PRABHAT PUBLIC SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

(RS PURAM)

THERMODYNAMICS

SESSION: 2019-2020

Submitted to- Submitted by-

Mr. Jitendra Singh SIMRAN SONKAR
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that SIMRAN SONKAR is a student of

class XI Sci has successfully completed the research
on the below mentioned project under the guidance
of Mr. Jitendra Singh (subject teacher) during year
2019-20 in partial fulfillment of physics practical
examination Of central board of secondary education
(CBSE)

PRINCIPAL SUBJECT TEACHER

Mrs. Namita Mathur Mr. Jitendra Singh
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project work entitled
“Thermodynamics”
submitted to the “Prabhat Public Sen Sec School,
is a record of original work done by me except of the
experiments, which are duly acknowledged , under the
guidance of my subject teacher “Mr. Jitendra Singh” .
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my special thanks to our school

Prabhat Public Sen Sec School principal ma’am Dr.
Namita Mathur to the management team of our school
who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project on the topic Thermal Expansion of solids, which
also helped me a lot of research and I came to know
about so many new things

Secondly I would like to thank my parents and my

friends who helped me lot in finishing this project within
the limited time.
1. THERMODYNAMICS

It is the study of interelations between heat and other forms

of energy

Thermodynamic System : A collection of large number of

molecules of matter (solid, liquid or gas) which are so
arranged that these posses certain values of pressure,
volume and temperature forms a thermodynamic system.

•The parameters pressure, volume, temperature, internal

energy etc which determine the state or condition of system
are called thermodynamic state variables.
In thermodynamics we deal with the thermodynamic systems
as a whole and study the interaction of heat & energy during
the change of one thermodynamic state to another.

1.1 Thermal Equilibrium

The term ‘equilibrium’ in thermodynamics implies the state

when all the macroscopic variables characterising the
system (P, V, T, mass etc) do not change with time.

•Two systems when in contact with each other come to

thermal equilibrium when their temperatures become same.

•Based on this is zeroth law of thermodynamics. According

to zeroth law, when the thermodynamics systems A and B
are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
thermodynamic system C, then the systems A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other also.
1.2 Heat, Work and Internal Energy

Internal Energy is the energy possessed by any system

due to its molecular K.E. and molecular P.E. Here K.E & P.E
are with respect to centre of mass frame. This internal
energy depends entirely on state and hence it is a state
variable. For 1 real gases internal energy is only by virtue
of its molecular motion.

Units nfRT
3

for ideal gases where

n=number of moles
f=Degree of fredom
R=Universal Gas Constant
T=Temperature in Kelvin

Internal Energy can be change either by giving heat energy

or by performing some work.
Heat Energy is the energy transformed to or from the system
because of the difference in temperatures by conduction,
convection or radiation.
The energy that is transferred from one system to another
by force moving its point of application in its own direction
is called work.

Work done by the system =Ffdx

=fPsAdx
=fPsdV

Where Ps Pressure of system on the piston. This work done

by system is positive if the system expands & it is negative
if the system contracts.
•Work and Heat are path functions whereas internal energy
is a state function.
•Heat & work are two different terms through they might
look same.

1.3 Important Thermodynamics Terms

State Variables : P, V, T, moles

They can be extensive or intestive.
Equation of State : The equation which connects the
pressure (P), the volume (V) and absolute temperature (T)
of a gas is called the equation of state.

PV = constant (Boyle’s Law)

V =constant (Charle’s Law)
T
PV = NRT

Thermodynamic Process : A thermodynamic process is

said to take place when some changes occur in the state of
a thermodynamic system, i.e., the thermodynamic
parameters of the system change with some important time.
Types of these thermodynamic process are Isothermal,
Adiabatic, Isobaric and Isocboric

Quasi Static Process : A thermodynamic process which is

infinitely slow is called as quasi-static process.
•In quasi static process, system undergoes change so slowly,
that at every instant, system is in equilibrium, both thermal
and mechanical, with the surroundings.
•Quasi-static process is an idealised processed. We generally
assume all the processes to be quasistatic unless stated.
Indicator P-V, Diagram : A graph between pressure and
volume of a gas under thermodynamic operation is called
P-V. diagram.

a -Isobaric
b -Isothermal
c -Adiabatic
d -Isochoric
•Area under P – V diagram gives us work done by a gas.

1.4 1st Law of Thermodynamics

Let Q = Heat supplied to the system by the surroundings

W = Work done by the system on the surroundings
U = Change in internal energy of the system.

First law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither

be created nor be destroyed. It can be only transformed
from the form to another.

Mathematically : Q = U + Q

Sign Conventions :

•When heat is supplied to the system, then Q is positive

and when heat is withdrawn from the system, Q is
negative.
•When a gas expands, work done by the gas is positive &
when a gas contracts then w is negative
• U is positive, when temperature rises and U is negative,
when temperature falls.
Remember here we always take work done by the system.
In chemistry, work done on the system is considered. Hence
there is some different look of 1st law of Thermodynamics in
chemistry.
Q+ W= U
where Q, U have same meanings but W stands for work
done on the system

1.5 Application of the First of Law of Thermodynamics

Here we see how 1st Law of Thermodynamics is applied to
various thermodynamic processes.

1.5.1 Isothermal Process

Description : A thermodynamic process in which

temperature remains constant
Condition : The walls of the container must be perfectly
conducting to allow free exchange of heat between gas
and its surroundings.

The process of compression or expansion should be slow

so as the provide time for exchange of heat.
These both conditions are perfectly ideal.

Equation of State : T = Constant or Pv = Constant

Remarks : All the heat supplied is used entirely to do work

against external sorroundings. It heat is supplied then the
gas expands & if heat is withdrawn then the gas contracts.
1.5.2 Adiabatic Process

Description : When there is not heat exchange with

surroundings
Conditions : The walls of the container must be perfectly
non-conducting in order to prevent any exchange of heat
between the gas and its surroundings.

The process of compression or expansion should be rapid

so there is no time for the exchange of heat.
These conditions are again ideal condition and are hard to
Obtain

Equation of State :
Pv= constant
Or TV= constat

Remarks : It gas expands adiabatically then its temp

decreases & vice versa

Practical Example
•Propagation of sound waves in the form of compression &
rarefaction
•Sudden bursting of a cycle tube.

1.5.3 Isochoric Process

Description : Volume remains constant

Condition : A gas being heated or cooled inside a rigid
container.

Equation of State : V = constant or P/T= constant

Remarks : Since we have studied earlier, that when heat is
supplied to any process. its temp increases according to
Relation

2.5.4 Isobaric Process

Description : When pressure remains constant

Condition : When in one container, the piston is free to
move and is not connected by any agent.
Equation of State : P = constant

V
T = constant

Specific Heat at Constant Volume : It is defined as the

amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of a
gas through 1C°, when its volume is kept constant. It is
denoted as Cv.

Specific Heat at Constant Pressure : It is defined as the

amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of a
gas through 1C° keeping its pressure constant. It is denoted
as Cp.

2.5.5 Melting Process

In any case first law is always applicable
Q = mLf as learned earlier.
W=0
(In the change of state from solid to liquid we ignore any
expansion or contraction as it is very small)
According to first law of thermodynamics
U=Q–W
U = mLf

Remark : The heat given during melting is used in

increasing the internal energy of any substance

1.5.6 Boiling Process

Here
Q = mLv
W = P[V2 – V1]
(Pressure is constant during boiling and it is equal to
atmospheric pressure)
U=Q–W
U = mLf – P(V2 – V1)

1.5.7 Cyclic Process

A cyclic process is one is which the system returns to its
initial stage after undergoing a serves of change

1.6 Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics

•The first law does not indicate the direction in which the
change can occur.
•The first law gives no idea about the extent of change
•The first law of thermodynamics gives no information about
the source gives no information about the source of heat.
i.e. whether it is a hot or a cold body.

1.7 Heat Engines

It is a device that converts heat energy into mechanical
energy.
Key Elements :

•A source of heat at higher temperature

•A working substance
•A sink of heat at lower temperature.
Working :
•The working substance goes through a cycle consisting of
several processes.
•In some processes it absorbs a total amount of heat Q1 from
the source at temperature T1.
•In some processes it rejects a total amount of heat Q2 to the
sink at some lower temperature T2.
•The work done by the system is a cycle is transferred to the
environment via some arrangement.

Thermal Efficiency of a heat engine is defined of the ratio

of net work done per cycle by the engine to the total amount
of heat absorbed per cycle by the working substance from
the source. It is denoted by .

Remarks : The mechanism of conversion of heat into work

varies for different heat engines.
•The system heated by an external furnace, as in a steam
engine. Such engines are called as external combustion
engine.
•The system is which heat is produced by burning the fuel
inside the main body of the engine. Such an engine is called
as Internal Combustion Engine.

2.8 Refrigerator and Heat Pumps

A refrigertor or heat pump is a device used for cooling

things.
Key Elements :
•A cold reservoir at temperature T2.
•A working substance.
•A hot reservoir at temperature T1

Working
•The working substance goes through a cycle consisting of
several process.
•A sudden expansion of the gas from high to low pressure
which cool it and converts it into a vapour-liquid mixture.
•Absorption by the cold fluid of heat from the region to be
cooled converting it into vapour.
•Heating up of the vapour due to external work done on the
working substance.
•Release of heat by the vapour to the sorroundings bringing
it to the initial state and completing the cycle.

2.9 Second Law of Thermodynamics

There are number of ways in which this law can be stated.

Though all the statements are the same in their contents,
the following two are significant.

Kelvin Pnek Statement : No process is possible whose

sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the
complete conversion of the heat into work.
Calcius Statement : No process is possible whose sole
result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter
object.
Significance : 100% officiency in heat engines or infinite
CoP in refrigerators is not possible.
1.10 Reversible and Irreversible Process

Reversible Process : A thermodynamic process taking a

system from initial state i to final state f is reversible, if the
process can be turned back such that both, the system and
the surroundings return to their original states, with no
other change anywhere else in the universe.

Conditions for reversibility :

1.Process should proceed at an extremely slow rate, i.e.,
process is quasistatic so that system is in equilibrium with
surroundings at every stage.
2.The system should be free from dissipative forces like
friction, inelasticity; viscosity etc.
Examples : No process exactly reversible, though a slow
expansion of an ideal gas is approximately reversible.

Irreversible Process : A process which does not satisfy

any of the conditions for reversible is called an irreversible
process.
Causes :
•Spontaneous process
•Presence of friction, viscosity and such dissi-ptive forces

Significance of Reversibility :
•Main concern of thermodynamics is the efficiency with
which the heat is converted into Mechanical Energy.
•Second Law of Thermodynamics rules out the possibility
of a perfect heat engine with 100% efficiency.
•It turns out that heat engine based on idealised reversible
processes achieves the highest possible efficiency.
1.11 Carnot Engine

Sadi Carnot devised on ideal cycle of operation for a heat

engine called as carnot cycle.
Engine used for realising this ideal cycle is called as carnot
heat engine.
Constructions : The essential parts of an ideal heat engine
or Carnot heat engine are shown in figure.

(i)Source of heat : The source is maintained at a fixed higher

temperature T1, from which the working substance draws
heat. The source is supposed to possess infinite thermal
capacity and as such any another of heat can be drawn
from it without changing its temperature.

(ii)Sink of heat : The sink is maintained at a fixed lower

temperature T2, to which any amount of heat can be rejected
by the working substance. It has also infinite thermal
capacity and as such its temperature remains constant at
T2, even when any amount of heat is rejected to it.

(iii)Working substance : A perfect gas acts as the working

substance. It is contained in a cylinder with non-conducting
sides but having a perfectly conducting-base. This cylinder
is fitted with perfectly non-conducting and frictionless
piston.

Apart from these essential parts, there is a perfectly

insulating stand or pad on which the cylinder can be placed.
It would isolate the working substance completely from the
surroundings. Hence, the gas can undergo adiabatic
changes.
1.12 Carnot Theorem

Statement :
(a)Working between two given temperatures, T1 of hot
reservoir (the source) and T2 of cold reservoir (the sink, no
engine can have efficiency more than that of the Carnot
engine.
(b)The efficiency of the Carnot engine is independent of the
nature of the working substance.
Engine used for realising this ideal cycle is called as carnot
heat engine.

Proof :
Step - 1 : Imagine a reversible engine R and an irreversible
engine-I working between the same source (hot reservoir T1)
and sink (cold reservoir T2).
Step - 2 : Couple two engines such that I acts like heat
engine and R acts like refrigerator.
Step - 3 : Let engine I absorb Q1 heat from the source deliver
work W1 and release the balance Q1 – W1 to the sink in one
cycle.
Step - 4 : Arrange R, such that it returns same heat Q, to
the source, taking Q2 from the sink and requiring work
W = Q1 – Q2 to be done on it.
Step - 5 : Supppose R < I (i.e.) If R were to act as an
engine it would give less work output than that of I (i.e.)
W < W1 for a given Q1 and Q1 – W > Q1 – W1
Step - 6 : In totality, the I-R system extracts heat (r1 – W) –
(Q1 – W1) = W1 – W & delivers same amount of work in one
cycle, without any change in source or anywhere else. This
is against second Law of Thermodynamics. (Kelvin - Planck
statement of second law of thermodynamics)
Hence the assertion q1 > qr is wrong.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Help from Internet

• www.sceincefare.com
• www.mycbsegide.com

2. Help from books

1
• Refrenced fromH.C.Verma
• Refrenced from Physics NCERT

3. Help from teachers