1 Thermodynamics I

Chapter 4
Lecture no.1
Reversible Processes ( Non-Flow & Steady Flow )

Dr. Mahmood Shaker

Department of Engineering of Mechanics
Engineering College – University of Basrah
 Reversible Process
The reversible process is the ideal process which never occurs, while the irreversible process is the natural
2 process that is commonly found in nature. When we tear a page from our notebooks, we cannot change this and
‘un-tear’. This is an irreversible process. Whereas when water evaporates, it can also be condensed in the form of
rains. This is a reversible process. Let us study more about them below.
A thermodynamic process is reversible if the process can return back in such a that both the system and the
surroundings return to their original states, with no other change anywhere else in the universe. It means both
system and surroundings are returned to their initial states at the end of the reverse process.

In the figure above, the system has undergone a change from state 1 to state 2. The reversible process can
reverse completely and there is no trace left to show that the system had undergone thermodynamic change.
During the reversible process, all the changes in state that occur in the system are in thermodynamic equilibrium
with each other.
 A process can be reversible only when its satisfying two conditions
•Dissipative force must be absent.
3 •The process should occur in infinite small time.

In simple words, the process which can reverse back completely is a reversible process. This means that the
final properties of the system can perfectly reverse back to the original properties. The process can be perfectly
reversible only if the changes in the process are infinitesimally small. In practical situations it is not possible to
trace these extremely small changes in extremely small time, hence the reversible process is also an ideal process.
The changes that occur during the reversible process are in equilibrium with each other, friction effects can be
assumed to be negligible and heat must never be transferred to or from the system through a finite temperature
difference .
 Non-Flow Reversible Processes :
(Heating/Cooling and Expansion/Compression of Gases)
4 Until now we have studied that thermodynamic system of a gas is used to convert heat energy into work energy or vice versa
which is required in a number of practical applications.
Thermodynamic system is also of many types. Here we will study a closed system which can exchange energy with
surroundings but not the mass. Thus mass does not flow in or out of the system and so the processes of
heating/cooling/compression/expansion etc are undergone by this fix mass of gas confined in continuous closed boundary are
called Non-flow processes. In these processes some property of the gas may change and some may not change based on which
a particular process is characterized. By applying first law of thermodynamics, the various forms of energy exchange can be
calculated considering the processes as reversible i.e. taking all internal/external losses due to friction etc as nil.
For this let us consider a fix quantity of an ideal gas filled in a metallic cylinder as shown in below figure, one side of which
is covered or fixed by a solid end plate and other side is covered by a moving piston. The outer wall of piston matches with
inner wall of cylinder such that it makes a leak proof sliding joint. This moving piston makes one of the boundaries of system
as moving or flexible.

Fig. Closed system of gas filled in metallic cylinder

 When infinitely small heat 𝛅Q is supplied to gas from outside through the wall of cylinder, the gas tends to expand and forces
the piston weight F to move up. Let piston moves by a short distance, dl. Then the infinitesimal work done can be calculated as

Work = Pressure x Change in volume

Total work during a non-flow process 1-2 i.e. compression or expansion of gases can be calculated as taking integral of P.dV

Thus, first law of thermodynamics can be written as :

All these reversible processes of heat exchange (Heating or Cooling) and work exchange (compression or expansion) by a
system of ideal gas with its surroundings can take place in various ways as discussed below:
 1 . Constant volume ( Isochoric ) heating/cooling process
Let the piston is fixed at one point in the walls of cylinder such that volume V = Constant
6 So the ideal gas law PV/T = Constant will reduce to

Now let a small increment of heat 𝛅Q is supplied to the gas. According to the 1st law of thermodynamics,

As V = Constant, 𝛅W = P . dV = 0, then the equation was written

For any work substance ( fluid )
Q = ∆U
And for perfect gas, the equation can be written as :

Thus knowing the values of 𝛅Q and Cv, ∆T (Increase in temperature) can be calculated and so ∆P can also be
calculated from eq.

By measuring the small increment in temperature and pressure of system, the quantity 𝛅Q & ∆U can also be
calculated.
 2 . Constant pressure ( Isobaric ) process
Let the piston is free to move in the cylinder and force, F or pressure, P on the piston remains constant. So now
the boundaries of the system can move and so the gas can expand or can be compressed i.e. the system is able to
7 exchange work.
Now let a small quantity of heat, 𝛅Q is supplied to the gas through the walls of cylinder.
On absorbing this heat, the temperature of gas will tend to increase and simultaneously the gas will tend to
expand against force F on the piston. Applying 1st law of thermodynamic to this process.

Or δQ = P.dV + m Cv dT
Q = P ( V2 – V1 ) + ( U2 – U1 )
Q = ( U2 + PV2 ) – ( U1 + PV1 )
For any working substance ( fluid )
Q = H 2 – H1
And for perfect gas, the equation can be written as :
Q = CP T2 – CP T1
Q = CP ( T2 –T1 )
Q = CP ∆T = CP dT
 Also, work can be calculated for a perfect gas by equation :
W = P ʃ dV

8 W = P ( V2 – V1 ) = PV2 – PV1 = m RT2 – mRT1 = mR ( T2 – T1 ) = m ʃ R dT

Thus the increase in volume of gas due to expansion and increase in temperature are interrelated and if one can be measured
the other can be found and the quantities W, ∆U and so Q can be calculated from equation as By ideal gas law
As pressure, P = Constant, the gas law reduce to V/T = Constant

And the fist law of thermodynamics

δQ = P.dV + m Cv dT

or Cp = R + Cv
or Cp − Cv = R
Thus characteristic gas constant of an ideal gas is the difference between specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) and at
constant volume (Cv).
The ratio of specific heats Cp / Cv is denoted as γ.
The physical meaning of R or γ can be taken as the characteristic of an ideal gas to expand under the influence of heat or we
can say the increase in product of pressure and volume PV with increase in T.
 3 . Constant temperature ( Isothermal ) Process
a. Steam
9 It can seen, that the isothermal process for a wet steam lay at the
constant pressure line also. Thus the heat calculated by equation :
Q = H 2 – H1
or
Q = U2 – U1 + W
b. Ideal gas ( perfect gas )
The beauty of isothermal expansion or compression process ( when the working substance is ideal gas ) is that
the internal energy remains constant and so whole of the heat exchange by system is converted to work and vice
versa. However the process is difficult to visualize while thinking that when the system (gas filled behind piston
in the cylinder) absorbs heat, its temperature should always increase. But what happens in the isothermal process
that while absorbing heat, simultaneously the gas expands thus decrease in its pressure and temperature takes
place and the net change in temperature is zero. While expanding, the gas gives positive work equal to the heat
supplied. Conversely also if the gas is compressed by doing extra work on the gas, its pressure and temperature
tends to increase, but simultaneously if the gas is cooled in such proportion that the net change in temperature
remains zero, the compression process becomes isothermal. In this isothermal compression process, again the
work supplied to the gas is given away by the system in the form of heat. Applying first law of thermodynamics
to this isothermal process in which
du = 0, because dt = 0
𝛅Q = 𝛅W = P. dV
 From ideal gas law

10 At T= constant
Gas law reduces to PV = constant or P1V1 = P2V2 = PV
Putting this in equation

𝒗𝟐
Q = W = P1 V1 ln
𝒗𝟏
By using this equation we can calculate the work exchange or heat exchange during isothermal process if we know the change
in volume.
Also in case of Isothermal process we know that
P1V1 = P2V2

Putting in eq.
p1
Q = W = P1 V1 ln
p2
By using this equation, we can calculate the work exchange or heat exchange if we know the change in pressure.
 4. Adiabatic Process

11

From non – flow equation ( first law of thermodynamics )

Q = U2 – U1 + W
Q=0
Thus, for any adiabatic process whether it is reversible or not, and for a vapour undergoing a reversible adiabatic
process the work done can be found by :
U1 – U2 = W
And for an ideal gas, where Q = 0 , The non flow equation is :
dq = du + dw = 0
dq = du + p dv = 0
du + p dv = 0
For unit mass PV = R T
 𝐑𝐓
P=
𝐕
12 du +
𝐑 𝐓 𝒅𝑽
=0
𝐕
𝐑 𝐓 𝒅𝑽
Cv dT + =0
𝐕
𝒅𝑻 𝒅𝑽
Cv +R =0
𝐓 𝐕
Cv Ln T + R Ln V = Constant
𝐏𝐕 𝐏𝐕
Where T = [ Cv Ln + R Ln V = Constant ] divided by Cv
𝐑 𝐑
𝐏𝐕 𝐑
Ln + Ln V = Constant
𝐑 𝑪𝒗
𝐑 𝐑
Where Cv = , ɤ –1=
ɤ −𝟏 𝑪𝒗
𝐏𝐕
Ln + ( ɤ − 𝟏 ) Ln V = Constant
𝐑
𝐏𝐕
Ln + Ln V(ɤ-1) = Constant
𝐑
𝐏 𝐕ɤ 𝐏 𝐕ɤ
Ln = Constant Then = econstant
𝐑 𝐑
PVɤ = Constant
 Thus perfect gas expand / compress according to the equation :
PVɤ = Constant
13 𝐂
P = 𝐕ɤ
Then the work found by :
W = U1 – U2 = ʃ 2 P dV 1

W = Cv dT = Cv ( T2 – T1 )
𝐂 𝐝𝐕
or W= ʃ2 dV = C ʃ 2
𝐕ɤ 𝐕ɤ
1 1

V1 − ɤ V1 − ɤ P2V2 – P1V1
W=C[ ]12 = PVɤ [ ]2 =
1
𝟏−ɤ 𝟏−ɤ 𝟏−ɤ

P1V1 – P2V2
W=
ɤ −𝟏
PV
By equations PVɤ = Constant, and = Constant , can found
T
V1 ɤ-1
T2 = T1 ( )
V2
P2 (ɤ-1)/ɤ
T2 = T1 ( )
P1
 5. Polytropic Process
It is found that many processes in practice approximate to reversible law of the form PVn = Constant, where n is
14 a constant. The index n depends only on the heat and work quantities during the process . Both vapours and
perfect gases obey this type of closely in many non-flow processes. Such processes are internally reversible. Thus
perfect gas expand / compress according to the law :
𝐂
PVn = Constant, then P = 𝐕n
Then the work found by :
W = ʃ 2 P dV
1

𝐂 𝐝𝐕
W = ʃ 2 𝐕n dV = C ʃ 2 𝐕n
1 1

V1 − 𝒏 V1 − 𝒏 P2V2 – P1V1
W=C[ ]12 = PVn [ ]2 =
1
𝟏 −𝒏 𝟏 −𝒏 𝟏 −𝒏

P1V1 – P2V2
W=
𝒏 −𝟏
PV
By equations PVn = Constant, and = Constant , can found
T
V1 n-1
T2 = T1 ( )
V2
P2 (n-1)/n
T2 = T1 ( )
P1
 P1V1 – P2V2
W=
𝒏 −𝟏
15
R ( T1 – T2 )
For unit mass , the work is w= 𝒏 −𝟏

m R ( T1 – T2 )
While the total work is W= 𝒏 −𝟏

R ( T1 – T2 )
Q = U2 – U1 + W = Cv ( T1 – T2 ) +
𝒏 −𝟏
𝐑
Where Cv = ,
ɤ −𝟏
R ( T1 – T2 ) 𝐑
Q= – ( T1 – T2 )
𝒏 −𝟏 ɤ −𝟏

𝟏 𝟏
Q = R ( T1 – T2 ) [ – ]
𝐧 −𝟏 ɤ −𝟏

ɤ −𝒏 R ( T1 – T2 ) ɤ −𝒏
Q=[ ] = [ ]W
ɤ −𝟏 𝒏 −𝟏 ɤ −𝟏
 There are 2-types of specific heats:
1. Specific Heat at Constant Volume Cv :
It is the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of unit mass of a gas through one degree when the volume is constant.
16 If a unit mass of a gas is taken in a closed vessel and is heated, the volume of the gas remains constant, but the temperature
increases. As the volume remains constant, there is no external work done by the gas and as temperature of the gas increases,
there is increase in internal energy of the gas.
Therefore heat supplied to the gas is completely utilized in increasing the I.E. of the gas,
2. Specific Heat at Constant Pressure Cp:
It is the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of unit mass of a gas through one degree when the pressure is kept
constant.
Consider a unit mass of a gas in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston. When the gas is heated, the piston moves up,
maintaining the same pressure. But the volume and temperature of the gas increases during heating.
As there is increase in volume, there is external work done by the gas and there is increase in temperature, there is increase in
I.E.
Thus heat supplied when the pressure is constant, is utilized for two purposes:
(a) To do some external work.
(b) To increase the I.E of the gas.
Whereas in case of constant volume heating, the heat supplied is completely utilized for increasing the I.E.
∴ Specific heat at constant pressure is greater than specific heat at constant volume.

Therefore, Cp is also defined as, the rate of change of specific enthalpy with respect to temperature when the pressure is kept
constant.
 6. Adiabatic Index:
It is the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume and is given by,
17

Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas

We will show that the internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of temperature only. This makes physical
sense because there is an assumption in ideal gas behavior that there is no interaction between the molecules
when we write
Start with a reversible process for an ideal gas:

Consider two processes: one occurring at constant volume,

the other occurring at constant pressure.
Figure : Two consecutive processes, constant volume followed by
constant pressure.
18
 Then
dU = Cp dT – RdT
19 dU = ( Cp – R ) dT
So Cv = Cp – R
𝑪𝒑
Then dU = Cv dT or dU = dT , U is f ( T ) only.
ɣ

𝑪𝒑 𝐑 ɤ𝐑
Note : that ɣ= , Cv = and Cp =
𝑪𝒗 ɤ −𝟏 ɤ −𝟏
Summary
A perfect gases obey this type of closely in many non-flow processes. Such processes are internally reversible
𝐏𝐕
according to the law : PVindex = Constant. And = Constant .
𝐓
1. If index = ∞ , the process is to be called Isochoric process i.e V = Constant (P)(1/∞) = Constant. If the
gas is an ideal gas. Then, P / T = Constant
2. If index = 1 , the process is to be called Isothermal process i.e T = Constant. Then, PV = Constant
𝐕
3. If index = 0 , the process is to be called Isobaric process i.e P = Constant. Then = Constant .
𝐓
4. If index = ɤ , the process is to be called adiabatic process. Then, PVɤ = Constant
5. If index = n , the process is to be called polytropic process. Then, PVn = Constant