Introduction to cyber

security/Information security
Chapter 1
 Basics of Communication System
• Data Communication
– What is Communication?
• Meaningful exchange of information between two or
group of people.
– Communication can be remote or local.
– Telecommunication means communication at a
distance.
– data refers information presented in agreed
format
– Data communications : Exchange of data between
two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.
– The effectiveness of the data communication
system depends upon the Three fundamental
characteristics
• Delivery: The system must deliver data to the right
destination. Data must be received by the intended
device and only by that device.
• Accuracy: The data must be delivered accurately.
• Timeliness: The data must be deliver in
timely manner.
– The components of the Data Communication
System
– Data Representation
• Text : text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of
bits. Different sets of bits pattern have been designed
to represent text symbols
• Numbers: Numbers are also represented by bit pattern.
But numbers are converted to binary and then stored.
• Images: images are also represented by bit pattern. In
its simplest form image is composed of the matrix of
pixels, where each pixel is a small dot.
After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel
is assigned a bit pattern.(RGB or YCM)
• Audio: Audio by nature is continuous, not discrete
• Video: Video can be produced as a continuous entity,
or it can be a combination of images, each is a discrete
entity. Again we can change video to a digital or analog
signals.
Data Flow
• Simple Mode
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on
one way street.
E.g.: Keyboards and traditional monitors.

• Half-Duplex mode
In half-duplex mode each station can transmit and receive
but not at the same time.
E.g.: walkie-tokies

• Full-Duplex Mode
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously.
E.g.: telephone network
 Network
• A Network is a set of devices (often referred to as
nodes) connected by communication media.
• A node can be a computer or printer or any other
device capable of sending and receiving data.
• Most network use distributed processing, in which
a task is divided among multiple computers
 Network conti…..
• Network criteria
– Performance
» Transit Time
» Response Time
» Number of users
» Type of transmission media
» Throughput
» Delay
– Reliability
» Accuracy of delivery
» Frequency of the failure
» The time taken for recovery from failure
– Security
» Protecting data from unauthorized access
» Protecting data from damage and development
• Types of connection
– Point-to-Point

» Provides a dedicated links

» The entire capacity of the of the link is reserved
» Use an actual length of the wire or cable to connect the two ends
– Multipoint

» More than two specific devices share the link

» The channel capacity is shared
» If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a specially
shared connection.
» If users must takes turns, it a timeshared connection
 Network Topology
• The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the links and
the linking devices.
 Network Topology
Mesh Topology

• Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every

other device
• The connection is full-duplex mode
• One practical example of mesh topology is
the connection of telephone regional office.
 Mesh Topology

Advantages Disadvantage
• Each connection carry its • Amount of cabling and I/O
own data load ports
• If one link becomes • Installation and
unusable, it does not affect reconnection is difficult
the entire system
• Advantage of privacy and
security
• Easy fault identification and
fault isolation because of
point-to-point connection
 Star Topology

• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a

central controller, usually called a hub.
• The controller act as an exchange: If one device
wants to send the data to the other device, it
sends data to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device.
 Star Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
• It is less expensive than • Dependency of the whole
mesh topology topology on one single
• Comparatively requires less point, hub. If the hub goes
cabling than mesh topology. down, the whole system is
• It is robust(if one link gets dead.
damage it will affect the
entire system).
• Easy fault identification and
isolation.
 Bus Topology

• It is multipoint
• One link act as backbone to link all the devices in a
network
 Bus Topology
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and
taps
• A drop line is a connection running between the device
and the main cable.
• A tap the connector that either splices into the main cable
or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create the contact
with the metallic core .
• Bus topology was one of first topologies used in the
design of the local area network.
 Bus Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy installation. • Difficult reconnection and
• Less cabling than star and fault isolation.
mesh topology. • A fault or break in the bus
cable stops all transmission.
 Ring Topology

• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only

the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device until it reaches
to its destination.
 Ring Topology
• A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
• Fault isolation is simplified
• However unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
Categories of the network

An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a

hub in a closet
• Local Area Network (LAN)
– It is usually private owned and links the devices in
single office, building or campus.
• Advantages of LAN
– Workstations can share peripheral devices like
printers. This is cheaper than buying a printer for
every workstations.
– Workstations do not necessarily need their own hard
disk or CD-ROM drives, which makes them cheaper to
buy than stand-alone PCs.
– User can save their work centrally on the network's
file server. This means that they can retrieve their
work from any workstation on the network.
– Users can communicate with each other and transfer
data between workstations very easily.
• Disadvantages of LAN
– Networks are difficult to set up and need to be
maintained by skilled technicians.
– If server develops a fault, users may not be able to
run the application programs.
– A fault in the network can cause user to lose the data.
– If the network stops operating then it may not be
possible to access various computers.
– It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers,
novices or industrial espionage.
WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
• Wide Area Network
– Provides long-distance transmission of data
,image, audio, video information over large
geographic areas that may comprise of a country,
a continent, or even the whole world.
• Metropolitan Area Network
– Size is between a LAN and WAN
– normally covers the area inside the a town or city
– It is design for the customers who need high-
speed connectivity, normally to the Internet
– Eg: a telephone company network that can
provide a high-DSL(Digital subscriber link) to the
customer
A heterogeneous network
 Protocols
• A protocol is synonymous with rule.
• consists of a set of rules that govern data
communications.
• determines what is communicated,
• how it is communicated and when it is
communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics and timing
• Syntax
– Structure or format of the data
– Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
• Semantics
– Interprets the meaning of the bits
– Knows which fields define what action
• Timings
– When data should be sent and what
– Speed at which data should be sent or
speed at which it is being received.
 Standards
• Standards are essential in creating and
maintaining an open and competitive market for
equipment manufactures and in guaranteeing
national and international interoperability of data
and telecommunications technology and Process.
• Data Communication standards fall in two
categories
• De Facto: Standards that have not been approved by an
organized body but adopted as standards through widespread.
• De Jure: The standards that have been approved by
organized body
• Standards Creation Committees
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• International Telecommunication Union-
telecommunication Standards Section (ITU-T)
• American National Standards institutes(ANSI)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• Electronic Industries Association(EIA)
 Layered Tasks
• We use the concept of layers in our daily life.
• As an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail. The process of
sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there
were no services available from the post office.
Tasks involved in sending letter by post
 OSI Model
• Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization
(ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide
agreement on international standards.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Seven layers of OSI Model
• Within a single machine, each layer calls upon
the services of the layer just below it.
• Between machines, layer x on one machine
communicates with the layer x of another
machine
• The processes on each machine that
communicate at given layer are known as
peer-to-peer processes.
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using OSI Model
 Layers In the OSI Models
• Physical Layer

– Responsible for
• Movements of individual bits from one node
to another.
• Physical Layer is also responsible for
– Physical Characteristics of interfaces and medium
– Representation of bits
– Data Rate
– Synchronization of bits
– Physical Topology
– Transmission Mode
• Data Link Layer

– Responsible for moving frames from one node to

other
• Data Link Layer is also responsible for
– Framing
– Physical Addressing
– Flow Control
– Error Control
– Access Control
Hop to Hop Delivery
• Network Layer

– Responsible for delivery of individual packets

from source to host.
• Network Layer also responsible for
– Logical Addressing
– Routing
Hop to hop delivery
• Transport Layer

– Responsible for Process to process

delivery
• Transport Layer
– Service point addressing(port address)
– Segmentation and reassembly
– Connection control
– Flow control
– Error Control
Reliable process to process delivery
• Session Layer

– Responsible for Dialog control and

synchronization(checkpoints).
• Presentation Layer

– Responsible for translation, compression

And encryption.
• Application Layer

– Responsible for providing services to

the user.
• Application Layer
– Network virtual terminal
– File transfer, access and management
– Mail services
– Delivery Services
Summary of layers of OSI Model
Summary of layers of OSI Model
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not
exactly match those in the OSI model. The
original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as
having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application.
• However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI,
we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is
made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport,
and application.
TCP/IP and OSI Model
• Physical and data link Layer
• At this layer TCP/IP suits does not define any Protocol
• Network Layer
• At this Layer TCP/IP suite supports internetworking
protocol (IP), in turn, uses ARP, RARP, ICMP, IGMP.
• Transport Layer
• At this Layer TCP/IP suite supports TCP and UDP.
• Application Layer
• HTTP,FTP
 Standard Protocols
• Internetworking Protocol
• Transmission mechanism used by TCP/IP
• Unreliable and connectionless
• IP transports data in packets known as datagrams
• Does not keep track of the route
• Address Resolution Protocol
• Used to associate logical address to physical address
• Reverse address resolution protocol
• Allows a host to discover its Internet address when it
knows only its physical address
• ICMP
• Mechanism used by hosts to send notification of datagram problem
back to the sender
• UDP
• Adds only port address , checksum, error control
• TCP
• It is connection oriented
• Divides stream of data into smaller units called segments
 Transmission Medium
• Transmission Medium and physical layer
Classes of transmission media
• Guided Media
– Guided Media are those that provide a conduit
from one device to another include include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic
cable.
– A signal travelling along any of these media is
directed and contained by the physical limits of
the medium.
• Guided Media
– Twisted-pair Cable

• One of the wire is used to carry signals to the receiver

• And another just as a ground reference
• The receivers uses the difference between
the two
– Unshielded and shielded Twisted-Pair cable
• STP has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that
encases each pair of individual conductors.
– Categories of unshielded twisted Pair cable
• The electronic Industries Association (EIA) has
developed standards to classify unshielded twisted Pair
cable into seven categories.
– Connectors
– Performance
– Application
• Used in telephone lines to provide voice and data
channels.
– Coaxial Cable
– Coaxial Cable connectors
• Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC)
– Coaxial Cable categories
• Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio
government(RG) ratings
• Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical
specifications .
– Coaxial Cable Performance
– Coaxial Cable Application
• Cable TV network
– Fibre-Optic cable
• Bending of light ray
– Fibre-Optic cable
• It is made up of glass or plastic and transmits signals in
the form of light .
• Use reflection to guide light through a channel.
• A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of
less dense glass or plastic.
– Propagation Modes
– Propagation Modes
• Multimode
– Multiple beams from the light source move through the core in
different paths.
» Step-Index fibre
• The density of the core remains same
» Graded-index fibre
• Density is highest at the centre of the core and
decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.
• Single-Mode
– Uses step-index fibre and a highly focused source
of light that limits beams to a small range of
angles, all close to horizontal.
It is manufactured with a much smaller diameter
and with substantially lower density.
Modes
– Fibre Sizes
– Construction
– Fibre-Optic cable connectors
– Performance
– Applications
• Cable TV companies use a combination of optical fibre
and coaxial cable.
– Advantages
• Higher Bandwidth
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference.
• Resistance to corrosive material
• Light weight
• Greater immunity to tapping
– Disadvantages
• Installation and maintenance
• Unidirectional light propagation
• Cost
• Unguided Media
– Transports electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor.
– This type of communication is known as wireless
communication.
– Signals are normally broadcasted through free
space and thus are available to anyone who has a
device capable of receiving them.
• Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless
communication
• Unguided signals can travel from source to
destination in several ways: ground propagation, sky
propagation, line of sight propagation.
• Bands.
• We can divide wireless transmission into three broad
groups
– Radio waves
» Electromagnetic waves ranging from 3khz- 1Ghz
» Omnidirectional
» Propagate in a sky mode
» Used in AM radio
» Can penetrate walls because of low and medium frequency
» Using any part of the band requires permission from authorities
» Application
• AM FM radio, television
» Radio waves use omnidirectional antenna.
– Microwaves
» Electromagnetic waves having frequencies from 1 to 300 GHz
» Microwaves are unidirectional
» Propagation is line of sight
» Very high frequency microwaves can not penetrate walls, this
characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside building
» Use of certain portion of the band requires permission of the
authorities
» Microwaves needs unidirectional antenna
• Parabolic dish antenna
• Horn antenna
» Application areas
• Cellular phones, satellite networks
– Infrared
» Electromagnetic waves having frequencies from 300 GHz to
400THz
» Can be used for short range communication in a closed area using
line of sight propagation.
» Some manufactures provide a special port called the IrDA port
allows a wireless keyboard to communicate with PC.
 Wireless LAN’s
• IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs
– Architecture
The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS)
and the extended service set (ESS).
– Basic Service Set (BSS)
– basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and
an optional central base station, known as the access point (AP).
– The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and can not send
data to the other BSS’s. It is called as ad-hoc architecture.
– Extended Service Set(ESS)
– An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more
BSSs with APs.
– In this case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution system,
which is usually a wired LAN. The distribution system connects the
APs in the BSSs.
– IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it can be any
IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet.
– Extended service set uses two types of stations: mobile and
stationary. The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS. The
stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN
Station Type
– IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations based on their mobility in
a wireless LAN:
no-transition, BSS-transition, and ESS-transition mobility.
– A station with no-transition mobility is either stationary (not moving)
or moving only inside a BSS.
– A station with BSS-transition mobility can move from one BSS to
another, but the movement is con-fined inside one ESS
– A station with ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS to
another.
 The Internet

– A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as

computers and printers
– An internet is a two or more networks that can communicate with
each other
– The most notable internet is called Internet, a collaboration of more
than hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks.
– The Internet Today
» Most end users who want Internet connection use the services of
the Internet service providers.
» There are international service providers, national
service providers, regional service providers, and
local service providers
Hierarchical organization of the Internet
END OF CHAPTER