21CSC302J

COMPUTER
NETWORKS

UNIT 1
Unit-1 - Introduction to Networks
• Network Types: LAN, MAN, PAN, WAN - Network Topology : BUS,
STAR, RING, MESH, HYBRID
• Switching : Circuit Switching, Packet Switching
• OSI Layered Architecture - TCP/IP Model - Physical Layer Overview -
Latency, Bandwidth, Delay
• Guided Media : Twisted pair, Coaxial cable, Fibre optic cable
• Unguided Media : Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared.
What Is a Computer Network?

• A computer network is a system that connects two or more

computing devices for transmitting and sharing information.

• Computing devices include everything from a mobile phone to a

server.

• These devices are connected using physical wires such as Twisted Pair
(Copper Wire), fiber optics, but they can also be wireless.
Computer Network Types
• A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer
network is mainly of four types:

• LAN(Local Area Network)

• PAN(Personal Area Network)

• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

• WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)
• Local Area Network is a group of computers
connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal
computers through a communication medium such
as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware
such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in
Local Area Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
• Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an
individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the
computer devices of personal use is known as Personal
Area Network.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to
bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.
• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the
personal area network are the laptop, mobile phones,
media player and play stations.
• Two types of Personal Area Network: Wired & Wireless
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

• A metropolitan area network is a network that

covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to
the citizens and private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each
other through a telephone exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-
232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area
Network(LAN).
WAN(Wide Area Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends
over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network
than the LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single
location, but it spans over a large geographical
area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or
satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the
world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field
of Business, government, and education.
What is Network Topology?
• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and
logical topology.

• Types of Network Topology

• Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a

network. There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology,
Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid
Topology.
Bus Topology
• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single cable

known as a backbone cable.

• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the

backbone cable.

• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All the

stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.

• The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.

• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.

• The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast to all the

stations.

• The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
Advantages of Bus topology:
Low-cost cable
Moderate data speed
Limited failure

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

Extensive cabling
Difficult troubleshooting
Signal interference
Reconfiguration difficult
Attenuation
Ring Topology
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
• The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit
to the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one
node to another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Advantages of Ring topology:
Network Management
Product availability
Cost
Reliable

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

Difficult troubleshooting
Failure
Reconfiguration difficult
Delay
 Star Topology

• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to

the central hub, switch or a central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the
server are known as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
• Advantages of Star topology
• Efficient troubleshooting
• Network control
• Limited failure
• Familiar technology
• Easily expandable
• Cost effective
• High data speeds

• Disadvantages of Star topology

• A Central point of failure
• Cable
• Mesh topology
• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with each

other through various redundant connections.

• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.

• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of

communication.

• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.

• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical

concern.

• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula: Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Advantages of Mesh topology:
Reliable
Fast Communication
Easier Reconfiguration

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

Cost.
Management
Efficiency
Hybrid Topology
• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes
to transfer the data.
• When two or more different topologies are combined together is
termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected
with each other will not result in Hybrid topology.
• For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank
and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these
two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
Reliable
Scalable
Flexible
Effective

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

Complex design
Costly Hub
Costly infrastructure
 SWITCHING
 A one-to-one communication between devices in a large network is
infeasible using topologies such as star, mesh, etc.
 A better solution is switching. A switched network consists of a series of
interlinked nodes, called switches.
 Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between
two or more devices linked to the switch.
 In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end
systems and others for routing.
 Of these message-switching has been phased out in general communications
but is still used in some applications like electronic mail.
 In message switching, each switch stores the whole message and forwards it
to the next switch.
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS

1.21
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
• A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical links,
in which each link is divided into n channels.
• A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links.
• A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
• However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link.
• Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM.
• The end systems such as computers or telephones are directly connected to a switch.
• 3 important phases to connect and transfer the information:
• Set up phase , Data transfer phase and Tear down phase.

1.22
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
• Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.
• Before starting communication, the stations must make a reservation for the
resources to be used during the communication. These resources, such as
channels (bandwidthin FDM and time slots in TDM), switch buffers, switch
processing time, and switch input/output ports, must remain dedicated
during the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown phase.
• Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized (physical layer
transfer of the signal). The data are a continuous flow sent by the source
station and received by the destination station, although there may be
periods of silence.
• There is no addressing involved during data transfer. The switches route the
data based on their occupied band (FDM) or time slot (TDM). Of course,
there is end-toend addressing used during the setup phase, as we will see
shortly.

1.23
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
Setup Phase
• Before the two parties (or multiple parties in a conference call) can
communicate, a dedicated circuit (combination of channels in links)
needs to be established.
• The end systems are normally connected through dedicated lines to the
switches, so connection setup means creating dedicated channels
between the switches.
• The resources, such as channels (bandwidth in FDM and time slots in
TDM), switch buffers, switch processing time, and switch I/O ports,
must be reserved until the teardown phase.
• For example as shown in figure, when system A needs to connect to
system M, it sends a setup request that includes the address of system
M, to switch I.
• Switch I finds a channel between itself and switch IV that can be
dedicated for this purpose.
• Switch I then sends the request to switch IV, which
finds a dedicated channel between itself and switch III.
• Switch III informs system M of system A's intention at
this time.
• In the next step to making a connection, an
acknowledgment from system M needs to be sent in
the opposite direction to system A.
• Only after system A receives this acknowledgment the
connection is established.
• An end-to-end addressing is required for creating a
connection between the two end systems. It could be
addresses of the computers in a TDM network, or
telephone numbers in an FDM network
 Data Transfer Phase
 After the establishment of the dedicated circuit (channels), the
two parties can transfer data.
 There is no addressing involved during data transfer. The
switches route the data based on their occupied band (FDM) or
time slot (TDM).
 Data transferred between the two stations is a continuous flow
of signal, may be with periods of silence.
Teardown Phase
 When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to
each switch to release the resources.
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
Efficiency
The circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as the other two
types of networks because resources are allocated during the entire
duration of the connection.
These resources are unavailable to other connections.
In a telephone network, people normally terminate the
communication when they have finished their conversation.
However, in computer networks, a computer can be connected to
another computer even if there is no activity for a long time
 Delay
 Although a circuit-switched network normally has low efficiency, the
delay in this type of network is minimal.
 During data transfer the data are not delayed at each switch since the
resources are allocated for the duration of the connection.
 The total delay is due to the time needed to create the connection,
transfer data, and disconnect the circuit.
 The delay caused by the setup is the sum of four parts: the
propagation time of the source computer request, the request signal
transfer time, the propagation time of the acknowledgment from the
destination computer, and the signal transfer time of the
acknowledgment.
 The delay due to data transfer is the sum of two parts: the
propagation time and data transfer time. The third one is the time
needed to tear down the circuit.
 If the receiver requests disconnection, then it causes the maximum
delay.
 PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK

In a packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation; resources are allocated on

demand.
 PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK
DATAGRAM NETWORKS DATAGRAM NETWORKS
• In a packet-switched network, the message is • In the above figure, all four packets (or
divided into packets of fixed or variable size. datagram's) belong to the same message, but may
travel different paths to reach their destination.
• The size of the packet is determined by the network
and the governing protocol. • This approach can cause the datagram's of a
transmission to arrive at their destination out of
• In packet switching, there is no resource allocation order with different delays between the packets.
for a packet.
• Packets may also be lost or dropped because of a
• Therefore, there is no reserved bandwidth on the lack of resources.
links, and no scheduled processing time.
• In most protocols, it is the responsibility of an
• Resources are allocated on demand. upper-layer protocol to reorder the datagram's or
• The allocation is done on a first-come, first-served ask for lost datagram's before passing them on to
basis. the application.
• When a switch receives a packet, no matter what is • The datagram networks are referred to as
the source or destination, the packet must wait if connectionless networks.
there are other packets being processed. The lack of • The term connectionless means that the switch
reservation creates delay. does not keep information about the connection
• In a datagram network, each packet is treated state.
independently of all others regardless of its source • There are no setup or teardown phases. Each
or destination. Datagram switching is normally
packet is treated the same by a switch.
done at the network layer.
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK DATAGRAM
NETWORKS

• A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table

that is based on the destination address.
• The destination address in the header of a packet in a
datagram network remains the same during the entire
journey of the packet.
• 1
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK DATAGRAM
NETWORKS
Routing Table

 In datagram network, packets are routed to their destinations by means of a routing

table.
 Each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table which is based on the destination
address.
 The routing tables are dynamic and are updated periodically.
 The destination addresses and the corresponding forwarding output ports are recorded
in the tables as shown in the figure.
 Every packet in a datagram network carries a header that contains, among other
information, the destination address of the packet that remains the same in its journey.
 When the switch receives the packet, destination address is examined and the routing
table is consulted to find the corresponding port through which the packet should be
forwarded.
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK
DATAGRAM NETWORKS
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK DATAGRAM
NETWORKS
Efficiency
 The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-
switched network; resources are allocated only when there are packets
to be transferred.
 The resources can be reallocated if it's idle, for other packets
Delay
 Each packet may experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded.
In addition, since not all packets in a message necessarily travel
through the same switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of a
message.
 In the above figure, the packet travels through two switches.
 There are three transmission times (3T), three propagation delays (3t),
and two waiting times (W1 + W2).
 The total delay is 3T + 3t + W1 + W2
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK VIRTUAL-
CIRCUIT NETWORKS
A virtual-circuit network is a hybrid of a circuit-switched and datagram network. Some
of its characteristics are:
1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in
addition to the data transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched
network, or on demand, as in a datagram network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address
in the header. However, the address in the header defines what should be the next
switch and the channel on which the packet is being carried, not end-to-end.
4. As in circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during
the connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer.
PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK VIRTUAL-
CIRCUIT NETWORKS
• The network has switches that allow
traffic from sources to destinations.
• A source or destination can be a
computer, packet switch, bridge, or
any other device that connects other
networks
• As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in
addition to the data transfer phase.
• Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched
network, or on demand, as in a datagram network.
• As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an
address in the header. However, the address in the header has local
jurisdiction (it defines what the next switch should be and the channel on
which the packet is being carried), not end-to-end jurisdiction. The reader
may ask how the intermediate switches know where to send the packet if
there is no final destination address carried by a packet. The answer will be
clear when we discuss virtual-circuit identifiers in the next section. 4. As in
a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established
during the connection.
• As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path
established during the connection.
• A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data-link layer,
while a circuit-switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a
datagram network in the network layer. But this may change in the future.
 Virtual Circuit Network
• Three Phases of virtual circuit network:
• Setup
• Data Transfer
• Teardown
• Data Transfer in a VCN is shown in below diagram.
 Structure of a Switch

• Circuit switches are of two types: Space and Time Division

Space Division
• A crossbar switch connects n inputs to m outputs in a grid, using
electronic microswitches (transistors) at each crosspoint.
• The major limitation of this design is the number of crosspoints
required.
• To connect n inputs to m outputs using a crossbar switch requires n
× m crosspoints. For example, to connect 1000 inputs to 1000
outputs requires a switch with 1,000,000 crosspoints
 Structure of a Switch

Space Division
•The solution to the limitations of the crossbar switch is the multistage switch,
which combines crossbar switches in several (normally three) stages.
•To design a three-stage switch, we follow these steps: 1. We divide the N input
lines into groups, each of n lines. For each group, we use one crossbar of size n ×
k, where k is the number of crossbars in the middle stage. In other words, the first
stage has N/n crossbars of n × k crosspoints. 2. We use k crossbars, each of size
(N/n) × (N/n) in the middle stage. 3. We use N/n crossbars, each of size k × n at
the third stage.
 Structure of a Switch
Time Division Switch: Time Slot Interchange
•Time-division switching uses time-division multiplexing
(TDM) inside a switch. The most popular technology is called
the time-slot.
•Imagine that each input line wants to send data to an output
line according to the following pattern: (1 → 3), (2 → 4), (3 →
1), and (4 → 2), in which the arrow means “to.”
Packet Switch Components
 Packet Switch Components
• Packet switch has four components: input ports, output ports,
the routing processor, and the switching fabric.
• An input port performs the physical and data-link functions of
the packet switch. The bits are constructed from the received
signal. The packet is decapsulated from the frame. Errors are
detected and corrected. The packet is now ready to be routed by
the network layer.
• The output port performs the same functions as the input port,
but in the reverse order. First the outgoing packets are queued,
then the packet is encapsulated in a frame, and finally the
physical-layer functions are applied to the frame to create the
signal to be sent on the line.
 Packet Switch Components
 Routing Processor The routing processor performs the functions of the
network layer. The destination address is used to find the address of the
next hop and, at the same time, the output port number from which the
packet is sent out. This activity is sometimes referred to as table lookup
because the routing processor searches the routing table. In the newer
packet switches, this function of the routing processor is being moved to
the input ports to facilitate and expedite the process.

 Switching Fabrics The most difficult task in a packet switch is to move

the packet from the input queue to the output queue. The speed with which
this is done affects the size of the input/output queue and the overall delay
in packet delivery. In the past, when a packet switch was actually a
dedicated computer, the memory of the computer or a bus was used as the
switching fabric. The input port stored the packet in memory; the output
port retrieved the packet from memory. Today, packet switches are
specialized mechanisms that use a variety of switching fabrics. We briefly
discuss some of these fabrics here.
 Review Questions
1. In a packet-switched network, the message is divided into ______________of fixed or variable size.
2. In datagram network, packets are routed to their destinations by means of a ________________.
3. A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table that is based on the _________________address
4. Datagram switching is normally done at the _____________ layer.
5. The datagram networks are referred to as _________________networks.
6. In a packer switched datagram network, the delay is not uniform for all the packets of a message
(YES/NO)
7. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the ___________layer
8. Circuit Switched network is normally implemented at the ______________ layer

Fig 1 and 2 belongs to which type of

Fig. 1 Packet switched networks? Fig. 2
 PROTOCOL LAYERING
 Scenarios
First Scenario (Single Layer)

Second Scenario (Three Layer)

The OSI model
The OSI model
 The OSI model

• Each layer may add a Header and a Trailer to its Data (which consists
of the next higher layer's Header, Trailer and Data as it moves
through the layers). The Headers contain information that specifically
addresses layer-to-layer communication. For example, the Transport
Header (TH) contains information that only the Transport layer sees.
All other layers below the Transport layer pass the Transport Header
as part of their Data.
• The Physical Layer
• Establishes the physical characteristics of the network (e.g., the
type of cable, connectors, length of cable, etc.)
• Defines the electrical characteristics of the signals used to
transmit the data (e.g. signal voltage swing, duration of voltages,
etc.)
• Transmits the binary data (bits) as electrical or optical signals
depending on the medium.
• The Data Link Layer
• Defines how the signal will be placed on or taken off the NIC.
The data frames are broken down into individual bits that can be
translated into electric signals and sent over the network. On the
receiving side, the bits are reassembled into frames for
processing by upper levels.
• Error detection and correction is also performed at the data link
layer. If an acknowledgement is expected and not received, the
frame will be resent. Corrupt data is also identified at the data
link layer.
• Because the Data-Link Layer is very complex, it is sometimes
divided into sublayers (as defined by the IEEE 802 model). The
lower sublayer provides network access. The upper sublayer is
concerned with sending and receiving packets and error
checking.
 The Network Layer
 Primarily concerned with addressing and routing. Logical addresses

(e.g., an IP address) are translated into physical addresses (i.e., the

MAC address) for transmission at the network layer. On the receiving
side, the translation process is reversed.
 It is at the network layer where the route from the source to

destination computer is determined. Routes are determined based on

packet addresses and network conditions. Traffic control measures are
also implemented at the network layer.
 The Transport Layer
 On the sending side, messages are packaged for efficient transmission

and assigned a tracking number so they can be reassembled in proper

order. On the receiving side, the packets are reassembled, checked for
errors and acknowledged.
 Performs error handling in that it ensures all data is received in the

proper sequence and without errors. If there are errors, the data is
retransmitted.
 The Session Layer
 Is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating a connection

called a 'session'.
 A session is an exchange of messages between computers (a dialog).

Managing the session involves synchronization of user tasks and dialog

control (e.g., who transmits and for how long). Synchronization involves
the use of checkpoints in the data stream. In the event of a failure, only the
data from the last checkpoint has to be resent.
 Logon, name recognition and security functions take place at the Session

Layer.
 The Presentation Layer
 It is responsible for data translation (formatting), compression, and

encryption.
 The Presentation Layer is primarily concerned with translation; interpreting

and converting the data from various formats. For example, EBCIDIC
characters might be converted into ASCII. It is also where data is
compressed for transmission and uncompressed on receipt. Encryption
techniques are implemented at the Presentation Layer.
 The redirector operates at the presentation layer by redirecting I/O

operations across the network.

 The Application Layer
 Provides the operating system with direct access to network services.

 It serves as the interface between the user and the network by providing

services that directly support user applications.

 Review Questions
1. The ____________ model is 7-layer architecture where each layer is having some specific functionality to
perform.

2. The full form of OSI is OSI model is ______________

3. The media access control sublayer resides in ___________________________.

4. UDP in the INTERNET protocol suite is related to _________________________.

5. TCP/IP model does not have ______ , ________ layer but OSI model have this layer.

6. ___________ layer is used to link the network support layers and user support layers

7. Network support layers are ______________________________.

8. User support layers are ________________________________.

9. _________________ address is used to identify a process on a host by the transport layer.

10. ____________ layer provides the services to user.

11. The data rate is decided by the _____________ layer

12. Match the following

a) Network - i) Port Address
b) Data Link - ii) Logical
c) Transport - iii) Physical
1.54
TCP/IP
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality; however, the modules are not necessarily interdependent.
• Whereas the OSI model specifies which functions belong to each of its layers,the layers of the
TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocols that can be mixed and matched
depending on the needs of the system.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper-level protocol is supported by one or more lower-
level protocols.
• At the transport layer, TCP/IP defines three protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP).
• At the network layer, the main protocol defined by TCP/IP is theInternetworking Protocol (IP);
there are also some other protocols that support datamovement in this layer.
Physical and Data Link Layers
• At the physical and data link layers, TCPIIP does not define any specific protocol. Itsupports all
the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCPIIP internetwork can be a local-area
network or a wide-area network.
Network Layer
• At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supportsthe
Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP,RARP, ICMP, and IGMP
Internetworking Protocol (IP)
• The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols. It is
an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service.
• The term best effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking. IP assume the
unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to get a transmission through to its
destination, but with no guarantees.
• IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately. Datagrams
can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated. IP does not keep
track of the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams once they arrive at their destination.
• The limited functionality of IP should not be considered a weakness, however. IP provides bare-
bones transmission functions that free the user to add only those facilitiesnecessary for a given
application and thereby allows for maximum efficiency.
Address Resolution Protocol
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a physical address.
On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical or
station address, usually imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). ARP is used to find the
physical address of the node when its Internetaddress is known. ARP.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet address when
it knows only its physical address. It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first
time or when a diskless computer is booted.
Internet Control Message Protocol
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send
notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends query and error reporting messages
Internet Group Message Protocol
The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a
message to a group of recipients.
Transport Layer
Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP. IP is a host-
to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to another. UDP and TCP
are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from a process (running program) to
another process. A new transport layer protocol, SCTP, has been devised to meet the needs of some newer
applications.
User Datagram Protocol
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler ofthe two standard TCPIIP transport protocols. It is a
process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error control, and length information
to the data from the upper layer
Transmission Control Protocol
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to applications. TCP is a
reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream, in this context, means connection-oriented: A
connection must be established between both ends of a transmission before either can transmit data.
At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units called segments.
Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt, together with an acknowledgment
number for the segments received. Segments are carried across the internet inside of IP datagrams. At the
receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders the transmission based on sequence
numbers
Stream Control Transmission Protocol
• The Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP) provides support for newer
applications such as voice over the Internet. It
is a transport layer protocol that combines the
best features of UDP and TCP
Application Layer
• The application layer in TCPIIP is equivalent
to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI modeL Many
protocols are defined at this layer
ADDRESSING
• Four levels of addresses are used in an internet
employing the TCP/IP protocols:physical
(link) addresses, logical (IP) addresses, port
addresses, and specificaddresses
Physical layer overview
The physical layer has complex tasks to perform. One major task is to provide services for the data
link layer.
The data in the data link layer consists of 0s and 1s organized into frames that are ready to be sent
across the transmission medium.
This stream of Os and Is must first be converted into another entity: signals. One of the services
provided by the physical layer is to create a signal that represents this stream of bits.
The physical layer must also take care of the physical network, the transmission medium. The
transmission medium is a passive entity; it has no internal program or logic for control like other
layers. The transmission medium must be controlled by the physical layer. The physical layer decides
on the directions of data flow. The physical layer decides on the number of logical channels for
transporting data coming from different source.
1.
Bandwidth
• One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth. However, the term can be
used in two different contexts with two different measuring values: bandwidth inhertz and
bandwidth in bits per second.
Bandwidth in Hertz
• We have discussed this concept. Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a
composite signal or the range of frequencies a channel can pass. For example, we can say the
bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.
Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds
• The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or
even a network can transmit. For example, one can say the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet
network (or the links in this network) is a maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this network
can send 100 Mbps.
Relationship
• There is an explicit relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per
seconds. Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth in bits per
second. The relationship depends on whether we have baseband transmission or transmission
with modulation
• In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts.
1. The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal or the range
of frequencies that a channel can pass.
2.The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit transmission in a channel or
link.
Throughput
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network. Although, at
first glance, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they are different.
A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link with T always
less than B. In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is an
actual measurement of how fast we can send data.
For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices connected to the end
of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through
this link.
Tra/lsmissio/l Time:
Latency (Delay)
• The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to
completely arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from
the source. We can say that latency is made of four components: propagation
time, transmission time, queuing time and processing delay.
Latency =propagation time +transmission time +queuing time + processing
delay
Propagation Time
• Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source
to the destination. The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance
by the propagation speed.
• The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium and
on the frequency of the signaL For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated
with a speed of 3 x 108 mfs. It is lower in air; it is much lower in cable
.
• Transmission Time
In data communications we don't send just 1 bit, we send a message. The first bit may take a time
equal to the propagation time to reach its destination; the last bit also may take the same amount of
time. However, there is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit arriving at the
receiver. The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later and arrives later. The
time required for transmission of a message depends on the size of the message and the bandwidth of
the channel

Queuing Time
The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed for each interme_x0002_diate or
end device to hold the message before it can be processed. The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it
changes with the load imposed on the network. When there is heavy traffic on the network, the
queuing time increases. An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the arrived messages and
processes them one by one. If there are many messages, each message will have to wait
Transmission Media

• Types of Transmission media refer to the physical pathways through

which data is transmitted from one device to another within a
network. These pathways can be wired or wireless. The choice of
medium depends on factors like distance, speed, and interference.
• What is Transmission Media?
• A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter
and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from
one place to another.
• Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
Guided Media

• Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission

media. Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a
narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
Twisted Pair Cable
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
• Twisted Pair Cable
• It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about
each other. Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a
protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission
Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP consists of two insulated copper
wires twisted around one another. This type of cable has the ability to
block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this
purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
• Least expensive
• Easy to install
• High-speed capacity

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

• Susceptible to external interference
• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external
interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

• Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• Eliminates crosstalk
• Comparatively faster

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

• Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
• More expensive
• Bulky
Coaxial Cable

• It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel
conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.

• The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and
Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges).

• Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables support high bandwidth.

• It is easy to install coaxial cables.
• Coaxial cables have better cut-through resistance so they are more reliable and durable.
• Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables are expensive.

• The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
• As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
• There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers, this compromises the
security of the data.
Optical Fiber Cable

• Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding.

• It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be unidirectional or
bidirectional.

• The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and
bidirectional mode.
Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
Applications of Optical Fibre Cable

• Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.

• Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
• For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
• Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the interior and exterior
of automobiles.
Unguided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is required
for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.

Features of Unguided Media

• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

Radio Waves
• Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned.

• Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for
transmission.
Further Categorized as Terrestrial and Satellite.

Microwaves
• It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other.

• The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.
Infrared
• Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles.
• This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV
remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
Factors Considered for Designing the Transmission Media

Bandwidth: Assuming all other conditions remain constant, the greater a medium’s bandwidth, the
faster a signal’s data transmission rate.

Transmission Impairment: Transmission Impairment occurs when the received signal differs from the
transmitted signal. Signal quality will be impacted as a result of transmission impairment.

Interference: Interference is defined as the process of disturbing a signal as it travels over a

communication medium with the addition of an undesired signal.