Chapter 6: IP Routing Essentials: CCNP Enterprise: Core Networking

Chapter 6: IP Routing
Essentials
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CCNP Enterprise: Core Networking

Chapter 6 Content
This chapter covers the following content:

• Routing Protocol Overview - This section explains how different
routing protocols advertise and identify routes.
• Path Selection - This section explains the logic a router uses to identify
the best route and install it in the routing table.
• Static Routing - This section provides a brief overview of fundamental
static route concepts.
• Virtual Routing and Forwarding - This section explains the creation of
logical routers on a physical router.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 2
Routing Protocol Overview
• A router is necessary to transmit packets between network segments.
• A router’s primary function is to move a packet from one network to a different
network.
• This section will cover distance vector algorithms, enhanced distance vector
algorithms, link state algorithms, and path vector algorithms.
• A router’s primary function is to move an IP packet from one network to a different
network.
• A router learns about nonattached networks through configuration of static routes or
through dynamic IP routing protocols.
• Dynamic IP routing protocols distribute network topology information between routers
and provide updates without intervention when a topology change in the network
occurs.
• With dynamic routing protocols, routers try to select the best loop-free path on which to
forward a packet to its destination IP address.
• A network of interconnected routers and related systems managed under a common
network administration is known as an autonomous system (AS), or a routing domain.
Routing Protocol Overview (Cont.)
The common dynamic routing protocols found
on most routing platforms today are as follows:
• Routing Information Protocol Version 2
(RIPv2)
• Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing (EIGRP)
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
• Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System
(IS-IS)
• Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
With the exception of BGP, the protocols in this list are designed and optimized for routing
within an autonomous system and are known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs).
Distance Vector Algorithms
Distance vector routing protocols, such as RIP, advertise routes as vectors, where distance is a
metric (or cost) such as hop count, and vector is the next-hop router’s IP used to reach the
destination:
• Distance - The distance is the route metric to reach the network.
• Vector - The vector is the interface or direction to reach the network.
When a router receives routing information from a neighbor, it stores it in a local routing database,
and the distance vector algorithm (such as the Bellman-Ford and Ford-Fulkerson algorithms) is
used to determine which paths are the best loop-free paths to each reachable destination.
Enhanced Distance Vector Algorithms
The diffusing update algorithm (DUAL) is an enhanced distance vector algorithm that EIGRP uses
to calculate the shortest path to a destination within a network. EIGRP advertises network
information to its neighbors as other distance vector protocols do, but it has some enhancements:
• It offers rapid convergence time for changes in the network topology.
• It sends updates only when there is a change in the network. It does not send full routing table
updates in a periodic fashion, as distance vector protocols do.
• It uses hellos and forms neighbor
relationships just as link-state protocols do.
• It uses bandwidth, delay, reliability, load,
and maximum transmission unit (MTU) size
instead of hop count for path calculations.
• It has the option to load balance traffic

across equal- or unequal-cost paths.
EIGRP is sometimes referred to as a hybrid routing protocol.
Link-State Algorithms
A link-state dynamic IP routing protocol advertises the link state and link metric for each of its
connected links and directly connected routers to every router in the network. OSPF and IS-IS are
two link-state routing protocols commonly used in enterprise and service provider networks. OSPF
advertisements are called link-state advertisements (LSAs), and IS-IS uses link-state packets
(LSPs) for its advertisements.
• A router receives an advertisement from a

neighbor and stores it in the link-state
database (LSDB).
• The link state information is advertised to
each of its neighbor routers exactly as it
was received. This enables all the routers
in the network to have an identical map of
the network.
• The Dijkstra shortest path first (SPF)
algorithm is run by every router in the
network in order to calculate the best,
shortest loop-free paths.
Path Vector Algorithm
A path vector protocol, such as BGP, is similar to a distance vector protocol. The difference is that
instead of looking at the distance to determine the best loop-free path, it looks at various BGP path
attributes. BGP path attributes include autonomous system path (AS_Path), multi-exit discriminator
(MED), origin, next hop, local preference, atomic aggregate, and aggregator.
Figure 6-5 illustrates the loop prevention concept over the following steps:
1. R1 (AS 1) advertises the 10.1.1.0/24 network to R2 (AS 2). R1 adds the AS
1 to the AS_Path during the network advertisement to R2.
2. R2 advertises the 10.1.1.0/24 network to R4 and adds AS 2 to the AS_Path
during the network advertisement to R4.
3. R4 advertises the 10.1.1.0/24 network to R3 and adds AS 4 to the AS_Path
during the network advertisement to R3.
4. R3 advertises the 10.1.1.0/24 network back to R1 and R2 after adding AS
3 to the AS_Path during the network advertisement.
5. As R1 receives the 10.1.1.0/24 network advertisement from R3, it discards
the route advertisement because R1 detects its AS (AS 1) in the AS_Path
“3 4 2 1” and considers the advertisement as a loop. R2 discards the
10.1.1.0/24 network advertisement from R3 as it detects its AS (AS 2) in
the AS_Path “3 4 2 1” and considers it a loop, too.
Path Selection
• A router identifies the path a packet should take by evaluating the prefix length that is
programmed in the Forwarding Information Base (FIB).
• The FIB is programmed through the routing table, which is also known as the Routing
Information Base (RIB).
• This section will cover prefix length, administrative distance, metrics, equal cost
multipathing, and unequal-cost load balancing.
Path Selection
Path Selection
Path selection has three main components:
• Prefix length - The prefix length represents the number of leading binary bits in the
subnet mask that are in the on position.
• Administrative distance - Administrative distance (AD) is a rating of the trustworthiness
of a routing information source. If a router learns about a route to a destination from more
than one routing protocol, and all the routes have the same prefix length, then the AD is
compared.
• Metrics - A metric is a unit of measure used by a routing protocol in the best-path
calculation. The metrics vary from one routing protocol to another.
Path Selection
Prefix Length
Assume that a router has the following routes with various prefix lengths in the routing table:
10.0.3.0/28, 10.0.3.0/26, and 10.0.3.0/24.
Each of these routes, also known as prefix routes or simply prefixes, has a different prefix length
(subnet mask). The routes are considered to be different destinations, and they will all be installed
into the RIB, also known as the routing table. The routing table also includes the outgoing interface
and the next-hop IP address (unless the prefix is a connected network). Table 6-2 shows this routing
table.
Prefix IP Address Range Next Hop Outgoing Interface
Table 6-2 10.0.3.0/28 10.0.3.0–10.0.3.15 10.1.1.1 Gigabit Ethernet 1/1
Representation of
Routing Table 10.0.3.0/26 10.0.3.0–10.0.3.63 10.2.2.2 Gigabit Ethernet 2/2
10.0.3.0/24 10.0.3.0–10.0.3.255 10.3.3.3 Gigabit Ethernet 3/3
If a packet needs to be forwarded, the route chosen depends on the prefix length, where the longest
prefix length is always preferred. The forwarding decision is a function of the FIB and results from the
calculations performed in the RIB. The RIB is calculated through the combination of routing protocol
metrics and administrative distance.
Path Selection Routing Protocol Default Administrative
Administrative Distance Distance
As each routing protocol receives routing updates and Command 0

other routing information, it chooses the best path to any Static 1
given destination and attempts to install this path into the
EIGRP summary route 5
routing table.
External BGP (eBGP) 20
The RIB is programmed from the various routing EIGRP (internal) 90
protocol processes. Every routing protocol presents the
OSPF 110
same information to the RIB for insertion: the
destination network, the next-hop IP address, the AD, IS-IS 115
and metric values. RIP 120
EIGRP (external) 170
Internal BGP (iBGP) 200
The RIB accepts or rejects a route based on the following logic:
• If the route does not exist in the RIB, the route is accepted.
• If the route exists in the RIB, the AD must be compared. Routes with the lower AD values are
installed in the routing table, routes with higher AD values are rejected and the submitting routing
process is notified.
Path Selection
Administrative Distance (Cont.)
Each of these three protocols attempts to install the route to 10.3.3.0/24 into the routing table.
Because the prefix length is the same, the next decision point is the AD, where the routing protocol
with the lowest AD installs the route into the routing table.
Because the EIGRP internal route has the best AD, it is the one installed into the routing table, as
demonstrated in Table 6-4.
Routing AD Network Installs in the

Table 6-4 Route Protocol RIB
Selection for the RIB
EIGRP 90 10.3.3.0/24
OSPF 110 10.3.3.0/24 X
IS-IS 115 10.3.3.0/24 X
The routing protocol or protocols that failed to install their route into the table (in this example, OSPF
and IS-IS) hang on to the route and tell the routing table process to report to them if the best path fails
so that they can try to reinstall this route. Understanding the order of processing from a router is critical
because in some scenarios the path with the lowest AD may not always be installed in the RIB.
Path Selection
Metrics – Equal-Cost Multipathing
The logic for selecting the best path for a routing protocol can vary. Most IGPs prefer internally
learned routes over external routes and further prioritize the path with the lowest metric.
Equal-Cost Multipathing
If a routing protocol identifies multiple paths as a best path and supports multiple path entries, the
router installs the maximum number of paths allowed per destination. This is known as equal-cost
multipathing (ECMP) and provides load sharing across all links. RIP, EIGRP, OSPF, and IS-IS all
support ECMP. ECMP provides a mechanism to increase bandwidth across multiple paths by
splitting traffic equally across the links. This figure shows an example and the routing table.
Path Selection
Metrics- Unequal-Cost Load Balancing
By default, routing protocols install only routes with the lowest path metric. However, EIGRP can
be configured to install multiple routes with different path metrics. This allows for unequal-cost load
balancing across multiple paths. Traffic is transmitted out the router’s interfaces based on that
path’s metrics in ratio to other the interface’s metrics.
Figure 6-7 shows a topology with four routers running EIGRP. The delay has been incremented on
R1’s Gi0/2 interface from 1 μ to 10 μ. R1 sees the two paths with different metrics. The path from
R1 to R3 via R1–R2–R3 has been assigned a path metric of 3328, and the path via R1–R4–R3
has been assigned a path metric of 5632.
Note: The explicit path must be viewed to see

the traffic ratios with unequal-cost load balancing.
Static Routing
• Using static routing requires zero network bandwidth because implementing manual
route entries does not require communication with other routers.
• Because the routers are not communicating, there is no network intelligence. If a link
goes down, other routers will not be aware that the network path is no longer valid.
• This section covers directly attached static routes, recursive static routes, and fully
specified static routes.
Static Routing
Static Routing and Static Route Types
Static routes are useful when:
• Dynamic routing protocols cannot be used on a router because of limited router CPU or
memory.
• Routes learned from dynamic routing protocols need to be superseded.
Static routes can be classified as one of the following:
• Directly attached static routes
• Recursive static route
• Fully specified static route
Static Routing
Directly Attached Static Routes
A static route that uses only the outbound next-hop interface is known as a directly attached static
route. The outbound interface specified must be in an up state for the route to be installed into the
RIB.
Note: Configuring a directly attached static route to an interface that uses Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP), such as an Ethernet network, causes problems and is not recommended. The
router must repeat the ARP process for every destination that matches the static route, which
consumes CPU and memory. In larger networks, this can cause router instability issues.
Point-to-point (P2P) serial interfaces do not use ARP, so static routes can directly reference the
outbound interface of a router. Directly attached static routes are configured with the command ip
route network subnetmask next-hop-interface-id..
Figure 6-8 shows a P2P serial topology

with R1 and R2 directly attached with a
serial connection.
Static Routing
Directly Attached Static Routes (Cont.)
Example 6-4 shows the configuration of R1 and R2
using static routes with serial 1/0 interfaces. R1
indicates that the 10.22.22.0/24 network is
reachable via the S1/0 interface, and R2 indicates
that the 10.11.11.0/24 network is reachable via the
S1/0 interface.
Example 6-5 shows the routing table with the static

route configured. A directly attached static route
does not display [AD/Metric] information when
looking at the routing table. Notice that the static
route displays directly connected with the outbound
interface.
Static Routing
Recursive Static Routes
The forwarding engine on Cisco devices needs to know which interface an outbound packet
should use.
• A recursive static route specifies the IP address of the next-hop address.
• The recursive lookup occurs when the router queries the RIB to locate the route toward the
next-hop IP address (connected, static, or dynamic) and then cross-references the
adjacency table.
• Recursive static routes are configured with the command ip route network subnet-mask
next-hop-ip.
• Recursive static routes require the route’s next-hop address to exist in the routing table to
install the static route into the RIB. A recursive static route may not resolve the next-hop
forwarding address using the default route (0.0.0.0/0) entry. The static route will fail next-
hop reachability requirements and will not be inserted into the RIB.
Static Routing
Recursive Static Routes (Cont.)
Figure 6-9 shows a topology with R1 and R2 connected using the Gi0/0 port. R1 uses a
recursive static route to the 10.22.22.0/24 network, and R2 uses a recursive static route to the
10.11.11.0/24 network to allow connectivity between these networks.
In Example 6-6, R1’s configuration states

that the 10.22.22.0/24 network is reachable
via the 10.12.1.2 IP address, and R2’s
configuration states that the 10.11.11.0/24
network is reachable via the 10.12.1.1 IP
address.
Static Routing
Fully Specified Static Routes
Static route recursion can simplify topologies if a link fails because it may allow the static route to stay
installed while it changes to a different outbound interface in the same direction as the destination.
However, problems arise if the recursive lookup resolves to a different interface pointed in the opposite
direction. The following will correct the issue:
• The static route configuration should use the outbound interface and the next-hop IP address ( a fully
specified static route).
• Specifying the next-hop address along with the physical interface removes the recursive lookup and
does not involve the ARP processing problems that occur when using only the outbound interface.
• Fully specified static routes are configured with the command ip route network subnet-mask
interface-id next-hop-ip.
Static Routing
Floating Static Routing
Using a floating static route is a common technique for providing backup connectivity for prefixes
learned via dynamic routing protocols. A floating static route is configured with an AD higher than
that of the primary route (default AD on a static route is 1). Because the AD is higher than that of
the primary route, it is installed in the RIB only when the primary route is withdrawn. In Figure 6-
11, R1 and R2 are configured with two links. The 10.12.1.0/24 transit network is preferred to the
10.12.2.0/24 network.
Example 6-10 shows the configuration of the
floating static route on R1, and R2 would be
configured similarly. The static route using the
Ethernet link (10.12.1.0/24) has an AD of 10,
and the serial link (10.12.2.0/24) has an AD set
to 210.
Static Routing
Static Null Routes
Configuring a static route to a null interface provides a method of dropping network
traffic without requiring the configuration of an access list. Creating a static route to
the Null0 interface is a common technique to prevent routing loops.
Figure 6-12 shows a common topology in which company ABC has acquired the
172.16.0.0/20 network range from its service provider. ABC uses only a portion of the
given addresses but keeps the large network block in anticipation of future growth.
Static Routing
Static Null Routes (Cont.)
Example 6-14 shows the routing loop that occurs
when packets originate from R2 addressed to an
unused address on the 172.16.0.0 network.
Packets that do not match any route in the table on
R1, are sent using the default route to the ISP, who
then resends them back to R1. This continues until
TTL expires. Notice the IP address in the traceroute
alternative between the ISP router (192.168.1.2)
and R1 (192.168.1.1).
To prevent the routing loop, a static route is added
for 172.16.0.0/20, pointed to the Null0 interface on
R1. Any packets addressed to the 172.16.0.0/20
network that are not in the routing table of R1 will
be dropped. Example 6-15 shows the static null
route configuration for R1.
Static Routing
IPv6 Static Routes
The static routing principles for IPv4 routes are
exactly the same for IPv6. IPv6 static routes are
configured with the command ipv6 route network/
prefix-length { next-hop-interface-id | [next-hop-
interface-id] next-ip-address}.
Figure 6-13 shows R1 and R2 with IPv6 addressing
to demonstrate static routing.
R1 needs a static route to R2’s 2001:db8:22::/64
network, and R2 needs a static route to R1’s
2001:d8:11::/64 network. Example 6-17 demonstrates
the IPv6 static route configuration for R1 and R2.
The IPv6 routing table is displayed with the command

show ipv6 route. Connectivity can be verified with the
traceroute or ping command.
Virtual Routing and
Forwarding
• Virtual routing and forwarding (VRF) is a technology that creates separate virtual
routers on a physical router. Router interfaces, routing tables, and forwarding tables
are completely isolated between VRFs, preventing traffic from one VRF from
forwarding into another VRF.
• All router interfaces belong to the global VRF until they are specifically assigned to a
user-defined VRF.
Virtual Routing and Forwarding
The global VRF is identical to the regular routing table of non-VRF routers:
• Every router’s VRF maintains a separate routing table; it is possible to allow for overlapping
IP address ranges.
• VRF creates segmentation between network interfaces, network subinterfaces, IP addresses,
and routing tables.
• Configuring VRF on a router ensures that the paths are isolated, network security is
increased, and encrypting traffic on the network is not needed to maintain privacy between
VRF instances.
Virtual Routing and Forwarding (Cont.)
Figure 6-14 shows two routers to help visualize the
VRF routing table concept. One of the routers has
no VRFs configured, and the other one has a
management VRF instance named MGMT.
The creation of multiprotocol VRF instances
requires the global configuration command vrf
definition vrf-name. Under the VRF definition
submode, the command address-family {ipv4 |
ipv6} is required to specify the appropriate address
family. The VRF instance is then associated to the
interface with the command vrf forwarding vrf-
name under the interface configuration submode.
The following steps are required to create a VRF and assign it to an interface:
Step 1. Create a multiprotocol VRF routing table by using the command vrf definition vrf-name.
Step 2. Initialize the appropriate address family by using the command address-family {ipv4 |
ipv6}. The address family can be IPv4, IPv6, or both.
Step 3. Enter interface configuration submode and specify the interface to be associated with the
VRF instance by using the command interface interface-id.
Step 4. Associate the VRF instance to the interface or subinterface by entering the command vrf
forwarding vrf-name under interface configuration submode.
Step 5. Configure an IP address (IPv4, IPv6, or both) on the interface or subinterface by entering
either or both of the following commands:
IPv4 - ip address ip-address subnet-mask [secondary]
IPv6 - ipv6 address ipv6-address/prefix-length
Table 6-5 provides a set of interfaces and IP addresses that overlap between the global routing table and
the VRF instance.
Interface IP Address VRF Global
Table 6-5 Gigabit Ethernet 0/1 10.0.3.1/24 --

Sample Gigabit Ethernet 0/2 10.0.4.1/24 --
Interfaces and IP
Address Gigabit Ethernet 0/3 10.0.3.1/24 MGMT --
Gigabit Ethernet 0/4 10.0.4.1/24 MGMT --
Example 6-20 shows how the IP addresses are

assigned to the interfaces in the global routing table,
along with the creation of the VRF instance named
MGMT and two interfaces associated with it (refer to
Table 6-5). The IP addresses in the MGMT VRF
instance overlap with the ones configured in the global
table, but there is no conflict because they are in a
different routing table.
Prepare for the Exam
Key Topics for Chapter 6
Description
Distance vector algorithms Order of processing from a router
Distance vector perspective Equal-cost multipathing
Enhanced distance vector Unequal-cost load balancing

algorithm
Hybrid routing protocol Directly attached static routes
Link-state algorithms Recursive static routes
Path vector algorithm Fully specified static routes
Path selection Floating static routing
Longest match Static null routes
RIB route installation IPv6 static routes

Key Terms for Chapter 6
Term
administrative distance link-state routing protocol

directly attached static route path vector routing protocol
Distance vector routing prefix length
protocol
enhanced distance vector recursive static route
routing protocol
equal-cost multipathing static null route
floating static route unequal-cost load balancing
fully specified static route
Command Reference for Chapter 6
Task Command Syntax
Configure a directly attached static route ip route network subnet-mask next-hop-

interface-id
Configure a recursive static route ip route subnet-mask next-hop-ip
Configure a fully specified static route ip route network subnet-mask interface-

id next-hop-ip

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What are the main components covered in this chapter?

What are the main components covered in this chapter?

What are the common dynamic routing protocols discussed?

What are the common dynamic routing protocols discussed?

Chapter 6: IP Routing

CCNP Enterprise: Core Networking

This chapter covers the following content:

• It has the option to load balance traffic

• A router receives an advertisement from a

As each routing protocol receives routing updates and Command 0

Routing AD Network Installs in the

Note: The explicit path must be viewed to see

Figure 6-8 shows a P2P serial topology

Example 6-5 shows the routing table with the static

In Example 6-6, R1’s configuration states

The IPv6 routing table is displayed with the command

Table 6-5 Gigabit Ethernet 0/1 10.0.3.1/24 --

Gigabit Ethernet 0/4 10.0.4.1/24 MGMT --

Example 6-20 shows how the IP addresses are

Distance vector algorithms Order of processing from a router

Distance vector perspective Equal-cost multipathing

Enhanced distance vector Unequal-cost load balancing

Link-state algorithms Recursive static routes

Path vector algorithm Fully specified static routes

Path selection Floating static routing

Longest match Static null routes

RIB route installation IPv6 static routes

administrative distance link-state routing protocol

Task Command Syntax

Configure a directly attached static route ip route network subnet-mask next-hop-

Configure a fully specified static route ip route network subnet-mask interface-

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