SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS

PROGRAM: BSSE

SEMESTER: 4TH

SECTION: U

DATE: 15TH DECEMBER,2023

SUBMITTED TO: SIR JEHNZEB

SUBMITTED BY: FATIMA AZMAT

SAP ID:70129779
 WHAT IS ROUTING PROTOCOL?

A routed protocol is used to deliver application traffic. It provides appropriate

addressing information in its internet layer or network layer to allow a packet to
be forwarded from one network to another. Examples of routed protocols are the
Internet Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).

Distance Vector and Link State Protocols

Distance vector routing protocols are protocols that use distance to work out the
best routing path for packets within a network.

These protocols measure the distance based on how many hops data has to pass
to get to its destination. The number of hops is essentially the number of routers
it takes to reach the destination.

Generally, distance vector protocols send a routing table full of information to

neighboring devices. This approach makes them low investment for
administrators as they can be deployed without much need to be managed. The
only issue is that they require more bandwidth to send on the routing tables and
can run into routing loops as well.

Link State Routing Protocols

Link state protocols take a different approach to finding the best routing path in
that they share information with other routers in proximity. The route is
calculated based on the speed of the path to the destination and the cost of
resources.

Link state routing protocols use an algorithm to work this out. One of the key
differences to a distance vector protocol is that link state protocols don’t send out
routing tables; instead, routers notify each other when route changes are
detected.

Routers using the link state protocol create three types of tables; neighbor
table, topology table, and routing table. The neighbor table stores details of
neighboring routers using the link state routing protocol, the topology table
stores the whole network topology, and the routing table stores the most
efficient routes.

IGP and EGPs

Routing protocols can also be categorized as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs)

or Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs).

IGPs

IGPs are routing protocols that exchange routing information with other routers
within a single autonomous system (AS). An AS is defined as one network or a
collection of networks under the control of one enterprise. The company AS is
thus separate from the ISP AS.

Routing is one of the most fundamental areas of networking that an administrator

has to know. Routing protocols determine how your data gets to its destination
and helps to make that routing process as smooth as possible. However, there are
so many different types of routing protocol that it can be very difficult to keep
track of them all!

Router protocols include:

 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

 Interior Gateway Protocol (IGRP)
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
 Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)
 Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
  Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
 Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)

Before we get to looking at the routing protocols themselves, it is important to

focus on the categories of protocols.

All routing protocols can be classified into the following:

 Distance Vector or Link State Protocols

 Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP) or Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP)
 Classful or Classless Protocols

Distance vector routing protocols are protocols that use distance to work out the
best routing path for packets within a network.

These protocols measure the distance based on how many hops data has to pass
to get to its destination. The number of hops is essentially the number of routers
it takes to reach the destination.

Generally, distance vector protocols send a routing table full of information to

neighboring devices. This approach makes them low investment for
administrators as they can be deployed without much need to be managed. The
only issue is that they require more bandwidth to send on the routing tables and
can run into routing loops as well.

Link State Routing Protocols

Link state protocols take a different approach to finding the best routing path in
that they share information with other routers in proximity. The route is
calculated based on the speed of the path to the destination and the cost of
resources.

Link state routing protocols use an algorithm to work this out. One of the key
differences to a distance vector protocol is that link state protocols don’t send out
routing tables; instead, routers notify each other when route changes are
detected.

Routers using the link state protocol creates three types of tables; neighbor
table, topology table, and routing table. The neighbor table stores details of
neighboring routers using the link state routing protocol, the topology table
stores the whole network topology, and the routing table stores the most
efficient routes.

IGP and EGPs

Routing protocols can also be categorized as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs)

or Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs).

IGPs

IGPs are routing protocols that exchange routing information with other routers
within a single autonomous system (AS). An AS is defined as one network or a
collection of networks under the control of one enterprise. The company AS is
thus separate from the ISP AS.

Each of the following is classified as an IGP:

 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
 Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS)
 Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

EGPs

On the other hand, EGPs are routing protocols that are used to transfer routing
information between routers in different autonomous systems. These protocols
are more complex and BGP is the only EGP protocol that you’re likely to
encounter. However, it is important to note that there is an EGP protocol named
EGP.

Interior Gateway Protocol (IGRP)

Interior Gateway Protocol or IGRP is a distance vector routing protocol produced

by Cisco. IGRP was designed to build on the foundations laid down on RIP to
function more effectively within larger connected networks and removed the 15
hop cap that was placed on RIP. IGRP uses metrics such as bandwidth, delay,
reliability, and load to compare the viability of routes within the network.
However, only bandwidth and delay are used under IGRP’s default settings.
IGRP is ideal for larger networks because it broadcasts updates every 90 seconds
and has a maximum hop count of 255. This allows it to sustain larger networks
than a protocol like RIP. IGRP is also widely used because it is resistant to routing
loops because it updates itself automatically when route changes occur within the
network.

Pros:

 Enhanced Scalability: IGRP addresses the shortcomings of RIP by allowing a

maximum hop count of 255, making it suitable for larger networks.
 Multiple Metrics: Uses a combination of metrics (bandwidth, delay,
reliability, and load) for improved routing decisions.
 Frequent Updates: Broadcasts updates every 90 seconds, ensuring the
network is well-informed and up-to-date.
 Loop Resistance: Built-in features that automatically update routes, making
IGRP resistant to routing loops.
 Cisco Legacy: Developed by Cisco, it benefits from being backed by one of
the industry leaders in networking.

Cons:

 Proprietary Protocol: Being a Cisco product, IGRP isn’t universally

adaptable across all devices from different manufacturers.
 Limited Default Metrics: Even though it has multiple metrics, only
bandwidth and delay are considered under default settings, potentially
overlooking other valuable information.
 Superseded by EIGRP: IGRP has been replaced by Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP),
which offers more advantages, leading to its diminished use in modern
networks.
 Larger Overhead: Given its broader capabilities, IGRP can generate more
network overhead compared to simpler protocols like RIP.
 Potential Complexity: The multiple metrics and larger hop count can make
configuration and troubleshooting more complex than simpler protocols.

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Open Shortest Path First or OSPF protocol is a link-state IGP that was tailor-made
for IP networks using the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm. The SPF routing
algorithm is used to calculate the shortest path spanning-tree to ensure efficient
data transmission of packets. OSPF routers maintain databases detailing
information about the surrounding topology of the network. This database is
filled with data taken from Link State Advertisements (LSAs) sent by other
routers. LSAs are packets that detail information about how many resources a
given path would take.

OSPF also uses the Dijkstra algorithm to recalculate network paths when the
topology changes. This protocol is also relatively secure as it can authenticate
protocol changes to keep data secure. It is used by many organizations because
it’s scalable to large environments. Topology changes are tracked and OSPF can
recalculate compromised packet routes if a previously-used route has been
blocked.

Pros:

 Efficient Routing: Utilizes the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm to ensure
optimal data packet transmission.
 Detailed Network Insight: OSPF routers maintain a database on the
network’s topology, offering a detailed perspective on its structure.
 Dynamic Adaptability: Employs the Dijkstra algorithm to dynamically adjust
to network topology changes, ensuring continuity in data transmission.
 Security Features: Offers protocol change authentication to maintain data
security, ensuring that only authorized updates are made.
 Highly Scalable: Suitable for both small and large-scale network
environments, making it versatile for various organizational sizes.

Cons:

 Complex Configuration: Given its many features, OSPF can be complex to

set up and maintain.
 Higher Overhead: Maintaining detailed databases and frequently
recalculating routes can generate more network overhead.
 Sensitive to Topology Changes: While OSPF can adapt to changes, frequent
topology alterations can cause performance dips as it recalculates routes.
 Resource Intensive: OSPF routers require more memory and CPU resources
due to their database maintenance and route recalculations.
  Potential for Large LSDB: In very large networks, the Link State Database
(LSDB) can grow significantly, necessitating careful design and segmenting.

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

Exterior Gateway Protocol or EGP is a protocol that is used to exchange data

between gateway hosts that neighbor each other within autonomous systems. In
other words, EGP provides a forum for routers to share information across
different domains. The most high profile example of an EGP is the internet itself.
The routing table of the EGP protocol includes known routers, route costs, and
network addresses of neighboring devices. EGP was widely-used by larger
organizations but has since been replaced by BGP.

The reason why this protocol has fallen out of favor is that it doesn’t support
multipath networking environments. The EGP protocol works by keeping a
database of nearby networks and the routing paths it could take to reach them.
This route information is sent on to connected routers. Once it arrives, the
devices can update their routing tables and undertake more informed path
selection throughout the network.

Pros:

 Data Exchange Between Autonomous Systems: Allows gateway hosts to

share information across distinct network domains, effectively acting as a
bridge.
 Foundation of Early Internet: Served as a precursor and essential
component to the modern internet’s formation.
 Routing Database: Contains comprehensive information, including known
routers, route costs, and the addresses of neighboring devices.
 Path Information Sharing: Sends route data to neighboring routers, helping
them update their tables and make better routing decisions.

Cons:

 Lack of Multipath Support: EGP isn’t suitable for modern multipath

networking environments, limiting its adaptability.
 Obsolete: Has been largely phased out in favor of more advanced
protocols, notably BGP.
  Limited Scalability: As networks grew, EGP struggled with handling larger
and more intricate systems.
 Static Path Determination: While EGP keeps a database of nearby
networks, its path determinations are more static, making it less flexible
than newer protocols.
 Potential for Redundancy: EGP’s method of sharing all route data with
neighboring routers can lead to redundant data transmission and larger
routing tables.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol or EIGRP is a distance vector routing

protocol that is used for IP, AppleTalk, and NetWare networks. EIGRP is a Cisco
proprietary protocol that was designed to follow on from the original IGRP
protocol. When using EIGRP, a router takes information from its neighbors’
routing tables and records them. Neighbors are queried for a route and when a
change occurs the router notifies its neighbors about the change. This has the end
result of making neighboring routers aware of what is going on in nearby devices.

EIGRP is equipped with a number of features to maximize efficiency,

including Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) and a Diffusing Update
Algorithm (DUAL). Packet transmissions are made more effective because routes
are recalculated to speed up the convergence process.

Pros:

 Versatility: Supports multiple network protocols, including IP, AppleTalk,

and NetWare.
 Advanced Design: A successor to the original IGRP, EIGRP incorporates
more modern features for routing.
 Neighbor Information Exchange: By collecting data from neighbors’ routing
tables, EIGRP maintains a real-time understanding of the network
environment.
 Efficient Notification System: Routers promptly inform neighboring routers
of any route changes, fostering a responsive network environment.
 Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP): Ensures the reliability of packet
transmissions and acknowledges receipt of routing updates.
  Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL): Enhances route calculations and
accelerates network convergence, reducing the time the network takes to
stabilize after a change.

Cons:

 Proprietary Protocol: EIGRP is Cisco-specific, which can limit

interoperability with equipment from other manufacturers.
 Overhead: The frequent exchange of routing updates and queries,
especially in larger networks, can consume bandwidth and processing
resources.
 Complex Configuration: While powerful, EIGRP’s array of features might
pose a steeper learning curve for those unfamiliar with its intricacies.
 Potential for Routing Loops: As with many distance-vector protocols,
there’s a risk of routing loops, although measures like split horizon and
route poisoning help mitigate this.
 Lack of Wide Adoption: Being proprietary means EIGRP isn’t as universally
adopted as open standard protocols.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

Border Gateway Protocol or BGP is the routing protocol of the internet that is
classified as a distance path vector protocol. BGP was designed to replace
EGP with a decentralized approach to routing. The BGP Best Path Selection
Algorithm is used to select the best routes for data packet transfers. If you don’t
have any custom settings then BGP will select routes with the shortest path to the
destination.

However many administrators choose to change routing decisions to criteria in

line with their needs. The best routing path selection algorithm can be
customized by changing the BGP cost community attribute. BGP can make
routing decisions based Factors such as weight, local preference, locally
generated, AS_Path length, origin type, multi-exit discriminator, eBGP over iBGP,
IGP metric, router ID, cluster list and neighbor IP address.

BGP only sends updated router table data when something changes. As a result,
there is no auto-discovery of topology changes which means that the user has to
configure BGP manually. In terms of security, BGP protocol can be authenticated
so that only approved routers can exchange data with each other.

Pros:

 Internet Backbone: As the primary routing protocol of the internet, BGP

plays a pivotal role in global data exchanges.
 Decentralized Design: Unlike its predecessor EGP, BGP’s decentralized
nature ensures more robust and adaptable network operations.
 Customizable Path Selection: BGP’s Best Path Selection Algorithm can be
tailored to meet unique network demands by adjusting attributes.
 Efficient Updates: Only transmitting updates when there’s a change, BGP
reduces unnecessary network traffic.
 Granular Routing Decisions: Administrators have a plethora of factors like
weight, AS_Path length, and IGP metric to inform routing decisions,
allowing for a high degree of routing precision.
 Authentication: BGP provides security measures allowing only authorized
routers to participate in data exchanges, enhancing the security of routing
updates.

Cons:

 Complex Configuration: BGP requires meticulous manual configuration

since it doesn’t auto-discover topology changes.
 Potential Instability: Mistakes or malicious actions in BGP configurations
can inadvertently or intentionally divert internet traffic, potentially leading
to large-scale outages.
 Scalability Concerns: As the internet grows, BGP’s scalability, in its current
form, might pose challenges.
 Vulnerabilities: Despite authentication measures, BGP is historically
susceptible to certain security issues, like prefix hijacking.
 Learning Curve: Given its complexity and significance, mastering BGP can
be challenging for many network administrators.
 Convergence Time: BGP can sometimes take longer to converge after a
network change compared to some other protocols.
Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)

Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS) is a link-state, IP routing

protocol and IGPP protocol used on the internet to send IP routing
information. IS-IS uses a modified version of the Dijkstra algorithm. An IS-IS
network consists of a range of components including end systems, (user devices),
intermediate systems (routers), areas, and domains.

Under IS-IS routers are organized into groups called areas and multiple areas are
grouped together to make up a domain. Routers within the area are placed with
Layer 1 and routers that connect segments together are classified as Layer 2.
There are two types of network addresses used by IS-IS; Network Service Access
Point (NSAP) and Network Entity Title (NET).

Pros:

 Hierarchical Design: Organizing routers into areas and domains simplifies

management and optimizes routing within large networks.
 Scalability: The division into areas and domains allows for efficient
operation in large-scale networks, avoiding unnecessary routing overhead.
 Flexibility: The protocol is not tied exclusively to IP, making it adaptable to
various network architectures.
 Efficient Path Selection: Utilizes a modified version of the Dijkstra
algorithm for optimal path determination.
 Distinct Addressing Mechanism: With unique addresses like NSAP and NET,
IS-IS provides granularity in addressing which can assist in network
troubleshooting and management.
 Dual-Level Operation: Layer 1 and Layer 2 classification enables
segregation of intra-area routing from inter-area routing, ensuring
efficiency and simplifying router roles.

Cons:

 Learning Curve: Given its unique terminology and addressing mechanism,

mastering IS-IS might pose a challenge for network engineers unfamiliar
with it.
 Address Length: NSAP addresses can be lengthy, which may complicate
manual configuration and troubleshooting.
 Lesser Adoption: IS-IS is less commonly used in certain segments of the
internet when compared to OSPF, potentially leading to compatibility
considerations.
 Complex Configuration: Its hierarchical structure, while providing
scalability benefits, might complicate the initial configuration.
 Interoperability: As a protocol with roots in the ISO OSI model, there may
be issues when trying to interoperate with purely IP-based protocols.
 Protocol Evolution: While IS-IS has been adapted for IP, its origins in the
OSI model mean it might not be as naturally suited to some IP-centric tasks
as newer protocols.