1.1 TCP/IP Network Layer: Algorithms - A Routing Algorithm Would Determine

1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 TCP/IP Network Layer

Application layer includes many protocols. The transport layer includes fewer protocols,
most notably, TCP and UDP. The TCP/IP network layer includes a small number of
protocols, but only one major protocol: the Internet Protocol (IP). In fact, the name TCP/IP
is simply the names of the two most common protocols (TCP and IP) IP provides several
features, most importantly, addressing and routing.
2.1 Forwarding and Routing
The role of the network layer is thus deceptively simple to move packets from a sending host to a
receiving host. To do so, two important network-layer functions can be identified:
Forwarding. When a packet arrives at a router’s input link, the router must move the packet to
the appropriate output link.
Routing. The network layer must determine the route or path taken by packets as they flow from
a sender to a receiver. The algorithms that calculate these paths are referred to as routing
algorithms . A routing algorithm would determine.
Forwarding refers to the router-local action of transferring a packet from an input link interface
to the appropriate output link interface. Routing refers to the network-wide process that
determines the end-to-end paths that packets take from source to destination.
Figure 1.1: Routing algorithms determine values in forwarding tables
Every router has a forwarding table. A router forwards a packet by examining the value of a
field in the arriving packet’s header, and then using this header value to index into the router’s
forwarding table. The value stored in the forwarding table entry for that header indicates the
router’s outgoing link interface to which that packet is to be forwarded. Depending on the
network-layer protocol, the header value could be the destination address of the packet or an
indication of the connection to which the packet belongs.
3.1 Routing Algorithem

The purpose of a routing algorithm is then simple given a set of routers, with links
connecting the routers, a routing algorithm finds a “good” path from source router to
destination router. Typically, a good path is one that has the least cost.
3.1.1 The Link-State (LS) Routing Algorithm
the network topology and all link costs are known, that is, available as input to the LS
algorithm In practice this is accomplished by having each node broadcast link-state
packets to all other nodes in the network, with each link-state packet containing the
identities and costs of its attached links.
3.1.2 The Distance-Vector (DV) Routing Algorithm
the distance vector (DV) algorithm is iterative, asynchronous, and distributed. It is
distributed in that each node receives some information from one or more of its directly
attached neighbors, performs a calculation, and then distributes the results of its
calculation back to its neighbors. It is iterative in that this process continues on until no
more information is exchanged between neighbors.
For example, RIP uses a basic metric of hop count, meaning the number of routers
between the destination subnet and the local router. The hop count metric causes RIP
to choose the least-hop route, even if those links are slow links, so RIP may choose an
arguably poor route as the best route. EIGRP’s metric calculation uses a math formula
that avoids routes with slow links by giving those routes worse (higher) metrics.
Figure 1.2: EIGRP Choosing the Longer but Better Route to Subnet 10.1.1.0
4.1 Routing Protocols
A routing protocol specifies how routers communicate with each other, distributing information that
enables them to select routes between any two nodes on a computer network.
Figure1.2:Routing Protocols
This section gives an overview of the most common IP routing protocols. Most of these routing protocols will be
examined in detail in other chapters. For now, this section gives a very brief overview of each protocol.
4.1.1 Static Routing

Static routing is a form of routing that occurs when a router uses a manually-configured routing
entry, rather than information from a dynamic routing traffic.
4.1.2 Default Routing
the default route is a setting on a computer that defines the packet forwarding rule to use when
no specific route can be determined for a given Internet Protocol (IP) destination address .
4.1.3 Dynamic Routing
Dynamic routing is a networking technique that provides optimal data routing. Unlike static
routing, dynamic routing enables routers to select paths according to real-time logical network
layout changes. In dynamic routing, the routing protocol operating on the router is responsible
for the creation, maintenance and updating of the dynamic routing table. In static routing, all
these jobs are manually done by the system administrator.
4.1.3 Exterior Gateway Protocol
An Exterior Gateway Protocol is a routing protocol which is used to exchange routing information between
autonomous systems. The first exterior gateway protocol was EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol) which is
now obsolete and replaced by Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
4.1.4 Interior Gateway Protocol

An interior gateway protocol (IGP) is a type of protocol used for exchanging routing information
between gateways (commonly routers) within an autonomous system (for example, a system of
corporate local area networks). This routing information can then be used to route network-layer
protocols like IP.
Interior gateway protocols can be divided into two categories: distance-vector routing
protocols and link-state routing protocols. Specific examples of IGPs include Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF), Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Intermediate System to Intermediate
System (IS-IS) and Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP).
4.1.5 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic protocol used to find the best route or path
from end-to-end (source to destination) over a network by using a routing metric/hop count
algorithm
4.1.6 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol which is used to find the best
path between the source and the destination router using its own Shortest Path First.
4.1.7 Intermediate System to Intermediate System(IS-IS)
(Intermediate System to Intermediate System IS-IS, also written ISIS) is a routing

protocol designed to move information efficiently within a computer network, a group of
physically connected computers or similar devices. It accomplishes this by determining the
best route .
4.1.7 Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) or Enhanced IGRP is a Cisco proprietary routing
protocol utilizing the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL). The DUAL algorithim was invented by Dr. J.J.
Garcia-Luna Aceves of SRI International as an improvement to the IGRP routing protocol. EIGRP was
designed to be interoperable with standard IGRP. EIGRP is a hybrid protocol as it incorporates features of
a Distance Vector routing protocol and features of a Link State routing protocol. EIGRP is often used in
Cisco-based networks running multiple network-layer protocols.
EIGRP supports the following features:
 Support for Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) and variable length subnet masking.
Routes are not summarized at the classful network boundary unless auto summary is
enabled.
 Support for load balancing on parallel links between sites.
 The ability to use different authentication passwords at different times.
 MD5 and SHA-2 authentication between two routers.
 Sends topology changes, rather than sending the entire routing table when a route is
changed.
 Periodically checks if a route is available, and propagates routing changes to neighboring
routers if any changes have occurred.
 Runs separate routing processes for Internet Protocol (IP), IPv6, IPX and AppleTalk, through
the use of protocol-dependent modules (PDMs).
 Backwards compatibility with the IGRP routing protocols.

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1.

1.1 TCP/IP Network Layer

Figure 1.1: Routing algorithms determine values in forwarding tables

3.1 Routing Algorithem

4.1.1 Static Routing

4.1.4 Interior Gateway Protocol

(Intermediate System to Intermediate System IS-IS, also written ISIS) is a routing

EIGRP supports the following features:

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