SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS

PROGRAM: BSSE

SEMESTER: 4 TH

SECTION: U

DATE:15TH DECEMBER,2023

SUBMITTED TO: SIR JEHNZEB

SUBMITTED BY: SAWAIBAH NAVEED CHAUDHRY

70131348
 WHAT IS ROUTING?
Routing is the process of moving information from a source to a destination
across the internetwork. Typically, at least one intermediary node is
encountered along the path. Routing takes place at Layer 3 (the network
layer) of the OSI model. Typically, networks employ a combination of static
and dynamic routing. Static routing is preferable for small networks, whereas
dynamic routing is ideal for large networks.

Routing protocols are mechanisms for exchanging routing information

between routers to make routing decisions. Routing protocols can facilitate
effective and efficient communication between computer networks.
Regardless of the scale of the network, these protocols facilitate the secure
delivery of data to its destination.
Depending on their properties, routing protocols can be categorized into
distinct classes. In particular, routing protocols can be categorized according
to their:

 Behavior: Classful (legacy) or classless protocol.

 Purpose: Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) or Exterior Gateway Protocol
(EGP).
  Operation: Path-vector protocol, distance vector protocol, and link-
state protocol.

IPv4 routing protocols are categorized as follows:

 RIPv1 (legacy): IGP, distance vector, classful protocol

 RIPv2: IGP, distance vector, classless protocol
 OSPF: IGP, link-state, classless protocol
 IGRP: IGRP (legacy) is Cisco's IGP, distance vector, classy protocol
(deprecated from 12.2 IOS and later)
 EIGRP: IGP, distance vector, classless protocol
 EGP
 BGP: EGP, classless path-vector protocol
 IS-IS: Internet Protocol, link-state, classless

VARIOUS TYPES OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS:

1. Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

The Routing Information System (RIP) was first defined in RFC 1058 as a first-
generation routing protocol for IPv4. RIP is a distance-vector routing protocol
that uses the metric hop count. RIP is straightforward to configure, making it
an excellent option for small networks.
RIPv1 possesses the following qualities:

 The number of hops is utilized as the path selection metric.

 Every 30 seconds, routing updates are transmitted (255.255.255.255).
 Greater than 15 hops is considered infinite (too far). This 15th hop
router would not transmit the routing update to the following router.

In 1993, RIPv1 evolved into RIP version 2, a classless routing protocol

(RIPv2). RIPv2 brought the subsequent enhancements:
  Security: It includes an authentication mechanism for securing routing
table update communications between neighbors.
 Classless routing protocol support: It supports VLSM and CIDR because
routing updates include the subnet mask.
 Improved efficiency: It forwards updates to the multicast address
224.0.0.9 rather than the broadcast address 255.255.255.255.
 Reduced routing entries: Manual route summarization on any interface
is supported.

RIP updates are contained in a UDP segment with both the source and
destination ports set to UDP port 520.
The IPv6-enabled version of RIP was introduced in 1997. RIPng is an
extension of RIPv2 restricted to 15 hops, the administrative distance is 120.
This hop count limitation renders RIP unsuitable for larger networks.

2. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is the most prevalent link-state routing
protocol. The OSPF Working Group of the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) designed it. OSPF development began in 1987, and there are currently
two active versions:

 OSPFv2: OSPF for IPv4 networks (RFC 1247 and RFC 2328)
 OSPFv3: OSPFv3 is the IPv6 version of OSPF (RFC 2740)

OSPFv3 now supports both IPv4 and IPv6 thanks to the Address Families
functionality.
OSPF implements the link state routing algorithm and is utilized in medium-
to large-sized networks. OSPF is an intradomain routing protocol that only
operates within a specific routing domain. OSPF is also a hierarchical routing
protocol that may be used in a single autonomous system. OSPF emerged from
the intermediate-system-to-system (IS-IS) routing protocol of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. OSPF enables multipath
routing and uses one or more routing metrics, including dependability,
bandwidth, latency, load, and maximum transmission unit (MTU). If OSPF
utilizes many metrics, it also allows type-of-service (TOS) requests for traffic
differentiation.
OSPF, is a link-state, interior gateway, and classless protocol that uses the
shortest path first (SPF) algorithm to ensure efficient data transmission.
Internally, this type maintains numerous databases containing topology tables
and network-wide information. Typically, the data is derived from link state
advertising transmitted by individual routers. The advertising, which
resembles reports, provides thorough details of the path's length and the
resources that may be necessary.
OSPF utilizes the Dijkstra algorithm to recalculate paths when topology
changes occur. It also employs authentication procedures to maintain the
security of its data throughout network modifications and intrusions. Due to
its scalability, OSPF may be advantageous for both small and large network
enterprises.

3. Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)

In 1984, Cisco created the Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) to

address issues with RIP in large networks. IGRP is a distance vector protocol,
however, it employs several routing metrics (not just hop count) to compute
the destination's distance. Hold-downs, split horizons, and poison-reverse
updates are IGRP features aimed at improving network stability. IGRP should
only be utilized if your current environment consists solely of IGRP and you
do not wish to add another routing protocol.
The IGRP protocol offers the following routing goals:

 The capacity to manage many "types of services" with a single set of

data
 Routing loop prevention
 Routing stability, even in extremely large or complex networks
 Low overhead, indicating that IGRP should not consume more
bandwidth than it needs for its own operation
 Rapid reaction to varying network structure
 Split traffic along parallel routes when their desirability is equal.
 Consideration of error rates and traffic levels on various paths
4. Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

EIGRP, or Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol, is a distance vector

routing protocol used in IP, AppleTalk, and NetWare networks. EIGRP is a
proprietary Cisco protocol that was developed to succeed the earlier IGRP
protocol in 1992. Similar to RIPv2, EIGRP added support for VLSM and CIDR.
EIGRP enhances productivity, lowers routing changes, and facilitates secure
message exchange.
EIGRP presents the following features:

 Rapid convergence: In the majority of instances, it is the quickest IGP

to converge since it maintains other pathways, allowing for nearly
instantaneous convergence. If a primary route fails, the router might use
an alternate route. The changeover to the alternate route is
instantaneous and requires no interaction with other routers.
 Bounded triggered updates: This type of update does not transmit
frequent updates. Only updates to the routing table are propagated
whenever a change occurs. This decreases the network load imposed by
the routing protocol. Bound triggered updates allow EIGRP to only
deliver updates to neighbors that require them. It uses less bandwidth,
particularly in big networks with several routes.
 Management of the topology table: Maintains in a topology table all
routes received from neighbors, not only the optimal ones. DUAL can
inject backup routes into the EIGRP topology table.
 Hello keepalive mechanism: A periodic exchange of a short Hello
message is used to maintain adjacencies between routers. This results in
a minimal utilization of network resources during regular operation, as
opposed to frequent updates.
 Multiple network layer protocol support: EIGRP is the only protocol
that supports protocols other than IPv4 and IPv6, including legacy IPX
and AppleTalk, because it employs Protocol Dependent Modules (PDM).
EIGRP possesses a variety of characteristics that make it an effective,
intelligent, and potent routing protocol, such as the Reliable Transport
Protocol (RTP) and a Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL). To accelerate the
convergence process, routes are adjusted. to improve the efficiency of packet
transmissions. The downside of EIGRP is that it is a Cisco-proprietary
protocol. Only Cisco routers will be able to interact via EIGRP if your network
has routers from multiple suppliers. Non-Cisco routers will be unable to use
or understand EIGRP.

5. Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

The Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) was a routing protocol used to connect
autonomous systems on the Internet from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s
when it was replaced by the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). EGP was created
by Bolt, Beranek, and Newman in the early 1980s. It was first mentioned in
RFC 827 and stated formally in RFC 904. RFC 1772 outlined an EGP to BGP
migration path. EGP does not utilize routing metrics; instead, it merely tracks
which networks are currently accessible via a given router.
Included in the routing table for the EGP protocol are:

 Network addresses of nearby devices

 Route costs
 Identified routers

EGP maintains network databases close to one another to route the various
paths data may travel to reach its destination. The databases then distribute
the information to the connected routers so that all routers' tables are current.
The updated routing tables can assist in determining the optimal data route.
This protocol has gone out of favor since it cannot operate in multipath
networking situations. The EGP protocol functions by maintaining a database
of neighboring networks and the possible routing pathways to reach them.
These route details are transmitted to connected routers. Once it comes, the
devices can update their routing tables and select network paths based on
more accurate information.

6. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

BGP is an alternative exterior gateway protocol that was created to replace

EGP. BGP employs the optimal path selection technique for data package
transfers, making it a distance vector protocol. To automatically find the
optimal route, BGP refers to the following variables:

 Adjacent IP addresses
  Router designation
 Path distance
 Origin type

The BGP Best Path Selection Algorithm is utilized to determine the optimal
paths for data packet transfers. If no special parameters have been configured,
BGP will select routes with the shortest path to the destination.
BGP enables administrators to modify transfer routes based on their
requirements and provides extensive security measures to ensure that only
authorized routers can exchange data and information. The algorithm for
selecting the optimal route path can be modified by modifying the BGP cost
community attribute. BGP is able to make routing decisions based on factors
including weight, local preference, locally generated, AS Path length, origin
type, multi-exit discriminator, eBGP over iBGP, IGP metric, router ID, cluster
list, and neighbor IP address.
BGP only transmits updated routing table data when a change occurs.
Therefore, there is no auto-discovery of topology changes, and the user must
manually set up BGP. Regarding security, the BGP protocol can be verified so
that only authorized routers can exchange data.
BGP was chosen over OSPF because BGP allows device designers and owners
greater flexibility and control than OSPF. BGP processes include options for
which routes should be broadcast and which alerts the device will accept. It
provides extra options for route choosing. This allows us greater flexibility to
avoid overloading specific lines that OSPF would automatically presume to be
the fastest path.

7. Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) designed IS-IS,

which is documented in ISO 10589. The original version of this link-state
routing protocol, known as DECnet Phase V, was created by Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC). Radia Perlman was the IS-IS routing protocol's principal
designer.
IS-IS was originally built for the OSI protocol suite and not TCP/IP. Later,
Integrated IS-IS or Dual IS-IS added IP network capability. IS-IS was formerly
known as the routing protocol used mostly by ISPs and carriers, although
enterprise networks are increasingly adopting it.
IS-IS protocol employs a modified form of the Dijkstra algorithm. Typically,
the protocol groups routers together to build bigger domains and connects
routers for data transport. IS-IS employs these two network types frequently:

 Network Service Access Point (NSAP): Similar to an IP address, a

network service access point (NSAP) identifies a service access point in
systems that employ the open system interconnection (OSI) concept.
 Network Entity Title(NET): This facilitates the identification of specific
network routers within bigger computer networks.

What Is the Importance of Routing Protocols?

The data networks we use to learn, play and work in our daily lives ranging
from small, local networks to enormous, global networks. Multiple routers
and switches may serve the data connectivity needs of hundreds or thousands
of PCs within an enterprise.
Routing protocols enable routers to dynamically share information about
external networks and add it to their routing tables. Routers forward packets
using the routing table's information. The router can discover routes to
faraway networks in two ways: statically and dynamically. The optimal route
to each network is determined by routing protocols.

What are Routing Protocol Metrics?

There are instances in which a routing protocol discovers many routes to the
same destination. For the routing protocol to select the optimal path, it must
be able to analyze and differentiate amongst the available paths. This is
achieved with the use of routing metrics.

 Reliability: Reliability is a metric factor that may be given a constant

value. Its value is dynamically measured and is dependent on the
network links. Some networks experience outages more frequently than
others. Some network links are easier to repair than others after a
network breakdown. Any dependability element may be considered
when assigning reliability ratings, which are typically issued by the
system administrator as numeric values.
 Delay: The amount of time a router needs to process, queue, and
transmit a datagram to an interface. This measure is used by the
protocols to determine the delay values for all links along the end-to-
end path. The route with the lowest delay value will be considered the
optimal route.
 Hop count: Hop count is a measure that specifies the number of
internetworking devices, such as a router, through which a packet must
pass in order to go from source to destination. If the hop is considered a
major metric value by the routing protocol, then the path with the
fewest hops will be deemed the optimal way from source to destination.
 Load: Load is the degree to which a network resource, such as a router
or network link, is utilized. A load can be determined in numerous ways,
including CPU use and packets processed per second. If the volume of
traffic increases, so will the load value. The load value adapts to the
fluctuating volume of traffic.
 Bandwidth: The capacity of the link is referred to as its bandwidth. The
bandwidth is quantified in bits per second. The connection with a higher
transfer rate, such as gigabit, is chosen over the connection with a
smaller capacity, such as 56 kb. The protocol will assess the bandwidth
capacity of each link along the route, and the route with the highest
bandwidth will be deemed the optimal one.