a
India. possibility.
Evolution of the Peninsular Theory 2

Drainage
It is believed that the west flowing
Theory 1 peninsular rivers do not flow in the valleys
formed by the rivers themselves.
Geologists believe that
Rather they have occupied two fault
the Sahyadri-Aravali axis was the main
rifts in rocks running parallel to the
water divide in the past.
Vindhyas.
According to one hypothesis, the
These faults are supposed to
existing peninsula is the remaining half of
be caused by bend of the northern part
bigger landmass.
of the Peninsula at the time of upheaval
The Western Ghats were located in of the Himalayas.
the middle of this landmass.
Peninsular block, south of the
So one drainage was towards east cracks, tilted slightly eastwards during the
flowing into Bay of Bengal and the other event thus giving the orientation to the
towards west draining into Arabian Sea. entire drainage towards the Bay of Bengal.
The western part of the Peninsula Criticism: Tilting should have

cracked and submerged in the Arabian increased the gradient of the river valleys
Sea during the early Tertiary period and caused some rejuvenation of the
(coinciding with the formation of rivers. This type of phenomenon is absent
Himalayas). in the Peninsula, barring a few exceptions
such as waterfalls.
During the collision of the Indian
plate, the Peninsular block was subjected
Peninsular
Page | 99River System
Rivers that drain into Bay of

Bengal: The Mahanadi, the Godavari,
the Krishna, the Cauvery and several
smaller rivers drains south-east into the
Bay of Bengal.
Rivers that drain into Arabian

Sea: The Narmada, the Tapi, the
Mahi flowing west as well as several small
streams originating from the Western
Ghats flow westwards into the Arabian
Sea.
Rivers that drain into the

Ganges: Tributaries of the Ganga and the
Yamuna such as the Chambal, the Betwa,
the Ken, the Son and the Damodar flow in
the north-easterly direction.
Himalayan River System vs.

Peninsular River System
The
Page | 100 Himalayan River The Peninsular River System
System
These rivets originate from These rivers originate in the
the lofty Himalayan ranges Peninsular Plateau and are
and are named as the named as Peninsular rivers.
Himalayan rivers.
Cat These rivers These rivers have small basins
ch have large basins and and catchment areas. The
me catchment areas. The total Godavari has the largest basin
basin area of the Indus, the area of 3.12 lakh square

nt
Ganga and the Brahmaputra kilometres only which is less
are
is 11.78, 8.61 and 5.8 lakh than one-third the basin area of
a
square kilometres the Indus.
respectively.
Vall The Himalayan rivers flow The Peninsular rivers flow in
eys through deep V - shaped comparatively shallow valleys.
valleys called gorges. These These are more or less
gorges have been carved out completely graded valleys. The
by down cutting carried on rivers have little erosional
side by side with the uplift of activity to perform.
the Himalayas.
Dra These are examples These are examples
ina of antecedent drainage. of consequent drainage.
ge
Typ
e
Wat The Himalayan rivers The Peninsular rivers receive
er are perennial in nature, i.e., water only from rainfall and
Flo water flows throughout the water flows in these rivers in
year in these rivers. These rainy season only. Therefore,

w
rivers receive water both from these rivers are seasonal or non-
the
Page | 101 monsoons and snow- perennial. As such these rivers
melt. The perennial nature of are much less useful for
these rivers makes them irrigation.
useful for irrigation.
Sta These rivers flow across the These rivers have been flowing in
ge young fold mountains and one of the oldest plateaus of the
are still in a youthful stage. world and have
reached maturity.
Mea The upper reaches of the The hard rock surface and non-
nde Himalayan rivers are highly alluvial character of the plateau
rs tortuous. When they enter permits little scope for the

the plains, there is a sudden formation of meanders. As
reduction in the speed of flow such, the rivers of the
of water. Under these Peninsular Plateau follow more
circumstances these
or less straight courses.
rivers form meanders and
often shift their beds.

Del The Himalayan rivers Some of the Peninsular rivers,
tas form big deltas at their such as the Narmada and
and mouths. The Ganga- the Tapi form estuaries.
Est Brahmaputra delta is the Other rivers such as the

largest in the world. Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
uar
Krishna and the Cauvery
ies
form deltas.
Several small streams originating
from the Western Ghats and
flowing towards the west enter
the Arabian Sea without forming
any delta.
In this | 102
Page post: East Flowing Pradesh, draining an area of 1.4 lakh
Sq.km.
Peninsular Rivers: Godavari
Krishna Mahanadi. Rivers, their It is bounded by the Central India

hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats
tributaries and River Basins.
on the south and east and by the Maikala
range on the west.
East Flowing Peninsular
Rivers The Mahanadi (Great
River) follows a total course of 560 miles
(900 km).
Mahanadi River
It has its source in the northern
Godavari River
foothills of Dandakaranya in Raipur
Krishna River District of Chhattisgarh at an elevation of
442 m.
Kaveri (Cauvery) River
The Mahanadi is one of the major
Pennar River rivers of the peninsular rivers, in water
potential and flood producing capacity,
Subarnarekha River it ranks second to the Godavari.
Brahamani River Other small streams between the

Mahanadi and the Rushikulya draining
Sarada River directly into the Chilka Lake also forms
the part of the basin.
Ponnaiyar River
The major part of basin is covered
Vaigai River with agricultural land accounting to
54.27% of the total area.
Mahanadi River
It is one of the most-active silt-
depositing streams in the Indian
The Mahanadi basin extends over
subcontinent.
states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha and
comparatively smaller portions of
After receiving the Seonath River, it
Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya
turns east and enters Odisha state.
Page | 103

At PageSambalpur
| 104 the Hirakud Industry in Mahanadi River
Dam (one of the largest dams in India) on Basin
the river has formed a man-made lake 35
miles (55 km) long.
Three important urban centes in the
basin are Raipur, Durg and Cuttack.
It enters the Odisha plains near
Cuttack and enters the Bay of Bengal at
Mahanadi basin, because of its rich
False Point by several channels.
mineral resource and adequate power
Puri, at one of its mouths, is a resource, has a favorable industrial
famous pilgrimage site. climate.
The Important industries presently

Tributaries of Mahanadi
existing in the basin are the Iron and
River
Steel plant at Bhilai, aluminium
factories at Hirakud and Korba, paper
Its upper course lies in the saucer-
mill near Cuttack and cement factory at
shaped basin called the Chhattisgarh
Sundargarh.
Plain.
Other industries based primarily on
This basin is surrounded by hills on
agricultural produce are sugar and textile
the north, west and south as a result of
mills.
which a large number of tributaries join
the main river from these sides. Mining of coal, iron and manganese
are other industrial activities.
Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath,
the Hasdeo, the Mand and the Ib.
Floods in Mahanadi River
Right bank Tributaries: The Ong, Basin
the Tel and the Jonk.
The basin is subject to severe
Projects on Mahanadi River flooding occasionally in the delta area due
to inadequate carrying capacity of the
Two important projects completed channels.
during pre-plan period in the basin are
The multi-purpose Hirakud
the Mahanadi main canal and Tandula
dam provides some amount of flood relief
reservoir in Chhattisgarh.
by storing part of flood water.
During the plan period, the Hirakud
However, the problem still persists
dam, Mahanadi delta project, Hasdeo
and a lasting solution need to be evolved.
Bango, Mahanadi Reservoir Project
were completed. Godavari River
The Page | 105 is the largest river

Godavari Wainganga], Pench, Kanhan, Sabari,
system of the Peninsular India and is Indravati etc.
revered as Dakshina Ganga.
Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara,
The Godavari basin extends over Mula, Manjra, Peddavagu, Maner etc.
states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh and Odisha in addition to Below Rajahmundry, the river
smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh, divides itself into two main streams,
Karnataka and Union territory of the Gautami Godavari on the east and
Puducherry (Yanam) having a total area of the Vashishta Godavari on the west and
~ 3 lakh Sq.km. forms a large delta before it pours into the
Bay of Bengal.
The basin is bounded by Satmala
hills, the Ajanta range and the Mahadeo The delta of the Godavari is
hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats of lobate type with a round bulge and
on the south and the east and by the many distributaries.
Western Ghats on the west.
Mineral Resources in
The Godavari River rises
Godavari Basin
from Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik
district of Maharashtra about 80 km from
The upper reaches of the Godavari
the Arabian Sea at an elevation of 1,067 drainage basin are occupied by
m.
the Deccan Traps containing minerals
The total length of Godavari from its like magnetite, epidote, biotite, zircon,
origin to outfall into the Bay of Bengal is chlorite etc (metallic minerals)..
1,465 km.
The middle part of the basin is
principally composed of phyllites,
Tributaries of Godavari River
quartzites, amphiboles and granites
The left bank tributaries are more in (rocks).
number and larger in size than the right
The downstream part of the middle
bank tributaries.
basin is occupied mainly by sediments
The Manjra (724 km) is the only and rocks of the Gondwana group.
important right bank tributary. It joins the
The Gondwanas are principally
Godavari after passing through the Nizam
detritals (waste or debris, in particular
Sagar. organic matter produced by decomposition
or loose matter produced by erosion) with
Left Bank Tributaries: Dharna,
some thick coal seams. [Singareni Coal
Penganga, Wainganga, Wardha,
Seam]
Pranahita [conveying the combined waters
of Penganga, the Wardha and
The Page
Eastern
| 106Ghats dominate the The coastal areas are cyclone-prone.
lower part of the drainage basin and are
formed mainly from the Khondalites. The delta areas face drainage
congestion due to flat topography.
Projects on Godavari River
A large portion of Maharashtra
falling (Marathwada) in the basin
Important projects completed duing
is drought prone.
the plan period are Srirama Sagar,
Godavari barrage, Upper Penganga,
Krishna River
Jaikwadi, Upper Wainganga, Upper
Indravati, Upper Wardha.
The Krishna is the second largest
Among the on-going projects, the east flowing river of the Peninsula.
prominent ones are Prnahita-
The Krishna Basin extends over
Chevala and Polavaram. Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Karnataka having a total area of ~2.6 lakh
Industry in Godavari Basin Sq.km.
The major urban Centers in the It is bounded by Balaghat range on

basin are Nagpur, Aurangabad, Nashik, the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the
Rajhmundry. south and the east and by the Western
Ghats on the west.
Nashik and Aurangabad have large
number of industries The Krishna River rises from
especially automobile. the Western Ghats near Jor village of
Satara district of Maharashtra at an
Other than this, the industries in altitude of 1,337 m just north
the basin are mostly based on agricultural of Mahabaleshwar.
produce such as rice milling, cotton
spinning and weaving, sugar and oil The total length of river from origin
extraction. to its outfall into the Bay of Bengal is
1,400 km.
Cement and some small engineering
industries also exist in the basin. The major part of basin is covered
with agricultural land accounting to
Floods and Droughts in 75.86% of the total area.
Godavari Basin
The Krishna forms a large delta with
a shoreline of about 120 km. The Krishna
Godavari basin faces flooding
delta appears to merge with that formed
problem in its lower reaches.
by the Godavari and extends about 35 km
into the sea.

Page | 107
Tributaries of Krishna River Left Bank: the Bhima, the Musi

and the Munneru.
Right bank: the Ghatprabha, the
Malprabha and the Tungabhadra.
The Koyna is a small tributary but

Page | 108 The basin has rich mineral deposits
is known for Koyna Dam. This dam was and there is good potential for industrial
perhaps the main cause of the development.
devastating earthquake (6.4 on richter
Iron and steel, cement, sugar cane
scale) in 1967 that killed 150 people.
vegetable oil extraction and rice milling are
The Bhima originates from important industrial activities at present
the Matheron Hills and joins the Krishna in the basin.
near Raichur after for a distance of 861
Recently oil has been struck in this
km.
basin which is bound to have an effect on
The Tungabhadra is formed by the the future industrial scenario of this
basin.
unification of the Tunga and
the Bhadra originating
Industry in Krishna Basin
from Gangamula in the Central Sahyadri.
Its total length is 531 km.
The major Urban Centers in the
At Wazirabad, it receives its last Basin are Pune, Hyderabad.
important tributary, the Musi, on whose
Hyderabad is the state capital of
banks the city of Hyderabad is located.
Telangana and is now a major IT hub.
Projects on Krishna River Pune in Maharashtra has number

of automobile and IT industry and is
Important ones are major education centre.
the Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha,
Nagarjunasagar, Malaprabha, Bhima, Drought and Floods in
Bhadra and Telugu Ganga.
Krishna Basin
The major Hydro Power stations in
Some parts of the basin, especially
the basin are Koyna, Tungabhadara, Sri
the Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh,
Sailam, Nagarjuna Sagar, Almatti,
Bellary, Raichur, Dharwar, Chitradurga,
Naryanpur, Bhadra.
Belgaum and Bijapur districts of
Karnataka and Pune, Sholapur,
Tunagabhadra is a major inter-
Osmanabad and Ahmedanagar districts of
States project in the basin. In order to
Maharashtra are drought-prone.
operate the project and to regulate the
flows among the beneficiary States of
The delta area of the basin is
Karnataka and Andhara Pradesh.
subject to flooding. It has been observed
that the river bed in delta area is
Resources in Krishna Basin continuously raised due to silt deposition
resulting in reduction in carrying capacity
of the channel.
The Page
coastal cyclonic rainfall of high
| 109 Physiographically, the basin can be
intensity and short duration makes the divided into three parts the Westen
flood problem worse. Ghats, the Plateau of Mysore and the
Delta.
In this post: Cauvery River Pennar
The delta area is the most fertile
River Subarnarekha Brahamani
tract in the basin. The principal soil types
River Ponnaiyar River Vaigai found in the basin are black soils, red
soils, laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils
River. Tributaries of Cauvery and
and mixed soils. Red soils occupy large
Pennar Rivers. areas in the basin. Alluvial soils are found
in the delta areas.
Cauvery River The basin in Karnataka receives
rainfall mainly from the S-W Monsoon and
The Kaveri (Cauvery) is designated partially from N-E Monsoon. The basin in
as the Dakshina Ganga or the Ganga of Tamil Nadu receives good flows from the
the South. North-East Monsoon.
The Cauvery River rises at an Its upper catchment area receives

elevation of 1,341 m at Talakaveri on rainfall during summer by the south-west
the Brahmagiri range near Cherangala monsoon and the lower catchment area
village of Kodagu (Coorg) district of during winter season by the retreating
Karnataka. north-east monsoon.
The total length of the river from It is, therefore almost a perennial
origin to outfall is 800 km. river with comparatively less fluctuations
in flow and is very useful for
The Cauvery basin extends over irrigation and hydroelectric power
states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala generation.
and Union Territory of Puducherry
draining an area of 81 thousand Sq.km. Thus the Cauvery is one of the best
regulated rivers and 90 to 95 per cent of
It is bounded by the Western Ghats its irrigation and power production
on the west, by the Eastern Ghats on the
potential already stands harnessed.
east and the south and by the ridges
separating it from Krishna basin and The river drains into the Bay of
Pennar basin on the north. Bengal. The major part of basin is covered
with agricultural land accounting to
The Nilgiris, an offshore of Western
66.21% of the total area.
ghats, extend Eastwards to the Eastern
ghats and divide the basin into two
Tributaries of the Cauvery
natural and political regions i.e.,
Karnataka plateau in the North and the River
Tamil Nadu plateau in the South.
Left Page |Bank:

110 the Harangi, Immediately after crossing
the Hemavati, the Shimsha and Tiruchirapalli district, the river divides
the Arkavati. into two parts, the Northern branch being
called The Coleron and Southern branch
Right Bank: Lakshmantirtha, remains as Cauvery and from here the
the Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, Cauvery Delta begins.
the Bhavani, the Noyil and
After flowing for about 16 Kms, the
the Amaravati joins from right.
two branches join again to form
The river descends from the South Srirangam Island.
Karnataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu
On the Cauvery branch lies
Plains through the Sivasamudram
the "Grand Anicut" said to have been
waterfalls (101 m high).
constructed by a Chola King in 1st
Century A.D.
At Shivanasamudram, the river
branches off into two parts and falls
Below the Grand Anicut, the
through a height of 91 m. in a series of
Cauvery branch splits into two, Cauvery
falls and rapids.
and Vennar.
The falls at this point is utilized for
These branches divide and sub-
power generation by the power station at
divide into small branches and form a
Shivanasamudram.
network all over the delta.
The two branches of the river join
after the fall and flow through a wide gorge Floods in Cauvery Basin
which is known as Mekedatu (Goats
leap) and continues its journey to form The Cauvery basin is fan shaped in
the boundary between Karnataka and Karnataka and leaf shaped in Tamil Nadu.
Tamil Nadu States for a distance of 64 km. The run-off does not drain off
quickly because of its shape and
At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes therefore no fast raising floods occur in
Southerly direction and enters the Mettur the basin.
Reservoir.
Projects on Cauvery River
A tributary called Bhavani joins
Cauvery on the Right bank about 45 Kms During the pre-plan period many
below Mettur Reservoir. Thereafter it projects were completed in this basin
enters the plains of Tamil Nadu. which included Krishnarajasagar in
Karnataka, Mettur dam and Cauvery
Two more tributaries Noyil and delta system in Tamil Nadu.
Amaravathi join on the right bank and
here the river widens with sandy bed and Lower Bhavani, Hemavati,
flows as Akhanda Cauvery. Harangi, Kabini are important projects
completed duing the plan period.
Industry
Page | in
111Cauvery Basin
The city of Bangalore is situated just Important industries in the basin

outside this basin. include cotton textile industry in
Coimbatore and Mysore, cement factories
in Coimbatore and Trichinapally and

Page | 112 Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka having an
industries based on mineral and metals. area of ~55 thousand Sq.km
The Salem steel plant and many The fan shaped basin is bounded by
engineering industies in Coimbatore and the Erramala range on the north, by
Trichinapally are also situated in this the Nallamala and Velikonda ranges of
basin. the Eastern Ghats on the east, by
the Nandidurg hills on the south and by
Pennar River the narrow ridge separating it from the
Vedavati valley of the Krishna Basin on
The Pennar (also known as Uttara the west.
Pinakini) is one of the major rivers of the
peninsula. The other hill ranges in the basin to
the south of the river are
The Pennar rises in the Chenna the Seshachalam [famous for Red
Kasava hill of the Nandidurg range, Sanders] and Paliconda ranges.
in Chikkaballapura
district of Karnataka and flows towards
with agriculture accounting to 58.64% of
east eventually draining into the Bay of
the total area.
Bengal.
The total length of the river from Tributaries of Pennar River

origin to its outfall in the Bay of Bengal is
597 km. Left Bank: the Jayamangali,
the Kunderu and the
Located in peninsular India, the
Pennar basin extends over states of Right bank: the Chiravati,
the Papagni etc.

Page | 113
Projects on Pennar River Industry in Pennar Basin
Tungabhadra high level canal in The only important town in the

Krishna basin irrigated areas in Pennar basin is
basin also. The only major project in the
basin is the Somasila project.
WithPage
limited
| 114 water and power It covers a small area in the state of
potential and mineral resources, the scope Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra
for industrial development is limited in the Pradesh.
basin.
The Basin is bounded on the North
There are no major industries. The -West and South by various ranges of the
existing small industries are mostly based Eastern Ghats like the Velikonda Range,
on agricultural produce such as cotton the Nagari hills, the Javadu hills, the
weaving, sugar mills, oil mills, rice mills Shevaroy hills, the Chitteri hills and the
etc. Kalrayan hills and in the East by the Bay
of Bengal.
Subarnarekha
Vaigai River
The Subarnarekha originates from
the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand forming South of the Cauvery delta, there
the boundary between West Bengal and are several streams, of which the Vaigai is
Odisha in its lower course. the longest.
It joins Bay of Bengal forming an The Vaigai basin is an important

estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi basin among the 12 basins lying between
deltas. Its total length is 395 km. the Cauvery and Kanyakumari.
Brahamani River This basin is bounded by the

Varushanadu hills, the Andipatti hills, the
Cardaman hills and the Palani hills on the
The Brahmani river comes into
West and by the Palk strait and Palk Bay
existence by the confluence of
on the East.
the Koel and the Sankh
rivers near Rourkela. It has a total length The Vaigai drains an area of 7,741
of 800 km. Sq.Km, which entirely lies in the state of
Tamil Nadu.
The basin is bounded in the North
by Chhotanagpur plateau, in the West and In this post: West Flowing Rivers of
South by the Mahanadi basin and in the
East by the Bay of Bengal. The Peninsular India Narmada
Tapti Sabarmati Mahi Luni

The basin flows through Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh and Orissa States and Ghaggar River [Inland Drainage].
drains into Bay of Bengal. West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris
Ponnaiyar River (Western Ghats).
The Ponnaiyar is a small stream West Flowing Rivers of The

which is confined to the coastal area only.
Peninsular India
The Page
west| 115
flowing rivers of the Hence these rivers are not able to
Peninsular India are fewer and smaller as form distributaries or a delta before they
compared to their east flowing enter the sea.
counterparts.
Estuary
The two major west flowing rivers
are the Narmada and the Tapi. An estuary is a partially enclosed
body of water along the coast where
This exceptional behavior is because
freshwater from rivers and streams meets
these rivers didnt form valleys and instead
and mixes with salt water from the ocean.
they flow through faults (linear rift, rift
[Primary productivity in estuaries is very
valley, trough) created due to the bending
high. Fishing is a dominant occupation
of the northern peninsula during the
around estuaries. Most of the estuaries
formation process of Himalayas.
are good bird sanctuaries].
These faults run parallel to
Estuaries and the lands
the Vindhyas and the Satpuras.
surrounding them are places of transition
from land to sea and freshwater to salt
The Sabarmati, Mahi and Luni are
water.
other rivers of the Peninsular India which
flow westwards.
Hundreds of small streams

originating in the Western Ghats flow
swiftly westwards and join the Arabian
Sea.
It is interesting to note that the

Peninsular rivers which fall into the
Arabian Sea do not form deltas, but only
estuaries. {Fluvial Depositional
Landforms}
This is due to the fact that the west

flowing rivers, especially the Narmada and
the Tapi flow through hard rocks and
hence do not carry any good amount of
silt.
Moreover, the tributaries of these

rivers are very small and hence they dont
contribute any silt. Although influenced by the tides,
they are protected from the full force of
ocean waves, winds, and storms by such
land forms as116barrier islands or

Page | Narmada flows westwards through
peninsulas. [You know why estuaries a rift valley between the Vindhyan Range
make good ports?] on the north and the Satpura Range on
the south.
Estuarine environments are among
the most productive on earth, creating It rises from Maikala range near
more organic matter each year than Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh, at an
comparably-sized areas of forest, elevation of about 1057 m.
grassland, or agricultural land.
Narmada basin extends over states
The tidal, sheltered waters of of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra
estuaries also support unique and Chhattisgarh having an area ~1 Lakh
communities of plants and animals Sq.km.
especially adapted for life at the margin of
the sea. It is bounded by the Vindhyas on
the north, Maikala range on the east,
Estuaries have important Satpuras on the south and by the Arabian
commercial value and their resources Sea on the west.
provide economic benefits for tourism,
fisheries, and recreational activities. Its total length from its source
in Amarkantak to its estuary in the Gulf
The protected coastal waters of of Khambhat is 1,310 km.
estuaries also support important public
infrastructure, serving as harbors and The hilly regions are in the upper
ports vital for shipping and part of the basin, and lower middle
transportation. reaches are broad and fertile areas well
suited for cultivation.
Estuaries also perform other
valuable services. Water draining from Jabalpur is the only important
uplands carries sediments, nutrients, and urban centre in the basin.
other pollutants to estuaries. As the water
flows through wetlands such as swamps The river slopes down near Jabalpur
and salt marshes, much of the sediments where it cascades (a small waterfall,
and pollutants are filtered out. especially one in a series) 15 m into a
gorge to form the Dhuan Dhar (Cloud of
Salt marsh grasses and other Mist) Falls.
estuarine plants also help prevent erosion
and stabilize shorelines [Mangroves]. Since the gorge is composed of
marble, it is popularly known as the
Narmada River Marble Rocks.
Narmada is the largest west flowing It makes two waterfalls of 12 m each

river of the peninsular India. at Mandhar and Dardi. Near Maheshwar
the river again descends from another
small fall
Pageof| 117
8 m, known as The absence of tributaries is
the Sahasradhara Falls. especially noted on the right bank of the
river where the Hiran is the only
There are several islands in the exception.
estuary of the Narmada of
which Aliabet is the largest. The other right bank tributaries are
the Orsang, the Barna and the Kolar.
The Narmada is navigable upto 112
km from its mouth. A few left bank tributaries drain the
northern slopes of the Satpura Range and
Tributaries of Narmada River join the Narmada at different places.
Since the river flows through a The major Hydro Power Project in
narrow valley confined by precipitous the basin are Indira Sagar, Sardar
(dangerously high or steep) hills, it does Sarovar, Omkareshwar, Bargi &
not have many tributaries. Maheshwar.
Tapti River It originates near Multai reserve

forest in Madhya Pradesh at an elevation
The Tapti (also known as the Tapi) is of 752 m.
the second largest west flowing river of the
Peninsular India and is known as 'the Flows for about 724 km before
twin' or 'the handmaid' of the Narmada. outfalling into the Arabian Sea through
the Gulf of Cambay [Gulf of Khambhat].
The Page
Tapti River along with its
| 118 India, which forms the northwestern
tributaries flows over the plains portion of Maharashtra state) which are
of Vidharbha, Khandesh and Gujarat and broad and fertile suitable for cultivation
over large areas in the state of primarily.
Maharashtra and a small area in Madhya
Pradesh and Gujarat. Tributaries of Tapti River
The basin extends over states of Right Bank: the Suki, the Gomai,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and
the Arunavati and the Aner.
Gujarat having an area of ~ 65,000 Sq.km
Left Bank: the Vaghur,
Situated in the Deccan plateau, the
the Amravati, the Buray, the Panjhra,
basin is bounded by the Satpura range on
the Bori, the Girna, the Purna,
the north, Mahadev hills on the
the Mona and the Sipna.
east, Ajanta Range and the Satmala
hills on the south and by the Arabian Sea
Projects on Tapti River
on the west.
The hilly region of the basin is well Hathnur Dam of Upper Tapi Project
forested while the plains are broad and (Maharashtra)
fertile areas suitable for cultivation.
Kakrapar weir and Ukai Dam of
There are two well defined physical Ukai Project (Gujarat)
regions, in the basin, viz hilly region and
Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir of
plains; the hilly regions
Girna Project (Maharashtra)
comprising Satpura, Satmalas, Mahadeo,
Ajanta and Gawilgarh hills are well
Industry in the Tapti Basin
forested.
The plain covers the Khandesh Important industries in the basin

areas (Khandesh is a region of central are textile factories in Surat and paper
and news print factory at Nepanagar.

Page | 119
Sabarmati River base and the source of the Vatrak

River as the apex point.
The Sabarmati is the name given to
the combined streams Sabarmati originates from Aravalli
the Sabar and Hathmati. hills at an elevation of 762 m near village
Tepur, in Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
The Sabarmati basin extends over
states of Rajasthan and Gujarat having an The total length of river from origin
area of 21,674 Sq km. to outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km.
The basin is bounded by Aravalli The major part of basin is covered

hills on the north and north-east, by with agriculture accounting to 74.68% of
Rann of Kutch on the west and by Gulf of the total area.
Khambhat on the south.
Rainfall varies from a meager few
The basin is roughly triangular in mm in Saurastra to over 1000 mm in
shape with the Sabarmati River as the southern part.
Left bank
Page |tributaries:
120 the Wakal, the It originates from the northern
Hathmati and the Vatrak. slopes of Vindhyas at an altitude of 500 m
in Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh.
Right bank tributaries: the Sei.
The total length of Mahi is 583 km.
Projects: Sabarmati reservoir
(Dharoi), Hathmati reservoir and Meshwo It drains into the Arabian Sea
reservoir project are major projects through the Gulf of Khambhat.
completed during the plan period.
Industry in Sabarmati Basin with agricultural land accounting to
63.63% of the total area
Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are
Hydro Power stations are located in
the important urban centers in the basin.
Mahi Bajaj Sagar dam and at Kadana
Dam.
Ahmedabad is an industrial city
situated on the banks of Sabarmati.
Vadodara is the only important
urban centre in the basin. There are not
Important industries are textiles,
many industries in the basin.
leather and leather goods, plastic, rubber
goods, paper, newsprint, automobile,
Some of the industries are cotton
machine tools, drugs and pharmaceuticals
textile, paper, newsprint, drugs and
etc.
pharmaceuticals. Most of these industries
The industrial city of Ahmedabad are located at Tatlam.
poses the danger of water pollution.
Luni River
Mahi River
The Luni or the Salt River (Lonari
The Mahi basin extends over states or Lavanavari in Sanskrit) is named so
of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and because its water is brackish below
Gujarat having total area of 34,842 Sq km. Balotra.
It is bounded by Aravalli hills on Luni is the only river basin of any

the north and the north-west, by Malwa significance in Western Rajasthan, which
form the bulk of arid zone.
Plateau on the east, by the Vindhyas on
the south and by the Gulf of Khambhat on
Luni originates from western slopes
the west.
of the Aravalli ranges at an elevation of
Mahi is one of the major interstate 772 m near Ajmer flowing in South West
west flowing rivers of India. direction and traversing a course of 511
km in Rajasthan, it finally flow into
the Rann of Kachchh (it gets lost in the
marsh).
MostPage
of |its121
tributaries drain the The Ghaggar is the most important
steep north west of Aravalli hills and join it river of inland drainage. It is a seasonal
on left side. Its total catchment area falls stream which rises on the lower slopes of
in Rajasthan. the Himalayas and forms boundary
between Haryana and Punjab.
The peculiarity of this river is that
it tends to increase its width rather than It gets lost in the dry sands of
deepening the bed because the banks are Rajasthan near Hanumangarh after
of soils, which are easily erodible whereas traversing a distance of 465 km.
beds are of sand. The floods develop and
disappear so rapidly that they have no Earlier, this river was an affluent of
time to scour the bed. the Indus, the dry bed of the old channel
is still traceable.
West flowing Rivers of the
Its main tributaries are the Tangri,
Sahyadris (Western Ghats)
the Markanda, the Saraswati and the
Chaitanya.
About six hundred small streams
originate from the Western Ghats and flow It contains a lot more water in rainy
westwards to fall into the Arabian Sea. season when its bed becomes 10 km wide
at places.
The western slopes of the Western
Ghats receive heavy rainfall from the Most of the streams draining
south-west monsoons and are able to feed western slopes of the Aravalli Range dry
such a large number of streams. up immediately after they enter the sandy
arid areas to the west of this range.
Although only about 3% of the areal
extent flow swiftly down the steep slope
Usability of Rivers
and some of them make waterfalls.
The Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289 m) Source of fresh water, irrigation,

made by the Sharavati river is the most hydro-electric production, navigation etc.
famous waterfall of India.
The Himalayas, Vindhyas, Satpuras,
Aravalis, Maikala, Chhotanagpur plateau,
Ghaggar River Inland Meghalaya plateau, Purvachal, Western
Drainage and the Eastern Ghats offer possibilities of
large scale water power development.
Some rivers of India are not able to
reach the sea and constitute inland Sixty per cent of the total river flow
drainage. is concentrated in the Himalayan rivers,
16 per cent in the Central Indian rivers
Large parts of the Rajasthan (the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahanadi,
desert and parts of Aksai etc.), and the rest in the rivers of the
Chin in Ladakh have inland drainage. Deccan plateau.
The Page
Ganga and the Brahmaputra in
| 122 Indian Monsoons South West|
the north and northeastern part of the North East Monsoons
country, the Mahanadi in Odisha, the
Godavari and the Krishna in Andhra and Indian Monsoons
Telangana the Narmada and the Tapi in
Gujarat, and the lakes and tidal creeks in The term monsoon has been derived
coastal states possess some of the from the Arabic word mausin or from the
important and useful waterways of the Malayan word monsin meaning season.
country.
Monsoons are seasonal
In the past they were of great
winds (Rhythmic wind movements)
importance, which suffered a great deal
(Periodic Winds) which reverse their
with the advent of rail and roads.
direction with the change of season.
Withdrawal of large quantities of
The monsoon is a double system of
water for irrigation resulted in dwindling
seasonal winds They flow from sea to
flow of many rivers.
land during the summer and from land to
The most important navigable risers sea during winter.
are the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the
Some scholars tend to treat the
Mahanadi. The Godavari, the Krishna, the
Narmada and the Tapi are navigable near monsoon winds as land and sea
their mouths only. breeze on a large scale.
Indian Monsoons Factors Monsoons are peculiar to Indian

Subcontinent, South East Asia, parts of
responsible for south-west monsoon Central Western Africa etc..
and north-east monsoon formation.
They are more pronounced in the
Mechanism of Indian Monsoons. Indian Subcontinent compared to any
Indian Monsoons ITCZ [Inter- other region.
Tropical Convergence Zone]. Indian Monsoons are Convection

cells on a very large scale.
Indian Monsoons |ITCZ|Inter-
Tropical Convergence Zone <-- You are They are periodic or secondary
Here winds which seasonal reversal in wind
direction.
Indian Monsoons Mechanism|Jet
Stream Theory India receives south-west monsoon
winds in summer and north-east monsoon
Indian Monsoons Easterly Jet| winds in winter.
Tibet|Somali Jet
South-west monsoons are formed

Page | 123 Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.
due to intense low pressure system formed
over the Tibetan plateau. Factors that influence the
intensity of south-west
North-east monsoons are associated
with high pressure cells monsoons
over Tibetan and Siberian plateaus.
Strengths of Low pressure over Tibet
South-west monsoons bring intense and high pressure over southern Indian
rainfall to most of the regions in India and Ocean.
north-east monsoons bring rainfall to
mainly south-eastern coast of India Somali Jet (Findlater Jet).
(Southern coast of Seemandhra and the
Somali Current (Findlater Current).
coast of Tamil Nadu.).
Indian Ocean branch of Walker Cell.

Countries like India, Indonesia,
Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. receive most Indian Ocean Dipole.
of the annual rainfall during south-west
monsoon season where as South East Factors responsible for
China, Japan etc., during north-east
north-east monsoon
rainfall season.
formation
Factors responsible for
Formation and strengthening of high
south-west monsoon
pressure cells over Tibetan plateau and
formation Siberian Plateau in winter.
Intense heating of Tibetan plateau Westward migration and subsequent

during summer months. weakening of high pressure cell in the
Southern Indian Ocean.
Permanent high pressure cell in the
South Indian Ocean (east to north-east of Migration of ITCZ to the south of
Madagascar in summer). India.
Factors that influence the All these will be discussed in detail.

onset of south-west
monsoons Mechanism of Indian
Monsoons
Above points +
The origin of monsoons is not fully
Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ). understood.
Tropical Easterly Jet (African There are several theories that tried
Easterly Jet). to explain the mechanism of monsoons.
Classical
Page |Theory
124 Indian Monsoons Classical
Theory: Sir Edmund Halleys
Monsoons are mentioned in
scriptures like the Rig Veda. But these Theory
scriptures didnt make any mention of the
Summer Monsoon
monsoon mechanism.
The first scientific study of the In summer the suns apparent path
monsoon winds was done by Arab is vertically over the Tropic of Cancer
traders. resulting in high temperature and low
pressure in Central Asia.
Arab traders used the sea route to
carry out trade with India and monsoon The pressure is sufficiently high
patterns were of prime importance for over Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
them. Hence winds flowed from Oceans flow
towards landmass in summer.
In the tenth century, Al Masudi, an
Arab explorer, gave an account of This air flow from sea to land bring
the reversal of ocean currents and the heavy rainfall to the Indian subcontinent.
monsoon winds over the north Indian
Winter Monsoon
Ocean.
In seventeenth century, Sir Edmund In winter the suns apparent path is

Halley explained the monsoon as resulting vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn.
from thermal contrasts between
continents and oceans due to their The north western part of India
differential heating. grows colder than Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal and the flow of the monsoon is
Modern Theories reversed.
Besides differential heating, the The basic idea behind Classical

development of monsoon is influenced by theory is similar to land and sea breeze
the shape of the continents, orography formation except that in the case of
(mountains), and the conditions of air monsoons the day and night are replaced
circulation in the upper troposphere by summer and winter.
{jet streams}.
Drawbacks: The monsoons do not
Therefore, Halley's theory has lost develop equally everywhere on earth
much of its significance and modern
and the thermal concept of Halley
theories based on air masses and jet
stream are becoming more relevant. fails to explain the intricacies of the
monsoons such as the sudden

burst of monsoons,
Page | 125 delay in on set Indian Monsoons Role of
of monsoons sometimes, etc.. ITCZ [Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone]
Indian Monsoons Modern
The southeast trade winds in the
theory: Air Mass Theory southern hemisphere and the northeast
trade winds in the northern hemisphere
According to this theory, the meet each other near the equator.
monsoon is simply a modification of the
planetary winds of the tropics. The meeting place of these winds is
known as the Inter-Tropical
The theory is based on the Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
migration of ITCZ based on seasons.

Page | 126
In the summer season, the sun
shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer
and the ITCZ shifts northwards.
The southeast trade winds of the

southern hemisphere cross the equator
and start blowing in southwest to
northeast direction under the influence
of Coriolis force.
These displaced trade winds are

called south-west monsoons when they
blow over the Indian sub-continent.
The front where the south-west

monsoons meet the north-east trade
winds is known as the Monsoon Front
(ITCZ). Rainfall occurs along this front.
In the month of July the ITCZ shifts

to 20- 25 N latitude and is located in the
Indo-Gangetic Plain and the south-west
monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea and
the Bay of Bengal. The ITCZ in this
position is often called the Monsoon
Trough [maximum rainfall].
The seasonal shift of the ITCZ has

given the concept of Northern Inter-
Tropical Convergence Zone (NITCZ) in
summer (July rainy season) and
Southern Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(SITCZ) in winter (Jan dry season).
NITCZ is the zone of clouds and

heavy rainfall that effect India.
Indian Monsoon Mechanism Jet
Stream Theory. Role of Sub-Tropical

This is the region of ascending
air, maximum clouds and heavy rainfall. Jet Stream (STJ). Why no south-
west monsoons during winter? Why

The location of ITCZ shifts north
and south of equator with the change of
season.
no south-west
Page | 127monsoons in March Troughs occur where cold air mass drops
into warm air.
May (summer)?
The region on earth below the
Indian Monsoons |ITCZ|Inter- trough is at low pressure and the region
Tropical Convergence Zone below ridge is at high pressure.
Indian Monsoons Mechanism|Jet

Stream Theory <-- You are Here
Indian Monsoons Easterly Jet|

Tibet|Somali Jet
Indian Monsoons South West|

North East Monsoons
Indian Monsoon Mechanism

Jet Stream Theory
Modern Theory: Jet Stream
Theory.
Jet stream Theory is the latest

theory regarding the origin of the
monsoons and has earned worldwide
acceptance from the meteorologists.
To understand how Jet streams

affect Indian monsoons, we need to know
the basic mechanism of Jet Stream This condition occurs due to
induced weather conditions. weakening of jet stream due to lesser
temperature contrast between sub-tropics
How Jet Streams Affect and temperate region (Our concern is STJ
Weather? only).
Usually the trough region [the

Jet streams have distinct peaks
region exactly below the jet stream trough]
(ridges) and troughs.
creates cyclonic condition (low pressure) at
the surface of earth whereas the ridge
Ridges occur where the warm air
regions creates anticyclonic condition.
mass pushes against the cold air mass.
Troughs create
Page | 128 upper level vortex) that is associated with depressions
divergence which is associated with [low pressure cells].
convergence at the surface (low pressure
cyclonic conditions) and ridges create The winds entering the jet streak are
upper level convergence which is rapidly converging because of the high
associated with divergence at the surface pressure at the upper level (Tropopause) in
(high pressure cyclonic conditions). the atmosphere. This convergence at
upper troposphere leads to divergence
These ridges and troughs give rise to (high pressure) at the surface (anticyclonic
jet streaks which are also responsible for condition).
cyclonic and anticyclonic weather
conditions at the surface. The Coriolis effect creates the
anticyclonic rotation that is associated
with clear weather.
But how does this mechanism of
jet streams influence Indian
Monsoons?

Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream
(STJ)
Sub-Tropical Jet stream plays a

significant role in both hindering the
monsoon winds as well as in quick onset
of monsoons.
STJ Sub-Tropical Jet

Stream
The winds leaving the jet streak are Sub-Tropical Jet stream is a narrow
rapidly diverging, creating a lower band of fast moving air flowing from west
pressure at the upper level (Tropopause) in to east [Westerlies].
the atmosphere. The air below rapidly
replaces the upper outflowing winds. This STJ in northern hemisphere flows
in turn creates the low pressure at the between 25 to 35 N in the upper
troposphere at a height of about 12-14 km
surface. This surface low pressure creates
(all this already discussed in previous
conditions where the surrounding surface
posts on Jet Streams). (Here we will
winds rush inwards. The Coriolis effect
creates the cyclonic rotation (cyclonic
consider STJ
Page |only.
129 Polar Jet has no The two branches reunite off the
influence on Indian monsoons). east coast of China.
The wind speeds in a westerly jet The northern branch of this jet
stream are commonly 150 to 300 km p.h. stream blows along the northern edge of
with extreme values reaching 400 km p.h. the Tibetan Plateau.
The burst of monsoons depends The southern branch blows to the

south of the Himalayan ranges along 25
upon the upper air circulation north latitude.
which is dominated by STJ.
A strong latitudinal thermal
gradient (differences in temperature),
Seasonal Migration of Sub- along with other factors, is responsible for
the development of southerly jet.
Tropical Jet Stream STJ
Western Disturbances
In winter STJ flows along the
southern slopes of the Himalayas but in
Meteorologists believe that
summer it shifts northwards, rather
southern branch of jet stream
dramatically, and flows along the northern
exercises a significant influence on
edge of Himalayas in early June and in
the winter weather conditions in
late summer (July-August) along the
India.
northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau.
The upper jet is responsible for
The periodic movement of the Jet
steering of the western depressions
stream is often the indicator of the onset
[Western Disturbances] from the
(STJ shits to the north of Himalayas in a
Mediterranean Sea.
matter of days) and subsequent
withdrawal (STJ returns back to its position
Some of the depressions continue
south of Himalayas) of the monsoon.
eastwards, redeveloping in the zone of
jet stream confluence about 30 N,
Northward movement of the
105 E (near east coast of China).
subtropical jet is the first indication of the
onset of the monsoon over India. Winter rain and heat storms in
north-western plains and occasional
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream heavy snowfall in hilly regions are
STJ in Winter caused by these disturbances.
Westerly jet stream blows at a very These are generally followed by

high speed during winter over the sub- cold waves in the whole of northern
tropical zone. plains.
This jet stream is bifurcated by the

Himalayan ranges and Tibetan Plateau.
The Page
southern
| 130 branch is stronger, The southerly branch of STJ
with an average speed of about 240 km remains positioned south of Tibet,
compared with 70 to 90 km p.h. of the although weakening in intensity.
northern branch.
The weather over northern India
Air subsiding beneath this upper becomes hot, dry and squally due to larger
westerly current gives dry out blowing incoming solar radiation and hot winds
northerly winds from the subtropical like loo.
anticyclone over northwestern India and
Pakistan. Over India, the Equatorial Trough
(ITCZ) pushes northwards with the
Why no south-west weakening of the STJ [upper westerlies]
monsoons during winter? south of Tibet, but the burst of the
monsoon does not take place until the
Reason 1: ITCZ has left India (the upper-air circulation has switched to its
summer pattern.
winds that blow over India are mostly
offshore land to land or land to ocean
By the end of May the southern jet
so they carry no moisture).
breaks and later it is diverted to the north
of Tibet Plateau and there is sudden burst
Reason 2: During winter, the
of monsoons (the ridge moves northwards
southern branch of STJ is strong and is to
into Central Asia = high pressure over
the south of Himalayas. The ridge of the
north-west India moves northwards into
jet lies over north-western India and is
Central Asia = makes way for south-west
associated with strong divergence of winds
monsoon winds). An Easterly jet emerges
and creates a high pressure region (sub-
over peninsular India with the northward
tropical high pressure belt) over entire
migration of STJ.
north India. [This is how the mechanism of
jet streams influence Indian Monsoons in The upper air circulations are
winter season] reversed with the emergence of Easterly jet
[convergence in upper layers is replaced by
Reason 3: There is already a strong
divergence == divergence in lower layers is
high pressure over Tibet. [High Pressure
replaced with convergence == high
due to STJ + High Pressure over Tibet =
pressure at lower layers is replaced by low
strong divergence = no rainfall]
pressure system]. The easterly winds
become very active in the upper
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream troposphere and they are associated with
STJ in Summer westerly winds in the lower troposphere
(south-west monsoon winds).
With the beginning of summer in
the month of March, the STJ [upper Western and eastern jets flow to the
westerlies] start their northward march. north and south of the Himalayas
respectively. The eastern jet becomes
powerful and is stationed at 15 N
latitude.
This Page
results in more active south-
| 131 This is why the months of April and
west monsoon and heavy rainfall is May are generally dry and rainless in spite
caused. of high temperatures (low pressure on
land) and high evaporation.
Why no south-west
Indian Monsoons Role of Tropical
monsoons in March May
(summer)? Easterly Jet (TEJ) [African Easterly
Jet], Indian Monsoons Role of

There is good suns insolation from
March May but still there is no s-w Tibet, Indian Monsoons Role of
monsoons. Somali Jet and Indian Monsoons
Reason: The ridge region of Role of Indian Ocean Dipole.
Southern branch of STJ creates

Indian Monsoons |ITCZ|Inter-
strong divergence (high pressure) Tropical Convergence Zone
in north-west India. The diverging Indian Monsoons Mechanism|Jet

Stream Theory
air blocks incoming winds and
prevents strong convergence of Indian Monsoons Easterly Jet|

Tibet|Somali Jet <-- You are Here
winds along ITCZ.
Indian Monsoons South West|
North East Monsoons
During the summer season in the
Northern Hemisphere, low pressure areas
Indian Monsoons Role of
develop at the ground surface near
Peshawar (Pakistan) and north-west India Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)
due to intense heating of ground surface [African Easterly Jet]
during April, May, and June.
The establishment and maintenance
As long as the position of the upper of the TEJ is not fully understood but it is
air jet stream is maintained above the believed that the jet may be caused by the
surface low pressure (to the south of
uniquely high temperatures and
Himalayas), the dynamic anti-cyclonic
heights over the Tibetan Plateau during
conditions persist over north-west India.
summer.
The winds descending from the
The TEJ plays an important role
upper air high pressure [because of the
in kick starting southwest monsoon.
ridge of STJ] obstructs the ascent of winds
from the surface low pressure areas, with
This jet descends over the Indian
the result that the weather remains warm
Ocean (near Madagascar) and intensifies
and dry.
its high pressure cell so as to move as

Page | 132 When the summer temperature of
south-west monsoon. air over Tibet remains high for a
sufficiently long time, it helps in
Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) strengthening the easterly jet and results
in heavy rainfall in India.
There are major high velocity winds
in the lower troposphere called low-level The easterly jet does not come
jets (LLJs). into existence if the snow over the
Tibet Plateau does not melt. This
In the tropics, the most prominent hampers the occurrence of rainfall in
of these are the Somali Jet and India.
the African Easterly Jet [Tropical
Easterly Jet]. Therefore, any year of thick and
widespread snow over Tibet will be
The TEJ is a unique and dominant followed by a year of weak monsoon and
feature of the northern hemispheric less rainfall.
summer over southern Asia and northern
Africa. The TEJ is found near between 5
and 20N.
It is fairly persistent in its direction,

and intensity from June through the
beginning of October. Its position
fluctuates between 5 and 20N.
TEJ comes into existence quickly

after the STJ has shifted to the north of the
Himalayas (Early June).
TEJ flows from east to west over

peninsular India at 6 9 km and over the
Northern African region.
The formation of TEJ results in

the reversal of upper air circulation
patterns [High pressure switches to low
pressure] and leads to the quick onset of
monsoons.
Recent observations have revealed Indian Monsoons Role of

that the intensity and duration of heating Tibet
of Tibetan Plateau has a direct bearing on
the amount of rainfall in India by the
monsoons.
The Tibetan Plateau is an enormous

Page | 133 causing the advance of the jet south of the
block of highland acting as a formidable Himalayas or bifurcating it into two parts.
barrier.
The winter Tibetan Plateau cools
Due to its protruded height it rapidly and produces a high pressure cell.
receives 2-3C more insolation than the (Cyclonic condition over Tibet ceases and
neighboring areas. an anticyclonic condition is established).
The high pressure cell over Tibet
The plateau affects the atmosphere strengthens N-E monsoons.
in two ways: (a) as a mechanical barrier,
and (b) as a high- level heat sources. Tibet gets heated in summer and is
2C to 3C warmer than the air over the
At the beginning of June the adjoining regions.
subtropical jet stream is completely
withdrawn from India and occupies a Because the Tibet Plateau is a
position along 40 N (to the north of source of heat for the atmosphere, it
Tibetan Plateau). generates an area of rising air
(convergence)(intense low pressure cell).
The plateau accentuates the
northward displacement of the jet stream. During its ascent the air spreads
Hence the burst of monsoon in June is outwards in upper troposphere
prompted by the Himalayas and not by the (divergence) and gradually sinks
thermally induced low pressure cell over (subsidence) over the equatorial part of
Tibet. (Tibetan plateau is responsible for the Indian Ocean.
south-west monsoons. But it is the STJ
It finally approaches the west coast
that facilitates sudden outburst of of India as a return current from a south-
monsoons with its sudden northward westerly direction and is termed as
migration) equatorial westerlies.
In the middle of October the plateau It picks up moisture from the Indian
proves to be the most important factor in Ocean and causes rainfall in India and
adjoining countries.

Page | 134
Page | 135
Indian Monsoons Role The progress of the southwest

monsoon towards India is greatly aided by
of Somali Jet
the onset of Somali jet that transits Kenya,
Somalia and Sahel.
Polar and subtropical jet streams
are the permanent jet streams which It was observed to flow from
greatly influence the weather of temperate Mauritius and the northern part of the
regions. island of Madagascar before reaching the
coast of Kenya at about 3 S.
Temporary jet streams are narrow
winds with speeds more than 94 kph in It strengthens permanent high
the upper, middle and sometimes in lower
near Madagascar and also helps to drive
troposphere. They are few. Important ones
S-W monsoons towards India at a
are Somali Jet and The African Easterly jet
greater pace and intensity.
or Tropical Easterly Jet.
The importance of the low level jet
These two jet streams play an
arises from the fact that its path around
important role in the formation and
9 N coincides with a zone of coastal
progression of Indian Monsoons.
upwelling.
As the strong
Page | 136winds drive away the Anomaly different from normal) that
surface coastal waters towards the east, occurs occasionally in Northern or
extremely cold water from the depths of Equatorial Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
the sea rise upwards to preserve the
continuity of mass. The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is
defined by the difference in sea surface
The peculiar feature of Somali temperature between two areas (or poles,
Current is reversal in direction with the hence a dipole) a western pole in the
onset of the summer monsoon. Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and
an eastern pole in the eastern Indian
In winter, this current is from north Ocean south of Indonesia.
to the south running southwards from the
coast of Arabia to the east African IOD develops in the equatorial
coastline; but with the advent of the region of Indian Ocean from April to May
summer monsoon it reverses its direction peaking in October.
and flows from the south to the north.
With a positive IOD winds over the
Indian Ocean blow from east to west (from
Bay of Bengal towards Arabian Sea). This
results in the Arabian Sea (western Indian
Ocean near African Coast) being much
warmer and eastern Indian Ocean around
Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
In the negative dipole year, reverse

happens making Indonesia much warmer
and rainier.
Positive IOD is good for Indian

Monsoons as more evaporation occurs in
warm water.
Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric

component of the IOD is named as
Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation
(EQUINOO)(Oscillation of pressure cells
Indian Monsoons Role of between Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea).
Indian Ocean Dipole During the positive phase of the

Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation
Indian ocean Dipole is a recently (EQUINOO), there is enhanced cloud
discovered phenomena that has a formation and rainfall in western part of
significant influence on Indian monsoons. the equatorial ocean near the African
coast while such activity is suppressed
Indian ocean Dipole is a SST near Sumatra.
anomaly (Sea Surface Temperature
While EQUINOO
Page | 137 and IOD go in step Summing up all the points from the
during strong positive IOD events, they do
previous posts.
not always do so.
As the summer time approaches,

there is increased solar heating of the
Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan
Plateau.
In the peak summer months (25th

of May 10th of Jun), with the apparent
northward movement of the sun, the
southern branch of the SJT, which flows
to the south of the Himalayas, shifts to the
north of the Himalayas.
When the suns position is about to

reach the Tropic of Cancer (June), the SJT
shifts to the north of the Tibetan Plateau
(1st of Jun 20th of June). The ITCZ is
close to its peak position over the Tibetan
Plateau.
The altitude of the mountains

initially disrupts the jet but once it has
cleared the summits it is able to reform
over central Asia.
Its movement towards the north is

Indian Monsoons |ITCZ|Inter- one of the main features associated with
Tropical Convergence Zone the onset of the monsoon over India.
Indian Monsoons Mechanism|Jet With the northward shift of SJT, an

Stream Theory Easterly Jet is formed over the Indian
plains. It generally forms in the first week
Indian Monsoons Easterly Jet| of June and lasts till late October.
Tibet|Somali Jet
It can be traced in the upper
Indian Monsoons South West| troposphere right up to the west coast of
North East Monsoons <-- You are Here Africa.
How Jet Streams affect The northward shift of SJT and

ICTZ moves the subtropical high pressure
Indian Monsoons? [Indian
belt to the north of the Tibetan Plateau
Monsoon Mechanism] and the Easterly Jet creates a low
pressure Page
region in the Indian plains
| 138 With the STJ out of the way (high
(Easterly Jet creates anticyclonic pressure belt migrates to the north of
conditions in upper troposphere). Tibet) the sub continental monsoon cell
develops (Somali Jet) very quickly indeed,
This low pressure in the northern often in a matter of a few days.
plains coupled with the intense low of the
Tibetan Plateau leads to the sudden onset Warmth and moisture are fed into
of south-west monsoons (1st of Jun 20th the cell by a lower level tropical jet stream
of June). which brings with it air masses laden with
moisture from the Indian Ocean.
The monsoon cell is situated
between the Indian Ocean (North of The end of the monsoon season is
Madagascar)(High Pressure Cell) and brought about when the atmosphere over
Tibetan plateau (Low Pressure Cell). the Tibetan Plateau begins to cool (August
October), this enables the STJ to
In summer the sub-tropical easterly transition back across the Himalayas.
jet fluctuates between the plains region of
India and peninsular India varying the With the southward shift of ITCZ,
intensity of rainfall from location to subtropical high pressure belt returns
location. back to the Indian plains and the rainfall
ceases.
During March to May, the building
up of this cell is blocked by the STJ which This leads to the formation of a
tends to blow to the south of the anticyclonic winter monsoon cell typified
Himalayas (Northwest India and Plains by sinking air masses over India and
region are occupied by Subtropical High relatively moisture free winds that blow
Pressure Belt. This high pressure belt seaward.
undermines the influence of low pressure
cell over Tibet). This gives rise to relatively settled
and dry weather over India during the
As long as the STJ is in this position winter months.
the development of summer monsoons is
inhibited (the high pressure belt stays over Indian Monsoons Seasonal
north India). Variations
Indian Monsoons in May - Dry Season


Page | 139
Indian Monsoons in June - Onset of Monsoons Jun 1st - June 1oth


Page | 140
Indian Monsoons in July - Monsoon winds reach North-West India


Page | 141
Indian Monsoons in August - Monsoons Retreat from North-West India


Page | 142
Indian Monsoons in September - Maximum Rainfall in parts of South India


Page | 143
Indian Monsoons in October - Retreating Monsoons - Cyclones in Late October


Page | 144
Indian Monsoons in November - North-East Monsoons - Peak Cyclone Season in
early November

Page | 145
Indian Monsoons in December - Maximum Rainfall Month in Tamil Nadu and
Southern Andhra Coast


Page | 146
Indian Monsoons in January - North-East Monsoons weaken


Page | 147
Indian Monsoons in February - Dry Season Begins


Page | 148
Indian Monsoons in March - Dry Season intensifies


Page | 149
Indian Monsoons in April - Dry Season- Occasional Thunderstorms in South and
Central India

Page | 150
Projects to understand ISMEX

monsoons
Two more experiments were
conducted, jointly, by India and the former
First attempt was made during USSR in 1973 and 1977, with limited
International India Ocean Expedition participation from other countries.
(HOE) from 1962 to 1965.
These experiments are known as the
It was organized jointly by the Indo-Soviet Monsoon Experiment (ISMEX)
International Council of Scientific Unions and Monsoon-77 respectively.
(ICSU), Scientific Committee on Ocean
Research (SCOR) and UNESCO with World MONEX
Meteorological Organization (WMO) joining
the meteorology programme.
DataPage
collection
| 151 effort was made Importance of Western Disturbances.
under the aegis of MONEX-1979.
Cloudburst in Jammu and Kashmir,
It was organised jointly by many Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand.
researching organizations and the World
Meteorological Organisation (WMO) under
their World Weather Watch (WWW) Western Disturbances
programme.
In the winter season, the sub-
It is so far the largest scientific effort tropical jet (STJ) is bifurcated into two
made to understand monsoons. branches due to physical obstruction of
the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau.
Details are not necessary.
Remember the names. They can be asked One branch is flows to the south of
in prelims. MONEX was asked in previous the Himalayas, while the second branch is
papers. positioned to the north of the Tibetan
Plateau.
Western Disturbances - Weather
associated with Western Disturbances -
The ridge of the jet stream creates India, resulting into the development of
anticyclonic (with clockwise air atmospheric stability and dry conditions
circulation) conditions over North-West (anticyclonic condition = no rainfall).
India.
But the sub-tropical jet (STJ) causes
Consequently, the winds tend to periodic changes in general weather
descend over the north-western parts of conditions.

Page | 152

Page | 153 Weather associated with
The arrival of these temperate

storms [remnants of temperate cyclones]
[western disturbances]
causes precipitation leading to an abrupt
decrease in air temperature over North-
West India.
The weather becomes clear after the

western disturbances passes away.
Western Disturbances also

bring heavy snowfall in the Himalayan
Region and a cold wave to north Indian
plains.
Importance of Western
The STJ drives the temperate low Disturbances
pressures over Mediterranean Sea towards
east across Afghanistan, Pakistan and The western disturbances affect
reach north-west India. weather conditions during the winter
season up to Patna (Bihar) and give
These storms are residual frontal occasional rainfall which is highly
cyclones which move at the height of beneficial for the standing rabi crops,
2000 metres from the mean sea level. (wheat, barley, mustard, gram, lentil,
etc.).
On an average, 4 to 6 cyclonic waves
reach north-western India between
October and April each year.
Cloudburst in Jammu and

Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand

Page | 154
A cloudburst is an intense thunderstorm that lasts for a relatively

torrential rainfall brought by a short duration (few minutes to few hours).
Cloudburst
Page | 155 leads to flash In addition, southern desert heat
floods and causes lot of damage to life and from central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula
property. and North Africa began to flow northward,
which strengthened this ridge of STJ and
Every intense rainfall is not a tightened its hold over the region.
Cloudburst. Cloudburst specifically occurs

when an air mass with high humidity is
struck at a place due to various
reasons.
The stalled system prevented

weather systems being drawn across
Russia and the obstacle acted as a
In 2010, South-Western strip of barrier trapping hot air to the south and
Russia (Caucasus Region, Moscow etc.) cold air to the north.
saw higher than normal temperatures
(highest in in the last 100 years) and there The consequence of this static mass
were numerous cloudbursts in Jammu of hot air was the heat wave that
and Kashmir. devastated Russia.
A strong upper-atmospheric high With the jet stream stalled the Sub-
was located over European Russia towards Tropical Jet was unable to transit across
the beginning of summer. the Himalayas as it would do ordinarily,
the monsoon cell to the south, fed by
It diverted the jet stream warmer waters in the Indian Ocean, had
(meandering of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream) nowhere to go and as a consequence it
and its rain-giving train (trough) of deposited vast amounts of rain over
summer storms farther north than usual, Pakistan, Himalchal Pradesh and Jammu
giving much of Southern European Russia and Kashmir and this led to extensive
drought conditions. flooding.
Indian Climate
Page | 156 Climate of India - The seasonal reversal of winds in
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal give India
Features of Indian Climate - Factors
a typical tropical monsoon climate.
Influencing The Climate Of India:
So Indian climate, to be precise,
Physiography, Monsoon Winds, El
is tropical monsoon type (a distinct wet
Nino, La Nina etc.. and dry climate) rather than just a
tropical or half temperate climate.
Indian Climate - What type of
Climate Does India Have?
India's climate closely resembles the

climate that of a tropical country although
its northern part (north of tropic of
cancer) is situated in the temperate belt.
Indian subcontinent is separated

from the rest of Asia by the lofty
Himalayan ranges which block the cold
air masses moving southwards from
Central Asia.
As a result, during winters, the

northern half of India is warmer by 3C to
8C than other areas located on same
latitudes.
During summer, due to over the

head position of the sun, the climate in
the southern parts resemble equatorial
dry climate.
The north Indian plains are under

the influence of hot dry wind Features of Indian Climate
called 'loo' blowing from the Thar, Baloch
and Iranian Deserts, increasing the India has high Regional Climatic
temperatures to a level comparable to that Diversity because of its topographical
of the southern parts of the country. diversity (location, altitude, distance from
sea and relief).
Thus the whole of India, south of
the Himalayas can be climatically treated Rainfall
as a tropical country.
The climate in most of the regions is

Page | 157 Himalayan regions experience brutal
characterized by distinct wet and dry winters while the summers are moderate.
seasons. Some places like Thar desert,
Ladakh have no wet season. Factors Influencing Indian
Climate
Mean annual rainfall varies
substantially from region to
Latitudinal location
region. Mawsynram and Cherrapunji in
Meghalaya receives around 1,000 cm of Distance from the Sea
annual rainfall while at Jaisalmer the
annual rainfall rarely exceeds 12 cm. The Himalayas
The Ganga delta and the coastal Physiography

plains of Odisha see intense rainfall in
July and August while the Coromandel Monsoon Winds
Coast goes dry during these months.
Upper Air Circulation
Places like Goa, Hyderabad and
Patna receive south-west monsoon rains El Nino and La Nina
by the first quarter of June while the rains
are awaited till early July at places in Tropical Cyclones and Western
Northwest India. Disturbances
Temperature Latitudinal location
Diurnal and annual temperature Indian climate resembles the climate

ranges are substantial. of a tropical country.
Highest diurnal temperature ranges The mainland of India extends

occur in the Thar desert and the highest between 8N to 37N.
annual temperature ranges are recorded
in the Himalayan regions. Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer
are in tropics and hence receive high solar
Both diurnal and mean annual insolation. The summer temperatures are
temperature ranges are least in coastal extreme and winters temperatures are
regions. moderate in most of the regions.
In December, the temperature may The northern parts on the other

dip to 40C at some places in J&K while hand lie in the warm temperate zone. They
in many coastal regions average receive comparatively less solar insolation.
temperature is 20-25C. But summer are equally hot in north India
because of hot local wind called 'loo'.
Winters are moderately cold in most Winter are very cold due to cold waves
of the regions while the summers are brought by the western disturbances.
extremely hot.
SomePage
places
| 158in Himalayas record If the Himalayas were not present,
low temperatures particularly in winter. the monsoon winds would simply move
into China and most of the north India
Coastal regions see moderate would have been a desert.
climatic conditions irrespective of
latitudinal position. Why rainfall decreases form east
to west in plains region (Indus-
Distance from the Sea Ganga Plains)?
Coastal regions have moderate or In summer, there are many minor

equable or maritime climate where as low pressure cells that exist all over the
interior locations are deprived of the plain region.
moderating influence of the sea and
experience extreme or continental climate. As the monsoon winds move from
east to west the moisture levels decrease
The monsoon winds first reach the due to successive rainfall at each low
coastal regions and hence bring good pressure regions.
amount of rainfall.
By the time winds reach western
Himalayas and Indian parts of the plains (Delhi, Haryana etc.) all
the moisture in the monsoon winds
Climate
in exhausted.
This is the most important factor
Then how come Haryana and
that influences Indian Climate.
Punjab not deserts like
The Himalayas act as a climatic Rajasthan?
divide between India and Central Asia.
They receive rainfall due to Western
During winter, Himalayas protect Disturbances in winter. (In summer the
India from cold and dry air masses of rainfall is very low.)
Central Asia.
Physiography and Indian
During monsoon months these Climate
mountain ranges act as an effective
physical barrier for rain bearing south- Physiography is the most important
west monsoon winds. factor that determines the mean annual
rainfall received by a region.
Himalayas divide the Bay of
Bengal branch of monsoon winds into Why are some parts in peninsular
two branches one branch flowing India semi-arid?
along the plain regions towards north-
Places on the windward side of an
west India and the other towards South-
orographic barrier receive great amount of
East Asia.
rainfall where as those on the leeward side
remain arid semi-arid due to rain-

Pageto| 159 How come Cherrapunji and
shadow effect. Mawsynram receive abnormally
high rainfall?
Example: The south-west monsoon
winds from the Arabian sea strike Mawsynram and Cherrapunji
almost perpendicular at the Western are the wettest places on earth with mean
Ghats and cause copious rainfall in the annual rainfall over 1000 cm.
Western Coastal plain and the western
slopes of the Western Ghats. Copious rainfall in these places is
due to funneling effect followed
On the contrary, vast areas of by orographic upliftment. [Funneling
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana,
effect = clouds are channeled into a
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu lie in
narrow region between mountains and
rain-shadow or leeward side of the
hence the cloud density is extraordinary]
Western Ghats and receive scanty rainfall.

Why no significant rainfall in
Gujarat and Rajasthan? Explain
the formation of Thar Desert?
Monsoons winds flowing in

Rajasthan and Gujarat are not
obstructed by any orographic
barrier and hence these regions receive no
rainfall.
[Monsoon winds blow almost

parallel to Aravalis and hence there is no
orographic rainfall].
[No convection cell or vertical wind

movements arise in Rajasthan and
Gujarat: Monsoon winds blow towards low
pressure cells in Tibet and hence only
horizontal wind movements exist in
Gujarat and Rajasthan]
Monsoon Winds and Indian
[Sub-tropical high pressure belt: In
winter the region experiences strong Climate
divergence because of the STJ Sub-
Tropical Jet.] The most dominating factor of the
Indian climate is the 'monsoon winds'.
Important features
Page | 160 of Indian This jet stream is responsible for
Monsoons are bringing western disturbances from the
Mediterranean region in to the Indian sub-
1. Sudden onset (sudden burst) continent.
2. Gradual progress Winter rain and heat storms in

north-western plains and occasional
3. Gradual retreat heavy snowfall in hilly regions are caused
by these disturbances.
4. Seasonal reversal of winds
These are generally followed by cold
The complete reversal of the waves in the whole of northern plains.
monsoon winds brings about a sudden
change in the seasons. Easterly Jet Stream
The harsh summer season suddenly Reversal in upper air circulation

giving way to monsoon or rainy season. takes place in summer due to the
apparent shift of the sun's vertical rays in
The south-west monsoons from the the northern hemisphere.
Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal bring
rainfall to the entire country. The westerly jet stream is replaced
by the easterly jet stream which owes its
The north-eastern winter monsoon origin to the heating of the Tibet plateau.
do not cause much rainfall except along
the Caromandel coast (TN coast) after This helps in the sudden onset of
getting moisture from the Bay of Bengal. the south-west monsoons.
Upper Air Circulation Tropical Cyclones and

The changes in the upper air
circulation over Indian landmass is
Tropical cyclones originate in the
brought about by Jet streams. (Explained
Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea and the
in detail in Indian Monsoons) influence large parts of the peninsular
India.
Westerly Jet Stream
Majority of the cyclones originate in
Westerly jet stream blows at a very the Bay of Bengal and influence the
high speed during winter over the sub- weather conditions during the south-west
tropical zone. monsoon season (low intensity
cyclones).
Southern branch of the jet stream
exercises a significant influence on the Some cyclones are born during the
winter weather conditions in India. retreating monsoon season, i.e., in
October and November (high intensity
cyclones) and
Page |influence
161 the weather Southern Oscillation coinciding with
conditions along the eastern coast of El Nino is called ENSO or El Nino
India. Southern Oscillation. (SO usually
coincides with EL Nino. This why El Nino
The western disturbances originate is usually referred to as ENSO)
over the Mediterranean sea and travel
eastward under the influence of westerly ENSO = [warm water in eastern
jet stream. Pacific + low pressure over eastern Pacific]
+ [cool water in western Pacific + high
They influence the winter weather pressure in western Pacific]
conditions over most of Northern-plains
and Western Himalayan region. Climatic conditions same as El
Nino.
El-Nino, La Nina, ENSO and
Winter Season Summer Season
Indian Climate
Indian Climate: Pressure, Winds,
El Nino
Rainfall, Temperature, Cyclones,
Adversely affects monsoon rainfall Western Disturbances. Loo, Andhis,

and cyclogenesis in Bay of Bengal.
Norwesters.
Good for cyclogenesis in Arabian
Sea. Indian Climate Seasons
Droughts are common during El
The cold weather season or winter
Nino events due to less monsoonal and
season,
cyclonic rainfall.
The hot weather season or summer
La Nina
season,
Good for monsoons and cyclogenesis The south-west monsoon season or

in Bay of Bengal. Rainy season, and
Suppressed cyclogenesis in Arabian The season of the retreating

Sea. monsoon or cool season.
Floods are common.

Winter Season in India
ENSO
November March. January is the
Southern Oscillation is simply the coldest month.
oscillation or alternating positions of low
Sun's apparent path is to the south
pressure and high pressure cells over
of equator.
eastern and western Pacific.
Clear sky,
Page pleasant weather, low
| 162 is no distinctly defined winter weather.
temperature, low humidity, high range Some parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu
of temperature, cool and slow north- typically experiences temperatures near
east trade winds. 30C.
The diurnal range of temperature, To the north mean temperatures are

especially in interior parts of the country, below 21C and the winter weather is
is very high. distinct.
The mean minimum temperature is

Temperature in Winter about 5C over north-west India and 10C
Season over the Gangetic plains.
The isotherm of 20C runs roughly Dras Valley in Kashmir is the

parallel to the Tropic of Cancer. coldest place in India. The minimum
temperature recorded at Dras was 45C
To the south of this isotherm the in 1908.
temperatures are above 20C. Here there

Pressure
Page | in
163Winter Season The winds start blowing from high
pressure area of north-west to low
High air pressure prevails over large pressure area of south-east. The wind
parts of north-west India due to low velocity is low due to low pressure
temperatures coupled with divergence gradient.
induced by the ridge of the STJ.
The path of the winds depend on
Pressure is comparatively lower in pressure gradient and physiography.
south India.
Western Disturbances in They move eastwards across the

sub-Himalayan belt up to Arunachal
Winter Season
Pradesh.
The spell of fine weather over north- They cause light rain in the Indus-
western and northern India is often Ganga plains and snowfall in the
broken due to inflow of western Himalayan belt.
disturbances.
After the passage of the disturbance,
They intensify over Rajasthan, widespread fog and cold waves lowering
Punjab, and Haryana.
the minimum temperature by 5

Page | 164 to The highest seasonal rainfall of
10C below normal are experienced. about 75 cm between October and
December.
Fog lowers visibility and causes
great inconvenience for transportation. Most of it occurs along the south-
eastern coast of Tamil Nadu and adjoining
Tropical Cyclones in Winter parts of Andhra Pradesh. Thereafter, it
gradually decreases.
Season
The western disturbances also
This is the season of least tropical cause a little rainfall in north-west India.
cyclone activity.
The amount of rainfall gradually
The frequency of tropical cyclones decreases from the north and north-west
decreases with the advancement of the to east (it is opposite in rainy season).
season.
The northeastern part of India also
This is due to low sea surface gets rainfall during the winter months.
temperature and exit of ITCZ farthest
south. Summer Season in India
The storms which are born in the March to June.

Bay of Bengal strike Tamil Nadu and bring
heavy rainfall. High temperature and low humidity
are the chief characteristics.
Some of them cross the southern
peninsula over to the Arabian Sea. Sometimes referred to as pre-
monsoon period.
Some storms originate in the
Arabian Sea and move towards either
Temperature in Summer
north or west.
Season
Precipitation in Winter
High sun's insolation due to
Season apparent movement of sun between the
equator and the Tropic of Cancer.
The retreating winter monsoons pick
up some moisture while crossing the The southern parts of the country
Bay of Bengal and cause winter rainfall are distinctly warmer in March and April
in Tamil Nadu, south Andhra Pradesh, whereas in June, north India has higher
south-east Karnataka and south-east temperatures.
Kerala (Usually in the first weeks of
In March, the highest temperatures
November).
occur in the southern parts (40-45C).
In April
Pagethe highest temperature of
| 165 regions. Temperature increase of the
about 45C is recorded in the northern
order of 6 to 7C above normal is
parts of Madhya Pradesh.
termed as 'moderate' and 8C and
In May the highest temperature
shifts to Rajasthan where temperatures as more as 'severe' heat wave]
high as 48C may be recorded.
Most of the heat waves develop over
In June the maximum temperature Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana (location
is in Punjab and Haryana. far away from the sea). From here they
spread over Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
The highest temperatures recorded
are 50.5C at Alwar on 10th May, 1956 The strong north westerly winds
and 50.6C at Ganganagar on 14th June, (caused due to strong divergence in north-
1935. west India) with a long land journey over
hot regions check the onward march of the
The highest temperatures are sea breeze over eastern coastal belt and
recorded just before the onset of the create heat wave conditions over Odisha
southwest monsoons (late May). and Andhra Pradesh.
The diurnal range of temperature is The heat waves strike by the end of
also very high. It may be as high as 18C April and their maximum occurrence is in
in some parts. May. They last till the onset of southwest
monsoon.
The maximum summer
temperatures are comparatively lower in The normal duration of heat waves
the costal and southern peninsular is 4 to 5 days. However, heat waves are
regions due to moderating effect of the rare over the peninsula south of 13N
sea. latitude due to maritime conditions
prevailing there.
The temperatures along the west
coast are comparatively lower than those
prevailing on the east coast due to the
prevailing westerly winds. Pressure in Summer Season
There is large contrast between land
The atmospheric pressure is low all
and sea temperatures.
over the country due to high temperature.
Northern and central parts of India
But strong dynamically induced
experience heat waves in this season.
divergence over north-west India
prevents the onset of south-west
[A heat wave is an abnormally high
monsoons.
temperature experienced by a

Page | 166

Page | 167
Winds in Summer Season In May and June, high temperature

in northwest India builds steep pressure
There is a marked change in the gradient.
direction and speed of the winds from
Hot, dust laden and strong wind
winter.
known as loo blows.
The winds are by and large light and
Loo normally starts blowing by 9.00
variable.
A.M., increases gradually and reaches
Loo maximum intensity in the afternoon.
It blows with an average speed of

Loo winds originate over Iranian,
30-40 km per hour and persists for days.
Baloch and Thar deserts.
Andhis
The Page
strong dust storms resulting
| 168 northwest, and they are
from the convective phenomena are locally called norwesters.
known as andhis (blinding storms). They
move like a solid wall of dust and sand. They are often very violent with
squall speeds of 60 to 80 km per hour.
The wind velocity often reaches 50-
60 kmph and the visibility is reduced to a Hailstones sometimes accompany
few metres. showers and occasionally attain the size of
a golf ball.
Such dust storms are common in
Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu They cause heavy damage to
region, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and standing crops, trees, buildings, livestock
Madhya Pradesh. and even lead to loss of human lives.
They are short lived. The squall and However, they are, sometimes,
showers which follow these storms bring useful for tea, jute and rice cultivation. In
down the temperature sharply temporarily. Assam, these storms are known
as 'Barodoli Chheerha'.
Frontal Thunderstorms in
The period of maximum occurrence
Summer Season
of these storms is the month of Vaisakh
(mid-March to mid-April) and hence, they
The strong convectional movements
are locally known as Kalabaisakhis, the
related to the westerly jet stream lead to
black storms or a mass of dark clouds of
thunderstorms in eastern and north-
Vaiasakha.
eastern part of the country.
They normally originate over Chota Convectional Thunderstorms

Nagpur plateau and are carried eastwards in Summer Season
by westerly winds.
In the south the thunderstorms
The areas with highest incidence of occur in Kerala (Mango Showers) and
thunderstorms are Assam, Arunachal adjoining parts of Karnataka (Blossom
Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur,
Showers) and Tamil Nadu, particularly
Tripura, Meghalaya, West Bengal and the
during evenings and nights.
adjoining areas of Odisha and Jharkhand.
Western Disturbances in
Norwesters and
Summer Season
Thunderstorms in Summer
Season Their frequency and intensity
gradually decrease with advancement of
In West Bengal and the adjoining summer.
areas of Jharkhand, Odisha and Assam,
the direction of squalls is mainly from the
Approximately
Page | 169 4, 3 and 2 western Most of the depressions in April
disturbances visit north-west India in originate to the south of 10N while those
March, April and May respectively. originating in May are born to the north of
this latitude.
They cause snowfall in higher
reaches of the Himalayas. Most of the storms of this season
initially move west or north-west but later
Tropical Cyclones in Summer they recurve northeast and
Season strike Bangladesh and the Arakan Coast
of Myanmar.
Tropical cyclones originate in the
Very few hit Indian coast while some
Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
dissipate over the sea itself.
A few cyclones are formed in the Bay
The whole of the east coast of India,
of Bengal in the month of March but they
the coastal areas of Bangladesh and
do not affect the mainland of India.
Arakan Coast of Myanmar are liable to be
Their frequency rises steeply in April hit by tropical storms in May.
and the number of cyclones originating in
Many of them are quite severe and
May is more than double than those
cause heavy damage to life and property.
originating in April.
In the Arabian Sea, major storms
About three-fourths of the tropical
are formed in May between 7 and 12 N
cyclones are born in the Bay of Bengal and
latitudes.
the rest originate in the Arabian Sea.

Page | 170
MostPage
of them
| 171move away from the In Karnataka they are called cherry
Indian coast in a north-westerly direction blossoms due to their effect on the coffee
and dissipate in the sea. plantations.
Few originate close to the Indian South West Monsoon Season

coast. They move towards the north-east
and hit somewhere along the west coast of South West Monsoons Arabian Sea
India. branch & Bay of Bengal branch,
Break in South West Monsoons,

Precipitation in Summer
Season Advance & Withdrawal.
This season is not totally rainless Isoline, Isobar, Isotherm &

(only one per cent of the annual rainfall).
Isohyet
In the northeastern parts of the
country, dust storms bring little rainfall. ISOLINE: imaginary lines joining
regions with equal rainfall or any other
The precipitation in Kashmir is parameter.
mainly in the form of snow caused by
western disturbances. ISOBAR: imaginary lines joining
regions with equal pressure.
The norwesters bring some rainfall
in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha. The ISOTHERM: imaginary lines
intensity of rainfall is high.
joining regions with equal temperature.
The rainfall brought by the
ISOHYET: imaginary lines joining
norwesters is known as the spring storm
regions with equal rainfall.
showers.
This small amount of rainfall is very Rainy Season South West

useful for the cultivation of tea, jute and Monsoon Season
rice and is known as tea showers in
Assam. South West Monsoon Season June
to mid-September.
Coastal areas of Kerala and
Karnataka receive rainfall from South West Monsoon Season is also
thunderstorms. known as hot-wet season.
Such showers are called mango Sudden onset is the important

showers in Tamil Nadu and Andhra feature of South West Monsoons.
Pradesh because they are very beneficial
to mango crop. With the onset of monsoons,
temperature falls drastically and humidity
levels rise.
Temperature
Page | 172 during South changes in its location depending upon
the weather conditions.
West Monsoon Season
The atmospheric pressure increases
Sudden onset of South West steadily southwards.
Monsoons leads to significant fall in
temperature [3 to 6C]. Over the peninsular region, due to
pressure gradient between north and
The temperature remains less south, winds blow in a southwest to
uniform throughout the rainy season. northeast direction from Arabian sea and
Bay of Bengal.
The temperature rises in September
with the cease of south-west monsoons. Their direction undergoes a change
in Indo-Gangetic plain where they move
There is rise in temperature
from east to west.
whenever there is break in the
monsoons. Rainfall During South West
The diurnal range of temperature is Monsoon Season
small due to clouds and rains.
Three fourths of the total annual
The highest temperatures are rainfall is received during this season.
experienced at places west of the Aravali
[38 to 40C]. This is due to lack of clouds The average rainfall over the plains
and hot continental air masses. of India in this season is about 87 per
cent.
Other parts of Northwest India also
have temperatures above 30C. Normal date of the arrival of the
monsoon is 20th May in Andaman and
The temperatures are quite low over Nicobar Islands.
the Western Ghats due to heavy rainfall.
The advance of the monsoon
The coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and is much faster in the Bay of Bengal than
adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh have in the Arabian Sea.
temperatures above 30C as they receive
little rainfall during this season. The normal date of onset of the
southwest monsoon over Kerala i.e. the
Pressure and Winds During first place of entry in the mainland of
South West Monsoon Season India is 1st June.
The monsoons advance quickly

Low pressure conditions prevail over
accompanied with a lot of thunder,
northwest India due to high temperature.
lightning and heavy downpour. This
ITCZ (monsoon trough) lies along sudden onset of rain is termed
the Ganga plain. There are frequent as monsoon burst.
Sometimes monsoons are delayed or

Page | 173

they come much earlier than normal.
Normally the onset occurs between

29th May and 7th June.
The earliest onset was on 11th May

in 1918 and 1955, while the most delayed
onset was on 18th June in 1972.
South West Monsoons

Arabian Sea branch and Bay
of Bengal branch
Monsoon winds beyond south

Kerala progress in the form of two
branches viz. the Arabian Sea branch and
the Bay of Bengal branch.
The Arabian Sea branch gradually

advances northwards. It reaches Mumbai
by 10th June.
The Bay of Bengal branch spreads

rather rapidly over most of Assam. The
normal date of its arrival at Kolkata is 7th
June.
On reaching the foothills of the

Himalayas the Bay branch is deflected
westward by the Himalayan barrier and
it advances up the Gangetic plain.
The Page
two branches
| 174 merge with each By mid-July, the monsoon extends
other mostly around Delhi to form a into Kashmir and the remaining parts of
single current. the country.
The combined current gradually By this time it reaches Kashmir, it

extends to west Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, has shed most of its moisture.
Punjab, Rajasthan and finally to Himachal
Pradesh and Kashmir. Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon
is much powerful than the Bay of Bengal
By the end of June the monsoon is branch for reasons:
usually established over most parts of the
country.

Page | 175

Page | 176
1. The Arabian Sea is larger than the Some parts of central India receive
Bay of Bengal, and rainfall from this stream (Ex: Nagpur).The
third stream moves parallel to the Aravali
2. the entire Arabian Sea current Range without causing much rainfall.
advances towards India, whereas only a Consequently the whole of Rajasthan is a
part of the Bay of Bengal current enters desert area.
India, the remainder proceeding to
However, some orographic effect is
Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia.
occurs on the south-eastern edge of the
Aravali Range. Mt. Abu gets about 170 cm
Both the branches reach Delhi more
rainfall while the surrounding plains have
or less at the same time.
only 60 to 80 cm rainfall.
The Arabian Sea branch of the
The Bay of Bengal Branch of the
southwest monsoons is divided into
southwest monsoon is divided into
three distinct streams on arriving in
two distinct streams.
the mainland of India.
The first stream crosses the Ganga-
The first stream strikes the west Brahmaputra delta and
coast of India and gives extremely heavy reaches Meghalaya. Here that the
rainfall of over 250 cm. It strike orographic effect results in intense
perpendicular to Western Ghats causing rainfall. Cherrapunji receives an annual
plentiful Orographic Rainfall [400 to 500 rainfall of 1,102 cm, major portion of
cm annual rainfall on the windward side]. which occurs from June to August.
Rainfall is drastically reduced to Mawsynram (present

about 30-50 cm on the leeward side of the
champion) located at 1,329 m above sea
crest.
level just 16 km to the west
of Cherrapunji (X champion) records
There is a narrow belt of marked
aridity on the immediate leeward side of higher annual rainfall of 1,221 cm.
the Western Ghats. But once it is passed,
Both the stations are located on the
the air starts rising again and the amount
southern slopes of the Khasi hills at the
of rainfall increases further east.
northern end of a deep valley running
The second stream enters Narmada from south to north.
Tapi troughs(narrow rift valley) and
The second stream of the Bay of
reaches central India. It does not cause
much rain near the coast due to the Bengal branch moves along Himalayan
absence of major orographic obstacle foothills as they are deflected to the west
across the rift. by the Himalaya and brings widespread
rainfall to Ganga plain.
The Page
rainfall
| 177by this stream is The monsoon trough is a portion of
characterized by a steady decline as we
the Intertropical Convergence Zone
move from east to west up the plain.
[Previous Prelims Question] as depicted by a line on a weather
map showing the locations of

The Tamil Nadu coast remains
relatively dry during the south-west minimum sea level pressure, and as
monsoon period because of
such, is a convergence zone between
1. rain shadow effect of the Arabian the wind patterns of the southern
Sea current and
and northern hemispheres.
2. Bay of Bengal current which flows
parallel to the coast. During the break period, heavy
rainfall occurs over the sub-Himalayan
Break in the South West regions and the southern slopes of the
Himalayas.
Monsoons
On an average one or two breaks do
During the Monsoon season, there occur during the rainy season. 85 out of
are periods when the Monsoon trough 100 years there is a break in the
shifts to the foothills of Himalayas, which monsoons.
leads to sharp decrease in rainfall over
most parts of the country but increase Depressions in South West
along the Himalayas and parts of
Northeast India and Southern Peninsula. Monsoon Season
During July and August, there are A major part of the South West
certain periods when the monsoons Monsoon rainfall is generated by
become weak. Rainfall practically ceases depressions [intense low pressure]
over the country outside the Himalayan originating in the Arabian Sea and Bay of
belt and southeast peninsula. This is Bengal. Some depressions develop over
known as break in the monsoon. land also.
Breaks are likely to occur during the About 3-4 depressions are formed
second week of August and last for a week. per month from June to September.
The breaks are believed to be Almost all of them are sucked

brought about by the northward shifting inward through the deltas of great rivers
of the monsoon trough (minimum low [They need moisture to be alive], the
Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
pressure cell in ITCZ). The axis of the
Krishna and the Cauvery and cause heavy
trough lies at the foothills of the
rain in these areas.
Himalayas during the break period.
The Page
location of depressions strongly
| 178 There are large scale spatial
coincide with the latitudinal position of variations in the distribution of rainfall.
ITCZ.
Monsoons often fail to keep date.
Most of the depression originate to Sometimes the monsoons withdraw before
the west of 90 E in Bay of Bengal and the scheduled time causing considerable
move in north-west direction. damage to the crops.
In the Arabian Sea in June-July, the North East Monsoon Season

depressions move either in north-west or
Retreating Monsoon Season
in northerly direction and may affect west
Gujarat or Maharashtra. Temperature, Cyclones &
Precipitation during Retreating

Storms during August and
September are rare and are formed close Monsoon Season. Annual Rainfall.
to Maharashtra-Gujarat coast.
Most of the rainfall in central and Retreating Monsoon Season

northern parts of the country is caused by North East Monsoon Season
these depressions.
Starts with the beginning of the
The absence of depressions or a
withdrawal of southwest monsoon
change in their tracks result in deficit or
[middle of September November] and
no rain.
lasts till early January.
Chief Characteristics of The monsoons withdraw from the
South West Monsoon Rainfall extreme north-west end of the country in
September, from the peninsula by October
Major part of monsoon rains are and from the extreme south-eastern tip by
received between June and September. December.
Monsoonal rainfall is largely In Punjab the south-west monsoons

governed by relief and is orographic in reach in the first week of July and
its mode. withdraw from there in the second week of
September.
The amount of rainfall decreases
with increasing distance from the sea. The south-west monsoons reach
Coromandel coast in the first week of June
The rainless interval during south and withdraw from there only in the
west monsoon season is known as middle of December.
'breaks'. The breaks in rainfall are related
to tropical cyclones which originate in the Unlike the sudden burst of the
Bay of Bengal. advancing monsoons, the withdrawal is
rather gradual and takes about three
months.
Advance
Page | and
179 Withdrawal of
South West Monsoons

Page | 180

Page | 181
Temperature
Page | 182 during
With retreat of the monsoons, the

clouds disappear and the sky becomes
clear.
The day temperature starts falling

steeply.
The diurnal range of temperature

increases due to lack of cloud cover.
Pressure and Winds during

As the monsoons retreat, the

monsoon trough weakens and gradually More cyclones are born in October
shifts southward. Consequently the
pressure gradient is low. and then in November and more
cyclones originate in the Bay of

Unlike south-west monsoon, the
onset of the north monsoon is not clearly Bengal than in the Arabian Sea.
defined.
The direction of winds over large In October, the Cyclones of the Bay
parts of the country is influenced by the of Bengal originate between 8N and 14N.
local pressure conditions.
Initially they move in a west or
northwesterly direction, but many of them
Cyclones during Retreating
later recurve and move towards the north-
Monsoon Season east.
Most severe and devastating Near 55 per cent of the Bay storms
tropical cyclones originate in the Indian cross or affect the Indian coast.
seas especially in the Bay of Bengal.
The areas most vulnerable to these
The highest frequency of the storms include the coastal belts of Tamil
cyclones is in the month of October and Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West
the first half of November. Bengal.
Many of the cyclones which strike

the eastern coast of India, south of 15N
latitude cross the southern Peninsula and
enter Arabian Sea.
During
Page this
| 183 process, they may the Krishna delta as well as a secondary
weaken, but on re-entry over the Arabian rainy period for Kerala.
sea they intensify into cyclonic storms.
The retreating monsoons absorb
The storms of Arabian sea originate moisture while passing over the Bay of
between 12N and 17N latitudes in Bengal and cause this rainfall.
October and between 8 N and 13 N
latitudes in November. Annual Rainfall [South West
Generally they move away from the Monsoons + Retreating Monsoons]
coast in a north-westerly direction. But
about 25% of them later recurve northeast Areas of very high rainfall
and strike the Maharashtra or Gujarat
coast. Areas receiving an annual rainfall of
200 cm and above.
In north-west India the western
disturbances produce clouding and light These include western side of
rainfall in the otherwise fine weather. Western Ghats [Thiruvananthapuram in
the south to Mumbai in the north].
The precipitation is in the form of
snow in higher reaches of Jammu and The average annual rainfall in this
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and in belt is 200-400 cm.
Kumaon Hills.
Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim,
Precipitation during
parts of Manipur, Tripura and north-
Retreating Monsoon Season eastern tip of West Bengal also receive 200
cm or more, with isolated pockets
The humidity and cloud cover are receiving over 400 cm.
much reduced with the retreat of the
south-west monsoons and most parts of Meghalaya (the abode of clouds) is
the country remain without much rainfall.
the wettest part of the country
October-November is the main rainy with Mawsynram and Cherrapunji
season in Tamil Nadu and adjoining
areas of Andhra Pradesh to the south of getting 1,221 and 1,102 cm of
annual rainfall respectively.


Page | 184
Areas of high rainfall Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh

and Tamil Nadu.
100-200 cm annual rainfall.
Isohyet (the line joining places of equal
Eastern slopes of the Western
rainfall).
Ghats, major part of the northern plain,
Page | 185
Areas of low rainfall 50-100 cm annual rainfall.

LargePage |parts
186 of Gujarat, Stamp's Classification of Climatic
Maharashtra. western Madhya Pradesh,
Regions of India
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, eastern
Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and parts of
Uttar Pradesh. Stamp used 18C isotherm of mean
monthly temperature for January to divide
Areas of very low rainfall the country into two broad climatic
regions, viz., temperate or continental
These are desert and semi-desert zone in the north and tropical zone in
areas receiving less than 50 cm of annual the south.
rainfall.
This line runs roughly across the
They include large areas of western root of the peninsula, more or less along
Rajasthan, Kachchh and most of Ladakh or parallel to the Tropic of Cancer.
region of Jammu and Kashmir.
The two major climatic regions are
further divided into eleven regions
depending upon the amount of rainfall
and temperature.
Climatic Regions of India - Stamp's
Classification of Climatic Regions of India: Temperate or Continental India

Temperate, Tropical - Koeppen's
The Himalayan region (heavy
Classification of Climatic Regions of India. rainfall)
The north-western region (moderate

Climatic Regions of India rainfall)
India has tropical monsoon climate The arid low land

with large regional variations in terms of
rainfall and temperature. The region of moderate rainfall
While classifying Indian climatic The transitional zone

regions, most geographers have given more
importance to rainfall than to Tropical India
temperature as variations in rainfall are
much more marked than those of Region of very heavy rainfall
temperature.
Region of heavy rainfall
Here we will see two classifications -
Region of moderate rainfall
Stamp's and Koeppen's. For GS this is
more than enough. The Konkan Coast
The Malabar Coast

TamilPage
Nadu| 187
Temperate or |Continental
Page 188 India
Region Avg Temperature Annual Rainfall
Himalayan Region Sumer = 4-7C East = Over 200 cm
Winter = 13-18C West = much less

North-western Region Summer = 16C Below 200 cm
Northern parts of Punjab and Winter = 24C
southern parts of Jammu and
Kashmir
Arid Lowland Winter = 16 to 24C Below 40 cm
Thar desert of Rajasthan, south Summer = 48C
western part of Haryana and
Kachchh of Gujarat
Region of moderate rainfall Winter = 15-18C 40 - 80 cm
Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Summer = 33-35C
Pradesh, Union Territory of Delhi,
north-west Plateau area of Madhya
Pradesh and eastern Rajasthan

Transitional Zone Winter = 15-19C Summer 100 -150 cm
Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar = 30 - 35C

Tropical India
Region of very heavy rainfall Winter = 18C in Summer = Over 200
Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, 32-35C
Mizoram and Nagaland

Region of heavy rainfall Winter = 18-24C 100 - 200 cm
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Summer = 29-35C
Gangetic West Bengal, Odisha and
coastal Andhra Pradesh

Region of moderate rainfall Winter = 18-24C Summer 50 -100 cm
between Western and Eastern = 32C in
Ghats
Konkan Coast Annual = 24-27C. Over 200 cm
Mumbai in the north to Goa in the

south Page | 189

Malabar Coast Annual = 27C Over 250 cm
Goa to Kanniyakumari
Tamil Nadu Annual = 24C 100 to 150 cm
Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of (Retreating monsoon)
Andhra Pradesh
Koeppen's Classification of Alphabet codes will help you to remember
Climatic Regions of India the concept in the long run. But if you found
them hard, just ignore them]

Koeppen's Classification of Climatic
Regions of India is an empirical
classification based on mean annual and The climatic groups are subdivided
mean monthly temperature and into types, designated by small letters,
precipitation data. based on seasonality of precipitation and
temperature characteristics.
Koeppen identified a close
relationship between the distribution of The seasons of dryness are
vegetation and climate. indicated by the small letters : f, m, w and
s, where
He selected certain values of
temperature and precipitation and related 1. f - no dry season,
them to the distribution of vegetation and
used these values for classifying the 2. m - monsoon climate,
climates.
3. w - winter dry season and
Koeppen recognized five major
climatic groups, four of them are based on 4. s - summer dry season.
temperature and one on precipitation.
The above mentioned major climatic
The capital letters: types are further subdivided depending
upon the seasonal distribution of rainfall
1. A, C, D and E delineate humid or degree of dryness or cold.
climates and
a: hot summer, average temperature of
2. B dry climates.
the warmest month over 22C
[Don't have to remember all these
c: cool summer, average temperature of
alphabets. Only remember the climatic
regions and their characteristics. That's the warmest month under 22C
enough
f: no dry season
w: dry season
Pagein winter
| 190 m (monsoon): short dry season.
s: dry season in summer The capital letters S and W are

employed to designate the two
subdivisions of dry climate:
g: Ganges type of annual march of
temperature; hottest month comes 1. semi-arid or Steppe (S) and
before the solstice and the summer 2. arid or desert (W).
rainy season. Capital letters T and F are similarly

used to designate the two subdivisions of
h: average annual temperature under polar climate
18C 1. tundra (T) and
2. icecap (F).
Page | 191
Page | 192
Koeppen divided India into nine

climatic regions making use of the above
scheme.
Koeppen'sPage
Scheme
| 193 Climatic Regions of India
Climate type Region Annual rainfall
Amw Western coastal region, south of Mumbai over 300 cm
(Monsoon type with
short dry winter
season)
As Coromandel coast = Coastal Tamil Nadu and 75 - 100 cm
(Monsoon type with adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh
[wet winters, dry
dry season in high
sun period) summers]
Aw Most parts of the peninsular plateau barring 75 cm
(Tropical Savanah Coromandel and Malabar coastal strips
type)
BShw Some rain shadow areas of Western Ghats, 12 to 25 cm
(Semi-arid Steppe large part of Rajasthan and contiguous areas
type) of Haryana and Gujarat
BWhw Most of western Rajasthan less than 12 cm
(Hot desert type)
Cwg Most parts of the Ganga Plain, eastern 100 - 200 cm
(Monsoon type with Rajasthan, Assam and in Malwa Plateau
dry winters)
Dfc Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of ~200 cm
(Cold, Humid Assam
winters type with
shorter summer)
Et Mountain areas of Uttarakhand Rainfall varies
(Tundra Type) from year to year.
The average temperature varies from 0 to
10C
E Higher areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Precipitation
(Polar Type) Himachal Pradesh in which the temperature occurs in the form
of the warmest month varies from 0 to 10C of snow
Forests Natural Vegetation of India Forests Natural Vegetation of
Classification of Natural Vegetation of India
India: Moist Tropical, Dry Tropical,
Climate, soil and topography are
Montane Sub-tropical, Montane the major factors that influence Natural
Temperate, Alpine Forests. Vegetation of a place.
The main climatic factors

are rainfall and temperature. The
amount ofPage
annual
| 194rainfall has a great India's vegetation can be divided
bearing on the type of vegetation. into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as
given below.
Annual Type of Vegetation
Rainfall A. Moist Tropical Forests
200 cm or Evergreen Rain Forests
Tropical Wet Evergreen
more
100 to 200 Monsoon Deciduous Tropical Semi-Evergreen
cm Forests
50 to 100 Drier Deciduous or Tropical Moist Deciduous
cm Tropical Savanna
25 to 50 Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi- Littoral and Swamp
cm arid)
B. Dry Tropical Forests
Below 25 Desert (Arid)
cm Tropical Dry Evergreen
Temperature is the major factor in Tropical Dry Deciduous

Himalayas and other hilly regions with an
elevation of more than 900 metres. Tropical Thorn
As the temperature falls with C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests

altitude in the Himalayan region the
vegetal cover changes with altitude Sub-tropical broad leaved hill
from tropical to sub-tropical, temperate
and finally alpine. Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)
Soil is an equally determining factor Sub-tropical dry evergreen

in few regions. Mangrove forests, swamp
D. Montane Temperate Forests
forests are some of the examples where
soil is the major factor. Montane Wet Temperate
Topography is responsible for Himalayan Moist Temperate

certain minor types e.g. alpine flora, tidal
forests, etc.. Himalayan Dry Temperate
Classification of Natural E. Alpine Forests

Vegetation of India
Sub-Alpine
Classification of Natural Vegetation Moist Alpine scrub

of India is primarily based on spatial and
annual variations in rainfall. Temperature, Dry Alpine scrub
soil and topography are also considered.
Forest Type
Pagein|India
195 % of Total Area
Tropical Moist Deciduous 37
Tropical Dry Deciduous 28
Tropical Wet Evergreen 8
Sub-Tropical Moist Hill 6
Tropical Semi-Evergreen 4
Rest below 4 %
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or

Rain Forests
Moist Tropical Forests
Climatic Conditions
Annual
Pagerainfall
| 196 exceeds 250 cm
The annual temperature is about

25-27C
The average annual humidity

exceeds 77 per cent and
The dry season is distinctly short.
Characteristics
All plants struggle upwards
Evergreen: Due to high heat and (most ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in
high humidity, the trees of these forests do a peculiar layer arrangement. The entire
not shed their leaves together. morphology looks like a green carpet when
viewed from above.
Mesosphytic: Plants adopted to
Less undergrowth: The sun light
neither too dry nor too wet type
cannot reach the ground due to thick
climate.
canopy. The undergrowth is formed mainly
of bamboos, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.
What are mesophytes?
Distribution
Unlike hydrophytic plants, such
as water lily or pondweed, that grow Western side of the Western Ghats
in saturated soil or water, (500 to 1370 metres above sea level).
or xerophytic plants, such as
cactus, that grow in extremely dry Some regions in the Purvanchal
soil, mesophytes are ordinary plants hills.
that exist between the two
extremes. In the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Mesophytic environments are
marked by average to hot Timber
temperatures and soil that is neither
too dry nor too wet. Hardwood: The timber of these
forests is fine-grained, hard and durable.
Lofty: The trees often reach 45 60 It has high commercial value but it
metres in height. is highly challenging to exploit due to
dense undergrowth, absence of pure
Thick Canopy: From the air, the stands and lack of transport
tropical rain forest appears like a thick facilities [Read previous posts on Climatic
canopy of foliage, broken only where it is regions to understand how lumbering
crossed by large rivers or cleared for industry works in Equatorial Rainforests
cultivation.
(hardwood)Page
and|Taiga
197 Climatic (softwood) They are more gregarious [living in
conditions].
flocks or colonies more pure
The important species of these
stands] than the wet evergreen forests.
forests are mahogany, mesua, white
cedar, jamun, canes, bamboo etc.
These forests are characterized by
Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests many species.
Trees usually have buttressed

They are transitional forests between
trunks with abundant epiphytes.
tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical
deciduous forests.
They are comparatively drier areas

compared to tropical wet evergreen forests.
Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm
Mean annual temperature varies

from 24C to 27C
The relative humidity is about 75

per cent Buttressed Trunks
The dry season is not short like in The important species are laurel,
tropical evergreen forests. rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo
Western Ghats, white cedar, Indian
Distribution chestnut, champa, mango, etc.
Himalayan region.
Western coast
Timber
Assam
Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical
Lower slopes of the Eastern evergreen forests except that these forests
Himalayas are less dense with more pure
stands (timber industry here is better
Odisha and
than in evergreen forests).
Andamans.
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
Characteristics
Climatic Conditions
The semi-evergreen forests are less
Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.
dense.
MeanPage
annual
| 198temperature of about Most of Odisha.
27C
Parts of West Bengal and
The average annual relative
humidity of 60 to 75 per cent. Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Spring (between winter and Timber

summer) and summer are dry.
These provide valuable timer
Characteristics like Teak.
The trees drop their leaves during The main species found in these
the spring and early summer when forests are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood,
sufficient moisture is not available. amla, jamun, bamboo, etc.
The general appearance is bare in It is comparatively easy to exploit

extreme summers (April-May). these forests due to their high degree of
gregariousness (more pure stands).
Tropical moist deciduous forests
present irregular top storey [25 to 60 m].
Littoral and Swamp Forests
Heavily buttressed trees and fairly
complete undergrowth. They can survive and grow both in
fresh as well as brackish water (The
These forests occupy a much larger mixture of seawater and fresh water in
area than the evergreen forests but large estuaries is called brackish water and its
tracts under these forests have been salinity can range from 0.5 to 35 ppt).
cleared for cultivation.
Occur in and around the deltas,
Distribution estuaries and creeks prone to tidal
influences (delta or tidal forests).
Belt running along the Western
Ghats surrounding the belt of evergreen Littoral (relating to or on the shore
forests. of the sea or a lake) forests occur at
several places along the coast.
A strip along the Shiwalik range
including terai and bhabar from 77 E to Swamp forests are confined to the
88 E. deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery.
Manipur and Mizoram.
Dense mangroves occur all along the
Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal
Chhattisgarh. creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and
mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood.
Chota Nagpur Plateau.
The Page
most pronounced and the
| 199 The important species are jamun,
densest is the Sunderban in the Ganga tamarind, neem, etc.
delta where the predominant species is
Sundri (Heriteera). Most of the land under these forests
has been cleared for agriculture
Timber or casuarina plantations.
It provides hard and durable timber

which is used for construction, building
purposes and making boats.
The important species found in

these forests are Sundri, agar, rhizophora,
screw pines, canes and palms, etc.
Dry Tropical Forests
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
Distribution
Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu.
Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly

from the north-east monsoon winds in
October December].
Mean annual temperature is about

28C.
The mean humidity is about 75 per

cent.
The growth of evergreen forests in

areas of such low rainfall is a bit strange.
Characteristics
Short statured trees, up to 12 m

high, with complete canopy.
Bamboos and grasses not

conspicuous.
Casuarina plantation
Page | 200
It resembles feathery conifer in general appearance.

They are rapid-growing, carefree species for sites and climates as varied as coastal
sand dunes, high mountain slopes, hot humid tropics, and semi-arid regions.
They have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. It grows 15 to 25 metres in
height on an average.
Casuarina plantation
Distribution
Casuarina is the most popular farm forestry in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka.
Benefits
Reduces damage in the event of natural calamities.

Line planting in the coastal areas helps in controlling the wind force.
It is also used for tourism promotion in view of its ornamental appearance.
It provides top quality firewood.
The wood is suitable for paper pulp and useful raw material for the manufacture of
paper for writing, printing, and wrapping.
It is got some serious medicinal values as well.
Wasteland development
The characteristics which make it a suitable species for wasteland development

include adaptability to wide range of habitats, fast growth, salt tolerant, drought
resistant, ability to reclaim land and stabilize sand dunes.
Intercrops such as groundnut, cucumber, watermelons, sesamum, and pulses can
also be raised along with the plantation.
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm.
Climatic Conditions Characteristics

These are |similar

Page 201 to moist deciduous Humidity is less than 50 per cent.
forests and shed their leaves in dry
season. Mean temperature is 25-30C.
The major difference is that they Characteristics

can grow in areas of comparatively less
rainfall. The trees are low (6 to 10 metres
maximum) and widely scattered.
They represent a transitional type -
moist deciduous on the wetter side and Acacias and Euphorbias are very
thorn forests on the drier side. prominent.
They have closed but uneven The Indian wild date is common.
canopy. Some grasses also grow in the rainy
season.
The forests are composed of a
mixture of a few species of deciduous trees Distribution
rising up to a height of 20 metres.
Rajasthan, south-western Punjab,
Undergrowth: Enough light reaches western Haryana, Kachchh and
the ground to permit the growth of grass neighbouring parts of Saurashtra.
and climbers.
Here they degenerate into desert
Distribution type in the Thar desert.
They occur in an irregular wide strip Such forests also grow on the leeside
running from the foot of the Himalayas to of the Western Ghats covering large areas
Kanniyakumari except in Rajasthan, of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana,
Western Ghats and West Bengal. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
The important species are teak, The important species are neem,
axlewood, rosewood, common bamboo, red babul, cactii, etc.
sanders, laurel, satinwood, etc.
Montane Sub-Tropical Forests
Large tracts of this forest have been
cleared for agricultural purposes. Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill
Forests
These forests have suffer from over
grazing, fire, etc. Climatic conditions
Tropical Thorn Forests Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to

125 cm.
Climatic Conditions
Average annual temperature is 18-
Annual rainfall less than 75 cm. 21C.
Humidity
Page |is202
80 per cent. Some hilly regions of Arunachal
Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi
Distribution Hills.
Eastern Himalayas to the east of Timber

88E longitude at altitudes varying from
1000 to 2000 m. Chir or Chil is the most dominant
tree which forms pure stands.
Characteristics
It provides valuable timber for
Forests of evergreen species. furniture, boxes and buildings.
Commonly found species are It is also used for producing resin

evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, and turpentine.
sals and pines.
Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
Climbers and epiphytes [a plant that
grows non-parasitically on a tree or other Distribution
plant] are common.
Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks
These forests are not so distinct in and the western Himalayas up to about
the southern parts of the country. They 1000 metres above sea level.
occur only in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at
1070-1525 metres above sea level. Climatic Conditions
It is a "stunted rain-forest" and is Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to

not so luxuriant as the true tropical 25 cm in December-March).
evergreen.
The summers are sufficiently hot
The higher parts of the Western and winters are very cold.
Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the
summits of the Satpura and the Maikal Characteristics
Range, highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in
the Aravali Range carry sub-types of these Low scrub forest with small
forests. evergreen stunted trees and shrubs.
Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia

are the most predominant species.
Distribution
Montane Temperate Forests
Western Himalayas between 73E
and 88E longitudes at elevations between Montane Wet Temperate Forests
1000 to 2000 metres above sea level.
Climatic Conditions
Grows at a
Page | height
203 of 1800 to 3000 m Occurs in the temperate zone of the
above sea level Himalayas between 1500 and 3300
metres.
Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to
300 cm Cover the entire length of this
mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal
Mean annual temperature is about Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and
11C to 14C and the Sikkim.
Average relative humidity is over 80 Characteristics

per cent.
Mainly composed of coniferous
Distribution species.
Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Species occur in mostly pure

Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region. strands.
Characteristics Trees are 30 to 50 m high.
These are closed evergreen forests. Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc.
Trunks have large girth. are most important trees.
Branches are clothed with mosses, They form high but fairly open forest
ferns and other epiphytes. with shrubby undergrowth including oaks,
rhododendrons and some bamboos.
The trees rarely achieve a height of
more than 6 metres. Timber
Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, It provides fine wood which is of

birch, plum, machilus, cinnamomum, much use for construction, timber and
litsea, magnolia, blue pine, oak, hemlock, railway sleepers.
etc. are important species.
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests
Himalayan Moist Temperate
Forests Climatic Conditions
Climatic Conditions Precipitation is below 100 cm and is

mostly in the form of snow.
Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm
to 250 cm Characteristics
Distribution Coniferous forests with xerophytic

shrubs in which deodar, oak, ash, olive,
etc are the main trees.
Distribution
Page | 204 Soil Soil Types: Sandy - Clayey - Loamy.
Soil Profile Soil Horizon: O horizon, A

Such forests are found in the inner
dry ranges of the Himalayas where south- Horizon, E horizon, B Horizon, C Horizon
west monsoon is very feeble.
or Parent rock, R Horizon or Bedrock.
Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul,
Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim. Soil
Alpine Forests Soil is the thin top layer on the

earths crust comprising rock particles
Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to mixed with organic matter.
3,500.
Pedology is the study of soils in
These forests can be divided into: (1) their natural environment. Pedogenesis is
sub-alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) the natural process of soil formation that
dry alpine scrub. includes a variety of processes such as
weathering, leaching, calcification etc..
The sub-alpine forests occur lower
alpine scrub and grasslands. The Soil formation is mainly related
to the parent rock material, surface relief,
It is a mixture of coniferous and
climate and natural vegetation.
broad-leaved trees in which the coniferous
trees attain a height of about 30 m while The soil is formed by the breaking
the broad leaved trees reach only 10 m. down of rocks by the action of wind, water
and climate. This process is called
Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are
important species.
Soil Types Sandy-Clayey-Loamy
The moist alpine scrub is a low
evergreen dense growth of rhododendron, The soil is classified on the basis of
birch etc. which occurs from 3,000 metres the proportion of particles of various sizes.
and extends upto snowline.
If soil contains greater proportion of
The dry alpine scrub is the big particles it is called sandy soil.
uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf
shrubs, over 3,500 metres above sea level If the proportion of fine particles is
and found in dry zone. Juniper, relatively higher, then it is called clayey
honeysuckle, artemesia etc. are important soil.
species.
If the amount of large and fine
particles is about the same, then the soil
is called
1. Water can|drain
Page 205 quickly through the humus in it. It has the right water holding
spaces between the sand particles. So, capacity for the growth of plants.
sandy soils tend to be light, well aerated
and dry. Clayey and loamy soils are both
suitable for growing cereals like wheat,
2. Clay particles, being much smaller, and gram. Such soils are good at
pack tightly together, leaving little space retaining water.
for air. Unlike sandy soil, water can be
held in the tiny gaps between the particles For paddy, soils rich in clay and
of clay. So clay soils have little air. But
organic matter and having a good
they are heavy as they hold more water
capacity to retain water are ideal.
than the sandy soils.
For lentils (masoor) and other
3. The best topsoil for growing plants is
Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, clay and pulses, loamy soils, which drain water
another type of soil particle known as silt. easily, are required.
Silt occurs as a deposit in river beds. The
size of the silt particles is between those of For cotton, sandy loam or loam,
sand and clay. The loamy soil also has which drain water easily and can hold
plenty of air, are more suitable.
A vertical section through different Each layer differs in feel (texture),

layers of the soil is called the soil profile. colour, depth and chemical composition.
These layers are referred to as
A soil horizon
Page | 206 is a layer generally In this layer, organic matter is mixed
parallel to the soil surface, whose physical with mineral matter.
characteristics differ from the layers above
and beneath. It is the layer of mineral soil with
the most organic matter accumulation and
Horizons are defined in most cases soil life.
by obvious physical features, chiefly colour
and texture. This layer is depleted of (eluviated of)
iron, clay, aluminum, organic compounds,
The uppermost horizon is generally and other soluble constituents.
dark in colour as it is rich in humus and
minerals. The humus makes the soil fertile When depletion is pronounced, a
and provides nutrients to growing plants. lighter colored "E" subsurface soil horizon
is apparent at the base of the "A" horizon.
This layer is generally soft, porous
and can retain more water. It is called the E horizon
topsoil or the A-horizon.
"E" stands for eluviated layer.
The next layer has a lesser amount
of humus but more of minerals. This layer It is the horizon that has been
is generally harder and more compact and significantly leached of clay, iron, and
is called the B-horizon or the middle layer. aluminum oxides, which leaves a
concentration of resistant minerals, such
The third layer is the C-horizon, as quartz, in the sand and silt sizes.
which is made up of small lumps of rocks
with cracks. These are present only in older, well-
developed soils, and generally occur
O Horizon between the A and B horizons.
Layers dominated by organic B Horizon or Subsoil

material.
It is subsurface layer reflecting
Some O layers consist of chemical or physical alteration of parent
undecomposed or partially decomposed material.
litter (such as leaves, needles, twigs, moss,
and lichens). This layer accumulates all the
leached minerals from A and E horizon.
They may be on top of either mineral
or organic soils. Thus iron, clay, aluminum and
organic compounds accumulate in this
A Horizon or Surface soil horizon [illuviation (opposite of
eluviation)].
It is the part of top soil.
C Horizon or Parent rock
Weathered
Page | 207 parent material
accumulates in this layer, i.e. the parent
material in sedimentary deposits.
It is a layer of large unbroken rocks.
This layer may accumulate the more

soluble compounds (inorganic material).
R Horizon or Bedrock
Parent Material
This layer denotes the layer of
partially weathered bedrock at the base of The rocks from which soils are
the soil profile. formed are called parent materials.
Unlike the above layers, R horizons In most of the cases, the parent
largely comprise continuous masses of
material determines the colouration,
hard rock.
mineral composition and texture of the
Soils formed in situ will exhibit soil.
strong similarities to this bedrock layer.
In some cases, the soil formed may
These areas of bedrock are under 50 or may not have the same physical
feet of the other profiles. properties of the parent rock.
Soil formation in Indian Conditions Climatic factors induce chemical

changes which also affect physical
Factors that influence soil formation: properties of the soil.
Parent Material Gondwana rocks &
The surface rocks are exposed to the
Deccan basalts, Relief, Climate & Natural process of weathering. In this process, the
rocks are converted into fine grains and
Vegetation.
provide a base for the soil formation.
Factors that influence soil In Indian Conditions, parent

formation in Indian Conditions material is generally categorized into:
1. Ancient crystalline and

Parent Material
metamorphic rocks
Relief
2. Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
Climate
3. Gondwana rocks
Natural Vegetation
4. Deccan basalts
5. Tertiary
Page | 208 and Mesozoic On weathering they give rise to
sedimentary rocks of extra peninsular comparatively less mature soils.
India {Rock System}
The soil is more or less of uniform
Ancient crystalline and metamorphic character but of low fertility.
rocks
Deccan basalts
They are the Oldest rocks [(pre-
Cambrian era)(formed due to solidification Volcanic outburst over a vast area of
of molten magma about 4billion years the Peninsular India many hundred
ago)]. million years ago gave rise to Deccan
Traps.
They form the Basement
Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures
Complex of peninsular India.
covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq
km.
They are basically granites,
gniesses and schists.
Basalts are rich in titanium,
magnetite, aluminium and magnesium.
These rocks are rich in
ferromagnetic materials and give rise
Consequently the weathering of
to red soils on weathering.
these rocks has given rise to soils
of darker colour.
The red colour of these soils is due
to the presence of iron oxide.
The is fertile with high moisture
holding capacity and is popularly known
Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
as regur or black cotton soil.
They are ancient sedimentary rocks
(4000 m thick). Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks
On weathering they
give calcareous [containing calcium Rocks of extra peninsular (plains
carbonate; chalky] and Himalayas) India have given rise to
and argillaceous [consisting of or soils with high porosity.
containing clay] soils.
These soils are generally immature
The soil is mostly devoid of recent and sub recent rocks, result
metalliferous minerals. in alluvial soils on weathering.
Gondwana rocks Alluvial fertile soils consist of fine

silts and clay. These soils have little
These rocks are also sedimentary in relation with the original rocks.
nature and they are much younger.
On Page
the other
| 209 hand, the soils of The crystalline granites produce
peninsular plateau are generally coarse- laterite soil in relatively moist parts of
grained and are closely related to the the monsoonal region and non-laterite
parent rocks. The peninsular soils are soil in drier areas.
generally less fertile.
Hot summer and low rainfall
Relief develops black soil as is found in some
parts of Tamil Nadu irrespective of the
The relief is the most important
parent rock.
factor for soil formation in places with
steep slopes like the hilly regions, edges of In Rajasthan, both granite and
plateaus etc.
sandstone give birth to sandy soil under
Soil erosion on barren slopes is arid climate.
rampant and it hinders soil formation.
In arid and semi-arid regions,
Example: Chambal ravines, higher
evaporation always exceeds precipitation.
reaches of Himalayas where there is
There is little vegetation and the soils
minimal or no forest cover (most on the
badly lack humus content. Hence the soils
steep southern slopes) etc.
are invariably of light colour.
The areas of low relief or gentle slope
In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid
generally experience deposition and have
and semi-arid regions, excess of
deep soils. Example: Indo-Gangetic plain.
evaporation makes soils lime
The exceptions in the plateau are accumulating. Hence the soil is pedocal in
river basins where the soil layers are nature [Pedocal is a subdivision of the
sufficiently deep. zonal soil order. It is a class of soil which
forms in semiarid and arid regions. It
Climate is rich in calcium carbonate and has low
soil organic matter].
Temperature and rainfall are the
In cold climates of the Himalayan
most important factors in soil formation.
region, the process of vegetation decay is
They determine the effectiveness of very slow and the soils are acidic in
weathering of the parent material, the nature.
quantity of water seeping through the soil
and the type of micro-organisms present In areas of heavy rainfall and high
therein.
temperature, the soils are red or
Two different parent materials may lateritic. Why?
develop the same soil in the same type of
climate. Similarly, the same parent
material may produce two different types Torrential rainfall during the rainy
of soils in two different types of climates. season washes the upper soil
and leaches the| 210

Page materials into deeper Major Soil Types of India
horizon.
Geologically, Indian soils can
During the dry summer season the
broadly be divided into soils of peninsular
evaporation exceeds precipitation and
India and soils of extra-peninsular India.
through capillary action iron and
aluminium oxides are transported to the The soils of Peninsular India are
surface making the soil red. formed by the decomposition of rocks in
situ, i.e. directly from the underlying
In areas of alternate wet and dry rocks.
climate, the leached material which goes
deep down in the horizon is brought up Soils of Peninsular India are
and the blazing sun bakes the top soil so transported and re-deposited to a limited
hard that it resembles a brick. Therefore, extent and are known as sedentary soils.
this soil is called lateritic which literally
means brick. The soils of the Extra-Peninsula are
formed due to the depositional work of
Natural Vegetation rivers and wind. They are very deep. They
are often referred to as transported or
Natural vegetation reflects the azonal soils.
combined effects of relief and climate.
Major groups:
The formation and development of
soil is very much influenced by the growth Alluvial soils,
of vegetation.
Black soils,
The decayed leaf material adds
much needed humus to soil thereby Red soils,
increasing its fertility.
Laterite and Lateritic soils,
The densely forested areas contain
some of the best soils in India. There is a
Forest and Mountain soils,
close relationship between the vegetation
types and soil types in India. Arid and Desert soils,
Soil Types of India Alluvial Soils Black

Saline and Alkaline soils and
Soils Characteristics, Chemical
Peaty and Marshy soils.
properties, Distribution, Divisions:
Bhabar, Terai, Bhangar, Khadar.

Page | 211
Alluvial Soils Characteristics of Alluvial Soils
Alluvial soils are formed mainly due They are immature and have weak
to silt deposited by Indo-Gangetic- profiles due to their recent origin.
Brahmaputra rivers. In coastal regions
some alluvial deposits are formed due to Most of the soil is Sandy and clayey
wave action. soils are not uncommon.
Rocks of the Himalayas form the Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare.
parent material. Thus the parent material Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are
of these soils is of transported origin. present in some regions along the river
terraces.
They are the largest soil group
covering about 15 lakh sq km or about 6 The soil is porous because of its
per cent of the total area. loamy (equal proportion of sand and clay)
nature.
They support more than 40% of the
Indias population by providing the most Porosity and texture provide good
productive agricultural lands. drainage and other conditions favorable for
agriculture.
These
Page |soils
212 are constantly Geological divisions of alluvial
replenished by the recurrent floods.
soils
Chemical properties of Alluvial
Geologically, the alluvium of the
Soils Great plain of India is divided into newer
or younger khadar and older bhangar
The proportion of nitrogen is soils.
generally low.
Bhabar
The proportion of Potash,
phosphoric acid and alkalies are adequate The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km
wide running along the Shiwalik foothills.
The proportion of Iron oxide and It is a porous, northern most stretch of
lime vary within a wide range. Indo-Gangetic plain.
Distribution of Alluvial Soils in Rivers descending from the

India Himalayas deposit their load along the
foothills in the form of alluvial fans. These
They occur all along the Indo- alluvial fans (often pebbly soils) have
Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains except in merged together to build up the bhabar
few places where the top layer is covered belt.
by desert sand.
The porosity of bhabar is the most
They also occur in deltas of the unique feature. The porosity is due to
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and deposition of huge number of pebbles and
the Cauvery, where they are called deltaic rock debris across the alluvial fans.
alluvium (coastal alluvium)
The streams disappear once they
Some alluvial soils are found in the reach the bhabar region because of this
Narmada, Tapi valleys and Northern parts porosity. Therefore, the area is marked
of Gujarat. by dry river courses except in the rainy
season.
Crops in Alluvial Soils
The area is not suitable for
They are mostly flat and regular agriculture and only big trees with large
soils and are best suited for agriculture. roots thrive in this belt.
They are best suited to irrigation Terai

and respond well to canal and well/tube-
well irrigation. Terai is an ill-drained, damp
(marshy) and thickly forested narrow
They yield splendid crops of rice, tract (15-30 km wide) to the south of
wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute,
Bhabar running parallel to it.
maize, oilseeds, vegetables and fruits.
The Page
underground
| 213 streams of the They are sandy clays and loams,
Bhabar belt re-emerge in this belt. It is a more dry and leached, less calcareous and
swampy lowland with silty soils. carbonaceous (less kankary). A new layer
of alluvium is deposited by river flood
The terai soils are rich in almost every year.
nitrogen and organic matter but
are deficient in phosphate. Black Soils
These soils are generally covered by The parent material for most of the
tall grasses and forests but are suitable for black soil are the volcanic rocks that were
a number of crops such as wheat, rice, formed in the Deccan Plateau (Deccan and
sugarcane, jute etc.. the Rajmahal trap).
This thickly forested region In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists

provides shelter to a variety of wild life. form the parent material. The former are
sufficiently deep while the later are
Bhangar generally shallow.
The Bhangar is the older alluvium These are the region of high
along the river beds forming terraces temperature and low rainfall. It is,
higher than the flood plain (about 30 therefore, a soil group typical to the dry
metres above the flood level). and hot regions of the Peninsula.
It is of a more clayey composition Characteristics of Black Soils

and is generally dark colored.
A typical black soil is highly
A few metres below the terrace of argillaceous [Geology (of rocks or
the bhangar are beds of lime nodules sediment) consisting of or containing clay]
known as with a large clay factor, 62 per cent or
more.
Khadar
In general, black soils of uplands
The Khadar is composed of newer are of low fertility while those in the
alluvium and forms the flood plains along valleys are very fertile.
the river banks.
The black soil is highly retentive of
The banks are flooded almost every moisture. It swells greatly on
year and a new layer of alluvium is accumulating moisture. Strenuous effort
deposited with every flood. This makes is required to work on such soil in rainy
them the most fertile soils of Ganges. season as it gets very sticky.
In summer, the moisture evaporates,

the soil shrinks and is seamed with broad
and deep cracks. The lower layers can still
retain moisture. The cracks permits
oxygenation of the
Page soil to sufficient depths
| 214 Crops in Black Soils
and the soil has extraordinary fertility.
These soils are best suited for cotton
Colour of Black Soils crop. Hence these soils are called as regur
and black cotton soils.
The black colour is due to the
presence of a small proportion Other major crops grown on the
of titaniferous magnetite or iron and black soils include wheat, jowar, linseed,
black constituents of the parent rock. virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower and
millets.
In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra
Pradesh, the black colour is derived from Rice and sugarcane are equally
crystalline schists and basic gneisses. important where irrigation facilities are
available.
Various tints of the black colour
such as deep black, medium black, Large varieties of vegetables and
shallow black , a mixture of red and black fruits are also successfully grown on the
may be found in this group of soils. black soils.
Chemical Composition of Black This soil has been used for growing
a variety of crops for centuries without
Soils
adding fertilizers and manures, with little
or no evidence of exhaustion.
10 per cent of alumina,
Indian Soil Types: Red Soils, Laterite
9-10 per cent of iron oxide,
Lateritic Soils, Forest Mountain Soils,
6-8 per cent of lime and magnesium
Arid Desert Soils, Saline Alkaline Soils,
carbonates,
Peaty Marshy Soils.
Potash is variable (less than 0.5 per
cent) and
Previous post: Alluvial Soil Black Soil.
phosphates, nitrogen and humus
are low. Red Soils
Distribution of Black Soils Red soils along with its minor

groups form the largest soil group of
Spread over 46 lakh sq km (16.6 India.
per cent of the total area)
across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, The main parent rocks are
parts of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra crystalline and metamorphic rocks like
Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. acid granites, gneisses and quartzites.
Characteristics of Red Soils

Page | 215 These soils mostly occur in the
regions of low rainfall.
The texture of these soils can vary
They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km
from sand to clay, the majority being
(10.6 per cent) of the total area of the
loams.
country.
On the uplands, the red soils are
These soils are spread on almost the
poor, gravelly, and porous. But in the
lower areas they are rich, deep dark and whole of Tamil Nadu.
fertile.
Other regions with red soil include
parts of Karnataka, south-east of
Chemical Composition of Red Soils
Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha,
They are acidic mainly due to the Chota Nagpur plateau; parts of south
nature of the parent rocks. The alkali Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh;
content is fair. Aravalis and the eastern half of Rajasthan
(Mewar or Marwar Plateau), parts of
They are poor in lime,
North-Eastern states.
magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen and
humus.
Crops in Red Soils
They are fairly rich in potash and
The red soils are mostly loamy and
potassium.
hence cannot retain water like the black
soils.
Color of Red Soils
The red soils, with the proper use of
The red colour is due to the fertilizers and irrigation techniques, give
presence of iron oxide. good yield of cotton, wheat, rice, pulses,
millets, tobacco, oil seeds, potatoes and
When limestone, granites, gneisses fruits.
and quartzites are eroded the clay
enclosed within the rocks remains intact
Laterite Lateritic Soils
with other forms of non-soluble materials.
In oxidizing conditions, rust or iron Laterite soils are mostly the end
oxide develops in the clay, when the soil is products of weathering.
present above the water table giving the
soil a characteristic red colour. They are formed under conditions
of high temperature and heavy
The colour is more due to the wide rainfall with alternate wet and dry
diffusion rather than high percentage of periods.
iron oxide content.
Heavy rainfall promotes leaching
Distribution of Red Soils (nutrients gets washed away by water) of
soil whereby lime

Page and silica are leached
| 216 They are well developed in south
away and a soil rich in oxides of iron and Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc. and
aluminium compounds is left behind. are widely scattered in other regions.
'Laterite' means brick in Latin. They Crops in Laterite Lateritic Soils

harden greatly on loosing moisture.
Laterite soils lack fertility due
Laterite soils are red in colour due
to intensive leaching.
to little clay and more gravel of red sand-
stones.
When manured and irrigated, some
laterites are suitable for
Chemical composition of Laterite growing plantation crops like tea, coffee,
Lateritic Soils rubber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc.
Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or In some areas, these soils

ferric oxides. support grazing grounds and scrub
forests.
They are very poor in lime,
magnesia, potash and nitrogen. Economic value of Laterite
Lateritic Soils
Sometimes, the phosphate content
may be high in the form of iron Laterite and lateritic soils
phosphate. provide valuable building material.
In wetter places, there may be These soils can be easily cut into
higher content of humus. cakes but hardens like iron when exposed
to air.
Distribution of Laterite Lateritic
Soils As it is the end-product of
weathering, it cannot be weathered much
Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 further and is durable.
lakh sq km.
Forest Mountain Soils
Continuous stretch of laterite soil is
found on the summits of Western Ghats at These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh
1000 to 1500 m above mean sea level, sq km or 8.67% of the total land area of
Eastern Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, India.
Vindhyan, Satpuras and Malwa Plateau.
They are mainly heterogeneous
They also occur at lower levels and soils found on the hill slopes covered by
in valleys in several other parts of the forests.
country.
The formation of these soils is
mainly governed by the characteristic
deposition Page
of organic
| 217 matter derived from Arid Desert Soils
forests and their character changes with
parent rocks, ground-configuration and The desert soils consist of Aeolian
climate. sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10
per cent).
Consequently, they differ greatly
even if they occur in close proximity to They cover a total area of 1.42 lakh
one another. sq km (4.32%).
Distribution of Forest Mountain The presence of sand inhibits soil

growth. Desertification of neighboring
Soils
soils is common due to intrusion of desert
sand under the influence of wind [Aeolian
In the Himalayan region, such soils
sand].
are mainly found in valleys, less steep and
north facing slopes. The south facing
slopes are very steep and exposed to
Distribution of Arid Desert Soils
denudation and hence do not support soil
formation. Occur in arid and semi-arid regions
of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. The
Forest soils occur in Western and sand here is blown from the Indus basin
Eastern Ghats also. and the coast by the prevailing south-west
monsoon winds.
Chemical properties of Forest
Sandy soils without clay factor are
Mountain Soils also common in coastal regions of Odisha,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
The forest soils are very rich in
humus. Chemical properties of Arid
Desert Soils
They are deficient in potash,
phosphorus and lime.
They are usually poor in organic
They require good deal of fertilizers matter.
for high yields.
Some desert soils are alkaline with
Crops in Forest Mountain Soils varying degree of soluble salts
like calcium carbonate.
They are suitable for plantations of
Calcium content increases
tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits in
downwards and the subsoil has ten times
peninsular forest region.
more calcium.
Wheat, maize, barley and temperate
The phosphate content of these
fruits are grown in the Himalayan forest
soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils.
region.
Nitrogen
Page is originally low but some
| 218 In regions with high sub-soil water
of it is available in the form of nitrates. table, injurious salts are transferred from
below by the capillary action as a result
Crops of Arid Desert Soils of evaporation in dry season.
Phosphates and nitrates make these

soil fertile wherever moisture is available.
There is a possibility of reclaiming

these soils if proper irrigation facilities are
available.
In large areas, only the drought

resistant and salt tolerant crops such as
barley, cotton, millets, maize and pulses
are grown.
Saline Alkaline Soils
In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top

soil is impregnated (soak or saturate with
a substance) with saline and alkaline
efflorescences (become covered with salt
particles).
Undecomposed rock fragments, on

weathering, give rise to sodium,
magnesium and calcium salts and
sulphurous acid.
Some of the salts are transported in

solution by the rivers.
In regions with low water table, the

salts percolate into sub soil and in regions
with good drainage, the salts are wasted
away by flowing water.
But in places where the drainage

system is poor, the water with high salt
concentration becomes stagnant and
deposits all the salts in the top soil once
the water evaporates.
Capillary Page
action
| 219
Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the
assistance of, and in opposition to, external forces like gravity.
The force behind capillary action is surface tension.
Surface tension
Surface tension is the elastic tendency of liquids (a membrane like surface) that
makes them acquire the least surface area possible.
Surface tension causes insects (e.g. water striders), usually denser than water, to
float and stride on the water surface.
Surface tension offers the necessary buoyant force (buoyancy) required for an
object to float in water [Ships flots because of difference in density as well
surface tension].
What gives water droplet its shape?
When a water droplet is freely falling, it acquires a spherical shape.

When a water drop is on a surface, it acquires the shape of a hemisphere (half a
sphere).
Page | 220
All this is due to surface tension.
This kind of trivial GK can help in many exams.

Distribution of Saline Alkaline Peaty Marshy Soils
Soils
These are soils with large amount
Saline and Alkaline Soils occupy of organic matter and considerable
68,000 sq km of area. amount of soluble salts.
These soils are found in canal The most humid regions have this
irrigated areas and in areas of high sub- type of soil.
soil water table.
They are black, heavy and highly
Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, acidic.
Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab (side effects of improper Distribution of Peaty Marshy
or excess irrigation), Rajasthan and
Maharashtra have this kind of soils.
Soils
The accumulation of these salts Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of

makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit Kerala where it is called kari.
for agriculture.
Also occur in the coastal areas of
In Gujarat, the areas around the Odisha and Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans of
Gulf of Khambhat are affected by the sea West Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district
tides carrying salt-laden deposits. Vast of Uttarakhand.
areas comprising the estuaries of the
Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Chemical Properties of Peaty
Sabarmati have thus become infertile. Marshy Soils
Along the coastline, saline sea They are deficient in potash and
waters infiltrate into coastal regions phosphate.
during storm surges (when cyclones make
landfall) and makes the soil unfit for Crops of Peaty Marshy Soils
cultivation. The low lying regions of
coastal Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Most of the peaty soils are under
face this kind of soil degradation. water during the rainy season but as soon
the rains cease,

Page |they
221 are put under paddy Plains and valleys have thick layers
cultivation. of soils while hilly and plateau areas
depict thin soil cover.
Characteristics of Indian Soils
Some soils like alluvial and black
Most soils are old and mature. Soils soils are fertile while some other soils such
of the peninsular plateau are much older as laterite, desert and alkaline soils lack
than the soils of the great northern plain. in fertility and do not yield good harvest.
Indian soils have been used for

Indian soils are largely deficient in
cultivation for hundreds of years and
nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and
have lost much of their fertility.
other organic materials.
Page | 222
Problems Of Indian Soils shadow regions like parts of Karnataka,

Telangana etc.), waterlogging (Punjab-
Soil erosion (Himalayan region, Haryana plain) salinity and alkalinity
Chambal Ravines etc.), deficiency in (excessively irrigated regions of Punjab,
fertility (Red, lateritic and other soils), Haryana, Karnataka etc.), wasteland, over
desertification (around Thar desert, rain- exploitation of soils due to increase in
population and rise in living standards
and encroachment
Page | 223of agricultural land Erosion by wind and water is much
due to urban and transport development. quicker than the soil formation process.
So once fertile soil layer is lost, it requires
Soil Degradation Soil Erosion, a lot of time and resources to restore it.
Deforestation, Overgrazing, Faulty
Prevention is a more practical
Methods of Agriculture, Soil Salinity & Soil measure. It is less time and resource
consuming.
Alkalinity, Desertification, Waterlogging.
In Indias case, the problem of soil
Soil Degradation erosion is particularly severe due to over
dependence on agriculture and improper
Soil degradation is the decline in land management.
soil quality caused by its improper use,
Notable Quotable: Soil erosion is
usually for agricultural, pastoral,
industrial or urban purposes. essentially a problem created by man
and also faced by man himself.
Soil degradation is a serious global
environmental problem and may be Water Erosion
exacerbated by climate change. It
encompasses physical (soil erosion), Water erosion leads to rilling,
chemical (salinity and alkalinity, pollution) gullying, sheet-wash and rain peeling.
and biological deterioration (pollution and
deterioration of vegetal cover). If erosion continues unchecked for a
long time, numerous finger-shaped
We will see pollution and soil degradation grooves may develop in the silt laden soils.
The whole pattern resembles the shape of
white studying environment.
a tree. This is called rill erosion.
For now we will study about the rest. With further erosion of the soil, the
rills deepen and become enlarged and are
turned into Gullies formed over a large
Soil Erosion
area gives rise to badland topography
(Chambal Ravines).
Soil erosion is the removal of top soil
by agents like wind and water. When a gully bed is eroded further,
the bed gradually deepens and flattens out
Top soil has most of the nutrients
and a ravine is formed. The depth of a
necessary for a plants growth. With
ravine may extend to 30 metres or more.
depth, the fertility of the soil decreases.
Thus, erosion results in reduction of
Further erosion of ravine beds gives
fertility of the soil by washing away the
rise to Canyons are few hundred meters
fertile top layer.
deep and wide. (Grand Canyon on
Colorado River).
When the|entire
Page 224 top sheet of soil is Wind erosion is accentuated when
washed away by water or by wind, leaving the soil is dry, soils are subjected to
behind barren rock, it is called sheet overgrazing and devoid of vegetation cover.
erosion. Sheet erosion attacks a large
area of top soil and renders the land Very fine and medium sands are
almost unfit for cultivation. moved by wind in a succession of bounds
and leaps, known as
In the coastal areas, waves dash
along the coast and cause heavy damage Coarse sand is not usually airborne
to soil. During the landfall of cyclones, but rather is rolled along the soil surface.
storm surges destroy beaches and wash This type of erosion is called surface
away the top layer. In estuaries, tidal bores creep.
cause extensive damage to the
surrounding banks. This is called sea Very coarse sand and gravels are too
large to be rolled by wind, so wind-eroded
erosion.
soils have surfaces covered with coarse
In the higher reaches of the fragments larger than 1.00 mm in
Himalayan region, soil erosion is caused diameter. This kind of arid soil surface is
by sowing moving glaciers. This is known as desert pavement.
called glacial erosion.
Extent Of Soil Erosion In India
Wind Erosion
80 million hectares or about one-
fourth of our total area is exposed to wind
Wind erosion or Aeolian erosion is
and water erosion.
quite significant in arid and semi-arid
regions.
One-eighth of land has undergone
serious erosion.
Winds usually blow at high speeds
in deserts due to absence of trees (physical
Wind erosion is a serious problem in
obstruction).
arid and semi-arid parts of north west
India.
These winds remove the fertile,
arable, loose soils leaving behind a
About one-ninth of land is subject
depression devoid of top soil (the
to severe wind erosion in Rajasthan and
depression formation in deserts is the first
adjoining areas of Punjab, Haryana,
step in Oasis formation. Oasis forms in
Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh.
depressions when there is underground
water that gets accumulated above rocks). It is estimated that 34 lakh tonnes
of fertile soils is removed by wind every
Desertification around desert
year.
regions is due to wind erosion.
The loss due to water erosion is
53.34 million hectares annually.
Factors affecting
Page | 225 Soil Erosion Deforestation
Intensity and duration of rainfall, Population explosion has created

pressure on forest land and resources and
Wind speed, this causes deforestation. Deforestation
accentuates soil erosion (soil degradation).
Nature of soil and the physiography,
Roots of trees and plants bind the
Strong winds in dry areas, soil particles and regulate the flow of
water, thus saving soil from erosion.
Human density,
Deforestation make soil vulnerable to wind
and water erosion.
Deforestation,
The large scale damage to soil in
Overgrazing,
Shiwalik range, the Chos of Punjab, the
Faulty methods of agriculture, ravines of Chambal valley are due to
deforestation.
Diversion of natural drainage
courses, Overgrazing
Wrong orientation of roads and During the rainy season, there is

railways, embankments and bridges. plenty of vegetation and animals get
enough fodder.
Effects of Soil Erosion
But during the dry period, there is
Fertile top soil is eroded. shortage of fodder and the grass is grazed
to the ground and torn out by the roots by
Flooding and leaching result in loss animals.
of mineral nutrients.
This leads to loose structure of the
Ground water level is lowered. soil and the soil is easily washed away by
rains.
There is decrease in soil moisture.
Moreover, soil is pulverized (reduce
to fine particles) by the hoofs of animals,
and thus proves detrimental to top soil
Frequency and intensity of floods when heavy showers fall on it.
and drought increases.
Soil erosion due to overgrazing is a
Rivers, canals and tanks are silted common site in the hilly areas.
and their water holding capacity
decreases. Faulty Methods of Agriculture
The incidence and damaging power
of landslides increases.
Much of the
Page soil erosion in India is
| 226 In regions with low water table (due
caused by faulty methods of agriculture. to over irrigation in canal irrigated areas),
the salts percolate into sub soil and in
Wrong ploughing, lack of crop regions with good drainage, the salts are
rotation and practice of shifting cultivation wasted away by flowing water.
are the most adversely affecting methods
of agriculture. But in places where the drainage
system is poor, the water with high salt
If the fields are ploughed along the concentration becomes stagnant and
slope, there is no obstruction to the flow of deposits all the salts in the top soil once
water and the water washes away the top the water evaporates.
soil easily.
In regions with high sub-soil water
In some parts of the country, the table, injurious salts are transferred from
same crop is grown year after year which below by the capillary action as a result of
spoils the chemical balance of the soil. evaporation in dry season.
This soil is exhausted and is easily eroded
by wind or water. In canal irrigated areas plenty of the
water is available and the farmers indulge
Shifting cultivation practiced in in over irrigation of their fields.
some areas in the north-eastern states. In
this method, a piece of forest land is Under such conditions, the ground
cleared by felling and burning of trees and water level rises and saline and alkaline
crops are grown. The removal of the forest efflorescences consisting of salts of
cover leads to the exposure of the soil to sodium, calcium and magnesium appear
rains and sun which results in heavy loss on the surface as a layer of white salt
of top soil, especially on the hill slopes. through capillary action.
Soil Salinity and Soil Alkalinity Alkalinity implies the dominance of

sodium salts, specially sodium carbonate.
In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top
Although salts of alkali are
soil is impregnated (soak or saturate with
somewhat different in their chemical
a substance) with saline and alkaline
properties from the salts of saline soils
efflorescences (become covered with salt
both soils occur in the same areas.
particles).
Sandy soils are more prone to
Undecomposed rock fragments, on
alkalinity and the loamy soils to salinity-
weathering, give rise to sodium, alkalinity.
magnesium and calcium salts and
sulphurous acid. It is estimated that about 80 lakh
hectares of land (2.43% of the country's
Some of the salts are transported in total area) is affected by the problem of
solution by the rivers. salinity and alkalinity.
Vast Page
tracts of canal irrigated areas
| 227 Making judicious use of irrigation
in Uttar Pradesh. Punjab and Haryana; facilities.
arid regions of Rajasthan, semi-arid areas
of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Improve vegetal cover to avoid
Telangana and Karnataka etc. are facing further degradation by planting salt
this problem. tolerant vegetation.
Although Indira Gandhi canal in Crop rotation..

Rajasthan has turned the sandy desert
into a granary, it has given birth to Liberal application of gypsum to
serious problems of salinity and alkalinity. convert the alkalies into soluble
compounds.
Effects of salinity and alkalinity
Alkali can be removed by adding
sulphuric acid or acid forming substances
Salinity and alkalinity have adverse
like sulphur and pyrite.
effect on soil and reduce soil fertility.
Organic residues such as rice husks
Cultivation is not possible on saline
and rice straw can be added to promote
soils unless they are flushed out with
formation of mild acid as a result of their
large quantities of irrigation water to leach
decomposition.
out the salts.
Flushing the salt by flooding the
Choice of crops is limited to salinity
fields with excess water. However, this
tolerant crops like cotton, barley etc..
practice can lead to accumulation of saline
water in the downstream area.
Quality of fodder and food produced
in poor in quality.
Desertification
Salinity and alkalinity create
difficulties in building and road Desertification is the spread of
construction. desert like conditions in arid or semi-arid
areas due to man's influence or climatic
These cause floods due to reduced change.
percolation of water.
A large part of the arid and semi-
Steps to treat salinity and arid region lying between the Indus and
the Aravali range is affected by spreading
alkalinity
desert conditions.
Providing outlets for lands to drain Desert soils suffer maximum

out excess water and lower water table. erosion by wind. The sand carried by wind
is deposited on the adjoining fertile lands
Seal leakages from canals, tanks
whose fertility dwindles and slowly the
and other water bodies by lining them.
fertile land start merging with the
advancing desert.
It has been
Page estimated that the Thar
| 228 Grazing should be controlled and
Desert is advancing at an alarming rate of new pastures should be developed.
about 0.5 km per year.
Indiscriminate felling of trees should
The process of desertification is be banned.
attributed to uncontrolled grazing,
reckless felling of trees and growing Alternative sources of fuel can
population. Climate change have also reduce the demand for fuelwood.
contributed to the spread of deserts.
Sandy and wastelands should be
Ecological implications of put to proper use by judicious planning.
desertification
Waterlogging
Drifting of sand and its
The flat surfaces and depressions
accumulation on fertile agricultural land.
results in waterlogging.
Excessive soil erosion by wind and
Waterlogged soils are soaked with
to some extent by water.
water accumulated during rainy season or
Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes due to leakage from various water sources.
and other water bodies thereby decreasing
Extent of waterlogged soils is about
their water containing capacity.
12 million hectares in India half of which
Lowering of water table leading to lies along the coast and the other half in
acute water shortage. the inland area.
Increase in area under wastelands. Waterlogging is believed to be one of

the chief causes of salinity.
Decrease in agricultural production.
Proper layout of drainage schemes is
Increase in frequency and intensity the only way to overcome the menace of
of droughts. waterlogging.
The basic methods of removing

Measures of Controlling
excess water from waterlogged soils are (a)
Desertification surface drainage and (b) vertical drainage.
Intensive tree plantation in the o Surface Drainage. Surface

transition zones. drainage involves the disposal of excess
water over ground surface through an
Mulching shifting sand dunes in open drainage system with an adequate
deserts with different plant species. outlet.
Mulches serve as an effective physical
barrier to the moving sand. o Vertical Drainage. Any bore or
well from which the underlying water is
extracted isPage
defined as vertical drainage. It
| 229 This helps to conserve soil fertility
works well in Indo-Gangetic plain where as different crops require different
the pumped water is used for irrigating nutrients from the soil. Crop rotation will
the neighboring regions. provide enough time to restore lost
nutrients.
Soil Conservation Various Methods -
For example, potatoes require much
Crop Rotation, Strip Cropping, Contour
potash but wheat requires nitrate. Thus it
Ploughing, Mulching, Terrace is best to alternate crops in the field.
farming, Shelter belts, Sand fences.

Legumes such as peas, beans, and
many other plants, add nitrates to the soil
Soil Conservation by converting free nitrogen in the air into
nitrogenous nodules on their roots. Thus if
Soil conservation is the prevention they are included in the crop rotation
of soil from erosion or reduced fertility nitrogenous fertilizers can be dispensed
caused by overuse, acidification, with.
salinization or other chemical soil
contamination. Strip Cropping
Soil erosion is the greatest single Crops may be cultivated in alternate

evil to Indian agriculture and animal strips, parallel to one another. Some strips
husbandry. may be allowed to lie fallow while in others
different crops may be sown.
Notable Quotable from Kullar's
Indian Geography: "With soil conservation Various crops are harvested at
people rise and with its destruction they different intervals. This ensures that at no
fall. Neglect of soil is like killing the hen time of the year the entire area is left bare
that lays the golden egg." or exposed.
Crop Rotation The tall growing crops act as wind

breaks and the strips which are often
Adopting sustainable agricultural parallel to the contours help in increasing
practices is the most important measure water absorption by the soil by slowing
to conserve soil. down run off.
In many parts of India, a particular Use of Early Maturing Varieties

crop is sown in the same field year after
year. This practice leads to exhaustion of Early maturing varieties of crops
certain nutrients in the soil making it take less time to mature and thus put
infertile. lesser pressure on the soil. In this way it
can help in reducing the soil erosion.
Crop rotation is a practice in which
a different crop is cultivated on a piece of Contour Ploughing
land each year.
If ploughing is done at right angles

Page | 230 Reduces compaction from the
to the hill slope, the ridges and furrows impact of heavy rains.
break the flow of water down the hill.
Conserves moisture, reducing the
This prevents excessive soil loss as need for frequent watering.
gullies are less likely to develop and also
reduce run-off so that plants receive more Maintains a more even soil
water. temperature.
Checking Shifting Cultivation Prevents weed growth.
Organic mulches also improve the

Checking and reducing shifting
condition of the soil. As these mulches
cultivation by persuading the tribal people
slowly decompose, they provide organic
to switch over to settled agriculture is a
matter which helps keep the soil loose.
very effective method of soil conservation.
This can be done by making Contour barriers

arrangements for their resettlement which
involves the provision of residential Stones, grass, soil are used to build
accommodation, agricultural implements, barriers along contours. Trenches are
seeds, manures, cattle and reclaimed made in front of the barriers to collect
land. water.
They intercept downslope flowing

Ploughing the Land in Right
water and soil particles. These barriers
Direction slow down the water movement and
reduce its erosive force. They also filter out
Ploughing the land in a direction and trap many of the suspended soil
perpendicular to wind direction also particles, keeping them from being washed
reduces wind velocity and protects the top out of the field.
soil from erosion.
A long term advantage of barriers is
Mulching that soil tends to build up behind them,
creating a terrace effect. Barriers can be
The bare ground (top soil) between classified as live (strips of living plants),
plants is covered with a protective layer of dead (rocks, crop residues), or mixed (a
organic matter like grass clippings, straw, combination of the previous two).
etc.
Rock dam
Benefits
Rocks are piled up across a channel
Protects the soil from erosion. to slow down the flow of water. This
prevents gullies and further soil loss.
It helps to retain soil moisture.
Terrace farming
Page | 231 Shelter belts or Windbreaks
In terracing, a number of terraces In the coastal and dry regions, rows

are cut along the hill slope. of trees are planted to check the wind
movement to protect soil cover.
These are made on the steep slopes
so that flat surfaces are available to grow
crops. They can reduce surface run-off
and soil erosion.
Contour Bunding
Sand fences
Contour bunding involves the
construction of banks along the contours.
Sand fences are barriers made of
Terracing and contour bunding small, evenly spaced wooden slats or
which divide the hill slope into numerous fabric. They are erected to reduce wind
small slopes, check the flow of water, velocity and to trap blowing sand. Sand
promote absorption of water by soil and fences can be used as perimeter controls
save soil from erosion. around open construction sites to keep
sediments from being blown offsite by the
Retaining walls of terraces control wind.
the flow of water and help in reducing soil
erosion.
Intercropping
Different crops are grown in

alternate rows and are sown at different
times to protect the soil from rain wash.
Contour ploughing
Ploughing parallel to the contours of

a hill slope to form a natural barrier for Afforestation
water to flow down the slope
It includes the prevention of forest

Page | 232 So overgrazing needs to be checked
destruction along with growing new forests to prevent soil erosion.
or increase area under forests.
This can be done by creating
A minimum area 20 to 25 per cent separate grazing grounds and producing
of forest land was considered healthy for larger quantities of fodder.
soil and water conservation for the whole
country. Dams
It was raised to 33 per cent in the Much of the soil erosion by river
second five year plan 20 per cent for the floods can be avoided by constructing
plains and 60 per cent for hilly and dams across the rivers in proper places.
mountainous regions. This checks the speed of water and saves
soil from erosion.
Checking Overgrazing
But indiscriminate dam
Overgrazing accentuates erosion. construction can worsen the condition by
During the dry period, there is shortage of creating floods and landslides like it
fodder and the grass is grazed to the happens in the Himalayan region.
ground and torn out to the roots by
animals. Soil is pulverized (reduce to fine
particles) by the hoofs of animals. All this
leads to weak top layer.

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India As A Geographical Unit...................4

India As A Geographical Unit

to 97 25' East longitude.

The southernmost point of the East-west width from the Rann of

North-south extent from Indira Col With an area of 32,87,263 sq km,

India accounts for about 2.4 per

The Tropic of Cancer passes through most point is 30 x 4 = 120 minutes or 2

Cultural Geographical Reasons

India is a tropical country. Five Indian states, namely Jammu

China | 9claims a part of Huza-

The Middle Sector The Indo-Pakistan Boundary

Two Indian states of Himachal The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the

This line is usually referred to as

The India-Nepal Boundary

Five states of India, namely

It passes through thickly forested Archaean Rock System (Pre-

India and Sri Lanka are separated

Gneiss == Mineral composition varies from

Archaean Gneisses and Schists, Dharwar These rocks are:

System, Purana Rock System, Cuddapah

Jurassic System, Deccan Trap, Tertiary Known as the Basement

Rock System Based on Geological Azoic or unfossiliferous,

1. The Archaean Rock System. Thoroughly crystalline (because they

Unfossiliferous clay, slates,

Outcrops best observed in

These rocks contain ores of iron,

They contain large deposits of

Vindhyan System (1300-600 million

This system derives its name from

They are the oldest Mostly Unfossiliferous.

Formed about 600 300 million

Mount Everest is composed of Gondwana coal is much

Aryan Rock System The marine transgression in the

thick series of shallow

Volcanic outburst over a vast area of

Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures

These volcanic deposits have flat top

The process of weathering and

Present Deccan Trap covers about 5

Thickness of the Deccan Traps is

India Himalayas - Himalayan Ranges: Includes the Himalayas, Purvanchal

and Eastern Hills or Purvanchal. It is the youngest and highly

Highly stable just like peninsular

Two major groups Lakshadweep

Lakshadweep [Hotspot] are group of

Andaman and Nicobar islands

1. Shiwaliks or outer Himalayas Also known as Outer Himalayas.

2. Lesser or Middle Himalayas Located in between the Great Plains

Himalayan Ranges The southern slopes are steep while

Formation (Formation of Himalayas

Shiwaliks were formed last of all the

The Shiwaliks are consolidated

These deposits were folded and

The Shiwaliks are known by different

Region Page | 19 Name of Shiwaliks

These conglomerates, in the initial Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80

Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand is the The Mahabharat Lekh, in southern