The ONE

The Opportunistic Network Environment simulator.

The ONE is a simulation environment that is capable of:

 Generating node movement using different movement models.

 Routing messages between nodes with various DTN routing algorithms
and sender and receiver types.
 Visualizing both mobility and message passing in real time in its GUI.

ONE can import mobility data from real-world traces or other

mobility generators. It can also produce a variety of reports from node
movement to message passing and general statistics.

The simulator is written in Java.

 In DTN, routing protocols aim to achieve a high message delivery rate

and optimal delay, while maintaining low overhead.

Common metric
A common metric can either be: hop count, bandwidth, delay, current load on the
path, reliability, or the combination of two or more of these standards.

 Hop count

Hop count is the number of internetworking devices, such as a router that an IP

packet must pass through to reach its destination subnet. If a routing protocol uses
Hop count as its metric, then the path with the least metric or number of routers is
considered the best path. This path is then added to the routing table if there is no
other routing protocol with less administrative distance. RIP uses hop count as its
metric.
  Delay

Delay refers to the time taken to send data from source to destination; this
includes the time taken by a router to process and send a datagram to the receiving
interface. For protocols that use delay as their metric, the link with low latency is
considered the best path.

 Bandwidth

Bandwidth is defined as the number of bits that a link between two devices can
send per second.

For a protocol that uses bandwidth capacity as its metric, the protocol determines the
bandwidth capacity of all possible routes to the destination subnet, and the route with
a higher bandwidth capacity is considered the best path added to the routing
table.

Because metric can depend on single or many characteristics, Enhanced Interior

Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) uses a composite of bandwidth and delay to
calculate its metric.

In the figure above, Router 6 will prefer to send its traffic through router 8 rather than
send it through router 7 because the route through router 8 has a higher bandwidth.
  Load

Network load refers to the extent to which a network resource like link between
networks is used at any given period. For protocols that use load as their metric,
the path with the least load is considered the best and added to the routing table to
transmit the datagram to the destination subnet.

Advantages of dynamic routing

 It is straightforward to configure.
 It adapts to network topology changes.
 It is suitable in a network where many routers are used.
 Configuring dynamic routing does not require detailed
knowledge of the network.

Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing

 Dynamic routing consumes many network resources when compared
to static routing.
 This is because dynamic routing broadcast network information,
which amounts to a huge security risk as an attacker can learn about
the whole network, especially during recon attacks.
 It can be complex to install.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RIPV1 AND RIPV2:

RIPv1 RIPv2

1 RIPv1 is a Distance-Vector Routing RIPv2 is also Distance-Vector

. protocol. Routing Protocol.

2 It can support class full and classless

. It can support class full network only. networks.

3
. It does not support for authentications. It supports for authentications.

4
. It hops count limit is 15. It hops count limit is 15.

5 It does not support for VLSM and It supports for VLSM and
. discontinuous networks. discontinuous networks.

6
. It is less secure. It is more secure.

7
. Not send subnet mask to routing table. Send subnet mask to routing table.

Classifying Routing Protocols

 Classful routing protocols:   Do not send subnet mask in routing updates.
 Classless routing protocols:  Do send subnet mask in routing updates.
Interior and exterior routing protocols
Dynamic routing protocols can be categorized into two groups:

 Interior gateway protocols (IGP)

 Exterior Gateway Routing Protocols (EGP).

Interior routing protocols are designed for use within a single autonomous
system, while Exterior routing protocols are designed for use between different
Autonomous Systems (AS).

 Any network under the administrative control of a single organization is known

as Autonomous System (AS).

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the only EGP.

Difference between IGRP and EIGRP

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP):
  It is also a distance vector routing protocol.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP):

 It is the link state routing protocol as well as dist. vector routing protocol.

 (EIGRP) uses a composite of bandwidth and delay to calculate its metric.

The main difference between the IGRP and EIGRP is that, Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol is Classful routing technique, while Enhanced Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol is a classless routing technique.
Difference between IGRP and EIGRP:

IGRP EIGRP

1 IGRP stands for Interior Gateway EIGRP stands for Enhanced Interior Gateway
. Routing Protocol. Routing Protocol.

2 Interior Gateway Routing Protocol While Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing

. is Classful routing technique. Protocol is a classless routing technique.

3
. IGRP is a slow convergence. While it is a fast convergence.

4 In IGRP, Bellman ford algorithm is While in this, DUAL algorithm is used as its
. used. computational engine

5
. IGRP needs less bandwidth. While EIGRP needs high bandwidth.

6
. The least hop count in IGRP is 255. While the least hop count in EIGRP is 256.

7
. It provides 24 bits for delay. While it provides 32 bits for delay.
EIRGP features:
 Establishing neighbour adjacencies: Like other routing protocols, EIGRP
establishes a relationship with other connected routers to track its neighbour’s
status.
 Reliable Transport Protocol: EIRGP uses the Reliable Transport Protocol
(RTP) to provide reliable delivery of EIGRP packets.
 Equal and Unequal Cost Load balancing: EIGRP is the only protocol that
supports unequal load balancing. This capability allows the administrator to
better distribute traffic flow in the networks, thereby reducing delays.

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

 Creates a complete view of the network by gathering information from all

the other routers.

 Protocols that make such a comprehensive view of a network are referred to as

link-state protocols.

 These protocols do not use periodic updates to send new routing updates to
their neighbours; instead, they advertised every detail about the
internetwork to all other routers such that all routers in this internetwork
have the same information.

 As a link-state protocol, OSPF builds its routes using a mathematical

algorithm known as the Dijkstra Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm.

Three main components of OSPF

Like all other routing protocols, OSPF uses routing protocol information to help
build its data structures, which are then processed using a routing algorithm.

This information contains the following major component.

 1. Data structures
2. Routing protocol messages
3. Algorithm

IS-IS (Intermediate system to Intermediate system)

 IS-IS is a link-state routing protocol, which means that the routers exchange
topology information with their nearest neighbours.
 Uses Dijkstra Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm to determine routes.
 IS-IS evaluates the topology changes and determines whether to perform a
full SPF recalculation or a partial route calculation.
 This protocol originally was developed for routing International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) Connectionless Network Protocol (CLNP) packets.
 Like OSPF routing, IS-IS uses hello packets that allow network convergence
to occur quickly when network changes are detected.
 The protocol recalculates routes when network topology changes, using the
Dijkstra algorithm, and minimises the routing protocol traffic that it generates.
 It provides support for multiple paths of equal cost.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

 The protocol can connect together any internetwork of autonomous system
using a random topology. The only requirement is that each AS have at least
one router that is able to run BGP and that router is connected to at least one
other AS’s BGP router.
 BGP’s main function is to exchange network reach-ability information
with other BGP systems.
 Border Gateway Protocol constructs an autonomous systems’ graph based
on the information exchanged between BGP routers.
Characteristics of Border Gateway Protocol (BGP):
  Inter-Autonomous System Configuration: The main role of BGP is to
provide communication between two autonomous systems.
 BGP supports Next-Hop Paradigm.
 Path Information: BGP advertisement also include path information,
along with the reachable destination and next destination pair.
 Runs Over TCP.
 Conserve network Bandwidth.
 BGP also supports Security.

IP address:
 IP address is a unique global address for a network interface.
 It is 32-bit logical address, composed of four 8-bit fields, called octets.
 Each octet represents a decimal number in the range 0-255. For eg- 17.112.152.32
 A single address is never assigned to more than one computer.

It is divided into two parts: a prefix and a suffix.

Prefix: Identifies the physical network to which the host is attached.
Suffix: Identifies a specific computer(host/node) on the network.

Network Masks:
A network mask helps you know which portion of the address identifies the
network and which portion of the address identifies the node. Class A, B, and
C networks have default masks, also known as natural masks, as shown here:
 Class A: 255.0.0.0
 Class B: 255.255.0.0
 Class C: 255.255.255.0

Understand Subnetting:
Subnetting allows you to create multiple logical networks that exist within a single
Class A, B, or C network. If you do not subnet, you are only able to use one network
from your Class A, B, or C network, which is unrealistic.

 Subnet - A portion of a network that shares a particular subnet address.

 Subnet mask - A 32-bit combination used to describe which portion of an
address refers to the subnet and which part refers to the host.

How does a router work?

Routers guide and direct network data, using packets that contain various
kinds of data—such as files, communications, and simple transmissions like
web interactions.
Classifying Routing Protocols
 Classful routing protocols:   Do NOT send subnet mask in routing updates

 Classless routing protocols:  Do send subnet mask in routing updates.

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)

 A communication protocol operating at data link layer of the OSI model to prevent
bridge loops and the resulting broadcast storms.
 It creates a loop − free topology for Ethernet networks.

Working Principle
A bridge loop is created when there are more than one paths between two nodes in a
given network. When a message is sent, particularly when a broadcast is done, the
bridges repeatedly rebroadcast the same message, flooding the network. Since a data
link layer frame does not have a time-to-live field in the header, the broadcast frame
may loop forever, thus swamping the channels.

 Trunk ports are generally used in the switch-to-switch communication or switch

to Router. Trunks carry multiple VLANs across devices and maintain VLAN tags in
Ethernet frames for receiving directly connected device differentiates between
different VLANs.

 Access ports are part of only one VLAN and normally used for terminating end
devices likes PC, Laptop and printer.

 Inter-VLAN routing is the process of forwarding network traffic from one VLAN to
another VLAN.

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model:

Approved as an international standard for communications.
It divides the problem of moving information between computers over a network medium
into seven layers.
Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.
 The OSI Model is just a logical model.
 The OSI model conceptually defined the services, interfaces and protocols.
 TCP/IP model provided its successful implementation.
TCP/IP model: The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four
layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Network/Internet Layer
4. Link Layer
Role of each layer:
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e.
the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data
flows between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL)

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a

sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can
be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of
the frame.
 Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in
which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can
be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple
devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which
device has control over the channel at a given time.

3. Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from

source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.

4. Transport Layer 

Segmentation and Reassembly: 

 This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, breaks the
message into smaller units.
  Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it.
 The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

5. Session Layer 

 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows

the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are
considered synchronization points into the data. These synchronization
points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly,
and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

6. Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on
the network.

7. Application Layer

 Network Virtual Terminal

 FTAM(File transfer access and management)
 Mail Services

Blockchain:
 A blockchain is a distributed database that is shared among the nodes of
a computer network.
 A blockchain stores information electronically in digital format.
 Blockchains are best known for their crucial role in cryptocurrency
systems, such as Bitcoin, for maintaining a secure and decentralized
record of transactions.
 The innovation with a blockchain is that it guarantees the fidelity and
security of a record of data and generates trust without the need for a
trusted third party.

Applications of Block Chain:

 Money transfers. The original concept behind the invention of blockchain

technology is still a great application. ...
 Financial exchanges. ...
 Lending. ...
 Insurance. ...
  Real estate. ...
 Secure personal information. ...
 Voting.
VLAN:
 VLANs can segment LAN devices without regard for the physical location of
the user or device.
 virtual LAN is a concept in which we can divide the devices logically on
layer 2 (data link layer).
 we break the large broadcast domain into smaller broadcast domains.

Benefits of VLAN

Create vlan: configure vlan:

Basic Networking Commands Explained with Examples:

Tracert

The tracert command prints the path. If all routers on the path are functional, this
command prints the full path. If a router is down on the path, this command prints
the path up to the last operational router.

Syntax: tracert Destination Name or IP address

tracert www.google.co.in

Ping

The ping command is used to test connectivity between two hosts. It sends ICMP

echo request messages to the destination. The destination host replies with ICMP
replies messages. If the ping command gets a reply from the destination host, it
displays the reply along with round-trip times.

The ping command uses the following syntax.

ping destination host IP or name

ping google.com
The following image shows the output of this command.
If you specify the hostname as an argument, the ping command uses the configured
DNS client service to automatically translate the hostname into the IP address.

Ipconfig

This command displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values and
refreshes Domain Name System (DNS) settings.

This command is mainly used to view the IP addresses on the computers that are
configured to obtain their IP address automatically.

The following image shows the sample output of this command.

Arp

To send IP packets, a computer needs two addresses. If a computer knows the IP

address of the destination computer but it does not know the MAC address of the
destination computer, it uses the ARP protocol to know the MAC address of the
destination computer.

The ARP protocol broadcasts a given IP address over a local network. The
corresponding host responds to the broadcast with its MAC address. To avoid
repetition, ARP stores the answer in a table known as ARP table.

To view the ARP table, you can use the following command.

arp
Netstat

This command displays active connections & ports on which the computer is
listening.

The output of this command is organized in rows and columns. Each row represents
a new connection or an entry in the output. It contains four columns. These columns
provide the following information about the row.

Proto: - This column displays the name of the protocol (TCP or UDP).

Local Address: - This column displays the IP address of the local computer and
the port number being used. If the port is not yet established, the port number is
shown as an asterisk (*).

Foreign Address: - This column displays the IP address and port number of the
remote computer to which the port is connected.

State: - This column displays the status of the connection.

The following image shows the sample output of this command.

 RARP

RARP provides the opposite service to ARP. It is used when only the MAC
address is known and the IP address is needed.

Nslookup

It stands for name server lookup. When we want to know the IP address of
the domain, we can use this command.
Syntax: nslookup google.com

Verify Basic commands:

o Save the basic router configuration by Issuing the copy

running-config startup-config command

o Show running-config - Displays configuration currently in RAM

o Show startup-config - Displays configuration file NVRAM

o Show IP route - Displays routing table

o Show interfaces: Displays all interface configurations

o Show IP int brief: Displays abbreviated interface configuration information

o show mac-address-table: switch has memory and it stores mac

address table.

o Show Ip protocols: Displays the parameters the particular protocol is

using to send and receive updates, the metrics it is using, and the
networks it is advertising.
CISCO Commands and configuration:
Switch configuration:
Initial command prompt "Switch>" appears on the screen.
Type "enable" next to it and press "Enter".
This will take you into the "EXEC" mode, also known as the Global Configuration
mode

Go into configure mode using configure terminal.

Switch# configure terminal

Configure default gateway

Switch(config)# ip default-gateway IP-address

Configure static route

Switch(config)# ip route dest_IP_address mask

Go into interface and Set Duplex mode

Switch(config-if) #duplex full

Exit interface configuration mode

Switch(config-if) #exit

Exit config mode

Switch(config)#exit

Router configuration:
configure terminal
Example:
Router> enable
Router# configure terminal

interface gigabitethernet slot/port
Example:
Router(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/8
ip address ip-address mask
Example:
Router(config-if) # ip address 192.168.12.2 255.255.255.0

no shutdown
Example:
Router(config-if) # no shutdown

enable Logs you into enable mode, which is

also known as user exec mode or
privileged mode

configure terminal Logs you into configuration mode

interface fastethernet/number Enters interface configuration mode

for the specified fast ethernet
interface

ip address ip-address mask Assigns an IP address and a subnet

mask

shutdown Used in interface configuration mode.

no shutdown “Shutdown” shuts down the interface,
while “no shutdown” brings up the
interface.

ip default-gateway ip_address Sets the default gateway on a Cisco

device

show ip interface [type number] Displays the usability status of

interfaces that are configured for IP

duplex {auto | full | half} An interface mode command that

manually sets duplex to half, full or
auto

show mac address-table Displays the MAC address table

show interfaces Displays detailed information about
interface status, settings and counters

show interface status Displays the interface line status

show vlan Lists each VLAN and all interfaces

show vlan brief assigned to that VLAN but does not
include trunks

ip routenetwork-number network- Sets a static route in the IP routing

mask {ip-address | interface} table

router rip Enables a Routing Information

Protocol (RIP) routing process, which
places you in router configuration
mode

network ip-address In router configuration mode,

associates a network with a RIP
routing process

vlan Creates a VLAN and enters VLAN

configuration mode for further
definitions

switchport access vlan Sets the VLAN that the interface

belongs to.

switchport trunk encapsulation Specifies 802.1Q encapsulation on

dot1q the trunk link.

switchport access Assigns this port to a VLAN

vlan vlan-id [name vlan-name] Configures a specific VLAN name (1

to 32 characters)
Router#show flash:

This command will display the content of flash memory, used space and available
space. By default, router stores IOS image file in flash. We can use this command
to check the available space in Flash memory while updating / restoring IOS
files.

Router#show ip route
This command displays routing table. It gives you detailed information about the
networks that are known to the router, either directly connected to the
router, statically configured using static routing or automatically added to
the routing table using dynamic routing protocols.

Router# show ip interface brief

This command provides a quick overview of all interfaces on the router including
their IP addresses and status.

Router#show interfaces
This command shows the status and configuration of interfaces. By default it will
display all interfaces. But you can limit it to particular interface. To view the detail of
specific interface you can use the following command.

What is TFTP used for?

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP). TFTP was designed as a lightweight file
transfer mechanism primarily used for transferring short configuration files to
routers and other devices, typically over a short-dedicated link or at least within a
LAN environment. It is User Data Protocol (UDP) based.
WiMAX:
 WiMAX: worldwide interoperability for Microwave Access.
 It is a new telecommunication technology aimed at providing wireless data
over long distances.

Features: Advantages:
 Scalability -> speed
 Quality of Service -> wireless
 Range ->broad Coverage
 Coverage
Bluetooth
 Wireless Technology Standard. Used for exchanging data through radio
waves
 Short distance communication.
 Able to function in a noisy environment.

Master -Slave Mechanism

• When more than two Bluetooth devices communicate with one another, this is
called a PICONET.
• A Piconet can contain up to seven slaves clustered around a single master.
• The device that initializes establishment of the Piconet becomes the master.

ZIGBEE
• Zigbee is a wireless standard that defines a set of communication protocols
for short-range communications.
• Zigbee standard is especially build for control and sensor networks.
 Zigbee is a standard that addresses the need of very low-cost
implementation of Low power devices with low data rate for short range
wireless communications.
 One of the most commonly used standards for Internet of things (IOT).
 Security: Uses AES cryptographic algorithm.

ZIGBEE Application
• Home automation
• Medical data collection
• Industrial Control systems

Purpose:
• Collect information
• Perform control tasks inside a building
IOT

The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical objects— “things”—
that are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies for the
purpose of connecting and exchanging data with other devices and systems over
the internet.
It is also known as Machine-to-Machine(M2M) or Skynet or Internet of Everything.

Concerns of IOT
 Scalability
 Workload issues
 Network limitations

Application of IOT:
 Healthcare
 Smart cities
 Environmental
 Commercial

FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS OF IoT SYSTEM

• 1) Sensors/Devices

• 2) Connectivity

• 3) Data Processing

• 4) User Interface
AR and VR

 Augmented reality (AR) is an enhanced version of the real physical world

that is achieved through the use of digital visual elements, sound, or other
sensory stimuli delivered via technology.
• Augments to real world
• Blends digital with physical world
• Upcoming technology, using glasses or headsets with smart devices
(phones, tablets).

 Virtual Reality (VR) is a computer-generated environment with scenes and

objects that appear to be real,
 Making the user feel they are immersed in their surroundings.
AI
Artificial intelligence is the study of how to make computers do things which, at
moment people do better.
• Artificial intelligence can be viewed from a variety of perspectives.
• From the perspective of intelligence, artificial intelligence is making machines
"intelligent" -acting as we would expect people to act.

Application of AI
1. AI in Astronomy
2. AI in Healthcare
3. AI in Gaming
4. AI in Finance

Machine learning
“Field of study that gives computers the capability to learn without being explicitly
programmed”.
Application of ML
 Image Recognition
 Speech Recognition
 Traffic prediction
 Recommendations system
 Self-driving cars
 Email Spam and Malware Filtering

Cloud Computing:
Cloud computing is a model for enabling global, convenient, on-demand network
access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks,
servers, storage) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal
management effort or service provider interaction.

Cloud computing is both a combination of software and hardware-based

computing resources delivered as a network service.