La Excellence

Project Setu

A Brief Chronology
of Ancient Indian
History

ప్రాచీన భారత దేశ చరితా

 Archeologica
History l Evidences
/Artefacts

Accounts Inscription
of s/
Foreigners Epigraphy
Pre- Proto Evidences
History
History History

Coins/
Literature
Numismatics
Chronology
Neolithic Period
(8000 BC – 2000
Mesolithic Period BC)
(10,000 BC – ❑ Wheel discovered and
Palaeolithic 8,000 BC) agriculture was started
Period (2 million in this period
BC – 10,000 BC) ❑ Inamgaon is an
❑ Microliths were found at early Neolithic village
Brahmagiri, Narmada and
❑ The major megalithic
❑ Important Palaeolithic sites Gujarat
Sites are Brahmagiri
are Kaladgi Basin, ❑ Domestication of animals and Adichanallur
Bhimbetka, Hunsgi, Kurnool and Cattle rearing were
Caves and Narmada Valley, started in this period
❑ Tools made up of limestone ❑ Significant climatic change
❑ Fire was discovered happened
 Iron Age (BC 1500
– BC 200)
Chalcolithic ❑ Vedic Period and Arrival of Aryans
Period (4000 BC –
❑ Basic books of Hinduism, Vedas
Indus Valley 1,500 BC)
were composed in this period.
Civilization (BC ❑ Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
2700 – BC 1900) ❑ It is also known as the
Copper Age and ❑ Mahajanapadas
considered part of the ❑ Magadha empire– Bimbisara of
❑ This was established around
Bronze Age. Haryanka Kula
3300 BC.
❑ It was running parallel ❑ Sishunaga dynasty – Kalasoka
❑ It flourished between 2700 BC with IVC (Kakavarnin)
and 1900 BC (Mature Indus
❑ Nanda empire – Mahapadma-
Valley Civilization).
Nanda, Dhana-Nanda
❑ It started declining around ❑ Persians – Greek arrival: Alexander
1900 BC and disappeared 327 BC
around 1400 BC.
322–298 BCE- Chandragupta
298–272 BCE- Bindusara
268–232 BCE – Ashoka
Succeeded by-
❑ Satavahanas (235-100BC) ❑ Chola
❑ Sunga (181-71 BC)
❑ Cheras
❑ Kanva (71-27BC)
❑ Pandyas
❑ Indo-Greeks, Parthians (180BC-45AD) Gupta Empire (300AD –
❑ Sakas (90BC-150AD) 800AD)
❑ Kushanas (78AD)
❑ This was an ancient
Sangam Age (300 BC – Indian empire
300 AD)
❑ Considered golden age
Mauryan Empire (324- of Indian Literature
187 BC)
Post Sangam age- ❑ Samudra Gupta of the
Post Mauryan Empire Gupta Empire is known
Kalabras
as Indian Napoleon
 South Indian Kingdoms
Cholas
Post-Gupta or
Contemporary Pushbhuti
Gupta Dynasty Chola Empire:
Pallavas
(9th Cent. AD -
The fall of Imperial Guptas, Chalukyas The famous
Vakatakas 13th Cent. AD):
Magadha and its capital, Rastrakutas Chinese Founded by
Pataliputra traveller Hieun Vijayalaya, the
(775-975AD) Tsang visited Chola empire
❑ Vardhana Dynasty
India during adopted a
❑ Mukharis The Southern
Emperor maritime policy.
Kingdoms:
❑ Hunas Harshawardha
(500AD- 750AD): Temples became
❑ Pushyabhutis na's reign. cultural and
Empire of
❑ Gaudas
But his social centres and
Chalukyas, Pallavas
kingdom Dravadian
❑ Varman & Pandya
disintegrated languages
❑ Maitrakas
flourished.
into small flourished.
Zoroastrians
❑ Also, Rajputs, Senas and states even as
(Parsis) came to
Chauhans succeeded later. Hunas invaded.
India.
 Pre Historic Cultures of India

Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic Chalcolithic

✓ Stone tools ✓ Small rock tools ✓ Settled life ✓ Stone and

✓ Hunting gathering ✓ Painting as an art in ✓ Agriculture as an copper tools
✓ Functional the caves economic activity ✓ Settled
specialization ✓ Bhimbetka- MP ✓ Burzaham- J&K agriculture
based on gender ✓ Hunting gathering ✓ Death and Birth ✓ Social
with domestication as major social Difference in
of animals events the society
 Pre- Historic Sites in India
Bhimbetka Homo Sapiens' Cave 500
painted Rock Shelters
(MH)(Prominently Mesolithic
site)
Inamgaon Statue of mother Goddess (MH)
Bagor and Earliest evidences of
Adamgarh Domestication of animal
(Rajasthan)
Chirand Serpant cult (Bihar)
Burzahom Pit-dwelling and domestic dog
was buried with their masters in
grave.
Megaliths of Burials
South India
Indus Valley Civilization

Harappa- Fist Excavation-

1921- Dayaram Sahani

✓ Flourished between 2500-

1500BC
✓ But 2200-1800BC was its
mature period
✓ It covered the present
Pakistan & North western
and western part of India.
 Important Sites of IVC
Site Excavated by Location Important Findings

Harappa Daya Ram Situated on the bank of river Ravi in ✓ Sandstone statues of Human
Sahini in 1921 Montgomery district of Punjab anatomy
(Pakistan). ✓ Granaries
✓ Bullock carts
Mohenjodaro R.D Banerjee in Situated on the Bank of river Indus ✓ Great bath
(Mound of Dead) 1922 in Larkana district of Punjab ✓ Granary
(Pakistan). ✓ Bronze dancing girl
✓ Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva
✓ Steatite statue of beard man
✓ A piece of woven cotton
Sutkagendor Stein in 1929 In southwestern Balochistan ✓ A trade point between Harappa
province, Pakistan on Dast river and Babylon

Chanhudaro N.G Majumdar Sindh on the Indus river ✓ Lipstick- Imported

in 1931 ✓ Footprint of a dog chasing a cat
Site Excavated by Location Important Findings
Amri N.G Majumdar in 1935 On the bank of Indus river ✓ Antelope evidence

Kalibangan Ghose in 1953 Rajasthan on the bank of ✓ Fire altar

Ghaggar river ✓ Camel bones
✓ Wooden plough
Lothal R.Rao in 1953 Gujarat on Bhogva river near ✓ First manmade port
Gulf of Cambay ✓ Dockyard
✓ Rice husk
✓ Fire altars
✓ Chess playing
Surkotada J.P Joshi in 1964 Gujarat ✓ Bones of horses
✓ Beads
Banawali R.S Bisht in 1974 Hisar district of Haryana ✓ Beads
✓ Barley
✓ Evidence of both pre-
Harappan and Harappan
culture
Dholavira R.S Bisht in 1985 Gujarat in Rann of Kachchh ✓ Water harnessing system
✓ Water reservoir
 Town Planning and Structures
✓ The city is divided into two parts, the city on raised platform,
Known as Upper citadel and the lower town known as lower
citadel.
✓ Grid system followed in arrangement of houses and roads.
✓ Usage of Burnt bricks, a remarkable feature of Harappan.
✓ Great Bath, served as ritual bathing, found in upper citadel of
Mohenjo-Daro.
✓ A large granary in Mohenjo-Daro and six granaries in Harappa.
✓ Two roomed barracks in Harappa, which possibly
accommodated labourers.
✓ Drainage system was another remarkable feature of the
civilization
 Economy during IVC
Agriculture Trade
✓ The crops grown were wheat, Barley, ✓ Indus valley people had both short and long-distance
peas, seasum, mustard. And in trade, and also foreign trade.
Lothal, people started producing ✓ They used boats and bullock-carts for transportation.
rice. Indus people were the first to EKA
produce cotton.- Sindan ✓ No use of metallic currency, but practised barter
✓ Though there were structures used system of exchange.
to store water- Gabarbands or nalas, ✓ Developed uniform system of weights and measures.
but channel or canal irrigation seems ✓ Seals and sealings were used in trade, as marks of
to have been absent. ownership meant to guarantee the quality of the
product.
 Domestication of Animals Society
✓ Some form of Mixed farming was practised in ✓ The society seems to be stratified based on class.
Harappan Civilization. ✓ Based on the settlement patterns, location of
✓ Domestication of animals on large scale- granaries, objects found in Burials, one can say
Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep and Pigs strongly there existed social inequalities.
✓ Dogs and cats were domesticated. ✓ People of Indus were beauty conscious-this is reflected
✓ Humped bulls were favoured and kept asses in the dressing styles and ornaments used.
and camels, which were used as beasts of ✓ Different hair styles were practised by men and
burden. women. Ornamentation made up of precious and
✓ There was an ambiguous evidence of Horse semi-precious stones were used by men and women.
reported from Surkotada, Mohenjo-Daro and ✓ Merchants and priests were important class of this
from Lothal. period.
✓ Harappans were well known of Elephants ✓ Though there was worship of mother goddess, it is
and rhinoceros. not so clear, whether the society is matriarchal or not
Harappan script
✓ They invented the art of writing, but the script is not yet deciphered.
✓ The script is not alphabetical but mainly pictographic.
✓ It is written from right to left; a practise very common to that region in the later times
 Religion and Religious practices
✓ Presence of some structures with ritual significance indicate the existence
of collective worship.
✓ Great Bath, Mohenjo-Daro had a great ritual significance. Prevalence of
cults of fertility and mother goddess worship.
✓ They worshiped tree spirits-Pipal tree was worshipped.
✓ On the seals, a famous deity, who has been identified as proto-Shiva was
found.
✓ The deity is surrounded by animals like goats, elephant, tiger and antelope.
✓ There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship.
✓ Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides
those of phallus, have been discovered. Fertility cult was main feature.
✓ The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal,
Kalibangan and Harappa.
✓ They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection
against them.
✓ Disposal of the dead has been an important religious activity. Dead bodies
were generally placed in the north-south direction
Technology and crafts
✓ The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze
age.
✓ They are acquainted with Bronze, which is an
alloy of copper and Tin.
✓ They got copper from Khetri mines in
Rajasthan, although it could also be brought
from Baluchistan.
✓ Tin, they got from Afghanistan.
✓ Bronze smiths constituted an important
group of artisans in the Harappan society.
✓ Weavers wove cloth of wool and cotton.
✓ Brick-laying was an important craft.
✓ Boat making, Bead-making, seal making and
terracotta manufacture were also important
crafts.
✓ Pottery wheel was in full use.
✓ Goldsmiths made jewellery made up of silver,
gold and precious stones was found
Decline of IVC
✓ Aryan Invasion theory, supporting evidence
from Mohenjo-Daro multiple wounded dead
bodies at one place (theory refuted)
✓ Destruction of sites due to floods,
(MohenjoDaro was destroyed by floods not less
than 7 times)
✓ Tectonic forces and earthquakes (Evidence from
Kalibangan)
✓ Fire (Evidence from Rakhigarhi)
✓ Malaria (Evidence from Mohenjo-Daro)
✓ Ecological changes due to deforestation, desert
expansion etc. (most accepted theory).
Chalcolithic Cultures
Chalcolithic cultures were pastoral and based on
farming, generally rural in nature.
They used copper and stone blades and pottery and also
low grade iron in the later period. Their settlements
were sedentary or semi-sedentary.
In the northwestern and western regions of India, the
early farming cultures are associated with the
Chalcolithic cultures rather than the Neolithic cultures.
The southern part of India has not produced cultural
evidence of a fullfledged chalcolithic culture.
Perforated and spouted vessels have been found in some
sites. Copper bronze tools like chisels and flat axes occur
at these sites.
Stone tools continued to be used in this area. Black on
red ware pottery is found.
These people survived through animal rearing and
agriculture.
Millets, pulses and horse gram were cultivated, and
fruits, leaves and tubers were collected.
 Vedic Period
Sources:
1. Zend Avesta- an Iranian text records
names of Aryan Gods like Indra, varuna
etc.
2. Hittitte inscription in Anatolia
3. Kassitte inscription in Iraq and Mittani
inscription in Syria.
About Aryans-
✓ They arrived in India around 1500 BC,
though there is an on going debate.
✓ The region where the Aryans settled in
India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred
to as the Brahmavarta) Indus +5 + Ghaggar
✓ The period when the Aryans first settled in
India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500
BC to 1000 BC). It is also called as Rigvedic
period, as it is believed that it is being
related to this period.
✓ The Aryans were the first people in India to
know the use of iron
 Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period
The caste system was flexible and based on profession rather The caste system became more rigid in this period with birth
than birth being the main criteria
There was no concept of Shudra or untouchables Shudras became a mainstay in the Later Vedic period. Their sole
function was to serve those of the upper-castes

Women were allowed a greater degree of freedom in this Women were restricted from their participation in society by
period. They were allowed to participate in the political being relegated to subordinate and docile roles
process of the time to a certain extent

Kingship was fluid as the kings were elected for a fixed period As society became more urbanized in this period, the need for
by the local assembly known as Samiti stable leadership was realized. Thus the absolute rule of the
Kings became more and more prominent

Early Vedic society was pastoralist and semi-nomadic in Society became more settled in nature. It became centred
nature around agriculture in general
In the Early Vedic Period, the barter system was more Although the barter system was still in practice, it was largely
prevalent with little to no monetary value transaction being replaced by the exchange of gold and silver coins known
part of the exchange as Krishnala

Rigveda. This text is cited as the earliest text from this period Yajurveda. Samaveda
Atharvaveda
 Vedic Literature- Sruti/ Smriti Brahmanas ✓ Related to conduct of various ceremonies.
✓ It is a prose version of the Vedas.
Rig Veda ✓ First text in world literature. ✓ 108 in number, Satapatha Brahmana most
✓ Theme is prayer addressed to gods. famous dealing with rituals connected with
✓ Gayatri mantra part of it. Agricultural production.
✓ 1017 hymns into 10 mandalas. ✓ Gopada Brahmana- most voluminous.
✓ Reciter called hotri ✓ Aithreya Brahmana- about Viswamitra and
non-aryan tribes
Sama ✓ First text to deal with Indian music.
Veda ✓ Main theme is Chchedus. Aranyakas ✓ Forest texts written mainly for hermits and
✓ Reciter called Udgatar. students living in jungle. Concluding
✓ It deals with rhythm and sound of portions of Brahmanas.
each hymn ✓ Consider as the link between Brahmana
and Upanishad.
Yajur ✓ Deals with rituals and ceremonies
Veda ✓ Reciter called Adhvaryu Upanishads 108 in number also known as Vedantas.
Deals with metaphysics
Adarvana ✓ By non-Aryans Vedangas 6 essential elements to understand Vedas
Veda ✓ Themes- witchcraft, sorcery.
✓ Deals with Ayurveda, Upavedas Dhanurveda (Warfare)- Rig Veda
Ganithashastra. Rekhaganita Gandhavra Veda (Music)-Sama Veda
✓ Brahmin never recites this. Sthapatyaveda (Architecture)-Yajur Veda
✓ Most secular of all the vedas. Ayurveda (Medicine)-Atharva Veda
 Vedas Upanishads
Vedas were composed over a time period ranging from The Upanishads were written over a time period ranging
1200 to 400 B.C.E from 700 to 400 B.C.E
Vedas focused on ritualistic details, uses and traditions. Upanishads focused on Spiritual enlightenment.
Vedas means knowledge in Sanskrit. It is known as Upanishad is derived from the words upa (near) and
“Apauruseya” meaning not of man. shad (to sit). It is derived from the concept of sitting near
the feet of the teacher.
There are 4 different Vedas – Rigveda, Samaveda, More than 200 Upanishads have been discovered. Each
Yajurveda, Atharvaveda. Upanishad is associated with a certain Veda. There are
14 Upanishads which are most well known or most
important – Katha, Kena, Isa, Mundaka, Prasna, Taittiriya,
Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Mandukya, Aitareya,
Kaushitaki, Svetasvatara and Maitrayani.
All the 4 Vedas are compositions of different texts. Upanishads are in the last section of any Vedas.
Upanishads are a subcategory of a Veda.
Vedas are subclassified into 4 major text types – Samhitas Upanishads is one among the 4 major text types of
(Mantras), Aranyakas (Texts on rituals, sacrifices, Vedas. Upanishads are texts on spiritual knowledge and
ceremonies), Brahmanas (it gives explanation of sacred philosophy. Upanishads originated from each branch of
knowledge, it also expounds scientific knowledge of Vedic Vedas. Upanishads deals with the philosophical aspects
Period) and the 4th type of text is Upanishads. The 3 of life
types of texts dealt with ritualistic aspects of life.
 Upanisahds Vedangas-
Imp Upanishads Imp Points Known as limbs of Vedas
Compiled during Sutra period.
Katho Upanishad Dialogue between Nachiketa and
Hence it is called Sutra literature
Yama on the concept of death
There are six in number:
Eso Upanishad Deals with creation (A) Shiksha- Phonetics of Science of
Jabala Upanishad Varna Ashrama Dharmas Pronunciation; Study of origin of
Brihadoranyaka Yagnavalkya– Transmigration of words
Upanishad Soul (B) Kalpa- Rituals and ceremonies
(C) Vyakarana - Grammar, Written
Mundako Satyameva Jayate adopted from
by Panini
Upanishad this.
(D) Nirukta – Etymology (Origin of
Chandogya Childhood of Krishna words)
Upanishad (E) Chhanda – Metrics, rules of
Keno Upanishad Talks about Uma or Parvati poetic composition
Swetas Swataro Defines Shiva for the first time (F) Jyotisha- Astronomy
Upanishad
Buddhism and Jainism- 6th BC
Mahajanapadas-
✓ Mahajanapadas were formed
sixth century BC onward.
✓ The most prominent feature of
Mahajanapadas is the formation
of states.
✓ With the rise of Mahajanapadas,
the political history of North
India became clearer.
✓ 16 Mahajanapadas had both
republics and monarchies
 Name Capital Modern Facts about 16 Mahajanapadas
Anga Champa Munger and •Anga Mahajanapada finds reference in the Mahabharata and Atharva Veda
Bhagalpur •During the rule of Bimbisara, it was taken over by Magadha Empire.
•It is situated in present-day Bihar and West Bengal.
Magadha Girivraja| Gaya and •Magadha finds mention in the Atharva Veda which conveys that Magadha
Rajagriha Patna was semi-Brahmanical habitation.
•It was located in present-day Bihar close to Anga, divided by river Champa.
•Later, Magadha became a centre of Jainism and the first Buddhist Council was
held in Rajagriha.
Kasi Kasi Banaras •It was located in Varanasi. This city got its name from rivers Varuna and Asi as
cited in the Matsya Purana.
Vatsa Kausambi Allahabad •Vatsa is also known as Vamsa
•This Mahajanapada followed the monarchical form of governance. The capital
is Kausambi. This was a central city for economic activities.
•There was a prosperous trade and business scenario in the 6th century BC.
After the rise of Buddha, the ruler Udayana made Buddhism a state religion.
Kosala Sravasti Eastern Uttar •It was located in modern Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh.
Pradesh •Its capital was Sravasti
Saurasena Mathura Western Uttar •This place was a centre of Krishna worship at the time of Megasthenes. Also,
Pradesh there was a dominant followership of Buddha here.
Panchala Ahichchatra Western Uttar •Its capital for northern Panchala was Ahichchatra and Kampilaya for its
and Kampliya Pradesh southern regions.
•It was situated in present-day western Uttar Pradesh.
•Later the nature of governance shifted from monarchy to republic.
 Name Capital Location Facts about 16 Mahajanapadas
Kuru Indraprastha Meerut and SE •The area around Kurukshetra was apparently the site for Kuru
Haryana Mahajanapada.
•It moved to a republic form of governance.
Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur •It was situated to the west of the Panchalas and south of the Kurus.
•The capital was at Viratanagar It is situated around present-day Jaipur.
Chedi Sothivati Jaipur •This was cited in the Rigveda. The capital was Sothivati.
•It located in the present-day Bundelkhand region.
Avanti Ujjaini or Malwa and •Avanti was significant in relation to the rise of Buddhism.
Mahismati Madhya •The capital of Avanti was located at Ujjaini or Mahismati.
Pradesh •It was situated around present-day Malwa and Madhya Pradesh.
Gandhara Taxila Rawalpindi •The capital was at Taxila. Gandhara is cited in the Atharva Veda
•The people were highly trained in the art of war.
•It was significant for international commercial activities.
Kamboja Pooncha Rajori and •The capital of Kamboj is Poonch. It is situated in present-day Kashmir
Hajra •Several literary sources mention that Kamboja was a republic.
Ashmaka or Pratisthan/ Bank of •The capital of this Mahajanapada was located at Pratisthan or Paithan.
Assaka Paithan Godavari •It was located on the bank of Godavari.
Vajji Vaishali Bihar •It is the capital of Vajji was Vaishali. The main races residing in this
Mahajanapadas were Licchavis, Vedehans, Jnatrikas and Vajjis
Malla Kusinara Deoria and •It finds a reference in Buddhist and Jain texts and Mahabharata. Malla was a
Uttar Pradesh republic. Their capital was Kusinara situated around present-day Deoria and
Uttar Pradesh.
Rise of Magadha- Reasons
✓ Advantages geographical location with both Rajgir and Pataliputra situated at strategic locations.
✓ Abundance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with effective weapons.
✓ The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains and sufficient rainfall were they conductive for agriculture produces.
✓ Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce.
✓ The princess could levy tolls and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army.
✓ Use of elephants on a large scale in wars with its proximity to ancient Kalinga.
✓ Unorthodox character of Magadhan society
✓ Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers

1. Haryankas 2. Shisunagas 3. Nandas 4. Mauryas

Bibisara- Won over Mahapadma Chandra Gupta

Founder Ujjain- Avanti Nanada- Ekrat Maurya

Ajatarsatru- Alexander
Policy of Invasion- Didn’t
Expansion move east
wards
Iranian and Macedonian Invasions Greek - Alexander’s invasion-326 BC
Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C) Battle of Hydapses:

Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.) ✓ Between Porus and Alexander.

Effects of Persian Invasion: ✓ Alexander was impressed by Porus courage and

✓ Impetus to Indo-Iranian Trade strength and reinstated him on the throne.

✓ Provided impetus to Alexander’s invasion Effects of Alexander’s Invasion:

✓ Introduced Kharosthi script. ✓ Opening of land and sea route between India

✓ Mauryan sculpture was influenced by Persian style, and Europe.

especially bell-shaped capital and Ashokan ✓ Gandhara school of Architecture was

inscriptions. introduced
✓ Ground for establishment of Indo-Bactrian and
Parthian States.
 Sources to Mauryan Empire
Literary sources Archaeological Sources

(i) Kautilaya’s ‘Arthashastra’ (i) Punch marked coins

(ii) Megasthenese’s ‘Indica’ (ii) Wooden palace of
(iii) Visakha Datta’s ‘Mudra Rakshasa’: although it was written during Gupta Chandragupta Maurya in
Period, it describes how Chandragupta Maurya got Chanakya’s assistance to Pataliputra (iii) Northern Black
overthrow Nandas. Polished Ware (NBPW)
(iv) Puranas
Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions:
(v) Buddhist text Jatakas portrays a general picture of socio-economic
There are Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts
conditions of Mauryan Period.
and Cave inscriptions located at
(vi) Buddhist chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa describe the part played by
several places in the Indian
Ashoka in spread in Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
subcontinent.
(vii)Tibetan Buddhist text Divyavadana gives information about Ashoka and his
efforts to spread Buddhism.
Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions: James Prinsep, a British antiquary and colonial
administrator was the first person to decipher Ashoka’s
There are Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts and Cave inscriptions edicts. These Ashoka’s inscriptions are the first tangible
evidence of Buddhism.
located at several places in the Indian subcontinent.

✓ The inscriptions are mostly in Prakrit Major Rock Edict XIII

language and Brahmi script. ✓ Mentions victory over Kalinga.

✓ In North western region they are written ✓ Mentions Ashoka’s Dhamma victory over Greek Kings Antiochus of
Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene
in Prakrit language & Khroshti and
(Maka), Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus
Aramaic script.
(Alikasudaro).
✓ In Afghanistan they are written in Aramaic
✓ Also mentions Pandyas, Cholas, etc.
script and Greek language.
✓ The thirteenth rock edict which was issued at the end of the Kalinga
✓ At Sabhazgarhi and Manshera the script is war gives a vivid picture of the change of Ashoka from an aggressive
Khroshti and violent warrior to a great lover and preacher of peace.
✓ At Kandhar, the edicts found are bilingual. ✓ The direct and immediate effect of the Kalinga war was the
conversion of Ashoka to Buddhism.
 Ashokan Dhamma
Chandra Gupta Maurya
✓ Ashoka’s Dhamma was different from Buddhism.
(Jainism)
✓ Dhamma propagated the tenets of tolerance as well as
moral and ethical conducts.
Bindusara
✓ Its broad objective was to preserve the social order as
(Aajivika Sect)
with the expansion of Mauryan Empire the population
had become heterogeneous, diverse and multi-racial.
Ashoka
✓ It ordained that people should obey their parents, pay
(Buddhism) respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and show
mercy to slaves and servants.
✓ He held that if people behaved well, they would attain
Later Mauryas
Swarga (heaven).
Mauryan administration
The Mauryan government was a centralized bureaucracy with king as fountainhead of all the
powers. However, he was assisted by the council of ministers i.e. mantri parishad.
According to Kautilya / Chanakya,
There are 7 elements of states (Saptanga theory):
1. Raja (the king)
2. Mitra (Friend)
3. Durg (fort)
4. Amatya (the secretaries)
5. Janapada(territory)
6. Kosha (the treasure)
7. Sena (Army)
Local Government- Economy:
Megasthenese gives an account of the committee 1. State took active participation in economy
system of administering the municipalities in the 2. Shudras were involved in agriculture for the
cities. There were 6 committees of five members first time
each. The functions of these six committees were: 3. Crown land was called Sita
1. Industrial Arts. 4. There were provisions for irrigation by the
2. Entertainment of Foreigners. state
3. Registration of Births & Deaths. 5. The normal taxation rate was one sixth of
4. Trade & Commerce. the produce
5. Public sale of manufactured goods. 6. The weight and measures were regulated by
6. Collection of taxes on the articles sold the states

Two very important developments; Monitisation of economy –introduction of metallic

coins,First coin Punch Mraked coins-no script(silver/copper) and Emergence of Guilds
Army: Causes for decline:
1. The most striking feature of Mauryan
• Highly centralized administration.
administration was maintenance of a
huge army. • Pacific policy of Ashoka

2. Kautilya permitted all the four varnas to • Financial crisis- Bureaucracy expanded but
serve in the army
the income remained constant.
3. According to Pliny, Mauryas maintained
an army of six lakh soldiers. • Neglect of North-West frontier.

4. Mauryan also maintained a Navy. • Negation of folk and State Oppression of

Sunga Revolt represent People’s revolt

 Megalithic Age
Megalith means Big Stone.
• The Information about this period mainly comes from Graves and these
graves are called Megaliths because they are encircled by big pieces of
stones.
• Prominent pottery- Black and Red ware
• Cultural phase flourished in Peninsula between 1000 BC -100 AD. This
shows overlap with Sangam Age which is roughly 200 BC- 300 AD.
• Evidence of Iron Object reflect Iron Age in Peninsula
• Unique Feature- Evidence of Horse Burial from Jaunpuri.
• Megaliths are spread across the Indian subcontinent.
• The majority of megalithic sites are found in Peninsular India,
concentrated in the states of Maharashtra (mainly in Vidarbha), Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
Sangam Age
It’s part of Iron Age Period.

The Sangam period or age, or

the third Sangam period, is
the period of history of
ancient Tamil Nadu, Kerala
and parts of Sri Lanka
spanning from c. 6th century
BCE to c. 3rd century CE.

It was named after the famous

Sangam academies of poets
and scholars centered in the
city of Madurai
Sangam Age
The First Sangam, is
believed to be held
at Madurai, attended by
gods and legendary
sages. No literary work of
this Sangam is available.

The Second Sangam was

held at Kapadapuram,
only Tolkappiyam survives
from this.

The Third Sangam was

also held at Madurai. A
few of these Tamil literary
works have survived and
are a useful sources to
reconstruct the history of
the Sangam period.
Post Mauryan Period
In eastern India, central India and the The important regional kingdoms:
Deccan, this period saw number of native 1. Satavahanas.
rulers such as Shungas, the Kanvas and 2. Shungas
the Satavahanas. 3. The Kanvas.
In north-western India, this period 4. Indo-Greeks or Bactrians
witnessed a number of ruling dynasties 5. Sakas
from central Asia. 6. The Parthians
7. The Kushans
 Satavahas
(2BC - 3AD)
The Satavahanas also
referred to as the
Andhras in the Puranas,
were an ancient Indian
dynasty based in the
Deccan region.
Sources to study
Satavahanas-
Socio-Economic Conditions
1. Hala- Gadhasaptasati 1. Matriarchal Society 1. Introduction of land grant
2. Nasik Inscrption of 2. Caste System not well system in South India
Gautamibalasri established, Chaturvarna 2. Tech for agri production-
3. Nanaghat Inscription of System Udakayantra, Ghatikayantra
Naganika 3. Ashta Dasa Profession 3. Silver and Gold Coins
4. Strabo- Greek Historian 4. Dress and passtimes 4. Srenis
5. Amaravati Insciption of 5. Joint Family system 5. Many traders and
Dhimika 6. Cremation as a end ritual specialization in occupations
7. Social Evils – Sati
Religious Conditions Cultural Contribution

✓ Kings- Brahmanism 1. Amaravati School of Sculpture

✓ Queens- Buddhism and 2. Ajanta – Ellora Cave Painting

Jainism Tradition

✓ Puranic Traditions 3. Stupas, Chaityas- Nagarjuna

✓ Bhagavatism Konda

✓ Visiting pilgrimage 4. Sanskrit got patronage, Prakrit

Places was official language

✓ Vedic Rituals 5. Hala- Gadhasaptapadi- Navasaras

✓ Chaityakavaada 6. Gunadya- Bruhadkatha- Paisachi

Langugae
7. Music and Dance Traditions
 The Ikshvakus -
1. Feudatories of Satavahanas Cultural
Contribution –
2. Veeragal System
✓ Temple Building
3. Bramhanism and Buddhism Activity
✓ Nagarjuna,
4. Earliest Temples in Indian History
Buddhaghosa-
5. Sculptors Style of Architecture Buddhism
✓ First Sanskrit
6. Mandata Sculpture- Jaggayyapeta
Inscription in South
7. First Sanskrit Inscription India
✓ Buddhist Stupas
8. Puranic Gods- Worship of idols
✓ Temples
9. Sri Parvata University- Nagarjuna ✓ Amaravati School of
Art
konda
Indo- Greeks The Sakas Pratihars Kushanas
First to issue gold coins in In 58 B.C, King of Ujjain They moved from They are the nomadic tribes of
India and can be definitely defeated Sakas and he Parthia, Iran, to India. north-central Asia.
attributed to a king. took title ‘Vikramaditya’.
King Menander, earlier An era started with 58 Like the Sakas they Kanishka is the most popular
Known as Milinda was B.C by Vikramaditya. became integral part of Kushan King. He started an era
converted to Buddhism. Indian polity & society. called saka era, 78 A.D.
The questions of Milinda First ever long In the reign of Strengthened the idea of
to Nagasena, Buddhist inscription was issued in Gondophernes St. divine origin of Kingship.
monk was recorded in Sanskrit. Earlier Thomas is said to have Introduced Satrap system.
form of book known as inscriptions were issued come to India for the Military governorship
Milinda Panho. in Prakrit. propagation of
Christianity.
Introduced Hellenistic art They emphasized on Mathura school of art-
features in the region, proper irrigation to the Mahayana Buddism.
giving rise to Gandhara art region, which was Literature: 1. Avaghosha,
of Buddhism manifested through the wrote Buddhacharita and
First to issue Gold coins repair of Sudarshan lake, Saundarananda. 2. Avadanas,
by Rudradaman. compositions of Mahayana
Buddhism.
 Chedi Dynasty
✓ After Mauryas, the Chedi dynasty
Saatavah
Sungas Kanvas emerged in the Kalinga region,
anas
i.e. modern Odisha
✓ The capital city of this dynasty
was Sisupalgarh
✓ The important ruler of this
dynasty was Kharavela.
✓ Kharavela patronized Jainism and
the Hatigumpha inscription gives
a reference of his victories
 Sungas Kanvas Satavahanas
Ruled around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty The Kanva dynasty was founded by According to Matsya purana, Satavahanas
was established by Pushyamitra shunga Vasudeva Kanva. Kanva dynasty had a dynasty was ruled by 30 kings for 400
with capital at Pataliputra. ruling phase from 72 BCE to 28 BCE. years.
The dynasty founded by simukha
Pushyamitra shunga erected Bharhut Sunga dynasty was the emergence of Satavahanas were brahmanized tribe.
stupa. They revived the caste system, and various mixed castes and the The famous satavahana King,
the social norms based on varna order got integration of foreigners into Indian Gautamiputra Satakarni, claims to have
strengthened society. established the four-fold varna system
Shreni-dharma, a professional code of The language of Sanskrit gained more They issued lead, potin copper and
conduct, became the basis of the social prominence during the rule of the Bronze coins. The coins of this dynasty are
order. Guilds played an important socio- Shunga kings. Even some Buddhist called as Karshapanas.
economic and religious role works of this time were composed in
Sanskrit.
They used Sanskrit language, and a variant The official language of Satavahanas was
of Brahmi script as Royal language. It is Prakrit. Followed Brahmi script.
argued, that the famous Kalidasa’s play Prakrit text, Gathasaptasati is attributed
Malavikagnimitra was composed during to the satavahana King called Hala.
this period. Manu smriti, which was
compiled in the later period, composed
during this period.
 Guptas
✓ After the decline of
Mauryas, it was Gupta
dynasty in Magadha
which was able to
carve a large empire.
✓ Although the empire
was smaller as
compared to the
Mauryan Empire, yet it
consisted of a greater
part of Northern India
 Sources to study Gupta Period
Inscriptions: Literature sources:
1. Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta 1. Nitisara of Kamandaka
2. Udayagiri cave inscription and Sanchi inscriptions of 2. Devichandraguptam of
Chandragupta-II Visakhadutta
3. Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription of Chandragupta-II 3. Mrichchakatika of Sudraka
4. Bilsad, Mandsor, Damodarpur copper plate
inscription of Kumaragupta.
5. Junagadh and Bhitari pillar inscription of
Skandagupta.
Polity 1. The empire was divided into divisions
✓ With the decline of Mauryan Empire, the unity and integrity called bhukth, and each bhukti was
placed under the charge of an uparika.
of India shattered. The central authority disappeared and
2. The bhuktis were divided into districts
regional principalities emerged everywhere. (vishayas), which were placed under
✓ This trend was reversed by emergence of Gupta rulers in the charge of a vishayapati.
3. In eastern India, the vishayas were
4th Century AD. They ruled over extensive empire with their
divided into vithis, which again were
capital at Pataliputra. subdivided into villages.
✓ Therefore, the Gupta age witnessed political unification of 4. The village headman gained in
importance in Gupta times, managing
India after long period of more than 500 years after the village affairs with the assistance of
decline of Mauryans. elders.
5. With the administration of a village or
✓ A number of strong and efficient rulers came to power
a small town, leading local elements
during Gupta period. For example, Chandragupta I, were associated.
Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Skandgupta ruled over 6. No land transactions could be effected
without their consent.
extensive empires.
Art and Culture-
✓ Samudragupta and Chandragupta-II were patrons of art and
literature.
✓ Samudragupta was represented on the coins as playing veena.
✓ Mostly Guptan art is religious in nature.
✓ Two-meter-high bronze image of the Buddha, which was
recovered from sultanganj near Bhagalpur.
✓ 25-meter copper image of Buddha, as mentioned by Fa-hien,
but it is not traceable now.
✓ Beautiful images of Buddha were made at Sarnath and
Mathura.
✓ Most of the paintings in Ajanta, depict various events in the
life of Buddha, were from Guptan period.
✓ For the first time, mages of Vishnu, shiva and other Hindu
gods were found.
✓ Few temples made of brick in Uttar Pradesh- Bhitargaon in
Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur; and a stone temple were found.
Buddhist university at Nalanda was set up
Economy
✓ Gupta age was full of economic prosperity. According to Chinese traveller Fa-hien Magadh,
the power centre of Gupta empire was full of cities and its rich people.
✓ In ancient India, the Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins which were called ‘dinaras’ in
their inscriptions.

Science and Technology

✓ In mathematics, a work called Aryabhatiya was written by Aryabhata in age. Aryabhatta displayed
an awareness of both the zero system and the decimal system. A Gupta inscription of 5th century
AD from Allahabad suggests that decimal system was known in India.
✓ The Gupta age craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze. For
example, iron pillar found at Mehrauli in Delhi manufactured in the 4th century AD has not
gathered any rust over the subsequent fifteen centuries which is a great tribute to the
technological skill of the craftsmen.
Literature:
✓ In the court of Chandragupta-II, there were nine poets called as ‘Navaratna’. This was mentioned in
Jyotirvidabharana, a treatise attributed to Kalidasa.
✓ The court language of the Guptas was Sanskrit. Ornate style of Sanskrit is used in the writings, a
deviation from the traditional Sanskrit writing.
✓ Some scholars were: Amarsimha, Sanskrit grammarian and poet who wrote Amarkhosha. Dhanvantri,
wrote Ayurveda, Varahamira wrote Brihat Samhita, deals with architecture, temples, planets etc.
✓ Devichandraguptam of Visakhadutta, deals with King Ramagupta and his wife Dhruva devi, got
abducted by the Sakas. Then Chandragupta-II attack Sakas and get her and will marry her after killing
his brother king Ramagupta.
✓ Mrichchakatika of Sudraka, it is dated to early 5th century A.D. It deals with love relationship between
young man, charudatta and vasantasena, a rich courtesan in the Gupta period. It is an entertainment
play. Kathasaritasagra by somdev, written in 11th century, adopted from Gunadya’s Brihatkatha.
Most popular writer of this period was Kalidasa. His surviving works are three plays, two epics
and two shorter poems. They are:
1. Malavikagnimitra: It is a love affair between King Agnimitra of shunga dynasty and a servant girl
Malavika.
2. Abhijnanshakuntalam: It is a story between King Dushyant who on a hunting trip meets
Shakuntala, adopted daughter of a sage, and marries her.
3. Vikramorvasiyam: It is a story between a mortal king pururavas and celestial nymph Urvasi.
✓ This period saw the compilation of two epics Ramayana and Mahabharat.
✓ The period also witnessed scientific works: Aryabhata wrote Aryabhattiyam, which introduced
decimal system; Varahamira’s Romaka sidhanta.
✓ Brahmagupta: Precede newton in theory of gravitation. His Works: Brahmaspotaka siddanta
and Kandakadyaka
Causes of decline of Gupta
empire:
1. Hun invasion which made
north-west vulnerable.
2. System of land grants and
feudatories who declared
independence.
3. Financial crisis.
Vakataka Dynasty (250AD- 500AD)
✓ The Satavahanas in peninsular India were succeeded by
the Vakatakas (local power) who ruled the Deccan for
more than two and a half centuries.
✓ The Vakatakas were the contemporaries of the Guptas
in northern India.
✓ In the Puranas, the Vakatakas are referred to as
the Vindhyakas.
✓ Many of the Buddhist caves, Viharas and Chaityas at
Ajanta were executed under Harisena, last ruler’s reign.
Ajanta is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983.
✓ With the death of Harisena, the rule of the Vakatakas
ended and the Nalas, the Kadambas, the Kalachuris and
Yashodharman of Malwa occupied their territory.
 Rashtrakutas-
The Northern Kingdoms:
(750 AD - 1206 AD):
The Rashtrakutas became
powerful, Pratiharas ruled in
Avanti and Palas ruled
Bengal. The period also saw
emergence of Rajput clans.
Amoghavarsha I (814- 878 A.D.)
✓ The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was Amoghavarsha I son of Govinda III.
✓ Amoghavarsha I set up a new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed in Karnataka State) and Broach became
the best port of the kingdom during his reign
✓ Amoghavarsha was converted into Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk.
✓ Suleman, an Arab merchant, in his account called Amoghavarsha I as one of the four greatest kings of the
world, the other three being the Caliph of Bagdad, the king of Constantinople and the emperor of China.
Art and Culture-
✓ The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas can be found at Ellora and Elephanta.
✓ The most remarkable temple Kailasanatha temple at Ellora was built by Krishna.
✓ Kavirajamarga composed by Amogavarsha’s was the first poetic work in the Kannada language.
✓ Pampa was the greatest of the Kannada poets and Vikramasenavijaya is his famous work.
✓ Santipurana was another great work wrote by Ponna another famous Kannada poet.
 Palas of Bengal
Gopala founded the dynasty in 750 AD.
He was a chieftain or military general who was elected as king by notable men of the area to prevent
anarchy.
The Pala period is also known as a ‘Golden Era’ in Bengali history.
They built magnificent monasteries and temples: Somapura Mahavihara (in Bangladesh), Odantapuri
Monastery.
They also patronised Buddhist centres of learning like Nalanda University and the Vikramshila
University.
During this time, the Bengali language developed. The first Bengali literary work Charyapada is
attributed to this period. It was written in an Abahatta (the common ancestor of Bengali, Assamese,
Odia and Maithili.
Sanskrit scholars were also patronised by the Pala kings. Gaudapada composed Agama Shastra during
the time of the Palas.
The Pala art (art seen in Bengal and Bihar during the Pala regime) influence is seen in the art of
Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma and Java.
 Pushyabhuti Dynasty
Kanauj Assembly:
Founder: Narvardhana Harsha organized a
Capital city: Thaneswar and Kanauj Harsha Vardhana (606 AD- 647 AD)
religious assembly at
✓ Greatest ruler also called Siladitya and started Harsha Era in 606 AD.
Kanauj to honour the
✓ Defeated Gauda Sasanka (desecrated bodi tree) who had killed his brother in
Chinese pilgrim Hiuen
law Grihavarma.
Tsang. To propagate
✓ He was defeated by Pulikeshi second of Chalukyas in battle of Narmada.
✓ He was converted to Mahayana Buddhism by Hieun Tsang, who wrote Si-yu-Ki
doctrines of Mahayana

(Experience of traveller). Buddhism.

✓ He also conducted Dharmayatras like Ashoka. Participations of people
✓ He himself scholar wrote Naganandam, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika. from many religions in
✓ Banabhatta his court poet wrote Harshacharita, Parvati Parinayam and Assembly.
Kadambari.
 Chalukyas Of Badami
Founder: Pulakesin first
Capital: Badami Pulakesin II:
The most important ruler of this dynasty was
Pulakesin II. The Aihole inscription issued by Ravikirti
gives the details of his reign.
Notable achievement of Pulakesin II was the defeat
of Harshavardhana on the banks of the river
Narmada and took title of Parameswara.
He sent ambassador to court of Persian King
Khusrau.
He was defeated and killed by Narasimha Varman I
of Pallavas.
Art and Architecture:
They developed the vesara style in the building of structural temples which reached its
culmination only under the Rastrakutas and the Hoysalas.
No cement or mortar was used stones were aligned together to form edifice.
• Two stage in temple construction Aihole group
• Meguti temple
• Vishnu temple
• Ladh khan temple
• Durga temple Pattadakal group
• Papanath temple
• Virupaksha temple
• Sangamesvara temple
 Pallava of Kanchi
✓ Pallavas were the natives of Tondaimandalam. They
are also identical with the Pulindas mentioned in the
inscriptions of Asoka. Mahendravarman I (600 – 630
A.D.)
✓ Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the
early part of his career.
✓ He was converted to Saivism by the influence of the
Saiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar.
✓ He assumed a number of titles like Gunabhara,
Satyasandha, Chettakari (builder of temples)
Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa.
Administration:
✓ The Pallavas had a well-organized administrative system. The Pallava state was divided
into Kottams. The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king.
✓ Number of irrigation tanks were dug by the Pallava kings. The irrigation tanks at
Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I.
✓ Land tax was the primary source of the government revenue. The Brahmadeya and
Devadhana lands were exempted from tax.
✓ The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village assemblies called sabhas and
their committees. They maintained records of all village lands, looked after local
affairs and managed temples.
Literature: Fine Arts:
✓ Mahendravarman I composed the Sanskrit play ✓ Music, dance and painting had also developed under
Mattavilasaprahasanam. the patronage of the Pallavas.
✓ The Devaram composed by Nayannars and the ✓ The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the
Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars notation of vocal music.
represent the religious literature of the Pallava ✓ The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical
period. notes and instruments.
✓ Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman ✓ The Alwars and Nayannars composed their hymns in
II and he translated the Mahabharata as various musical notes.
Bharathavenba in Tamil. ✓ The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.
✓ Dandin wrote Dasakumarcharita on birth of ✓ The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled
Kartikeya. during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the
✓ Bharavi wrote Kiratarjuniyyam. title Chitrakarapuli.
 Pallava Art and Culture
It was a great age of temple building.
The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples from
the rock. Temple architecture developed in 4 stages
Mahendravarman Group Bhairavakonda temple,
under Mahendravarman I Ananteswara temple at
Undavalli
Mamalla group under Seven pagodas and rathas at
Narasimhavarman I Mahabalipuram

Rajasimha group under Shore temple, kailasanath

Narasimhavarman II and vaikuntaperumal at
Kanchi
Aparajit group under Mukteshwar and
Nandivarman Matangeswar temple at
Kanchi, Parshurameswar at
Gudimallam.
Western Chalukyas
✓ Ruled from Kalyani (973- 1200A.D)
✓ Followed the traditions of Rasthrakutas and vatapi
Chalukyas.
✓ Ruled Karnataka region and surrounding areas
✓ He built the city of Kalyan.
✓ Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita deals with
Somesvara I.
✓ Last ruler Tailapa III was defeated by Kalachuris. Their
temple architecture known as “Karanatadravida”.
✓ It is an extension of Badami chalukyan style.
✓ Temples of Ittagi were the finest examples of Art and
architecture.
✓ Ornamentation on the outer walls of the shrine and
presence of figure sculptures of heroes and loving
couples (Mithuna) were unique features of Kalyani
Chalukyas.
Chola Empire
Cholas
Empire was founded by Vijayalaya, feudatory of Pallavas.
He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D. RajadhiRaja I (1044- 1052 A.D)
He earned the title “Jayamkonda
Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D)
✓ Formative period of “chola imperialism” chola”.
✓ He destroyed the chera navy at Trivandrum.
✓ He conquered Maldives Islands. He captured Kalyani, western
✓ Bought South- East Asia under his control. chalukyan capital and took the
Rajendra I (1014-1044 A.D)
✓ He followed annexation policy of his father. title “Kalyanpuramkonda”.
✓ He defeated pala ruler Mahipala in 1022 A.D and
assumed title “Gangaikonda chola”
✓ Build a city near the mouth of Kaveri-
“Gangaikondachola”.
✓ He sent two diplomatic missions to China for political
as well as commercial purposes.
Cholas were known for village administration:
(Uttrameruru inscriptions of Paranthaka provides for this)
1. Two assemblies -Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha.
2. Ur was a general assembly of the village.
3. Mahasabha was a gathering of adult men in Brahmana
villages. (agraharas)
4. Election system was present.
Society-
✓ It was organised based on Varnasrama model.
✓ Sub castes were proliferated – Kaikalla, Chetti, Cheek etc.
✓ Division of sub castes into Valangai and Idangai.
✓ Devadasi system was prevalent in the society.
 Dravidian temple architecture:
Art and Culture
1. Garbhagriha – multiple storeys on chief-deity
✓ Build great capitals -Tanjore,
room.
Gangaikondacholapuram, Kanchi etc.
2. These storeys varied from 5 to 7 and known as
✓ Large households and large palaces.
Vimana.
✓ Introduced Dravidian temple architecture.
3. Mandapa with pillared hall.
Angkor Wat, temple complex at Angkor, near 4. Pillars are elaborately curved.
Siĕmréab, Cambodia, that was built in the 12th 5. Courtyards surrounding the structure.
century by King Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–c. 6. Gopurams- lofty gateways
1150). The vast religious complex of Angkor Examples:
Wat comprises more than a thousand buildings, Kailasanath temple (Kanchi),
and it is one of the great cultural wonders of the Brihadeshwara temple (Tanjore),
world. Gangaikondacholapuram temple
Investment on education pays best interest