COMPUTER

NETWORKS
PRESENTATION
 PRESENTATION OVERVIEW
Computer Communications and Networking Technologies;
Network Devices, Nodes and Hosts;
Types of Computer Networks and Their Topologies;
Network Applications and Application Protocols;
Client-Server Model;
Peer-to-Peer Model;
Web-Based Model;
OSI Reference Model;
TCP/IP Model;
 Networking and communication
The field of networking and communication includes the analysis, design, implementation,
and use of local, wide-area, and mobile networks that link computers together.
The Internet itself is a network that makes it feasible for nearly all computers in the world to
communicate.
A computer network links computers together via a combination of infrared light
signals, radio wave transmissions, telephone lines, television cables, and satellite links. The
challenge for computer scientists has been to develop protocols (standardized rules for the
format and exchange of messages) that allow processes running on host computers to
interpret the signals they receive and to engage in meaningful “conversations” in order to
accomplish tasks on behalf of users. Network protocols also include flow control, which
keeps a data sender from swamping a receiver with messages that it has no time to process
or space to store, and error control, which involves transmission error detection and
automatic resending of messages to correct such errors.
 What is Network Technology?
• Definition: The technology which is used to exchange the data between small and large
information. This technology can be used in educational institutions as well as businesses.
Network technicians know the installation; configuration & troubleshooting of the
network technology and this can be used to send digital data like audio, data and visual
files. By using networking, users can send messages, files through e-mail or other channels
based on the organization’s requirement.
• The expansion of a network mainly includes assessing the requirements of organizational
and informational of a business & estimates the costs of hardware, training, installation,
security & account management. When a network is installed, then the technicians are
accountable for the network operation by providing technical support to employees in the
organization from any issues.
Types of Network Technology
 What is Topology?
• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the
components are interconnected to each other. There are two
types of topology: physical and logical topology.
BUS TOPOLOGY
 Bus Topology
• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a
single cable known as a backbone cable.
• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected
to the backbone cable.
• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has
been addressed or not.
• The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (Ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
• The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.
 Advantage of Bus topology
• Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
• Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
• Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
• Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
 Disadvantage of Bus Topology
• Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable
faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
• Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
• Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are
used to regenerate the signal.
RING TOPOLOGY
 Ring Topology
• In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with its exactly two neighboring
devices.
• A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because
if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes,
then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to
prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network
• The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
 Advantage of Ring Topology
• Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
• Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
• Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation
cost is very low.
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.
 Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication
for all the nodes.
• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.
STAR TOPLOGY
 Star Topology

• In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the
central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub
such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent
known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.
• A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of
connection i.e. hub.
 Advantage of Star Topology
• Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
• Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore
failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
• Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
• Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on
the hub.
• Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
• High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one
of the most popular Star topology networks.
 Disadvantages of Star Topology

• A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all
the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
• Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount
of routing is required.
TREE TOPOLOGY
 Tree Topology
• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each
other in hierarchical fashion.
• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.
• There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms
a parent-child hierarchy.
 Advantages of Tree Topology
• Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide
broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
• Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we
can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
• Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known
as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
• Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
• Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
• Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Disadvantages of Tree Topology

• Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
• High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
• Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will
damage the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.
MESH TOPOLOGY
 Mesh Topology
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point
of communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures
are a critical concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
 Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

• Fully connected mesh topology

• Partially connected mesh topology
• Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
• Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.
 Advantages of Mesh Topology

• Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.
• Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication
between other devices.
 Disadvantage of Mesh Topology

• Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a

router and more transmission media than other topologies.
• Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.
• Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the
efficiency of the network.
Hybrid Topology
 Hybrid Topology
• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
• When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid
topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus
topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in
Hybrid topology.
 Advantages of Hybrid Topology
• Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the
rest of the network.
• Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing network.
• Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
• Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the
strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.
 Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

• Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of
the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid
network.
• Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these
hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
• Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network
requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.
 There are several protocols which work for users in Application Layer. Application layer
protocols can be broadly divided into two categories:

i. Protocols which are used by users. For email for example, e-mail.
ii. Protocols which help and support protocols used by users.For example DNS.
• Few of Application layer protocols are described below:
• Domain Name System
• The Domain Name System (DNS) works on Client Server model. It uses UDP protocol for
transport layer communication. DNS uses hierarchical domain based naming scheme. The DNS
server is configured with Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN) and email addresses mapped
with their respective Internet Protocol addresses.
• A DNS server is requested with FQDN and it responds back with the IP address mapped with it.
DNS uses UDP port 53
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used to transfer electronic mail from one
user to another. This task is done by means of email client software (User Agents) the user
is using. User Agents help the user to type and format the email and store it until internet
is available. When an email is submitted to send, the sending process is handled by
Message Transfer Agent which is normally comes inbuilt in email client software.
• Message Transfer Agent uses SMTP to forward the email to another Message Transfer
Agent (Server side). While SMTP is used by end user to only send the emails, the Servers
normally use SMTP to send as well as receive emails. SMTP uses TCP port number 25 and
587.
• Client software uses Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) or POP protocols to
receive emails
 File Transfer Protocol
• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the most widely used protocol for file transfer
over the network. FTP uses TCP/IP for communication and it works on TCP port
21. FTP works on Client/Server Model where a client requests file from Server and
server sends requested resource back to the client.
• FTP uses out-of-band controlling i.e. FTP uses TCP port 20 for exchanging
controlling information and the actual data is sent over TCP port 21.
• The client requests the server for a file. When the server receives a request for a file,
it opens a TCP connection for the client and transfers the file. After the transfer is
complete, the server closes the connection. For a second file, client requests again
and the server reopens a new TCP connection
 Post Office Protocol (POP)

• The Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP 3) is a simple mail retrieval protocol used by
User Agents (client email software) to retrieve mails from mail server.
• When a client needs to retrieve mails from server, it opens a connection with the server on
TCP port 110. User can then access his mails and download them to the local computer.
POP3 works in two modes. The most common mode the delete mode, is to delete the
emails from remote server after they are downloaded to local machines. The second mode,
the keep mode, does not delete the email from mail server and gives the user an option to
access mails later on mail server.
 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• The Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the foundation of World Wide Web. Hypertext is
well organized documentation system which uses hyperlinks to link the pages in the text
documents. HTTP works on client server model. When a user wants to access any HTTP page on
the internet, the client machine at user end initiates a TCP connection to server on port 80. When
the server accepts the client request, the client is authorized to access web pages.
• To access the web pages, a client normally uses web browsers, who are responsible for initiating,
maintaining, and closing TCP connections. HTTP is a stateless protocol, which means the Server
maintains no information about earlier requests by clients.
• HTTP versions
• HTTP 1.0 uses non persistent HTTP. At most one object can be sent over a single TCP
connection.
• HTTP 1.1 uses persistent HTTP. In this version, multiple objects can be sent over a single TCP
connection.
 CLIENT-SERVER-MODEL
• The Client-server model is a distributed application structure that partitions task or
workload between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service
requesters called clients. In the client-server architecture, when the client computer sends a
request for data to the server through the internet, the server accepts the requested process
and deliver the data packets requested back to the client. Clients do not share any of their
resources. Examples of Client-Server Model are Email, World Wide Web, etc.
• How the Client-Server Model works ?
In this article we are going to take a dive into the Client-Server model and have a look at
how the Internet works via, web browsers. This article will help us in having a solid
foundation of the WEB and help in working with WEB technologies with ease
• Client: When we talk the word Client, it mean to talk of a person or an organization
using a particular service. Similarly in the digital world a Client is a computer (Host) i.e.
capable of receiving information or using a particular service from the service providers
(Servers).
• Servers: Similarly, when we talk the word Servers, It mean a person or medium that serves
something. Similarly in this digital world a Server is a remote computer which provides
information (data) or access to particular services.
“So, its basically the Client requesting something and the Server serving it as
long as its present in the database”
 Advantages of Client-Server model:

• Centralized system with all data in a single place.

• Cost efficient requires less maintenance cost and Data recovery is possible.
• The capacity of the Client and Servers can be changed separately
 Disadvantages of Client-Server model:

• Clients are prone to viruses, Trojans and worms if present in the Server or uploaded into
the Server.
• Server are prone to Denial of Service (DOS) attacks.
• Data packets may be spoofed or modified during transmission.
• Phishing or capturing login credentials or other useful information of the user are
common and MITM(Man in the Middle) attacks are common.
 What is P2P(Peer-to-peer process) ?

• A peer to peer network is a simple network of computers. It first came into existence in
the late 1970s. Here each computer acts as a node for file sharing within the formed
network. Here each node acts as a server and thus there is no central server to the
network. This allows the sharing of a huge amount of data. The tasks are equally divided
amongst the nodes. Each node connected in the network shares an equal workload. For
the network to stop working, all the nodes need to individually stop working. This is
because each node works independently.
Block Diagram of P2P(Peer-to-peer process)
 Types of P2P networks :
• Unstructured P2P networks –
In this type of P2P network, each device is able to make an equal contribution. This
network is easy to build as devices can be connected randomly in the network. But being
unstructured, it becomes difficult to find content.
• Structured P2P networks –
It is designed using the software which creates a virtual layer in order to put the nodes in a
specific structure. These are not easy to set-up but can give easy access to users to the
content.
• Hybrid P2P networks –
It combines the features of both P2P network and client-server architecture. An example
of such a network is to find a node using the central server.
 Web Modeling
• Web modeling (aka model-driven Web development) is a branch of Web
engineering which addresses the specific issues related to design and
development of large-scale Web applications. In particular, it focuses on the
design notations and visual languages that can be used for the realization of
robust, well-structured, usable and maintainable Web applications. Designing
a data-intensive Web site amounts to specifying its characteristics in terms of
various orthogonal abstractions. The main orthogonal models that are
involved in complex Web application design are: data structure, content
composition, navigation paths, and presentation model.
 OSI Model
• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently
Functions of the OSI Layers
 There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of
seven layers are given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
 TCP/IP model
• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
• The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these
four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality
Functions of TCP/IP layers:
 Transmission Control Protocol
vs.
Internet Protocol

• Transmission Control Protocol (also known as TCP) is a core protocol

of the Internet Protocol Suite. It operates at a higher level than its
compatriot, Internet Protocol (also known as IP). The two main
concerns of TCP are the two end systems – a web browser and a web
server, for example. TCP provides the delivery of a stream of bytes
from a program from one computer to another computer. TCP is also
in charge of controlling size, flow control, the rate of data exchange,
and network traffic congestion.
• TCP provides communication services at an intermediate level between an
application program and the IP. What this means is that when an application
program wants to send a large piece of data across the internet using the IP,
instead of breaking the data into sizes that will fit the IP and using a series
of requests from the IP, the software is capable of issuing a single request to
TCP, and let this protocol handle the details of the IP transfer. TCP detects
problems that arise in the IP, requests retransmission of the packets that
were lost, rearranges the order of the packets (so that they are put back into
their proper order), and helps to minimize network congestion (in order to
reduce the occurrence of other problems down the line). Once all this
has been done and the proper copy of the data has been compiled, the
packet is passed along to the application program.