TYPE OF CONNECTION

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications

pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur, two
devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time.

There are two possible types of connections:

 Point-to-point
 Multipoint.
 Point-to-Point

A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The

entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Most point-to- point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the
two ends.
 Multipoint

A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the
channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link
simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY

• The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology.
• The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of
all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
• There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring
 MESH
• A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in
the network
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
• Let n be the number nodes, then n(n-1)/2 links will be there in the network. A
mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system.
Advantages of a mesh topology
• Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
• A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of
data.
• Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other
devices.

Disadvantages of a mesh topology

• The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less
desirable option.
• Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
• The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs.
 STAR
• Star topology is one of the most common network setups.
• In Star topology each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. In this configuration, every node connects to a central
network device like hub, switch, or computer.
• The central network device acts as a server and the peripheral devices act as clients.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another. The controller acts as an exchange. If
one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then
relays the data to the other connected device.
Advantages of star topology
• Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central computer, hub, or
switch.
• Easy to add another computer to the network.
• If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function normally.
• The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs often use a star
topology with a central hub.

Disadvantages of star topology

• Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the central
network device.
• The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the network
can handle.
• If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all
computers are disconnected from the network
 BUS
• A bus topology or line topology is multipoint.
• A bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network device are
connected to a single cable or backbone.One long cable acts as a backbone to link all
the devices in a network.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection
running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that contact with
the metallic core.
Advantages of bus topology
• It works well when you have a small network.
• It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear
fashion.
• It requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of bus topology

• It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
• It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
• Bus topology is not great for large networks.
• Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
• Additional devices slow the network down.
• If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.
 RING
• A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create a circular
data path. In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they
reach their destination.
• Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction, called a unidirectional
ring network. Others permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional.
• The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in the ring
is broken, the entire network is affected. Ring topologies may be used in either local area
networks (LANs) or wide area networks (WANs).
Advantages of ring topology
• All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
• A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each workstation.
• Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
• Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.

Disadvantages of ring topology

• All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the
network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
• The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
• The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than
Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.
 Hybrid Topology
• This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies.
• It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination
of various types of topologies
• For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch connecting several
stations in a bus topology.
 NETWORK HARDWARE
Network hardware is defined as a set of physical or network
devices that are essential for interaction and communication
between hardware units operational on a computer network.

These are dedicated hardware components that connect to each other and enable a
network to function effectively and efficiently.

Two criterion for classifying networks are

1. Transmission technology
2. Scale (on basis of area covered)
 1.Transmission technology

Broadcast links.
Point-to-point links.
 1. Broadcast links

• Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is

shared by all the machines on the network.
• Short messages called packets, sent by any machine are received by all
the others.
 2.Point-to-point links.

• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two

devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between
those two devices.
• Point-to-point transmission with one sender and one receiver is
sometimes called unicasting.
• Smaller, geographically localized networks tend to use broadcasting,
whereas larger networks usually are point-to-point.
 TYPES OF NETWORK BASED ON SIZE
• The types of network are classified based upon the size, the area it covers and its
physical architecture.
• The three primary network categories are
• LAN
• WAN
• MAN
 Local Area Networks (LAN)

• LAN (Local Area Network) Group of interconnected computers within a small

area. (room, building, campus)
• Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share files, folders, printers, applications
and other devices.
• Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally used for connections.
• Uses Ethernet or Wi-Fi technologies for connecting devices.
• Privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of upto a few
kilometers in size.
• Due to short distances, errors and noise are minimum.
• Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 mbps.
• Example: A computer lab in a school.
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
• A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city.
• Design to extend over a large area. Connecting number of LAN's to form larger
network, so that resources can be shared.
• Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km.
• Connects multiple LANs within a city using high-speed connections like fiber optics.
• Owned by organization or individual. Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.
• Example: Organization with different branches located in the city.
• Example of a MAN is the cable television network available in many cities
• Another example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can
provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer.
 Wide area network (WAN)
• A wide area network or WAN spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent.
WAN are country and worldwide network. Contains multiple LAN's and MAN's.
• A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and
video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or
even the whole world.
• This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.
• Example is the internet.

WLAN (Wireless LAN)

A LAN that uses high frequency radio waves for communication. Provides short range
connectivity with high speed data transmission.
 PAN (Personal Area Network)

• Network organized by the individual user for its personal use.

• A PAN connects devices within a small, personal area(a few meters),often
centered around an individual.
• Personal Area Network (PAN) The smallest and most basic type of network, a
PAN is made up of a wireless modem, a computer or two, phones, printers,
tablets, etc., and revolves around one person in one building.
• These types of networks are typically found in small offices or residences and are
managed by one person or organization from a single device.
• Eg : wireless computers keyboard &Mouse Bluetooth embedded headphones.
 INTERNETWORKS
• A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or internet.
• An internetwork is formed when distinct networks are interconnected.
• Internetworking is the practice of connecting a computer through the use of
gateways that provide a common method of routing information packets between
the networks.
• The most notable example of internetworking is the internet
DESIGN ISSUES FOR THE LAYERS
• Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying senders and receivers. some form
of addressing is needed in order to specify a specific destination
• The rules for data transfer- In some systems, data only travel in one direction in
others, data can go both ways.
• Error control is an important issue because physical communication circuits are
not perfect. Many error-detecting and error-correcting codes are known, but both
ends of the connection must agree on which one is being used. In addition, the
receiver must have someway of telling the sender which messages have been
correctly received and which have not.
• Not all communication channels preserve the order of messages sent on them. To
deal with a possible loss of sequencing, the protocol must make explicit provision
for the receiver to allow the pieces to be reassembled properly
• Flow control: An issue that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast
sender from swamping a slow receiver with data.
• Another problem that must be solved at several levels is the inability
of all processes to accept arbitrarily long messages. This property
leads to mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting, and then
reassembling messages.
• Routing: When there are multiple paths between source and
destination, a route must be chosen. Sometimes this decision must be
split over two or more layers.
REFERENCE MODELS
 OSI REFERENCE MODEL
• This OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International
Standards Organization (ISO)
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network
systems that allows communication between all types of computer
systems
• The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systems that
is, systems that are open for communication with other systems.
OSI model has seven layers

1. Physical layer
2. Data link layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
• In Figure 2.4, which gives an overall view of the OSI layers, D7 means the data
unit at layer 7, D6 means the data unit at layer 6, and so on. The process starts at
layer 7 (the application layer), then moves from layer to layer in descending,
sequential order. At each layer, a header, or possibly a trailer, can be added to the
data unit. Commonly, the trailer is added only at layer 2. When the formatted
data unit passes through the physical layer (layer 1), it is changed into an
electromagnetic signal and transported along a physical link.

• Upon reaching its destination, the signal passes into layer 1 and is transformed
back into digital form. The data units then move back up through the OSI layers.
As each block of data reaches the next higher layer, the headers and trailers
attached to it at the corresponding sending layer are removed, and actions
appropriate to that layer are taken. By the time it reaches layer 7, the message is
again in a form appropriate to the application and is made available to the
recipient.
 1.PHYSICAL LAYER
• The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from
one hop (node) to the next.
Other Responsibilities :
1.Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium - defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission
medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium.
2.Representation of bits - To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into
signals (electrical or optical). The physical layer defines the type of
encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals).
3. Data rate (The transmission rate) - the number of bits sent each second
is also defined by the physical layer
4. Synchronization of bits - the sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized.
5. Line configuration - The physical layer is concerned with the connection
of devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are
connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is
shared among several devices.
6.Physical topology - The physical topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh
topology ,a star topology ,a ring topology ,a bus topology or a hybrid
topology
7.Transmission mode - The physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
 2.DATA LINK LAYER
The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one
hop(node) to the next
Other responsibilities :
1. Framing - The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from
the network layer into manageable data units called frames.
2. Physical addressing - If frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame
to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is
intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that connects the network to the
next one.
3.Flow control - If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the
receiver is less than the rate at which data are produced in the sender,
the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
4. Error control - The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer
by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error
control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the
frame.
5. Access control - When two or more devices are connected to the
same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which
device has control over the link at any given time.
 3.NETWORK LAYER
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets
from the source host to the destination host
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no
need for a network layer.
• If the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with
connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often a
need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination
delivery.
Other Responsibilities :
1. Logical addressing - The physical addressing implemented by the
data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet
passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system to
help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer
adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that among
other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
2. Routing - When independent networks or links are connected to
create internetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the
connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the
packets to their final destination.
 4.TRANSPORT LAYER
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the
entire message
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another. A process is an application program running on a
host.
Other responsibilities
1. Service-point addressing - delivery of message not only from one
computer to the next but also from a specific process (running program)
on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other.
The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address
called a service-point address (or port address).
 The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport
layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
2.Segmentation and reassembly - A message is divided into transmittable
segments, with each segment containing a sequence number. These
numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly
upon arriving at the destination.
3.Connection control - The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection oriented.
4.Flow control - The transport layer is responsible for flow control.
5.Error control - Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible
for error control. However, error control at this layer is performed process-
to process rather than across a single link.
• The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at
the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication).
• Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission
 5.SESSION LAYER

• The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

Specific responsibilities :
1.Dialog control - The session layer allows two systems to enter into a
dialog. It allows the communication between two processes to take
place in either half duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex(two ways
at a time) mode.
2.Synchronization - The session layer allows a process to add
checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of data
Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is
sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after
every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the
transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after
system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be
resent. Figure 2.12 illustrates the relationship of the session layer to the
transport and presentation layers.
 6.PRESENTATION LAYER

• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of

the information exchanged between two systems
Specific responsibilities :
1.Translation - Because different computers use different encoding
systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between these different encoding methods. The presentation layer at
the sender changes the information from its sender dependent format
into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine
changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format
3. Encryption - To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to
ensure privacy. Encryption means that the sender transforms the
original information to another form and sends the resulting message
out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to
transform the message back to its original form.
4.Compression - Data compression reduces the number of bits
contained in the information. Data compression becomes particularly
important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and
video.
 7.APPLICATION LAYER
• The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic
mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management,
and other types of distributed information services
Other Responsibilities:
1. Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) - A network virtual terminal is a
software version of a physical terminal, and it allows a user to logon to
a remote host. The remote host believes it is communicating with one
of its own terminals and allows the user to log on.
2.File transfer, access, and management - This application allows a
user to access files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to
retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer,
and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally
3.Mail services - This application provides the basis for e-mail
forwarding and storage.
4.Directory services - This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.
 TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL
• TCP/IP signifies transmission control protocol/Internet Protocol.
• TCP/IP was developed as a protocol to enable communication
between different networks.

• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
1. Host-to-network layer
2. Internet layer
3. Transport layer
4. Application layer
 HOST-TO-NETWORK
• The host-to-network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model and
is concerned with the physical transmission of data.
• It is also called a network interface layer or link layer.
• It can be considered as the combination of physical layer and data link
layer of the OSI model.
• It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this
layer allows for the physical transmission of data.
 INTERNET LAYER
• TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol.
• This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer.
• It defines the protocols which are responsible for logical transmission
of data over the entire network.
• The main protocols residing at this layer are :

1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering

packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at
the IP addresses in the packet headers.
• IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from
one physical device to another.
• IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
• IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently.

2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is responsible

for providing hosts with information about network problems.

3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several
types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.
 TRANSPORT LAYER
• This layer is responsible for end-to-end communication and errorfree
delivery of data.
• It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data.
• The two main protocols present in this layer are : TCP and UDP.
• UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of
a message from a process (running program) to another process.
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide
reliable and error-free communication between end systems.
• It performs sequencing and segmentation of data. It also has
acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data through
flow control mechanism.
• It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due to such
features. Increased overhead leads to increased cost.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not
provide any such features.
• Unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is unreliable
and connectionless.
 APPLICATION LAYER
• This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model.
The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session,
presentation, and application layers in the OSI model.
• It is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user-
interface specifications.
• Many protocols are defined at this layer – virtual terminal (TELNET),
file transfer (FTP), electronic mail (SMTP), Domain Name System
(DNS), Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP), Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) etc.
 NETWORK PERFORMANCE
1. Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the data carrying capacity of the network/transmission medium.
Bandwidth is usually measured in bits transferred per second (bps) through a
path or link.
• Bandwidth in hertz
• Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a composite signal or
the range of frequencies a channel can pass.
• For example, we can say the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.
• Bandwidth in bits per second
• The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a
channel, a link, or even a network can transmit.
• For example, one can say the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or the links
in this network) is a maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this network can
send 100Mbps.
2. Throughput
• The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data
through a network.
• Practical measure of the amount of data actually transmitted through
a channel.
• It depends on the latency.
3. Latency (Delay)
• The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message
to completely arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is
sent out from the source.
Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time
+processing delay
• Propagation Time
• Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the
source to the destination.
Propagation time = Distance/Propagation speed
• Transmission Time
• There is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit arriving
at the receiver.
Transmission time =Message size /Bandwidth
• Queuing Time
• The time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold the message
before it can be processed.
• Processing Delay
• Processing delay is the delay based on how long it takes the router to figure
out where to send the packet.
• 4. Bandwidth-Delay Product

• Bandwidth and Delay are two important matrices of a link. The data
communication is the product of the two the Bandwidth-Delay
product.
• The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill
the link.
COMPARISON BETWEEN OSI
AND TCP/IP
 PHYSICAL LAYER DEVICES
1. Repeater
• A repeater operates at the physical layer.
• Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the
signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.
• An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not
amplify the signal.
• When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and
regenerate it at the original strength.
2. Hub
• A hub is basically a multiport repeater.
• A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for
example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations.
• Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices.
• Transmission mode is half duplex.
• Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data
packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
 Types of Hub
Active Hub
• These are the hubs that have their own power supply and can clean, boost,
and relay the signal along with the network.
• Active hubs amplify and regenerate the incoming electrical signals before
broadcasting them
Passive Hub
These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the
active hub. Can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
Intelligent Hub
• It works like active hubs and includes remote management capabilities.
They also provide flexible data rates to network devices.
• It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the
hub and to configure each port in the hub.