Somalia Social Protection Policy: The Federal Government of Somalia
Somalia Social Protection Policy: The Federal Government of Somalia
Somalia Social Protection Policy: The Federal Government of Somalia
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FOREWORD
After years of conflict and recurrent shocks, with debilitated villages and cities, Somalia’s people are
struggling to meet their basic needs of housing, food and nutrition, water and sanitation and a means to
earn their livelihoods. Over half of Somalis fall under the extreme poverty line of $1.90 a day. With
over 2.65 million in displacement -including newly displaced and long-term IDPs, drought-induced
destitute pastoralists, and returnees, poverty incidence in IDP settlements reach up to 72 percent.
The Federal Government of Somalia defines social protection as “government-led policies and
programs, which address predictable needs throughout the life cycle in order to protect all groups, and
particularly the poor and vulnerable, against shocks, help them to manage risks, and provide them with
opportunities to overcome poverty, vulnerability, and exclusion”.
The development of Somalia’s first Social Protection Policy and eventually the framework is a political
milestone for Somalia that begins weaving the fabric for the social contract between the government
and the people of Somalia. The policy cuts across sectors, and is ambitious in its view of the future to
match the expectations of the Somali people.
The Government will implement the Social Protection Policy through a sustainable and comprehensive
national system. The policy envisions strengthening all components of a social protection system,
including linking with the development of a single registry and the long awaited national IDs. It
advocates for beginning with transitional safety nets then transitioning to the social protection floor as
and when the evidence base is built. Moreover, the policy promotes labour market policies and
interventions that lay the foundations for human capital development. Enlisting the private sector to
develop products that increase the participation of the informal sector and transfer risk from the poorest
households. As the policy is multi-ministry, multiagency and multi-sectoral, it will rely on careful
collaboration across a host of actors to achieve the maximum impact.
Consultations included stakeholders across the regions of Somalia, within communities, with donors,
UN, NGOs, and the private sector. Special thanks goes to those who contributed to the development of
the policy, especially the Italian Cooperation, who had the vision to support such an effort early on
when few thought it possible that Somalia could have SP much less a policy. To the United Nations
Children’s Fund and World Food Programme, who working with the think tank Samuel Hall and
Gabrielle Smith, provided technical support to the policy development process. I would like to thank
Ms. Fardosa Abdullahi, Social Protection Advisor, who worked tirelessly on the process as well as my
colleagues in the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, the Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs and
Disaster Management and the Ministry of Planning, Investment and Economic Development for their
support throughout the process. We look forward to working together to reduce poverty and
vulnerability, improve social cohesion and inclusion.
Somalia must address the critical challenge of poverty and vulnerability in the country, where three-
quarters of the population face daily deprivations and widespread chronic undernutrition. A
comprehensive social protection system can impact many of the multi-dimensional aspects of poverty
seen in Somalia. Doing so is essential to continue Somalia’s transition toward greater stability,
economic prosperity, resilience, and human development. Social protection delivered by the
government, with development partners, will complement the country’s diverse informal, traditional,
and community-based social protection mechanisms.
Somalia’s social protection system will focus on mitigating vulnerability, better aligning humanitarian
and developmental objectives, and reducing reliance on short-term humanitarian aid. Achieving these
goals is essential considering the frequency of disasters affecting the country, and will help Somalis to
cope more effectively with disasters and pursue poverty reduction. Since 2012, a number of initiatives
and studies have also assessed the feasibility of moving toward a nationally owned and coherent social
protection system.1 The resulting evidence base is the foundation for the development of the National
Social Protection Policy for Somalia.
Inevitably in a fragile context such as Somalia, several remaining barriers prevent the country’s
vulnerable populations from accessing the assistance they need. Challenges include the low technical,
institutional, and financial capacity of government actors, limited short-term funding streams, issues of
perceived trust in and accountability of international aid, marginalisation, insecurity, and lack of access
in large parts of South and Central Somalia. Overcoming them requires a long-term approach. The new
National Social Protection Policy will help the FGS ensure fiscal and political space for the social
protection agenda, develop a clear and realistic vision for social protection, guide implementation, and
link social protection with other policy actions to achieve comprehensive outcomes. It provides a
framework for delivering social protection coherently, effectively, and efficiently. Social protection will
thus be delivered in a way that is holistic and properly targeted, but also realistic and incremental,
considering the scale of these challenges.
Section 2 outlines the need for social protection in Somalia, including a summary of the poverty and
vulnerability context in the country, the importance of social protection to reducing poverty and
vulnerability, developing human capacity, building resilience, and ensuring equality. Section 2 also
describes experiences with cash-based social transfers in Somalia and prioritises vulnerable groups for
social protection interventions.
Section 3 is an overview of the institutional and programmatic context for social protection in Somalia.
Section 4 describes the vision and objectives of the policy and the policy priorities in Phase I (2019–
2023), which focuses on system and capacity strengthening, and Phase II (to 2040). The vision and
objectives align with the government’s National Development Plan 2017–2018. The policy will be
reviewed at the end of Phase I and actions for Phase II further elaborated, in accordance with the
evolving context, evidence, and experiences from Phase I and new data.
Section 5 details the systems and coordination structures required to implement the policy.
Poverty in Somalia
Somalia is considered to be one of the poorest countries in the world, consistently ranked in the bottom
10 depending on the criteria used.7 Gross domestic product per capita is estimated at US$435.8
Household data on poverty has recently improved: The High Frequency Survey of 2016 indicates that
52 percent of the Somali population lives below the extreme poverty line of US$1.9 per day.9 These
poverty rates are higher in rural (53 percent) than urban areas (41 percent excluding Mogadishu).
Poverty incidence is highest in IDP settlements (72 percent) and Mogadishu (58 percent). Urban areas
have higher absolute numbers of the extreme poor due to the consistent trend of urbanisation in the last
15 years — 61 percent of the poor are now thought to be concentrated in urban areas, particularly
Mogadishu, compared to 9 percent in rural areas. The remaining 32 percent live in IDP settlements.10
Somalia has one of the largest concentrations of IDPs in the world, including newly displaced and long-
term IDPs, drought-induced destitute pastoralists, and returnees.11 Poverty rates vary substantially
amongst regions, with Puntland (which experienced less insecurity and more political and
socioeconomic stability compared to the south of the country) having lower poverty rates than regions
such as Jubaland, Southwest, Hirshabelle, and the Galmudug States. The NDP and recent research on
poverty and vulnerability in Somalia highlight the multiple dimensions of poverty in the country, and
interactions between poverty and vulnerability. Poverty refers to levels of income and well-being, while
vulnerability relates to exposure to risk12 — both covariate and idiosyncratic — and capacity to manage
such risk. Annex 2 is a rapid overview of the key dimensions of political and socio-economic poverty
and vulnerability in the Somali context.
The extent of need in Somalia — both chronic and seasonal, where over half the population lives in
extreme poverty and large sections remain vulnerable to falling into extreme poverty13 — is such that a
majority of Somalis can be said to be in need of social protection. Poverty cuts across all major social
and population livelihood groups, with prevalence and vulnerability to hazards varying according to
livelihood and geography. However, while poverty is pervasive across Somali society, and causes and
consequences may differ, particular demographic groups are commonly acknowledged to be more
vulnerable to poverty and to the impacts of crises on account of their exposure to particular idiosyncratic
risks. Many of these correspond to particular stages of the lifecycle. Figure 2.1 depicts these lifecycle
vulnerabilities in the Somali context.
Figure 2.1 How Risk and Vulnerability Manifest Across the Lifecycle in Somalia (Source: Smith, 2014)
Stunting
Poor cognitive development Early
Disease and disability childhood
No immunization
Underemployment
Debt
Inadequate skills
Pregnancy/maternity Inadequate skills
Working Youth Unemployment
Child care
Disability age Youth
(15-24)
Unemployment
Alienation
Alienation
Gender discrimination Gender discrimination
Domestic violence
Children: The High Frequency Survey shows that Somalia has a very young population, with
approximately 50 percent below the age of 15 years. This population group is one of the poorest and
the most vulnerable, based on several indicators. Children under 5 years and those between 5 and 15
years are most likely to be poor, with poverty rates of 56 percent and 59 percent, respectively.14 Children
are vulnerable because they depend on others for their basic needs, are disproportionately exposed to
health-related shocks, and face difficulties in accessing their rights to education. Almost 47 percent of
children from 6 to 17 years old are not enrolled in school, a critical issue for intergenerational
transmission of poverty given that incidence of poverty is significantly higher among households whose
heads have no education. Low school enrolment rates are apparent throughout the country, and girls’
enrolment rates are significantly lower:
• Girls’ participation in education is consistently lower than that of boys. According to the 2017
UNICEF Somalia Education Baseline Survey, 43 percent of children enrolled in primary schools
were girls, while made up 56 percent.15 Nationally in 2015, the primary school Net Attendance Ratio
was estimated at some 21 percent for girls and 30 percent for boys.16 The last countrywide survey,
from 2006, found only 25 percent of women aged 15 to 24 years to be literate.17 The low availability
of sanitation facilities, lack of female teachers (less than 15 percent of primary-school teachers),
• Boys are at risk of recruitment by armed groups. Since mid-2017, child recruitment has become
more aggressive, with elders, teachers in Islamic religious schools, and communities in rural areas
ordered to provide thousands of children as young as 8 years old or face attack.19 In 2017, a report
from the UN Security Council estimated that more than 6,100 children (96 percent of them boys)
were recruited between 1 April 2010 and 31 July 2016 and that approximately 50 percent of armed
groups’ fighting strength was made up of children, with some as young as 9 years being sent to the
front.20
These data demonstrate how vulnerability can compound across the lifecycle: Unaddressed
vulnerabilities early in life can exacerbate vulnerabilities faced later in life. Children are also some of
the most vulnerable to waterborne diseases, measles, and malaria.21 Of children, orphans and street
children are known to be amongst the poorest and most vulnerable.22 Failure to ensure minimum income
security for households with children, particularly in contexts such as Somalia, has irreversible
consequences for their cognitive development, resulting in decreased capacity of the future labour force
and, therefore, reduced opportunities for Somalia to benefit from the 21st century globalised economy.
Therefore, it is important that all social protection schemes be child-sensitive.23
• Persons with disabilities: Poverty rates are higher amongst persons with disabilities,24 who face
major constraints in pursuing an adequate livelihood due to mobility restrictions, distance to or
nonexistence of services, lack of access to assistive devices, and exposure to chronic illnesses. The
Preamble of the 2006 UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, signed by Somalia
but not yet ratified, recognises that disability is an evolving concept that must be contextualised.25
This is particularly relevant to Somalia, which has a long history of violence and high prevalence of
mental health issues and post-traumatic stress disorders). Although long-term physical disabilities
are sometimes more obvious, it is essential also to assess less visible mental, intellectual, or sensory
impairments that limit effective participation in Somali society and create dependence on relatives
or wider society for survival.26
• Elderly: Age increases susceptibility to small yet debilitating shocks, such as age-related and
chronic illnesses; the growing frailty of older people reduces their ability to work, which can throw
households into poverty. Older people are at greater risk of health epidemics including waterborne
diseases and malaria27 and less able to deal with the impacts of covariate shocks.
• Women: Societal norms confer low social status to women and constrain access to productive
resources (loans, land, inputs), jobs, and social services (education, health, contraceptive
knowledge). For example, 55 percent of women lack access to education, compared to 40 percent of
men.28 Limited access to services means the majority of women are illiterate, and maternal mortality
rates are amongst the highest in the world;29 women also are one of the groups at greatest risk of
epidemic diseases.30 Women in rural areas have been identified as one of the groups most vulnerable
to climate change impacts in Somalia due to unequal access to material and natural resources.31
Nearly all (96 percent) of survivors of gender-based violence in Somalia are women and girls,32 and
98 percent of women have undergone a form of female genital mutilation Beyond the psychological
effects and immediate risks of death, long-term consequences of female genital mutilation include
complications during childbirth, anaemia, the formation of cysts and abscesses, sexual dysfunction,
and increased risk of HIV.33 Likewise, the Somali labour market reveals a large gender gap, as
evidenced by an exceptionally low ratio of female to male participation rate in the labour force (25
percent to 75 percent, respectively).34 The low labour force participation of women is in contrast to
In a context where so many people can be considered vulnerable due to poverty, it is important to
recognise that the demographic groups mentioned above are consistently identified as ‘most vulnerable’
and deserving of assistance by communities themselves, regardless of geography or livelihood group.35
Other groups of interest include:
• Youth: Somalia’s large youth population could be an asset for the country’s economic, political,
and social development: The Population Estimation Survey for Somalia carried out between October
2013 and March 2014 found that 46 percent of the Somali population was below the age of 15 and
81 percent was below the age of 35. Among youth between 15 and 30 years of age,37 the poverty
36
rate is 43 percent.38 However, a great challenge in Somalia is the difficulties this group face in
participating in political and economic spheres. Two-thirds of young people are unemployed despite
receiving a better education than their parents’ generation; although educational opportunities and
skills training are improving, these are insufficient for the labour market, and political participation
is weak. These factors are considered major risks which influence future conflict, since the major
structural drivers underlying youth engagement in violent conflict in Somalia are high youth
unemployment and lack of livelihood opportunities.39
• Larger households and those with more dependents: Poverty incidence is highly correlated with
household size in Somalia, where a poor household has 7.23 members on average compared to 5.57
members in non-poor households. Poor households also have a higher dependency ratio, further
illustrating the importance of social protection measures for children, the elderly, and the disabled
for household poverty and well-being.
• Migrants and displaced people: Somali migration patterns are complex, with 32,747 refugees and
asylum seekers (mainly from Ethiopia and Yemen), 123,400 refugee returnees from Kenya since
December 2014, and 2,648,000 IDPs.40 In 2017, more than one-third of the people who were in crisis
and emergency were internally displaced.41 IDP households are consistently identified as among the
poorest and most vulnerable, with considerably higher poverty rates in IDP settlements and generally
larger household sizes.42 In 2017, more than one-third of people who were in crisis and experiencing
emergencies were internally displaced.43 The majority of IDPs are women and children under 18
years,44 who face greater protection risk (including for gender-based violence and trafficking in
persons). Among these, nomadic pastoralists who have lost all their livestock present a particular
challenge in terms of return, local integration, or settlement elsewhere.45
• Other marginalised groups: While predominant groups in Somalia benefit from strong social
solidarity, marginalised groups — such as nomadic and pastoralist communities — lack the social
networks which act as safety nets for other groups. Vulnerabilities often extend beyond economic
crises, including lack of access to certain livelihood opportunities as well as lack of political power
and protection. These systemic exclusionary and discriminatory practices against marginalised
groups contribute to high levels of acute humanitarian need among chronically vulnerable groups.46
The FGS defines social protection as ‘government-led policies and programmes which address
predictable needs throughout the life cycle in order to protect all groups, and particularly the poor and
vulnerable, against shocks, help them to manage risks, and provide them with opportunities to overcome
poverty, vulnerability, and exclusion’. 48
By helping to address the root causes of poverty, risk, and vulnerability, social protection is expected
to impact risk mitigation at the individual and household levels and contribute to poverty reduction,
social cohesion, and inclusion. The FGS will implement the Social Protection Policy through a
sustainable and comprehensive national system.
There is increasing analysis of and evidence that social protection, over the long term, will be more
cost-effective than reliance on repeated, cyclical, short-term humanitarian interventions to support
resilience-building that helps to avoid crises.49 Social protection can contribute to strengthening the
resilience building effort, whilst also providing a mechanism for flexing and scaling effectively to meet
additional needs during crisis periods.
The process of state-building that has been underway in Somalia since 2012 has created the opportunity
for a transition to longer-term policymaking and programming centred on resilience. The FGS and its
partners are unanimous in stating the need for more predictable assistance to those in need and in
promoting the development of a social protection floor, and safety nets as a core component of a
resilience and development strategy in Somalia.50 A national social protection system will also serve as
a means to reduce the fragmentation of international aid in Somalia.51
The extent of need in Somalia — both chronic and seasonal, where over half of the population lives in
extreme poverty and large segments remain vulnerable to falling into extreme poverty52 — is such that
a majority of Somalis could be said to be in need of social protection. This was evident from the impact
of the 2016–2017 drought, where the number of people in a state of emergency (Integrated Food
Security Phase Classification, or IPC, Phase 4) increased more than tenfold from 83,000 to 866,000
people in just 10 months, until half of the population required humanitarian assistance — including 3.3
million requiring urgent life-saving assistance. However, particular demographic groups are
commonly acknowledged to be more vulnerable to poverty53 and to the impacts of crises on account
of their exposure to particular idiosyncratic risks. Many of these correspond to particular stages of the
lifecycle.
A nationally owned and led system: Social protection is government-owned and -led and is informed
by national policies and institutions, although other actors will play supporting and implementing roles.
In Somalia, the FGS and Federal Member States (FMS) will require extensive support from a range of
development and humanitarian partners, civil society, and the private sector in the short to medium
term, while capacities are developed.
A balanced focus on chronic and seasonal, economic and social vulnerabilities: Poverty in Somalia
is dynamic; people can move in and out of poverty. At the same time, some households remain
chronically poor. Households facing multiple vulnerabilities, and that are socially marginalised, are
likely to be most deprived. Social protection should provide a predictable level of assistance to the
chronically vulnerable and those suffering from long-term destitution, as well as supporting households
that are at risk seasonally and on a recurrent basis. Social protection must seek to address social as well
as economic vulnerabilities. This includes awareness of inequities in society and the marginalisation,
lack of autonomy, and burden of labour of particular groups (such as women) and at a minimum should
do no harm.
A broad vision but incremental implementation: Addressing the broad spectrum of chronic poverty
and vulnerability through a range of schemes that collectively enable everyone to maintain an adequate
standard of living should be the long-term aim of social protection. However, this goal must be couched
in the reality of Somalia’s still-emerging political and governance systems and financial and technical
capabilities. In the short to medium term, a small number of interventions must be prioritised. United
Nations Social Protection Floor initiative was introduced in acknowledgement of the need for
comprehensive coverage across the lifecycle, as well as country capacities. This initiative promotes a
lifecycle approach to social protection by ensuring basic income transfers for key vulnerable groups,
whilst supporting access to essential health care as a crosscutting requirement for all groups.54 In this
regard, the definition of a specific social protection floor tailored to the Somali context and building on
existing social transfer initiatives may be a realistic objective in the short to medium term. The
establishment of a basic income floor for all provides a platform for a system to which other secondary
instruments, such as social insurance, may be added to increase levels of provision.
Flexible and scalable funding mechanisms: Somalia will continue to face multiple hazards, to which
large portions of the population are vulnerable, and which will require temporary humanitarian
assistance. The country’s social protection system must seek to address lifecycle vulnerabilities whilst
also taking into account the prevalence of covariate shocks, and must integrate additional preventive
measures that can be scaled up as needed through flexible funding mechanisms.
Integration with other priority agendas (resilience, durable solutions): Poverty in Somalia is
complex and multi-dimensional; it differs according to various political, social, and regional contexts.
No single action can realise poverty reduction, and social protection cannot address all risk factors or
all structural causes of vulnerability. Social protection, as one component of a poverty reduction
strategy, must be conceived alongside other complementary policy interventions. In this regard,
alignment with and bridges between this policy and other strategies — such as the durable solutions or
resilience agendas — are essential.
Long-term objectives with predictable and secured funding: Building a comprehensive social
protection system requires long-term funding, objectives, time horizons, and programming. In a fragile
context such as Somalia, this will require a fundamental departure from the short-term cycles of
humanitarian assistance and strong international engagement for the foreseeable future.
Institutions and structures for government-owned social protection are becoming established in
Somalia. MoLSA will lead the social protection portfolio of the FGS in close coordination with
MoHADM and MoPIED. At the FMS level, the designation of social protection has advanced in
Puntland, where it is a priority under the social services sector of the strategic development plan, and
falls under the mandate of the Ministry of Women and Social Affairs. This was further demonstrated
by the establishment of the Puntland Agency for Social Welfare in 2009 to support the social care and
social protection needs of orphans and vulnerable children. 60
Relevant coordination mechanisms at the federal and member state level have been established and will
be useful for coordinating the inputs from government and non-governmental stakeholders needed for
implementation of the Social Protection Policy.
• Technical Working Group: The MoLSA facilitated the creation of the intergovernmental
technical group, comprising representatives from the FGS, the FMS, and Banadir region to
support the development of the Social Protection Policy. It is envisioned that this group will
continue to work on social protection by supporting the development of the social protection
system.
3.1.3 Regulatory Frameworks for Private Sector Involvement in Social Protection Delivery
Financial service providers are critical partners in the design, scaling, and implementation of the
administrative process for delivering income transfers under the Social Protection Policy. With the
consolidation of the role of the Central Bank of Somalia, oversight of the financial sector, and the
development of financial systems within Somalia, the private sector will be able to fill gaps in the
provision of regulated financial services, including banking and related products.
Service providers include, among others, telecommunications companies, which have expanded to fill
the void in money transfer services due to the lack of a strong banking sector. Investment in network
coverage over vast areas of the country has paved the way for high cell phone penetration.64 Advancing
the use of digital payment systems in Somalia generally, and within the government specifically, can
improve the efficiency of aid, enhance the security of payments, and advance financial services for all
Somalis. These financial service providers are thus critical partners in supporting (among other possible
solutions) the design and implementation of the administrative process for delivery of income transfers
under the Social Protection Policy. At the same time, challenges include implementing improvements
to the regulatory environment and controls on money laundering and diversion of funds.65 The FGS is
working with development partners to address these issues.
Under the Communications Act of 2017, telecommunications firms must register all SIM cards with
users’ biometric information, producing a set of data that can support the future establishment of a
single registry system.66 Various actors amongst the humanitarian partners and regional governments
also use registration and payment systems that collect biometric data. The FGS currently works with
the World Bank and the telecommunications sector to support the development of a system that will
serve as a national identification with multiple functions and that is linked to a range of benefits and
services to Somali citizens.
These traditional safety nets, based along familial or social groupings, have formed an important coping
mechanism at times of crisis. However, this policy recognises that they do not work equally well for all
as certain communities and vulnerable households from marginalised groups can be excluded. A formal
and institutionalised social protection system that complements and align with the values and premises
of traditional assistance is therefore likely to be well understood by communities but at the same time
take into consideration the potential of excluding marginalised groups and put in place corrective
measures.
The Somalia Constitution69 enshrines the right of all persons to access their economic and social rights,
including social protection and the protection of particular vulnerable groups. The Constitution
acknowledges the role of the government in realising the following:
(2) Every person has the right to health care, and no one may be denied emergency health care for any
reason, including lack of economic capability.
(4) Every person has the right to protect, pursue, and achieve the fulfilment of the rights recognised in
this Article, in accordance with the law, and without interference from the state or any other party.
(5) It shall be ensured that women, the aged, the disabled, and minorities who have long suffered
discrimination get the necessary support to realise their socio-economic rights.
• Article 29 — Children
(2) Every child has the right to be protected from mistreatment, neglect, abuse, or degradation.
(3) No child may perform work or provide services that are not suitable for the child’s age or create a
risk to the child’s health or development in any way.
Moreover, the draft Persons with Disability Rights Bill outlines the government bodies responsible for
the protection of disabled persons — especially the National Disabled Commission, which includes
members from the Ministry of Women and Human Rights Affairs, MoLSA, and representatives from
associations of the disabled community in Somalia. Furthermore, the draft bill outlines the special rights
of disabled people; issues of accessibility and mobility; health care and rehabilitation; and participation
in cultural life, sports, and entertainment.
Somalia has signed and ratified international conventions relevant to social protection, including a) the
International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, b) the Worst Forms of Child Labour
Convention, c) the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disability, d) the International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights, e) the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment (which is increasingly used in grave cases of sexual violence), and f) the
African Charter on Human and People’s Rights. Somalia is also a signatory to g) the Convention on the
Rights of the Child and h) the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child.
At the heart of these conventions are the entitlements set out in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (1948). Internationally, the declaration recognises social protection as a fundamental human
right for all citizens of the world:
• Article 22: ‘Everyone, as a member of society, has a right to social security and is entitled to
realisation through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the
organisation and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable
for his dignity and the free development of his personality’.
• Article 23.3: ‘Everyone who works has the right to just and favorable remuneration ensuring for
himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by
other means of social protection’.
• Article 25: ‘Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being
of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary
social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability,
widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. Motherhood
and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance’.
Somalia is not a party to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women (CEDAW) but the conventions mentioned above can be applied along with tools such as the
FGS National Action Plan on Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and the National Action Plans on
Children in Armed Conflict (which also touch on issues related to gender-based violence).
Some International Labour Conventions have particular relevance to social protection in the Somali
context: Freedom of Association and Right to Organise (87), Right to Organise and Collective
Bargaining (98), and Worst Forms of Child Labour (182).
Somalia has endorsed the Sustainable Development Goals, which include commitments to establishing
more predictable social protection by 2040:
• The 2009 Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in
Africa (Kampala Convention), which includes important provisions on housing, land, and
property rights (Article 4, specifically 4.4 and 4.5), non-discrimination (Article 9, specifically
9.1a, 9.1e, 9.2a, and 92f), access to basic services (9.2b, 9.2c), local integration or relocation
(Article 11), compensation (Article 12), and registration and personal documentation (Article
13).
• The 2013 Social Policy Framework for member states sets out commitments to build a social
protection floor of programmes that provides a minimum level of support to protect against
shocks throughout the lifecycle including in childhood, unemployment, disability and old age70.
The NDP recognises that economic and social development and social cohesion can only be achieved
if a greater proportion of the population enjoy the right to access a minimum standard of living and
minimum level of services, thus sharing in the growth of the economy and experiencing a better quality
of life and shared resilience. The NDP represents a guiding framework that incorporates social care
(services), resilience, social protection, and safety net programming.
Resilience: The resilience pillar explicitly seeks to reduce the current humanitarian caseload, including
for food and nutrition security and access to basic social services in the face of shocks, and to contribute
to the social and economic inclusion of the poorest in Somali society, including displaced and returning
populations and the extremely poor in rural and peri-urban areas.
Durable solutions: Achieving durable solutions is a key government priority, reflected under the
resilience pillar of the NDP and mainstreamed across sectors. In 2016, The FGS launched a Durable
Solutions Initiative with the Deputy Special Representative of the Secretary General/Resident
Coordinator/Humanitarian Coordinator as a collective approach to durable solutions. The momentum
has continued with the 2017 Intergovernmental Authority on Development summit and the Nairobi
Social and human development: The NDP recognises that economic and social development and
social cohesion can be achieved only if a greater proportion of the population accesses their rights to
minimum standards of living and minimum level of services (social protection floors), thus sharing in
the growth of the economy and experiencing a better quality of life and actual resilience. In particular,
strong links are recognised with the social and human development pillar, which aims to progressively
accelerate universal access to and utilisation of basic social services — and, in particular, increase the
quality of nutrition, health, education, and water services whilst simultaneously investing in people.
Social protection, as a key pillar of decent work, is also a key strategy for achieving labour and
employment priorities. In the Somali context, measures may include developing and implementing a
wages and remuneration policy and an appropriate minimum wage system, strengthening social security
provisions for the working population, and establishing a system of cash transfers for the most
vulnerable.
Consolidating peace, inclusive politics, security, and rule of law: The NDP recognises the imperative
of maintaining peace and security as a precondition to achieving economic growth and is committed to
addressing the root causes of conflict and increasing social, economic, and legal justice. Social
protection will support these efforts by addressing constraints which threaten to jeopardise future
stability. It will also address the unmet needs of large number of vulnerable youth for skills development
and increased employment opportunity. Strong social protection can provide tangible evidence of the
dividends of peace, transferred from the government to those who have been marginalised from
development, and supporting them to fulfil their basic human rights.
Economic growth: A social protection system complements FGS priority actions to stabilise incomes,
consumption, and assets and protects human capital development. Well-functioning social protection
systems are proven to act as automatic macroeconomic stabilisers in times of shocks and economic
downturns, and they can stimulate development through investment in infrastructure, increased
agricultural production, and improvement of livelihoods and ability to access gainful employment.
Building effective and efficient institutions: To execute a long-term agenda for stability and equitable
wealth creation, efficient and streamlined administration is required at the federal, regional, and local
levels. The social protection system will complement efforts to build regional and sub-national
capacities for service delivery by fostering innovation in system administration. Furthermore, social
protection programmes add most value when delivered as part of a holistic set of policies and
programmes that contribute to broader access to services, credit and savings, and employment creation.
The social protection system as a crosscutting area of policy will develop institutional linkages across
government, to be integrated as part of a broader public service delivery package.
• Somali Health Policy (2014): The goal of the policy is to provide a ‘people-centred essential
package of health services with efficient, equitable, culturally acceptable and universal access to
promotive, preventive, curative and rehabilitative services that produce the desired health
outcomes in terms of reduced morbidity, mortality and improved quality of life and wellbeing’.
Among the priority policy directions, three key objectives should be highlighted: a) strengthening
reproductive, maternal, neonatal, and child health and nutrition; b) preventing and controlling the
spread of priority targeted communicable diseases to reduce their burden of morbidity, mortality,
and disability (with a focus on acute watery diarrhoea, cholera, other enteric diseases, acute
respiratory diseases, tuberculosis, malaria, HIV/AIDS, hepatitis B and C, and others); and c)
moving toward universal health coverage by increasing government budgetary allocations for
health, ‘while mobilising the participation and financial contributions to different health
interventions from regions, local governments and grass root communities, supported by
transparent collective oversight and monitoring of the resources’. The 2014 policy also
recommends the introduction of financial support to transport children for vaccination and pregnant
women for antenatal visits (voucher- based systems) and public-private partnerships with incentives
that aim to harness the contribution of private-for-profit and private-not-for-profit capabilities.
• National Disaster Management Policy 2017: This policy provides a legislative framework for
embedding disaster management within appropriate government structures and for strengthening
capacities for effective disaster preparedness, response, mitigation, prevention, and recovery at the
federal, member state, and waax and tabeela (section and village) levels to protect lives and
livelihoods, property, the environment, and the economy. A policy priority under the objective of
disaster mitigation and response is to build household, community, and institutional resilience to
acute shocks — those risks and vulnerabilities directly associated with natural hazards and non-
climatic shocks — while priority under the objective of recovery is given to preventing the erosion
and speeding the recovery of livelihoods. Developing strong social protection is recognised as
critical to achieving this in order to help households cope with shocks and withstand the negative
impacts of disasters. Key intervention strategies under the policy include establishing Disaster
Management Information and Coordination Centres at the national and regional levels, conducting
hazard mapping, establishing early warning systems at the federal and regional levels, and repairing
• Framework for Disaster Management 2016–2018: The goal of the Somali Disaster Management
Agency’s Framework for Disaster Management is to ‘build capacity of communities and local
/regional authorities to manage disasters in their areas, protect lives and livelihoods of the
vulnerable and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to [hazards]’. The framework comprises
six strategic objectives. Objective 5 focuses on ‘developing capacity at federal and regional levels
for timely and effective disaster preparedness and response, significantly reduc[ing] the number of
deaths, extent of damage and economic loss and the number of people affected by disasters’. Under
this objective, a priority action outlined for the Somalia Disaster Management Agency (SODMA)
and the United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs is to undertake evidence-based
advocacy for a social protection system — to establish a national social protection programme
targeting the most vulnerable, elderly, women, and children by 2018 and to build research-based
advocacy capacity within SODMA related to social protection and early action.
• Draft National Gender Policy 2018: The Draft National Gender Policy establishes a ‘framework
to guide the process of developing legislations, policy formulations, implementation and
programmes that will promote equal rights and opportunities for women and men in all spheres of
life’. The policy outlines four priority areas for gender-based interventions: economic
empowerment, health, education, and political participation.
• Draft National Policy on Refugee-Returnees and IDPs 2018: The objective of this policy is to
‘ensure that all IDPs and returning Somali refugees enjoy the full equality and obtain the same
rights that the National Constitution, all other laws of Somalia, as well as international
humanitarian and human rights’ laws gives them as all other citizens’. The policy acknowledges
the responsibility of FGS and FMS in creating durable solutions for IDPs (including returning
refugees). One condition laid out in the policy is that actors in Somalia ensure the re-establishment
of livelihoods and alternative livelihood options, and the implementation of social welfare schemes.
The policy commits specifically to ‘establishing safety nets for minimal social protection in areas
where communities are or will be permanently or seasonally at risk to natural shocks upon return’.
Finally, the draft policy looks at reintegrating IDPs into the areas they have settled, with the option
to return or resettle for those who wish to.
• National Youth Policy 2017: The National Youth Policy has adopted a series of objectives to
empower the young people of Somalia and ensure participation and collaborative interventions on
youth issues, including specific focus on a) education and skills development, b) employment
creation and economic development, c) healthy lifestyles for boys and girls, d) protection-related
issues, and e) inclusion of marginalised youth and promotion of non-discriminatory principles and
attitudes (gender equity, support to youth with disabilities, IDPs, etc.). The policy acknowledges
the importance of effective collaboration and coordination amongst all youth development
stakeholders to ensure youth have access to equitable opportunities for the development of their full
social, economic, and political potential.
• Draft National Employment Policy (2019): Somalia faces a host of employment challenges, as
‘the destruction of the education system and the absence of a significant vocational and technical
training system has resulted in a substantial skills deficit among the youth in Somalia’. A second
important issue is the absence of reliable and accurate data on the state of the labour market.
‘Compounding these issues are rapid urbanisation (driven by a combination of rural distress,
climate change, conflict and restructuring of the economy) and periodic droughts and other effects
• There is a need to transition from current reliance on fragmented and short-term humanitarian
aid to more regular, predictable, and long-term assistance.
• There is a need for a comprehensive mapping of social protection provisions to identify the
successful initiatives on which social protection coverage extension can be based, and also to
assess coverage gaps along the social protection floor (SPF) lifecycle approach.
• Building such a comprehensive and sustainable social protection system requires a long-term
perspective and must proceed incrementally as national capacities grow; not everyone can be
supported simultaneously, and instruments and programmes must be prioritised.
• Social transfers, primarily in the form of cash, are highly appropriate in the context of Somalia.
They can reach the extreme poor, can impact on multiple dimensions of poverty, and are a
feasible starting point for developing a nationally owned social protection system given
previous experience.
• Social protection has the strongest outcomes when it is delivered alongside other sectoral
policies and programmes that simultaneously address other aspects of multi-dimensional
poverty and vulnerability. These remain at an early stage of development in Somalia. As basic
services are strengthened, social protection can complement services through social transfers
and other instruments that facilitate access to services for the poorest. Building capacities and
systems at all levels within government is essential in order for the FGS and FMS to manage
aspects of social transfer programme design and implementation in the future.
• During the transition to nationally owned social protection, humanitarian and development
assistance programmes through international and national partners will continue to be necessary
and must be better coordinated and aligned to this policy.
• Lifecycle risks are common to all parts of Somalia and in all communities. Such risks can
exacerbate exposure to and the impact of natural disasters, conflict, insecurity, and
displacement. The vulnerability of women, children, the elderly, the disabled, and marginalised
groups are of particular note.
• Assistance must be administered in such a way as to build confidence in nationhood and support
for good governance. This is best achieved if the government is perceived as providing fairly
for its citizens. To achieve this, assistance must be transparent. Eligibility for social protection
must be easy for citizens to understand and must not create or exacerbate social tensions. In
Somalia, where poverty is pervasive, communities understand vulnerability as it relates to
• In contexts where the majority of people consider themselves poor and in need of assistance,
poverty targeting is likely to be inaccurate and perceived as unfair.
Involving the community in aspects of targeting can build links and foster cohesion, but any engagement
must be strongly facilitated in order to reduce barriers for vulnerable and marginalised groups.
• Labour-intensive public works (LIPW) are not the only — or, indeed, the most cost-effective
— policy options for reaching and benefiting families of working age and with labour capacity.
• Set a long-term vision for more predictable, institutionalised, nationally owned social
protection for Somalia.
• Build on existing strengths while remaining grounded in the present-day reality of Somalia’s
fragility in socio-economic, political, and environmental spheres.
• Define short- and medium- to long-term priorities for programming and institutional
strengthening, to gradually establish an inclusive social protection system that brings the
poorest and most vulnerable households into the development process in the longer term
without compromising support provided in the short to medium term.
• Provide the basis for a system which supports the needs of all people (especially the poorest
and most vulnerable groups) throughout the lifecycle, based initially on predictable cash
transfers.
• Present guidance for ensuring coordination and monitoring of social protection programmes.
• Furnish guidelines for mobilising resources for financing the social protection system.
The policy applies to all institutions of the FGS and FMS, local authorities, and organisations outside
the government system that are involved in its implementation. The policy requires those organisations
to progressively align their actions to its policy orientation, guiding principles, vision, goals, and
objectives.
National ownership and leadership: The government bears primary responsibility for provision of
social protection to Somali citizens. Strong government leadership at all levels (federal, member state,
district, and waax and tabeela (section and village) will be promoted and supported. In line with the
compact, all existing and emerging FMS administrations will participate equally in implementing the
national policy. Other actors will support the government to implement aspects of the policy, under the
oversight of the government.
Rights- and responsibilities-based: The people of Somalia hold inalienable rights to social security,
survival, protection, and participation. Social protection will promote the progressive realisation of
human rights as articulated in Somalia’s Constitution and other relevant national and international legal
instruments and conventions.
Equity and social inclusion: Social protection will address social as well as economic vulnerabilities,
protecting and including those who are marginalised or discriminated against on account of geography,
religion, social groupings, gender, age, livelihood, or disability. Interventions will be neutral and non-
discriminatory.
Complementarity: All activities will be firmly anchored in the macroeconomic framework and
priorities and objectives for development, poverty reduction, humanitarian assistance, and disaster risk
reduction in Somalia. Programmes will reinforce and complement the work streams implemented under
other national sector policies, as well as traditional forms of community support.
Integration and coordination: The social protection system will be designed to ensure the integration
of social protection programmes and wider interventions and services to efficiently address multi-
faceted vulnerabilities. Social protection interventions will be delivered in a timely, harmonised,
reliable manner, with clearly assigned roles and responsibilities and ways of working amongst all
stakeholders. Government agencies and partners involved in social protection will commit to a common
set of operational, financial management, monitoring, and reporting processes that are consistent with
national, regional, and international guidelines and indicators.
Needs- and evidence-based: Social protection programmes will be developed based on analysis of
evidence that clarifies who needs what type of assistance and on national and international evidence of
what does and does not work.
Partnership: Sound and sustained partnerships will be developed amongst diverse actors, including
with organisations that represent the highest and best interests of the vulnerable — particularly those
that advocate for the rights of children, women, IDPs, and marginalised groups. Organisations will
include international donors and agencies, national and international NGOs, associations, and the
private sector.
Participation: Intended beneficiaries will be consulted and involved; they will participate in the design,
planning, and implementation of social protection interventions.
Capacity building: Ensuring the government’s role in leading and implementing social protection
requires capacity building in human and technical resources, institutions, and operational systems.
The Social Protection Policy is oriented toward an ambitious long-term vision, from a perspective of
17 years:
By 2040, Somalia will have progressively established a functional social protection system
which delivers predictable assistance through the lifecycle, according to a consensus across
Somali society identifying the most vulnerable. The social protection system will reduce
deprivation and inequality, help people meet their short-term needs and invest in their food
security, health, education, and livelihoods, increasing the resilience of the population in the
face of shocks and helping to maintain the gains they make. It will contribute to equitable
and inclusive economic growth and poverty reduction. It will reduce the current reliance on
unpredictable humanitarian financing to address cyclical crises. A government-led and -
planned approach will be supported by a range of international and national stakeholders,
designed according to best practices and available technology and financed consistently and
sustainably.
The social protection system will be protective, providing essential support to and shielding those who
live in poverty from the worst consequences of that condition. It will be preventive, putting in place
mechanisms to prevent people from falling into poverty as a result of shocks. It will be promotive in
that it will support poor people’s investment in their own and their families’ future; for those who are
fit for productive work, it will provide a means to escape poverty and reduce reliance on external
support. The social protection system will also be transformative by including traditionally
marginalised groups and reinforcing social cohesion.
The social protection system will provide long-term, predictable support to the most vulnerable
demographic groups, enabling them to effectively manage shocks and risks experienced throughout the
lifecycle. It will pay special attention to the needs of particular vulnerable categories of the population,
including children, women, youth, the elderly, persons with disabilities, IDPs and returnees,
marginalised groups, and people of working age who are without employment or who face chronic and
seasonal difficulties in accessing productive livelihoods. It will support flexible and rapid scale-up to
enable effective, community-wide responses to shocks and provision of seasonal or short -term
emergency assistance where needed.
Policy Goal
To progressively build a comprehensive and coherent social protection system that combats poverty
and vulnerability in Somalia while contributing to economic growth, peace and security, human
development, and equity through programmes which improve food security and nutrition, support
access to basic social services, enhance livelihoods and assets, reduce negative coping, and protect at-
risk populations from recurrent shocks.
The social protection system that will be developed from 2019 to 2040 will comprise a range of
instruments including social assistance, social insurance, active labour market policies, and social care
services. In the long term, integrated programming will provide a range of support across the spectrum
of well-being or wealth groups. In line with the fragility of Somalia, where systems of governance and
technical and financial capacities will take time to develop, in the short to medium term the policy will
prioritise development of social transfers. The operational processes, systems, institutions, and
capacities upon which these programmes are based will also be systematically developed.
1. Establish and strengthen systems and capacities of the government of Somalia and other
stakeholders to design, implement, and monitor coordinated and effective social protection
programmes, including social assistance, social care, labour market policies, and social
insurance.
2. Progressively expand access to social assistance, especially social transfers, which support the
poorest and most vulnerable to improve their standard of living in line with a minimum social
protection floor, contribute to human capital development, improve food and nutrition security,
access productive livelihoods and basic needs, and build resilience to shocks.
3. Build the foundations for social insurance within the formal sector — for example, for pensions,
with a view to developing mechanisms for increasing participation of the informal and private
sector.
4. Combine income support with broader labour related policy measures that assist those
populations with labour capacity to access employment and productive livelihoods.
5. Extend access to and coverage of quality social care services for poor and vulnerable
households and individuals.
This policy will be rolled out in a phased approach, beginning with a pilot phase to achieve successes
that build political and citizen support, derive lessons learned for adjustments, build capacity, and make
funds available. This document outlines the policy priorities for Phase I (until 2024). These are
considered immediate priorities, based on an assessment of what can be considered feasible in the short
to medium term and serving as necessary precursors to more ambitious longer-term actions. This policy
also summarises anticipated priorities for Phase II (five to 20 years) — the longer-term requirements
for building a more inclusive social protection system.
1. Strengthen the capacity of institutions, systems, and human resources to manage social assistance
and social care.
2. Develop and test innovative operational systems for beneficiary registration, payment delivery,
information management, and accountability to ensure efficient and effective access for some of
the most vulnerable to a transitional safety net and to build a foundation for social protection
delivery.
3. Develop a robust monitoring and evaluation system that ensures effective management of social
protection (social transfer) programmes for the most vulnerable households, people, and groups and
that informs policy decisions for Phase II.
5. Conduct studies and collect evidence on the vulnerability of the population and the impact of social
transfer programmes to inform programming priorities under this policy in Phase II.
6. Commence the development of a social registry and necessary integration with other databases for
social protection programmes.
• Subject to decisions of the FGS regarding the development of a single registry in Somalia,
support development of the registry, and any necessary integration with existing database, to
develop a fully integrated registry of the beneficiaries of social protection programmes and a
repository of data on non-beneficiaries that can inform future programming.
• Take stock of learnings, and consolidate and modify institutional arrangements, coordination
mechanisms, financing arrangements, data management, and monitoring and evaluation
systems into a unified, robust, nationally owned system for coordinated and cost-effective
delivery of multiple social transfer programmes.
• Subject to the results of mapping and piloting activities in Phase I (under Policy Objectives 3,
4, and 5) develop delivery systems and administrative processes for the progressive expansion
of social protection schemes that are adopted or scaled up in Phase II (for example, social
insurance schemes, social care services, measures to promote employment, and others).
• Enact legislation which provides a legal mandate to departments within the FGS and FMS to
provide social protection to citizens.
• Map and expand fiscal space for sustainable long-term funding of a range of social protection
interventions.
Registration and enrolment systems: Access to social protection programmes for poor and vulnerable
groups in Somalia should be as straightforward as possible. Registration and enrolment procedures for
a transitional safety net programme will be developed, involving non-governmental partners in design
and implementation, in the interim while government capacities are emerging. This will capitalise on
the capabilities and learning of humanitarian actors in developing registration systems for cash
assistance to date, whilst ensuring that any systems put in place will be owned by government and meet
its requirements. These processes will minimise the responsibilities expected of applicants or
prospective beneficiaries and keep processes simple. Ideally, all requisite information will be collected
during a single registration meeting and will be easy to verify. Most households in Somalia lack formal
identification, and there is no foundational identification system in place. Going forward, the FGS will
prioritise the establishment of a national identification system, learning from and building on
humanitarian partners’ experience with registration. In the event that this process is still under
development whilst the transitional safety net is being developed, alternative, contextually appropriate
mechanisms to verify eligibility will be used, including through the involvement of local elders. In this
case, a standard centralised identification application will be created for use during enrolment in the
transitional safety net programme. Development of the centralised identification system will consider
the merits and constraints of working with biometric data74 and will adhere to international best
practices for data protection. Lessons derived from this system can inform the development of an
emergent national identification system in future years.75
Data registry and management information system: Data management is critical to a social
protection programme’s operation. Data provided by applicants during registration is used and, ideally,
updated periodically. Besides informing selection for social transfer programmes, these personal data
are used (often in combination with additional information) for payment and benefit distribution, case
management, and monitoring; they are also essential for planning and budgeting. Increasingly, data
management processes are digitised. Data are held in secure computer databases, or registries, with
protocols for data access, sharing, and transmission, along with accountable records of all data entry
and changes. The programme’s registry forms the central component which underpins all software
applications in the programme’s management information system. The system’s modules can include
processing and updating applicant and beneficiary data, complaint resolution, payroll reconciliation,
monitoring, and sensitisation.
Sophisticated systems based on a single registry manage and cross-reference data from separate
programmes for greater coordination, coverage, and programme management. These processes assume
that that data accuracy can be assured and maintained through regular updates. Such systems can help
Somalia currently has no commonly used data management system or single registry on cash transfer
programmes; rather, implementing partners develop and operate beneficiary databases independently.
This limits data sharing and often involves costly, repetitive exercises.
As a critical priority, a central electronic registry for management of data will be developed with the
involvement of all relevant parties in the FGS. The central registry will underpin the transitional safety
net and enable establishment of linkages amongst beneficiary databases on broader programmes
operated by government and non-governmental actors. Such linkages will facilitate cross-referencing
and harmonisation of assistance amongst all stakeholders. In the short term, an independent third party
may manage development in close partnership with the FGS. The product will be handed over to
national management as institutions and capacities develop and as institutional mandates and
responsibilities are agreed to. Requisite technical expertise within the private sector will be engaged as
needed. Where relevant, the system will be informed by independent registries that are currently used
in Somalia. It will include, at a minimum, basic demographic data, common identification data for use
across programmes (according to the steps taken to establish registration systems), along with details
of the benefits and services received. Data will be disaggregated by sex and age.
The data registry and management information system will be used on the transitional safety net
programme and associated emergency scale-up and will underpin all administrative processes on these
programmes. The programme’s implementing agencies will be responsible for data entry and updating
in accordance with minimum standards. The registry will be centrally managed; access will be restricted
to partners according to their roles to ensure security and to protect both data and people in line with
international standards.
In the medium to longer term, and subject to the direction of the FGS in developing a single registry in
Somalia, the data repository will be integrated with data management systems from other government-
and partner-led social protection and emergency initiatives as these develop. Integration will build a
common map that describes who is receiving what, and where, thereby improving the coverage and
impact of social protection resources and supporting the integration of social protection programmes
with other sectoral services and activities. The accumulated data will be the foundation of other
administrative processes for payment, complaints response, and monitoring. They will allow for more
rapid response to shocks — for example, enabling increased payments to registered households for a
specified period.
Payment systems: Social protection payment systems tend to be centrally procured and are managed
by organisations that specialise in payment services. Thus, payroll functions are independent of
governmental or other agencies involved in wider programme implementation. In the immediate term,
the emerging social protection system in Somalia will build on evidence from payment processes used
on assistance programmes to date. Providers of these services have partnered with private sector actors
providing technological solutions (transfer services). Relevant service providers will be selected
through an invitation to tender process; the FGS will subcontract payroll functions to service providers
that demonstrate an advantage to leverage efficiency gains, ensure safety and security, and improve
accountability. Selection will be on the basis of coverage, accessibility, accountability, security,
timeliness, potential for flexibility and scalability, cost-effectiveness, ability to combat risks of money
laundering and diversion, contribution to building a single registry, and future financial inclusion. The
subcontractor will align with government efforts to improve the regulatory environment for and scale
of digital financial services, as well as the initiative to establish a government payment system through
Monitoring: A core focus of any evaluation is to determine how well it helps people weather crises
and stresses that might otherwise result in destitution. To inform long-term institutionalisation of
operational systems and programming priorities under this policy in Phase II, it will be necessary to
collect evidence on the efficiency, effectiveness, and impact of the transitional safety net programme
and any associated scaling up. Systems and procedures for real-time process, outcome, and impact
monitoring, as well as market monitoring, will be designed and tested in Phase I. All implementing
partners will be involved in programme monitoring to some degree, along with an independent third-
party monitor. A pilot will test the concept of third-party monitoring to improve accuracy and
accountability of programming in areas of restricted access. Digital technology will be leveraged to
collect data in remote and inaccessible areas. Monitoring data will feed into and support active case
management and record updates.
Standard operating procedures: The FGS will lead and control the preparation of operational manuals
detailing the processes and institutional arrangements for each administrative function, along with the
roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders, to ensure full interoperability. These manuals will be
updated for subsequent social protection programmes, reflecting differences amongst programmes as
well as the evolution of institutions and capacities.
Capacity building and institutions: There will be considerable investment in building capacity and
leadership in social protection at all levels across government and implementing partners. Those
partners will manage many day-to-day activities in the short to medium term as governance capacities
at various levels develop. Phase I will prioritise training and capacity building in technical and
administrative aspects of social transfer provision for all relevant stakeholders, as well as resourcing of
ministries and support to a National Secretariat in coordination and oversight.
Priorities for Policy Objective 2 (until 2024): The Somalia Transitional Safety Net as a Building
Block
1 Design and pilot a regular, predictable income transfer programme to provide a transitional safety
net categorically targeted to individuals and groups which are chronically vulnerable and at high
risk for food insecurity or malnourishment, to support basic needs.
2 Design and pilot instruments that can be scaled up rapidly to provide timely assistance for
populations that vulnerable to seasonal food shortages and droughts.
3 Conduct research and modelling to inform the design and targeting of interventions in Phase II.
4 Design and test policy options for social assistance supporting those with labour capacity
(particularly young people) to compare the cost-effectiveness of LIPW and alternative schemes.
• Establish a system of nationally owned and managed social transfer programmes that best meet
the specific needs of the extremely poor and vulnerable, subject to evidence of effectiveness.
• Institutionalise an appropriate mechanism for meeting temporary spikes in the needs of the
population during seasonal lean periods and natural disasters.
• Expand locally procured school feeding as a national social transfer programme, subject to
research findings that confirm its effectiveness.
• In line with the actions of government and development partners, strengthen the supply side of
basic service provision, and compare and test indirect measures to reduce barriers to access to
basic services for poor households, such as user-fee exemptions.
In Phase I, the FGS, in close partnership with donors and partners, will develop and pilot two or three
cash-based social transfer programmes. This work will begin the transition from small-scale, project-
based assistance toward coherent national longer-term and predictable programmes. This transitional
safety net programme takes account of current restrictions in technical and administrative capacity,
beginning with a small number of programmes implemented by partners that build on the humanitarian,
resilience, and durable solutions experience and programming in Somalia. The transitional safety net
programme, under government oversight, will begin to address FGS responsibilities toward some of the
This policy is based on recognition of facts, including a) that particular demographic groups can be
identified as more vulnerable to poverty; b) poverty targeting in Somalia will be fraught with difficulty
and risk undermining social cohesion; and c) lifecycle risks and vulnerabilities are common to all FMS,
livelihood groups, IDPs, and rural and urban communities. Therefore, the FGS proposes to follow a
lifecycle approach to developing social transfers. This means that a common and overarching social
protection programme can be designed for all areas of Somalia. This approach has the benefit of
standardising design features and systems at the federal level whilst retaining the potential for
ownership and implementation relatively independently by authorities in FMS. Through the transitional
safety net programme, the FGS will be able to pilot and test the appropriateness of categorical targeting
of such lifecycle schemes, based on visible demographic indicators including age and disability.
As discussed under Policy Objective 1, given the challenges in reaching some of those targeted, or of
verifying even simple criteria such as age in the context of Somalia, implementation is likely to require
the engagement of community members to support these processes. Any such involvement must be
closely overseen and follow clear procedures to ensure consistency and transparency. The FGS will
pilot community engagement in a minimum of seven locations across all FMS (subject to assessments
of access, security, and stability). To pilot the seasonal safety net, communities will be targeted
geographically, prioritising districts where extreme poverty, vulnerability to food insecurity, and
malnutrition are greatest according to IPC classification; where malnutrition rates are high; and where
regular and predictable seasonal spikes in food insecurity and malnutrition occur.76
The transitional safety net programme will operate for an initial period of three years, during
which time the FGS and partners will determine the most appropriate design to reach chronically
vulnerable households, in the longer term.77 In Phase II, the FGS and partners will move toward
establishing an integrated system of social transfers, with separate programmes designed to respond to
specific causes of vulnerability through the lifecycle.
It is anticipated that the transitional safety net programme will initially be replaced with a child grant,
with a focus on a gradual increase in provision of predictable cash transfers for families with children
under 5 years, potentially complemented by introduction of an old age grant in future years.78
Establishing such clearly defined, long-term, predictable programmes will begin to provide a safety net
for highly vulnerable individuals while contributing to the broader well-being and resilience of their
constituent households.
The FGS recognises that social assistance supporting the vulnerable population of productive age —
especially youth and women — is also important. Although public works schemes can actively include
these groups, evidence to date suggests that such schemes are more successful in meeting seasonal
transitory needs than addressing the longer-term structural vulnerabilities which these groups face. The
FGS also recognises that institutional social transfers to the chronically vulnerable, including children
and the elderly, can also indirectly support adults of working age: These individuals are part of a
household unit, and sources of income contribute to collective well-being. In Phase I, the FGS and
partners will invest in learning, collating, and reviewing evidence from projects implemented by
partners of what does and does not work. The findings will inform the design in Phase II of appropriate
social protection for young people, the unemployed, and those with vulnerable livelihoods.
Evidence will inform the design of institutionalised seasonal ‘shock response’ mechanisms as a
component of the national social protection system, providing temporary multi-sectoral support to
meet the basic needs of food-insecure households. Such support may be integral to longer-term
programmes, standalone interventions, or a combination. ‘Shock response’ mechanisms will include
establishing rules, indicators, benefit levels and duration, implementation procedures, and finances.
These will be linked to an early warning system to ensure timely deployment of safety nets and prevent
depletion of assets and a decline in health indicators. The FGS will determine whether such mechanisms
will be retargeted geographically each season or established more permanently in districts which trend
data find are predictably vulnerable to food insecurity and malnutrition.80
The FGS accepts that, whatever the design, such a mechanism cannot include all those in need of cash
assistance in the event of a crisis — particularly one of significant scale and severity. The need for
additional humanitarian response will remain, although the scale of the response will be reduced. The
FGS and partners will develop coordination mechanisms to ensure that any humanitarian response
complements the national response through shock-responsive social protection as far as possible. These
social transfers will also be coordinated with other activities related to nutrition; water, sanitation, and
hygiene (WASH); health; and social care to provide an integrated, multi-sectoral response for greater
nutrition outcomes and to reduce morbidity and mortality among the most vulnerable.
In the longer term, consideration will be given to ways to adapt these mechanisms to better support
needs arising from conflict. It is estimated that the annual cost of meeting the needs of 20 percent of the
Somali population on a regular, predictable basis through such long-term and seasonal programmes is
comparable to current humanitarian spending.81
School feeding that procures local produce continues to be relevant to the Somalia context as a
complementary measure to household transfers. This type of programme improves children’s school
attendance and food security; the scheme currently supported by development partners has significant
coverage and can be an important intervention for achieving this policy objective. Subject to evidence
of its effectiveness, this programme will be transitioned to a national programme with management
support from partners while FGS capacities develop. Infrastructure for school canteens will be
developed, prioritising those areas with high vulnerability to food insecurity.
1 The FGS and development partners initiate or continue capacity building and reforms in public
financial management, establishing the foundation for discussion around and planning for social
insurance provision.
• Research the feasibility of establishing compulsory insurance schemes for health and old age,
initially focusing on public and formal sector employees.
• Based on the findings, develop a road map and strategy for realising these schemes in the
medium to long term.
• Research the feasibility of indexed insurance products to protect livelihoods from climatic risks.
As the social protection system in Somalia develops over time, a broader range of instruments will
become appropriate. Social insurance schemes provide additional protection against lifecycle risks
based on contributions, striking a balance between social transfer schemes funded by donors and public
expenditures. The youth bulge in Somalia’s population means that such schemes as health insurance
and contributory pensions must be considered in the long term as vital elements in light of the
consequent demographic ageing. Given the high level of informality in the economy, such schemes
would necessarily reach only a small percentage of the population, at least initially. In Phase II, the FGS
will seek support from development partners to assess the feasibility of social insurance schemes and
seek to create a strategy for moving forward with their foundational development. This will involve
comprehensive mapping of any existing provisions to identify successful initiatives on which to build,
as well as critical coverage gaps to address.
Potential achievements of social transfers are limited within the context of severe climatic shocks, in
terms of large-scale asset depletion. The best approach to address the loss of assets on such a large scale
could be compensation payments. Index-based insurance products are emerging as an insurance
mechanism that protects against the effects of drought in neighbouring pastoral countries (however,
evidence of their effectiveness is inconclusive). Most schemes around the world are privately provided,
although increasing state engagement in some countries means they are taking on more characteristics
of social insurance. The FGS and development partners will undertake a scoping study of the costs and
benefits of such schemes and will assess the feasibility of developing indexed insurance products for
Somalia.
Policy Objective 4: Combine income support with broader policy measures that assist those
households and individuals with labour capacity to access employment and productive
livelihoods.
Priorities for Policy Objective 4 (until 2024)
1 Design and test ALMP approaches to support the poor and vulnerable with labour capacity to access
employment and income generation opportunities and to improve productivity, with a focus on
youth, to build the evidence base for Phase II.
• Move forward with a multi-sectoral strategy for improving the productive engagement of those
with labour capacity — and especially the unemployed, young people, and women — in the
labour market, coordinating inputs from social protection with those of labour and productive
sectors, the private sector, small entrepreneurs, and the financial sector.
• Formalise and facilitate financial inclusion of the informal sector through savings accounts,
mobile banking, and micro loans, including for the self-employed and producers in rural areas.
• Develop and implement a wages and remuneration policy and an appropriate minimum wage
system.
Major contributors to the poverty of those of working age are lack of employment and limited
livelihoods opportunities. Therefore, the Social Protection Policy and the Employment Policy, both
developed by the MoLSA, are to be harmonised, as access to decent employment provides a route out
of poverty and vulnerability for those with labour capacity — including the unemployed, young people,
and women.
Developing and testing ALMP approaches: As mentioned under Policy Objective 2, social protection
programmes in which participants contribute their labour (particularly labour-intensive public works
programmes) are common for this demographic group. The FGS understands the value of such schemes
in addressing transient poverty and food insecurity due to seasonal or climatic conditions, as well as the
potential positive effects of engaging young people in a structured work environment. In terms of job
creation, flagship labour-intensive and employment creation programmes like the Rural Road
Development Programmes, the Low-Cost Housing Projects, the Cobblestone Project, and others have
high employment potential. Nevertheless, the FGS recognises that evidence of the effectiveness of such
schemes in addressing longer-term vulnerability and graduating from poverty (that is, addressing the
underlying causes of lack of employment and limited livelihoods) is more limited.
Promoting graduated and sustainable approaches through capacity and skills development: The
FGS further recognises that some alternative social protection approaches may make similar or greater
contributions to Policy Objective 4 and ensure the sustainability of the direct and indirect impacts of
large-scale employment programmes. For example, public works programmes can prioritise skills
building programmes as a remunerated component of the work; in urban areas, combining income
transfers with wider interventions (such as training and skills development and access to financial
services) can support income generation or engagement in the labour market; and rural livelihoods may
benefit from income transfers, technical assistance, and inputs which enable beneficiaries to invest in
their land and livestock and improve livelihood practices. The following actions are recommended:
• Scale up skills and capacity development initiatives in Somalia to positively impact local youth.
Existing employment intensive programmes such as the Joint Programme on Local Governance can
not only create jobs but also train enough contractors and supervisors to meet the demand of the
open market, in turn indirectly creating additional jobs while improving quality standards.
Developing and implementing a wages and remuneration policy and an appropriate minimum wage
system are critical. Given the lack of development of Somalia’s formal sector and the prioritisation of
social transfer instruments, developing workplace protection policies is a longer-term priority. Defining
a minimum wage is a policy development area that has the potential to benefit those in the informal
sector, including those participating in public work schemes.
Policy Objective 5: Extend access to social care services for poor and vulnerable households
and individuals.
Priorities for Policy Objective 5 (until 2024)
1. FGS and technical and operational partners undertake preparatory activities with a view to
building foundational social care policies and service delivery in Phase II.
2. FGS and partners focus on an accredited capacity building approach for social workers in the
housing, health, nutrition, water, sanitation, hygiene, education, child protection, and other key
services sectors. This will ensure the availability of an appropriate number of social workers
with the correct knowledge, skills, attitudes, and training who are equitably deployed; fairly
remunerated; and well managed, supervised, and monitored.
• FGS and partners develop a multi-sectoral framework (providing access to housing, health,
psychosocial support, nutrition, water, sanitation, hygiene, education, child protection, and
other basic services) and strategy for guiding social care policies and service delivery in
Somalia.
• The FGS, in collaboration with partners, establishes a system of referrals amongst social
protection programmes and broader social services.
In the Somali context, promoting universal and sustainable access to housing, health, psychosocial
support, nutrition, water, sanitation, hygiene, education, and other key services will be the cornerstone
of a renewed social contract between the FGS and citizens.
Extending access to social care services for poor and vulnerable households and individuals requires an
ambitious government-led approach, initiated and supervised by line ministries in coordination with all
relevant stakeholders. For example, for safety nets to protect disabled people effectively, many other
public programmes in other sectors need to be in place. These may include health, rehabilitation,
education, and training and environmental access programmes. This high level of intergovernmental
coordination and partnership with Somali and international stakeholders will require some adjustments
during Phase I.
The FGS recognises that many poor and vulnerable households require an effective combination of cash
and social care interventions to ensure positive welfare outcomes. In this regard, an important pillar of
a national social protection system is the provision of social care services — such as psychosocial
support, family support services, child protection services, alternative care for children, and care and
support for people with disabilities. Housing support is also an option for the extremely vulnerable.
Furthermore, limited resources and the lack of basic health and nutrition service provision in much of
the country means that this kind of support will remain a priority of the FGS in the short to medium
term. In the medium term, the FGS will rely heavily on civil society groups to provide social care
services within a nationally agreed framework for coordination and best use of resources.
During Phase I, and to better anticipate the implementation phase, special emphasis should be placed
on the following:
• A thorough mapping of social care activities: These stakeholders will support the FGS by
mapping existing and planned social care activities in preparation for development of a national
framework and strategy for social care service development in Phase II. They will also map the
access of vulnerable populations to housing, health, psychosocial support, nutrition, water,
sanitation, hygiene, education, and other key services.
• A skilled network of social workers: Mapping the conditions, technical modalities, and
operational guidelines for creating an adequately skilled network of social workers will be
prioritised during Phase I in the housing, health, psychosocial support, nutrition, water,
sanitation, hygiene, education, child protection, and other key services sectors. In particular,
o Standardise curricula in every essential social care service and develop post-basic
tutors’ training programmes.
• Statutory and social care services: Social care services are a crucial element in graduation
programmes, as cash alone may not deliver all the desired outcomes, and individualised social
care services — through a case management approach — can help optimise support to
vulnerable households. Two types of services will be identified and designed during Phase I:
o Statutory services, which are related to referral (by schools, neighbours, family,
community, court, police, hospitals, civil society organisations, etc.), case assessment,
care plans, and case management, as well as allocation of resources.
o Concrete social work and care services, which cover a spectrum of services such as
shelters, long-term care, psycho-social counselling, family therapy, orphans’ homes,
foster care, life skills development, home care support, group homes for children with
disabilities, independent living centres, rehabilitation for persons with disabilities,
vocational skills development, and others.
In the short to medium term, during part or all of Phase I, implementation of policy priorities will depend
on the engagement of multiple non-government stakeholders including the UN, humanitarian and
development partners, NGOs, and the private sector. Furthermore, while social protection in Somalia
is conceived as a range of instruments, in the short to medium term priority is given to developing cash-
based social transfers.
The institutional framework presented here takes these factors into account. It establishes institutional
coordination mechanisms and defines roles and responsibilities for the execution of policy priorities in
Phase I. It aims to ensure engagement and ownership of the FGS and member states from the outset,
while ensuring strong leadership and technical and operational capability for the design and
implementation of initiatives highlighted in the policy. At the technical and operational levels, the
framework streamlines engagement of partners and builds on relevant existing institutions and
architecture. It establishes centrally managed operational systems to support the implementation of a
single, consistent programme approach across the country by implementing agencies. It includes
coordination mechanisms for harmonising strategic and operational aspects of the policy and horizontal
linkages for coherent implantation alongside other development policies and the wider humanitarian
response. These institutional arrangements will evolve in Phase II as national institutions develop and
capacities increase.
1. Fulfilling the secretariat function for the social protection steering committee.
2. Developing, managing, and monitoring annual work plans and budgets for policy
implementation and creating biannual progress reports.
3. Coordinating policy monitoring and evaluation activities, including reviewing biannual reports
from the technical committee.
6. Ensuring effective integration of the Social Protection Policy and programmes within the
national development planning and humanitarian response framework and resilience pillar
working group.
The Steering Committee will meet four times per year. It will guide the development of sound and
appropriate social protection policies, strategic frameworks, and action plans, and will ensure oversight
of and accountability for the implementation of social protection programmes:
• Provide direction and guidance for the development of annual national social protection action
plans.
• Raise awareness of the need for social protection amongst the population and key social,
economic, political, cultural, and religious stakeholders.
• Provide oversight for and ensure the accountability of resource allocation to social protection.
• Review periodic progress reports consolidated by the National Social Protection Secretariat,
and make management decisions to ensure continued effective implementation of policy
priorities.
• Coordinate stakeholder activities for social protection in line with the national policy.
• Manage the ongoing technical and operational direction of the programme to ensure
achievement of programme objectives, including troubleshooting issues.
• Escalate relevant issues and queries to the Social Protection Steering Committee.
• Report regularly on progress to the Secretariat of the Social Protection Steering Committee.
• Ensure the needs of vulnerable groups are adequately considered and addressed in the design
and implementation of the social protection system.
• Conduct evidence-based research and review international best practices to inform policy and
programme development.
Core functions: Core functions such as a single registry of household data and management
information systems, complaints response mechanism, and third-party monitoring will be implemented
by third parties (whether from the private sector or international organisations), overseen by the
government. If deemed appropriate, core functions will be tendered to legitimate third-party partners,
who will have roles in relevant governing bodies and will work closely under their supervision and in
direct collaboration with them; an institutional capacity development plan will ensure governmental
counterparts strengthen their technical understanding of the processes and take progressively greater
responsibility to deliver the core functions.
Programme Management Unit: A Programme Management Unit within MoLSA will manage all
implementing agencies, oversee coordination of the transitional safety net programme and seasonal
assistance across all pilot sites, and support the capacity building of government counterparts to assume
similar duties in Phase II. This will include developing processes and systems in conjunction with those
contracted to deliver the core functions, contracting with implementing partners for administrative
tasks, building institutional understanding and capacity in the various processes, and coordinating the
District- and village-level implementation: Implementing partners will build on ways of working with
humanitarian and resilience programmes to date. They will comprise a range of international and
national non-governmental actors covering all programme locations. Linking to the core functions
discussed above, they will support communication, registration, enrolment, and case management.
• Developing national early warning/food security systems and creating operational and
institutional linkages to social protection system for seasonal scale-up, including triggers and
lines of authority.
• Considering use of the National Disaster Management Fund to finance predictable seasonal
safety nets.
• Investigating the potential for the repair and construction of key infrastructure to reduce the
impacts of flood, drought, or conflict, through seasonal public works schemes.
• Supporting the National Commission for Refugees and Internally Displaced to establish
durable, multi-sectoral solutions for IDPs and returnees.
Coordination will be achieved by including the Somalia Disaster Management Agency (SODMA) on
the Social Protection Steering Committee and seating the National Social Protection focal point on the
National Disaster Management Council or equivalent body.
Coordination with Sectoral Priorities of the Resilience and Durable Solutions Agendas
In Phase I, pilot shock responses must be well-coordinated with the broader resilience responses
supported by development partners, avoiding duplication and ensuring the complementarity of
activities, as well as maximum added value of emergency funds mobilised from the international
community. Drought responses will be increasingly integrated into food security programming with
those of nutrition, WASH, and health in areas that experience sustained high levels of acute food
insecurity and malnutrition. The activities of the transitional safety net programme should also be well-
coordinated with those of basic service delivery. Coordination will be achieved through:
• Including agency staff with humanitarian expertise who support basic service delivery in the
social protection Donor Coordination Team to influence the design of the seasonal safety net
and to maximise linkages amongst social transfer provision and basic services strengthening.
Intra-sectoral linkages: As the social protection system expands to include a wider array of
instruments, it will be important to maintain coherence amongst schemes to create greater efficiencies
and more comprehensive impacts. Potential changes to the institutional framework include assigning a
ministry or department to lead each social protection instrument, along with separate technical
committees or task forces. As national capacity increases, the Steering Committee could potentially be
transformed into a national social protection council with government membership, supported by an
independent advisory group of development partners.
An institutional evaluation must occur at the end of Phase I, and each coordination model compared
and assessed. Each model has advantages and disadvantages, and the design of the appropriate
management structure will have the following characteristics:
• Inter-sectoral linkages: More formal linkages will be established at strategic and operational
levels, as appropriate. This will occur, for example, through links to social development
committees and operational links to the Disaster Management Information and Coordination
Centre established at the national and regional levels.
• Sub-national structures: The objective will be to transfer more technical and operational
responsibility to government, which will include sub-national structures for implementation.
Options for discussion include decentralisation of programmes or functions to member states,
roles of local government, and ‘single window services’ providing local access to various
services at a common location.
Coping Strategies Strategies or mechanisms which relieve the impact of the risk once it has occurred. The
International Labour main forms of coping consist of individual dis-saving/borrowing, migration, selling labour
Organisation (ILO) (including that of children), reduction of food intake, or the reliance on public or private
transfers.
Covariant Risks Risks, or combination of risks, that affect a large number of people at the same time (for
(ILO) example, an earthquake, drought, or major flood).
Durable Solutions A durable solution is achieved when the displaced no longer have any specific assistance
(Inter-Agency and protection needs that are linked to their displacement and can enjoy their human rights
Standing Committee without discrimination on account of their displacement. It can be achieved through return,
framework) local integration, and resettlement.
Idiosyncratic Risks Risks that affect a very small number of people at a given time.
(ILO)
Informal Sector Economic sector where inhabitants’ socio-economic activities are not regulated and
(ILO) protected by formal societal institutions. The vast majority of the world’s population is
part of the informal sector.
Livelihoods A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social
(UN International resources), and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when
Strategy for Disaster it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities
Reduction) and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base.
Poverty In pure economic terms, income poverty is when a family's income fails to meet a federally
(UNESCO) established threshold that differs across countries. However, it is widely held that one
cannot consider only the economic part of poverty. Poverty is also social, political, and
cultural. Moreover, it is considered to undermine human rights — economic (the right to
work and have an adequate income), social (access to health care and education), political
(freedom of thought, expression, and association), and cultural (the right to maintain one's
cultural identity and be involved in a community's cultural life).
Resilience Resilience is the ability to prevent disasters and crises as well as to anticipate, absorb,
(UN Food and accommodate, or recover from them in a timely, efficient, and sustainable manner. This
Agriculture includes protecting, restoring, and improving food and agricultural systems under threats
Organisation) that impact food and nutrition security, agriculture, and food safety/public health.
Safety Net Social safety nets are non-contributory transfer programmes that seek to prevent the poor
(ILO) and people vulnerable to shocks and poverty from falling below a certain poverty level.
Safety net programmes can be provided through donor aid, by the government, NGOs,
private firms, charities, and informal household transfers. Safety net transfers include: a)
cash transfers; b) food-based programmes such as supplementary feeding programmes and
food stamps, vouchers, and coupons; c) in-kind transfers such as school supplies and
uniforms; d) conditional cash transfers; e) price subsidies for food, electricity, or public
transport; f) public works programmes; g) fee waivers and exemptions for health care,
schooling, and utilities. Social safety nets are different from social protection floors in that
they are a targeted set of non-contributory transfers, usually as a transitory or short-term
response to a crisis. SPFs, on the other hand, constitute universal entitlement to social
security through a defined benefit package and with a rights-based approach.
Rural livelihood systems are exposed to seasonal climatic risks, which are increasing in frequency and
severity. Such risks contribute to seasonal food insecurity with the risk of destitution. Sedentary
agriculturalists in southern Somalia were amongst the worst affected by famines in the last two decades,
and they make up the majority of the IDP population.85 Pastoralists face different sources of
vulnerability, including climate change, shortage of water and pastures, livestock diseases, and resource
conflicts, which contribute to their poverty. Low population density, mobility, and challenges of access
due to conflict and lack of infrastructure lead to limited access to services for these populations.
Urban livelihoods are dependent on the market for basic needs and are thus also affected by seasonal
factors. The workforce is generally low-skilled, particularly in rural areas, making diversification of or
changes to livelihood strategies difficult. On account of this, along with increased urbanisation and poor
development of the economy, the informal sector has expanded rapidly. It is characterised by growing
levels of unemployment, underemployment, job insecurity, and lack of access to formal social security.
The High Frequency Survey notes that more than half the working-age population is outside the labour
force, and more than half of those within the labour force are unemployed.86 Households in IDP
settlements are amongst the most affected by poverty and unemployment.87 Existing assistance
programmes (cash transfers, resilience programming, and humanitarian aid) tend to concentrate more
on rural than urban populations. There are also threats to physical security in informal urban settlements,
where crime rates are very high.
This lack of access to and investment in services, combined with other poverty factors, mean Somalia
displays some of the worst indicators of social development globally.93 Life expectancy at birth is just
54.7 years. Infant mortality remains a huge concern, and there has been little if any improvement in
child mortality indicators in the last 15 years. About 1.7 million children are out of school; primary and
secondary enrolment rates are much lower than in neighbouring countries. Child care and feeding
practices, including breastfeeding and complementary feeding, are suboptimal. Immunisation coverage
is low, and most children have not received basic vaccines. Diarrheal disease and malaria are prevalent
in children. The use of contraception is very limited.
Many of these social development indicators correlate with poverty, and huge disparities are seen
between wealth quintiles.94 Service access is also much reduced in rural compared to urban areas. Many
of these social development indicators correlate positively with education of the mother, showing the
importance of education outcomes for girls and young women to break the cycle of poverty.
Chronic and seasonal lack of access to food, combined with lack of education and access to social
services, and poor awareness of health programmes makes chronic and acute malnutrition a critical
issue throughout the country. Somalia is one of the 10 countries with the world’s highest prevalence of
malnutrition.96 During the drought of 2016–2017, OCHA estimated that some 308,000 children under
5 years of age were acutely malnourished and 56,000 children were severely malnourished, whilst the
overall burden of acute malnutrition was more than 800,000 cases.97
Vulnerability to Disasters
The humanitarian crisis in Somalia is amongst the most complex protracted emergencies in the world.101
Somalia ranks 15th on the U.K. Department for International Development list of developing countries
at high disaster risk,102 and the population is exposed to multiple hazards, particularly climatic103 (which
are increasing in frequency and severity on account of climate change104) as well as economic shocks
(livestock bans; global food price increases) and conflict/insecurity.105 This exposure, combined with
chronic poverty and weak governance, means large portions of the population are vulnerable to frequent
and overlapping disasters, driving a vicious cycle of increasing poverty and vulnerability that has eroded
livelihoods and is exhausting traditional coping mechanisms.
Natural Disasters
Somalia is prone to multiple types of natural hazards — particularly droughts and floods, to which the
country’s dominant livelihoods strategies are highly climate-sensitive — but also wildfires, cyclones
and storm surges, earthquakes, and tsunamis.106 Arid and semi-arid lands comprise more than 80 percent
of the country’s land mass and are particularly vulnerable to droughts on account of uncertain rainfall
and the fragile environment. Severe droughts occurring in increasing frequent cycles (in 1964, 1969,
1974, 1987, 1988, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2008, 2011, and 2016–2017) have caused widespread loss of life
and livelihoods and mass displacement, as well as extensive waterborne disease. Prevention Web
estimates the annual losses at close to US$30 million.107 In the past decade, drought has rendered
870,000 people food-insecure and an additional 2.3 million – nearly one-fifth of the population —
vulnerable to food insecurity.108 The 2011 drought resulted in 260,000 deaths and affected 4 million.109
The unprecedented drought in 2016–2017, spanning four consecutive poor rainy seasons affected over
6 million people in almost all parts of the country, displaced over 257,000, rendered half the population
in need of humanitarian assistance, and increased the spread of acute watery diarrhoea and cholera.110
These cyclical emergencies require massive and costly humanitarian responses; the response in 2017,
for example, is estimated to have cost close to US$1 billion.111
Conflict
Decades of violent conflict are a major cause of poverty and reinforce the impacts of natural disasters.
The International Organisation for Migration estimates that, since 1991, over a million Somalis have
been forcibly displaced internationally and 1.1 million more remain internally displaced for protracted
periods.112 Many of the long-term displaced reside in IDP camps and lack access to basic services and
livelihoods; new waves of armed conflict and fighting over scarce resources continue to cause new
displacements.113 Conflict continues to be a day-to-day reality in many parts of the Somalia. Somaliland
has remained relatively stable and made gradual progress toward building state institutions. Puntland is
more stable than the south but is affected by insecurity, criminality, and piracy.
The direct impacts of such crises are food price volatility, food insecurity and poverty, displacement,
and conflict over land and natural resources.114 The complex interplay of poverty, conflict, and
insecurity can compound humanitarian crises due to floods and droughts by limiting access to resources
1
Gabrielle Smith (2014), ‘Designing Social Protection Frameworks for Three Zones of Somalia’; Zainab Majoka (2018),
‘Somalia — Social Protection: Stocktaking of Evidence for a Social Protection Policy and Framework’; Ric Goodman and
Nisar Majid (2017), ‘In pursuit of a safety net programme in the short term paving the way to a social protection approach in
the long term: Issues and options’.
2
United Nations Population Fund (2014), Population Estimation Survey 2014.
3
United Nations High Commissionner for Refugees (UNHCR) (2018), Operational Portal Refugee Situations: Horn of
Africa Somalia Situation, https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/horn.
4
MoPIED, MoHADM, European Union-United Nations-World Bank (2018), Drought Impact Needs Assessment.
5
Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit (FSNAU), Seasonal assessments; Somalia Infant and Young Child Nutrition
Assessment (2016); UNICEF/FSNAU/Ministry of Health National Micronutrient Survey (2009); UNICEF Somalia Nutrition
Strategy Note 2018–2020.
6
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) (2018). Joint Multi-Cluster Needs
Assessment,
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/reach_som_initial_findings_report_joint_multi_cluster_needs_assessm
ent_2018.pdf.
7
Goodman and Majid, op. cit.
8
Federal Government of Somalia, op. cit.
9
Zainab Majoka (2017): This is likely to be an underestimate, since it did not include those inaccessible areas and nomadic
groups.
10
Somali High Frequency Survey, Wave 1 Database (2016). Washington D.C.: World Bank, cited in Majoka (2017), op. cit.
11
UNHCR, op. cit.
12
Both covariate (at the community or systemic level —natural disasters, conflict, macroeconomic shocks) and idiosyncratic
(at the household level — illness or death of breadwinner, loss of livelihoods, accident at work).
13
OCHA (2017). This was evident from the impact of the 2016–2017 drought, when the number of people in a state of
emergency (IPC Phase 4) increased more than tenfold from 83,000 to 866,000 in just 10 months. By that time, half the
population required humanitarian assistance, including 3.3 million who required urgent life-saving assistance.
14
Majoka (2017), op, cit.
15
UNICEF (2017), Somalia Education Baseline Survey 2017.
16
UNICEF (2017), Somalia Education Strategy Note 2018–2020.
17
UNICEF, ibid.
18
UNICEF (2016), Situation Analysis of Children in Somalia,
https://www.unicef.org/somalia/SOM_resources_situationalaysis.pdf.
19
United Nations General Assembly Security Council (2017). Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-
General.
20
Ibid.
21
UNICEF (2018). Somalia Humanitarian Situation Report, https://www.unicef.org/somalia/SOM_sitrep4_Apr2018.pdf.
22
Federal Government of Somalia, op. cit.; Smith, op. cit.
23
Child-sensitive social protection systems mitigate the effects of poverty on families, strengthen families in their child care
role, and enhance access to basic social services for the poorest and most marginalised. Since many at-risk children live
outside family care, child-sensitive social protection systems must be responsive to this vulnerable group, as well as to
children who face abuse or discrimination at home.
24
Federal Government of Somalia, op. cit.
25
United Nations (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons With Disabilities,
http://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convoptprot-e.pdf.
26
Smith, op. cit.
27
UN OCHA, op. cit.
28
Majoka (2017), op. cit.
29
Federal Government of Somalia, op. cit.
30
UN OCHA, op. cit.
31
UNDP Somalia (2017). Somalia Drought Impact & Needs Assessment: Volume I,
http://www.so.undp.org/content/dam/somalia/docs/key.
32
UN OCHA, op. cit.
33
World Health Organisation (WHO), (2018). Health Risks of Female Genital Mutilation,
https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/health_consequences_fgm/en/.
34
World Bank Open Data (2018). Somalia: Labor force participation rate, male (% of male population ages 15–64)
(modeled ILO estimate) & female (% of female population ages 15–64) (modeled on ILO estimate).
35
Smith, op. cit.
36
UNDP (2014), Population Estimation Survey for Somalia. United Nations Population Fund, op. cit.
37
UNESCO defines youth as persons between the ages of 15 and 24 years. The situation, significance, and experience of being
young, however, are often a fluid and changing reality. In a post-conflict Somali context, it should be noted that the National