1

Event Analysis Tutorial

Part 1: Problem Statements
David Costello, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

Abstract—Event reports have been an invaluable Lightning arresters, one per phase, are positioned on the
feature in microprocessor-based relays since the initial top of the steel support structure. Each arrester is connected by
introduction of the technology. The days of unknown root a jumper to the phase conductor. A bird caused a fault near
cause for an operation, lengthy outages, or unexplained one lightning arrester, which caused its jumper to blow loose
test results are largely over due to this tool and the ability and contact other phases.
of engineers and technicians to use it. We must practice to Open the event report titled 2 – Distribution Feeder Fault
become proficient at analyzing event reports. This session 351S-6.cev to analyze this case. See Fig. 1 for a screen capture
provides real-world event examples, time to evaluate them, from this event.
and solutions. The relay involved was an SEL-351S-6. The instruction
manual is provided as part of the class material and is also
I. INTRODUCTION
available at www.selinc.com.
The event reports provided in this session are from real-
world applications. They have been edited only to the extent
that the owner involved is not revealed. They provide us the
opportunity to learn and improve our power system. We want
to thank the engineers and technicians who share information
and what they know for the benefit of our industry.
We provide a number of example case studies. These come
from a wide variety of power system and protection
applications. We have distribution, transmission, transformer,
bus, generator, and motor event examples.
In each case, we provide the following:
• A brief introduction to the application and problem.
• The event reports required to solve the problem.
• References for future reading and further instruction. Fig. 1. Distribution Feeder Fault (2 – Distribution Feeder Fault 351S-6.cev)
Students are required to use their own personal computer Questions:
with SEL Compass®, ACSELERATOR QuickSet® SEL-5030
Software, and ACSELERATOR Analytic Assistant® SEL-5601 II-a Before the fault, in what direction is power flowing?
Software installed. These programs are available for download
at no cost from www.selinc.com. II-b What is the system phase rotation?
Students are invited to answer the questions asked in this II-c What type of fault occurred?
document. These questions are intended to guide analysis,
keep the class efforts focused in the same direction, and II-d What protection element within the relay caused
highlight the main lesson points. Please document the solution the trip?
to each case study in the format of a Microsoft® Word
II-e How long did it take for the relay to operate?
document with appropriate software screen captures and notes.
Last, instructors are available to answer questions, share II-f How long did the breaker take to clear the fault?
tips, and highlight lessons learned. Have fun!
II-g Did the relay and protection system operate correctly
II. DISTRIBUTION FEEDER FAULT and as expected?

This event occurred on a distribution collector at a wind Another event report from a different system is provided
farm. For practical purposes, faults on the collector behave for comparison. Open the event report titled 2 – Distribution
like faults on a radial feeder fed from a Dy1 transformer. The Feeder Fault 351A.cev to analyze that case. See Fig. 2 for a
wind turbines do not contribute any significant fault current. screen capture from this event. The relay involved was an
The location and connection of the potential transformers SEL-351A. The instruction manual is provided as part of the
(PTs) are not known at the time of publication. class material and is also available at www.selinc.com.
 2

Note in Fig. 1 that the phase fault current is largest during Open the event report titled 3 – Frequency Load Shed
the single-line-to-ground fault period. In Fig. 2, the phase fault Test One 451-5.cev to analyze the first test. See Fig. 3 for a
current is largest during the three-phase fault period. screen capture from that event. The relay involved was an
SEL-451-5. The instruction manual is provided as part of the
class material and is also available at www.selinc.com.
Three problems were noted by technicians. First, the output
contact used by the underfrequency element 81D1T chattered
continuously after the frequency was lowered below the set
point, and it would not stop until the frequency was returned
to normal. Second, the trip time for the underfrequency event
was slightly longer than expected. Third, the frequency
metering stopped tracking at 58.0 Hz, despite the test set being
lowered below this level.

Fig. 2. Distribution Feeder Fault (2 – Distribution Feeder Fault 351A.cev)

Question:
II-h On a radial distribution feeder, what type of fault do
you expect to produce the largest phase fault current?
Does the type of transformer used as a source matter?
Does the fault location make a difference? Can you
provide an explanation for the fault type current
magnitudes in these two event reports?
The SEL University classes PROT 301: Protecting Power Fig. 3. Frequency Test 1 (3 – Frequency Load Shed Test One 451-5.cev)
Systems for Technicians and PROT 401: Protecting Power
Systems for Engineers review necessary symmetrical Open the event report titled 3 – Frequency Load Shed
components and fault analysis fundamentals. Register for Test Two 451-5.cev to analyze the second test. See Fig. 4 for
these classes and more at www.selinc.com. a screen capture from this event. The trip logic was changed
for the second test, setting TR equal to NA. The only other
III. UNDERFREQUENCY LOAD-SHEDDING TEST change made for this test was the addition of the FREQOK
(frequency tracking okay) and FREQFZ (freeze frequency
These events were recorded from laboratory tests. An
tracking) Relay Word bits to the digital elements recorded
SEL-451-5 was being applied for underfrequency load
with event reports.
shedding. Laboratory tests were conducted to prove the
protection scheme would perform as intended.
The scheme was designed to trip groups of 7 kV feeders at
various underfrequency set points. The first group of feeders
should have tripped at 58.7 Hz. A different group of feeders
would have tripped at different frequencies. Therefore,
frequency elements were programmed directly into individual
output contacts. All frequency elements were originally
connected by OR gates in the trip logic only to provide a local
trip light-emitting diode (LED) indication; the trip logic was
not used by any output contacts.
The feeders were on the low side of a 66 kV/7 kV
transformer. The relay voltage inputs were fed from the 66 kV
bus PTs. Fig. 4. Frequency Test 2 (3 – Frequency Load Shed Test Two 451-5.cev)
A standard test set applied secondary voltages. The
frequency of VA was lowered in steps, rather than using a Questions:
ramp. Trip unlatch (TULO) was set for Option 3. With no III-a Using event data, can you determine if the voltage
current applied and no breaker status simulated during the test magnitude applied is correct for this application?
(see Page A.1.14 of the SEL-451-5 Instruction Manual), the
trip will unlatch when trip conditions expire or after a III-b At what point in the event data did the test set actually
minimum time of 12 cycles (TDUR3D). change frequency?
 3

III-c Is a step change in frequency an appropriate test The utility had a lightning arrester failure at a customer-
method for an underfrequency load-shedding owned substation several terminals away from this plant. The
application? 67P relay tripped for this fault.
Open the event report titled 4 – Main Breaker Directional
III-d Does the frequency element time delay match the
Element 351A.cev to analyze the event. See Fig. 6 for a
expected scheme settings?
screen capture from this event.
III-e In the first test, the frequency element can be seen
asserting and then deasserting. What element do you
suspect turned the frequency element off?
III-f In an SEL-451-5, can frequency elements be included
directly in the trip equation?
The technical paper “Frequency Tracking Fundamentals,
Challenges, and Solutions” is available at www.selinc.com
and is recommended reading for more information on this
subject.

IV. DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT OPERATION

SEL-351A Relays are used as main breaker relays in an
Fig. 6. Main Breaker Data (4 – Main Breaker Directional Element
industrial plant main-tie-main scheme. The instruction manual 351A.cev)
is provided as part of the class material and is available at
www.selinc.com. Questions:
A one-line diagram is provided in Fig. 5. The industrial
IV-a The phasors and oscillography during the event do not
plant is a radial load. The SEL-351A provides the 67P
indicate an obvious fault type. Can you explain why?
function. Forward direction for this relay is into the industrial
bus; reverse is into the utility. Reverse power flow, due to odd IV-b What relay element tripped?
breaker status combinations, through either transformer is not
desired or allowed. IV-c From the settings and your experience, what is the
purpose for this relay?
IV-d Is this relay tripping response expected or a
misoperation?
IV-e What is the root cause?
The technical paper “Use of Directional Elements at the
Utility-Industrial Interface” is available at www.selinc.com
and is recommended reading for more information on this
subject. The SEL Application Guide AG2009-17 “Enabling
Sensitive Directional Tripping for Non-Line Protection
Applications With SEL-351 Series Relays” provides settings
recommendations and is also available at www.selinc.com.

V. TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL OPERATION

A 10.5 MVA, 115 kV/13.2 kV transformer is protected by
an SEL-387A. The instruction manual is provided as part of
the class material and is also available at www.selinc.com. A
fault occurred on the system, and the transformer differential
element tripped. The transformer serves radial loads.
The transformer application is configured as shown in
Fig. 7. This high-voltage terminal is delta-connected and
labeled Winding 1 (W1). The low-voltage terminal is wye-
connected and labeled Winding 2 (W2).
The transformer is an ANSI standard, where the polarity of
H1 is connected to the nonpolarity of H2. The system phase
rotation is ABC. C-phase is connected to H1, B-phase is
connected to H2, and A-phase is connected to H3.
Fig. 5. One-Line Diagram for Directional Element Operation
 4

Open the event reports titled 5 – Transformer Differential Questions:

Report 387A.cev and 5 – Transformer Filtered Report
387A.cev to analyze this event. See Fig. 8 and Fig. 9. V-a Using the prefault phasors, can you confirm the system
phase rotation?
C
A V-b Given the information about the system and the
B diagram shown in Fig. 7, can you determine the
H1 X1
C c expected phase angle relationship across the
H2 X2
transformer?
B b
V-c Using the prefault phasors, does the actual system
H3 X3
A a match your expected phase angle relationship from
question V-b?
X0
V-d Where was the fault (internal to the transformer or
external to the protection zone)?
ICW1 ICW2 V-e Was the transformer differential operation correct or
incorrect for the fault location?
IBW1 IBW2
V-f Is the relay set correctly?
IAW1 IAW2
V-g Using the differential report data, was there any
indication before the fault that a problem existed?

Fig. 7. Transformer Application

The technical paper “Proper Testing of Protection Systems
Ensures Against False Tripping and Unnecessary Outages” is
available at www.selinc.com and is recommended reading for
more information on this subject.

VI. RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT OPERATION

Restricted earth fault (REF) protection in an SEL-387-6
was enabled on a 25 MVA transformer to provide a sensitive
ground current differential zone of protection for the
grounded-wye winding and low-side bus. See Fig. 10.

Fig. 8. Phase Currents (5 – Transformer Filtered Event 387A.cev)

Fig. 10. REF Application

Fig. 9. Differential Signals (5 – Transformer Differential Report 387A.cev)

 5

The SEL-387-6 Instruction Manual is provided as part of See Fig. 12. Two 1200:5 MRCTs, tapped at 900:5, are
the class material and is available at www.selinc.com. Open paralleled and connected to the Winding 1 inputs of the relay.
the event report titled 6 – Transformer REF 387-6.cev to A single 1200:5 MRCT, tapped at 1200:5, is connected to the
analyze this event. See Fig. 11. Winding 1 feeders are radial Winding 2 inputs of the relay. The transformer is rated
loads. 12/16/20 MVA and 138 kV/12.47 kV. From Fig. 12, the
polarity of H1 is connected to the nonpolarity of H2. A-phase
is connected to H1, B-phase is connected to H2, and C-phase
is connected to H3. The system phase rotation is ABC.

Fig. 12. Commissioning Example

Fig. 11. REF Application (6 – Transformer REF 387-6.cev) The SEL-587 Instruction Manual is provided as part of the
class material and is also available at www.selinc.com. Open
Questions: the event report titled 7 – Transformer Commissioning
VI-a Where was the fault (internal to the transformer or 587.cev and the settings file titled 7 – Transformer
external to the protection zone)? Commissioning Settings 587.pdf to analyze this event.

VI-b Was the tie breaker open or closed at the time of the
event?
VI-c What element operated to trip the transformer?
VI-d Was the transformer relay operation correct or incorrect
for the fault location?
VI-e For an external ground fault, what phase angle
relationship do you expect between the Winding 1 and
Winding 4 currents?
VI-f Why is the ground current magnitude on Winding 1
different than Winding 4?
VI-g A current transformer (CT) wiring problem is
suspected. Can you prove which winding has the error?
The technical paper “Analysis of an Autotransformer Fig. 13. IOP and IRT (7 – Transformer Commissioning Settings 587.pdf)
Restricted Earth Fault Application” is available at
www.selinc.com and is recommended reading for more
information on this subject.

VII. TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL COMMISSIONING TEST

Engineers and technicians were on-site to witness the
energization of a new 138 kV/12.47 kV substation. After
putting some load on the distribution feeders, they noticed that
the differential current measured by the SEL-587 was quite
high, as a percentage of restraint. The load was very small,
and there was some debate as to whether the transformer was Fig. 14. Winding Currents (7 – Transformer Commissioning Settings
ready to be put into service. 587.pdf)
 6

Questions: Open the event report titled 8 – Transmission Line 87L

Test 311L.cev to analyze this event. This event was triggered
VII-a Based on the differential and phasor data, would you manually while local and remote currents were simultaneously
put the transformer in service?
applied to the relays using satellite-synchronized test sets. The
VII-b Do the phase angle relationships match your event data are from Terminal A of a two-terminal line. We
expectations from the settings? will refer to the remote line end as Terminal B.
During the test, several observations were made:
VII-c Does the power into the transformer match the power • The local Terminal A measures local (A) currents but
out of the transformer? does not show its remote (Terminal B) currents in
VII-d Why would an engineer turn off the MVA setting in metering or event data.
an SEL-587 Relay? • The remote Terminal B measures its local (B) currents
but does not show its remote (Terminal A) currents in
VII-e Calculate TAPx settings for this application. Do your metering or event data.
calculations match the settings? • The fiber-optic channel tests okay, and monitoring
VII-f Are your calculated TAPx settings within the range shows the channel to be in service (ROKX = 1).
of the relay? • When the local Terminal A primary relay fiber is
connected to itself (in loopback) or to the local
VII-g Can you propose a solution? Terminal A backup relay, it does not meter remote or
The technical paper “Lessons Learned Through received currents.
Commissioning and Analyzing Data From Transformer • When the remote Terminal B primary relay fiber is
Differential Installations” is available at www.selinc.com and connected to itself (in loopback) or to the local
is recommended reading for more information on this subject. Terminal B backup relay, it does meter remote or
received currents.
VIII. LINE CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL COMMISSIONING TEST • The local relay tripped when current was applied.
Technicians were attempting to perform a satellite- Questions:
synchronized end-to-end test of a transmission line protection
scheme while the line was out of service. The relays and VIII-a Do the phase angle relationships match your
scheme had been installed for some time and had worked expectations from the settings?
correctly during previous system faults. VIII-b How do you explain the trip when only 1 A balanced
SEL-311L line current differential relays were used for secondary currents are applied at each line terminal?
primary and backup protection at each terminal. The
SEL-311L Instruction Manual is provided as part of the class VIII-c Do you think it is likely that the relays have failed?
material and is also available at www.selinc.com. Justify your answer.
VIII-d Can you explain why the channel monitor is healthy
(ROKX = 1) but no remote currents are being
metered?
VIII-e Can you explain why the remote relays work when in
loopback mode and the local relays do not work in
loopback mode?

IX. DELAYED FAULT CLEARING ON TRANSMISSION LINE

A crew was installing new structures for a transmission line
rebuild and upgrade project. They were working in the
existing right-of-way of an energized transmission line. The
truck came in close enough proximity to the transmission line
to cause a flashover.
The SEL-311C transmission line relays are used for
primary and backup protection at each terminal. The
Fig. 15. Line Current Differential Commissioning (8 – Transmission Line SEL-311C Instruction Manual is provided as part of the class
87L Test 311L.cev) material and is also available at www.selinc.com.
 7

Substations are referenced as Terminal A and Terminal B.

There are six event reports for this case study. They are named
9 – A Delayed Fault Clearing xyz Event 311C.cev and 9 – B
Delayed Fault Clearing xyz Event 311C.cev (xyz represents
the first, second, or third in order of when they occurred).

Fig. 18. Third Event, Terminal A (9 – A Delayed Fault Clearing 3rd Event
311C.cev)

Fig. 16. First Event, Terminal A (9 – A Delayed Fault Clearing 1st Event
311C.cev)

Fig. 19. First Event, Terminal B (9 – B Delayed Fault Clearing 1st Event
311C.cev)

Fig. 17. Second Event, Terminal A (9 – A Delayed Fault Clearing 2nd

Event 311C.cev)

Fig. 18 shows an automatic reclose. It was determined that

human error caused a hot-line tag to be taken on the wrong
line and not the energized line that the crew was working
under. Luckily, no one was injured in this event.

Fig. 20. Second Event, Terminal B (9 – B Delayed Fault Clearing 2nd Event
311C.cev)
 8

Z4G picks up and starts timing. Notice the load current

goes away (the remote end has opened).

Fig. 22. LG Fault (10 – Double End Fault Location R 121G.eve)

Engineers know these estimates are in error because they

Fig. 21. Third Event, Terminal B (9 – B Delayed Fault Clearing 3rd Event do not provide a common location on the line, do not add up
311C.cev) to 82 miles, and do not match the actual location of the fault,
as determined by visual inspection and damage.
Questions:
The actual location of the fault was about 17.5 miles from
IX-a In the first event report from Terminal A, how can a Terminal R.
fault located at 0.62 miles on a 2.96-mile-long line be The SEL-121G-3 and SEL-221G-3 transmission line relays
in Zone 4 and not Zone 1? are used at each terminal. The instruction manual is provided
as part of the class material and is also available at
IX-b Using the first and second event report from
www.selinc.com.
Terminal A, how long did it take for Terminal A to
Substations are referenced as Terminal R and Terminal S.
trip?
There are two event reports for this case study. They are
IX-c Terminal A trips via its permissive overreaching named 10 – Double End Fault Location R 121G.eve and
transfer trip (POTT) scheme logic. Can you explain 10 – Double End Fault Location S 121G.eve.
why the received permission-to-trip PT signal is A Mathcad® 2000 worksheet is also provided (10 – Two-
precisely 4.0 cycles long? ended_Neg-Seq_FLoc_- dac.mcd) for those who would like
to use it.
IX-d What triggered the third event report from Terminal A?
Question:
IX-e What triggered the first event report from Terminal B?
X-a Using the event data from each terminal, use the two-
IX-f What triggered the second event report from
ended negative-sequence fault location method to
Terminal B?
determine a more accurate fault location estimate.
IX-g Why do IA and IC currents go to zero in the second
The technical paper “Impedance-Based Fault Location
event report from Terminal B?
Experience” is available at www.selinc.com and is
IX-h How long does Terminal B take to clear the fault? recommended reading for more information on this subject.

IX-i What relay setting change can you suggest to XI. BUS DIFFERENTIAL OPERATION
drastically improve tripping sensitivity to high-
resistance faults and therefore speed up tripping? An engineer has applied two high-impedance bus
differential relays on the same bus and connected the
The technical paper “Very High-Resistance Fault on a differential elements in series. This was done to provide
525 kV Transmission Line – Case Study” is available at backup protection against a single relay failure. The high-
www.selinc.com and is recommended reading for more impedance bus protection is assumed to have two failure
information on this subject. modes. One failure mode is a relay disabled (power supply,
processor failure, and so on), but with its high impedance still
X. DOUBLE-ENDED FAULT LOCATION in the CT circuit. The other failure mode is a metal oxide
A fault occurred on an 82-mile-long 161 kV line. The left varistor (MOV) failed shorted, removing the high-impedance
terminal (R) provided a fault location estimate of 13.95 miles input of the relay.
(from the left). The right terminal (S) provided a fault location For internal faults, the series connection limits the
estimate of 56.5 miles (from the right). minimum sensitivity of the scheme. However, for solidly
 9

grounded systems, current sensitivity for bus faults is rarely a

problem.
The differential element voltage setting was calculated
using the standard CT plus lead resistance formula and a
safety factor of two. By connecting the two voltage elements
in series, a second safety factor of two is effectively applied
because each relay will only see half the voltage at the
junction point for an external fault.
For internal faults, the CTs will see a 4000-ohm burden
instead of 2000 ohms. The CTs are 1200:5, C800. The
87 elements are set to pick up at 146 V.
SEL-587Z Relays were used in this application. The
instruction manual is provided as part of the class material and
is also available at www.selinc.com.
Raw and filtered event reports from one of the series-
connected SEL-587Z Relays are provided for this case study.
The other relay data are identical. The events are named Fig. 24. Raw Bus Differential Operation (11 – High Impedance Bus Trip
587Z Raw.cev)
11 – High Impedance Bus Trip 587Z Filtered.cev and
11 – High Impedance Bus Trip 578Z Raw.cev. Questions:
Lockout relay contacts were wired in parallel with the
high-impedance inputs on the relays so that the inputs were XI-a Was this an internal or external fault?
shorts immediately after a trip. Overcurrent inputs were XI-b What element caused the trip?
connected in series with the voltage inputs to measure the
current through the high-impedance circuit. XI-c In the oscillograph data, why does the current signal
seemingly lag or follow the voltage?
XI-d Can you explain the difference in waveforms in the raw
event data (sharp peaks versus smooth sinusoids)?
The technical paper “Application Guidelines for
Microprocessor-Based High-Impedance Bus Differential
Relays” is available at www.selinc.com and is recommended
reading for more information on this subject.

XII. MOTOR TRIP

This event is from an induction motor that protects a boiler
water-circulating pump at a power plant. The motor was
running at the time of this event. See Fig. 25.
The SEL-710 motor protection relay protects the motor.
The instruction manual is provided as part of the class material
and is also available at www.selinc.com.
Fig. 23. Filtered Bus Differential Operation (11 – High Impedance Bus Trip There is one event report for this case study. The event is
587Z Filtered.cev)
named 12 – Motor Trip 710.cev.
 10

Fig. 25. Motor Trip (12 – Motor Trip 710.cev)

Fig. 26. Generator Close (13 – Generator Close 300G.cev)
Questions:
Questions:
XII-a What happened to the motor?
XIII-a What was the maximum current magnitude?
XII-b Can you prove the event was not caused by a load jam
XIII-b What element triggered this event report?
or jammed router?
XIII-c What conditions could produce this much current at
XII-c Can you prove that the motor did not stall because of
the terminals of this generator?
low voltage?
XIII-d If this was a fault, what would the current magnitude
XII-d What element caused the trip?
look like from the generator?
XII-e Does this application use a fused contactor or a circuit
XIII-e Was the generator in synchronism with the system
breaker?
prior to the breaker close?
XII-f Did the tripping element operate correctly?
XIII-f What is the root cause of the problem?
The textbook AC Motor Protection by Stanley E. Zocholl
XIII-g Why did the relay out-of-step (78) function not
is available at www.selinc.com and is recommended reading operate for this event?
for more information on this subject.
XIV. BIOGRAPHY
XIII. GENERATOR CLOSE
David Costello graduated from Texas A&M University in 1991 with a BSEE.
A 112 MVA steam unit was closed and generated the event He worked as a system protection engineer at Central Power and Light and
shown in Fig. 26. Operators scrambled to determine if the unit Central and Southwest Services in Texas and Oklahoma and served on the
System Protection Task Force for ERCOT. In 1996, David joined Schweitzer
tripped because of a fault or some other problem. Engineering Laboratories, Inc., where he has served as a field application
The SEL-300G generator relay was used to protect the unit. engineer and regional service manager. He presently holds the title of senior
The instruction manual is provided as part of the class material application engineer and works in Fair Oaks Ranch, Texas. He is a senior
member of the IEEE and a member of the planning committee for the
and is also available at www.selinc.com. Conference for Protective Relay Engineers at Texas A&M University. David
There is one event report for this case study. It is named was a recipient of the 2008 Walter A. Elmore Best Paper Award from the
13 – Generator Close 300G.cev. Georgia Institute of Technology Protective Relaying Conference and a
contributing author to the reference book Modern Solutions for the Protection,
Control, and Monitoring of Electric Power Systems.

© 2011, 2012 by Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

All rights reserved.
20120113 • LWP0009-01