Course Name: Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation Course Code: MC1307 Course Instructor-Princy Randhawa

Course Name: Electronic Measurement
and Instrumentation Course Code:

MC1307
Course Instructor- Princy Randhawa
Wednesday, February 6, 2019 1

Course Outcomes
CO.1 [MC1307.1] Measure various electrical parameters with accuracy, precision,
resolution.
CO.2 [MC1307.2] Explain the use of various electrical/electronic instruments,
their construction, principles of operation, standards and units
of measurements.
CO.3 [MC1307.3] Explain the industrial and laboratory applications of
Electrical/Electronic instruments.
CO.4 [MC1307.5] Understand the concept of AC and DC bridges for the measurement
of Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance.
CO.5 [MC1307.4] Select appropriate passive or active transducers for measurement of
physical phenomenon like temperature, pressure, flow, liquid level,
displacement, speed etc.
Wednesday, February 6, 2
2019
Course Syllabus
Basic concepts of measurements: System configuration, calibration - Errors in measurements,
measuring instruments: Permanent magnet moving coil, Moving iron, Electrodynamometer type
and Rectifier type instruments, Applications - Measurement of Resistance, Inductance &
Capacitance: A.C. Bridges. Temperature Measurement: Temperature and heat, Definitions,
temperature scales, bimetallic thermometers, filled-bulb and glass stem thermometers, Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD), principle and types, measuring circuits, Linear and Quadratic
approximation Thermistors, Thermocouples, optical pyrometers, Pressure Measurement:
Manometers, Elastic types, Bell gauges, Electrical types, Differential Pressure transmitters, Dead
weight Pressure gauges, Low Pressure Measurement: Mc. Leod gauge, Knudsen gauge, Pirani
gauge, Thermal conductivity gauges, Ionization gauge. Flow measurement: Classification of flow
meters, orifice meters, Venturi Flow meter, variable area flow meters, Laser Doppler
Anemometer (LDA), ultrasonic flow meters, Doppler flow meters, V-cone flow meters, purge
flow regulators, Measurement of mass flow rate: Radiation, angular momentum, Displacement
measurement (LDR, Photodiode, LVDT), Vibration measurement, Level Measurement, Angular
Velocity Measurement
2019
Course Objective
To provide students with a fundamental understanding

of the concepts, principles, procedures and the
computations used by engineers and technologies to
analyse select, specify design and maintain modern
instrumentation.
2019
Course Summary
This course is electronics based course dealing with measurements and

instrumentation designed for students in Physics Electronics, Electrical
and Electronics Engineering and allied disciplines. It is a theory course
based on the use of electrical and electronics instruments for
measurements. The course deals with topics such as Principle of
measurements, Errors, Accuracy, Units of measurements and electrical
standards, , introduction to the design of electronic equipment’s for
temperature, pressure, level, flow measurement, speed etc.
2019
Books/References
Text Books:
• A.K. Sawhney, Electrical & Electronic Measurements and
Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Co, New Delhi, 19th Edition, 2011.
• E. O. Doeblin, Measurement Systems: Application and Design,
McGraw Hill, New York, 6th Edition, 2012.
References:
• D. Patranabis, Principles of Industrial Instrumentation, Tata McGraw
Hill, New Delhi, 3rd Edition, 2010.
• A. K. Sawhney, A course in Mechanical Measurement and
Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai and Co, New Delhi, 12th edition, 2002.
• Bela G. Liptak, Process Measurement and Analysis, Chilton
Book Company, Pennsylvania, 4th Edition, 2012
2019
Marks Scheme
 30 Marks –Sessional I & 2
 30 Marks Assignment
- Tutorial -5 Marks
- Quiz -10 marks
- Seminar -10 Marks
- Class Performance and Attendance- 5
marks 90 above- 5 marks
85-89- 4 marks
80– 84-3 marks
75-79 -2 marks
< 75 – 0 marks
 40 Marks –End Semester
2019
Electrical & Electronics
 Electronics is a subset of electrical where you influence and control the behaviour
of electrons in a circuit by another current, without mechanical parts (switches,
relays ) or electro magnetism (coils, oscillators)
 Electric things are those deal with higher voltages , transformers , generators
etc. where as electronic are those which uses low voltages like IC.s of mag (0-
15 V)
X1 Y1
Inputs
X2
Electronics Y2
Outputs
X3 Y3
Introduction
Instrumentation : Instrumentation is the use

of measuring instruments to monitor and
control a process. It is the art and science of
measurement and control of process variables
within a production, laboratory, or
manufacturing area.
2019
Few Definitions
Measurement: It is the act, or the result of quantitative comparison between a

predetermined std. and or an unknown magnitude. Since two quantities are compared and
the result are expressed in numerical value.
Measurand: The physical quantity or the characteristic conditions which is the object of
measurement in an instrumentation system is termed as measurand or measurement
variable or process variable.
e.g. Fundamental Quantity: length, mass, time et.
Derived Quantity : Speed, Velocity, Pressure etc.
Measurand
(Qty. to
Std. Unknown Quantity be Result (Read out)
measured
Process of Comparison
)
2019
Significance of Measurement
“When you can measure, what you are speaking and express it
in numbers, you know something about and can express it in
numbers, you know something about it, when you cannot
express in it numbers in knowledge is of meagre and
unsatisfactory kind” – Lord Kelvin
The measurement confirms the validity of a hypothesis and

also add to it the understanding. This eventually leads to new
discoveries that require new and sophisticated measuring
techniques.
Through measurement a product can be designed or a process

be operated with max. efficiency , minimum cost and with
desired degree of reliability and maintainability
2019
Contd..
Measured Value: Any value or any reading calculated from measurement system
or measuring instrument.
True value: Any value calculated from rated value known as True value of
Actual Value.
e.g. Motor Actual Speed
True Value Measuring Instrument Measured Value
Error : Any deviation of measured

value from true value
Measured Value-True Value
2019 2
Methods of Measurement
Method of Measurement
Direct Method Indirect Method

The unknown quantity (measurand) In this method the comparison
is directly compared against a standard. Is done with a standard through
The result is expressed as a numerical number the use of a calibration s/m.
and a unit. Direct methods are common These methods are used those
for the measurement of physical quantities cases where the desire parameter
like length, mass and time to
be measured. E.g.
Wednesday, February 6, Acceleration, power 13
2019
Direct Methods Classified as:
 Deflection methods
Deflection method” includes the deflection of pointer on a scale due
to the quantity to be measured. Example: Wattmeter, ammeter
voltmeter
 Comparison methods
“Comparison method” include the comparison of the quantity under
measurement with a pre-defined standard quantity which gives
measurement. Example: potentiometer
2019
Sensor VS transducer
2019
Functional Elements of an Instruments
 Any instrument or measuring can be represented by block

diagram, that indicates necessary elements and its
functions.
 The entire operation of the measuring system can
be understand fro the bock diagram
Data storage element
Qty. to be
Primary Variable Variable Data Data
measured sensing conversion manipulation transmission presentation
element element element element
element
Data conditioning element Observer
2019
Take an example:
 Just take an example of an Analog meter (Ammeter) which

measures current.
Current Moving Magnets and other Force Mechanical Pointers and

Coil components Linkages scale
Primary Sensing Data conditioning Data Transmission Observer
BASIC SCHEMATIC OF AN AMMETER
2019
Classification of Instruments
Measurement involve the use of instruments as a physical means of
determining quantities or variables.
 Absolute/ Secondary Instruments

 Analog/ Digital Instruments
 Mechanical/Electrical or Electronic Instruments
 Active/Passive Instruments
 Manual/Automatic Instruments
 Self contained /Remote Indicating Instruments
 Deflection/null o/p instruments
2019
Active/Passive Instruments
2019
Absolute or
Primary/Secondary
Instruments
Absolute Instruments
 It gives the magnitude of quantity under measurement in
terms of physical constants of the instrument e.g. Tangent
Galvanometer
 In this type of instruments no calibration
or comparison with other instruments is necessary.
 They are generally not used in laboratories and
are seldom used in practice by electricians and engineers.
Secondary Instruments
 These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only
be determined by the output indicated by the instrument.
 These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another
secondary instrument, which has already been calibrated against an absolute
instrument.
e.g. Ammeter, Voltmeter etc.
2019
Classification of Secondary
Instruments
(a) Classification based on the various effects of electric current (or voltage) upon which
their operation depend.
• Magnetic effect: Used in ammeters, voltmeters,
watt-meters, integrating meters etc.
• Heating/thermal effect: Used in ammeters and
voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic field of attraction/repulsion
• Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters,
voltmeters, watt meters and integrating meters.
(b) Classification based on the Nature of their Operations
•Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be

measured by means of a pointer which moves on a scale. Examples are ammeter, voltmeter,
wattmeter etc.
•Recording instruments: These instruments record continuously the variation of any
electrical quantity with respect to time. In principle, these are indicating instruments but
so arranged that a permanent continuous record of the indication is made on a chart or
dial Wednesday, February 6, 21
2019
Classification of Secondary
Instruments
Integrating instruments: These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of
electricity, energy etc., during a particular period of time. : Ampere-hour meter: kilowatt thour
(kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour (kVARh) meter.
(c) Classification based on the Kind of Current that can be Measurand.
• Direct current (dc) instruments
• Alternating current (ac) instruments
(d) Classification based on the method used

Direct measuring instruments: These instruments converts the energy of the measured
quantity directly into energy that actuates the instrument and the value of the unknown
quantity is measured or displayed or recorded directly Examples are Ammeter, Voltmeter,
Watt meter etc.
•Comparison instruments: These instruments measure the unknown quantity by comparison
with a standard. Examples are dc and ac bridges and potentiometers. They are used when a
higher accuracy of measurements is desired
2019
Analog /Digital Instruments
Analogue Instruments: The signal of an analog unit vary in a

continuous fashion and can take an infinite no. of values in a
given range. E.g. ammeters, voltmeter, wrist watch , speedometer
etc.
Digital instruments: Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on

a finite no. of different values in a given range are digital signals
e.gs timer on a score board, odometer of an automobile
2019
Analog Instruments
Analog Instruments
Working Principle
Quantity to be measured  Magnetic field effect Representation
 Current-Ammeter  Electrostatic field effect
 Voltage-Voltmeter  Electromagnetic Field of
 Power-Wattmeter attraction/repulsion
P=V x I  Induction effect
 Energy –Energy Meter  Heating effect
�
E= 0 �𝑃𝑑𝑡
Indicating type Recording type Integrating type Null Deflection
2019
Deflection /Null o/p Instruments
Deflection Null
 Only one source of input reqd. Require two input- measurand
and balance input
 Output reading is based on the deflection Must have feedback operation that
from the initial condition of the compares the measurand with std. value
instrument Most accurate and sensitive
• The measurand value of the qty. depends
on the calibration of the instrument
2019 5
Essential Requirements of Indicating
Instruments
1. Deflecting torque (Td) : Deflecting torque causes the moving system
and pointer of the instrument to move from its zero position. Production
of deflecting torque depends upon the type of indicating instrument and
its principle of operation
2. Controlling torque (Tc) : Controlling torque limits the movement of pointer
and ensures that the magnitude of deflection is unique and is always same
for the given value of electrical quantity to be measured.
Two methods of Controlling Torque
i. Spring Control method

ii. Gravity control method
2019 6
Spring Control Method
 Two phosphor bronze hair springs of spiral

shapes are attached to the spindle of the
moving system of the instrument.
 They are wound in opposite direction
 Pointer is attached to the spindle of
the moving system
2019
Gravity Control Method
 In gravity control method, a

small weight is attached to the
spindle of the moving system
 Due to the gravitational pull,
a control torque (acting in
opposite direction to the
deflecting torque) is produced
whenever the pointer tends to
move away from its initial
position.
2019
Instruments
2019
Instruments
3. Damping Torque: Damping torque minimizes the oscillations of the pointer about the final
steady state deflection and makes it steady.. In the absence of this torque, pointer continues
oscillating to its final position after reaching to its final position. Depending on the
magnitude of damping, it can be classified as underdamped, over damped and critically
damped
2019
Damping Methods
Air friction Damping

Fluid Friction Damping
 Electromagnetic/ Eddy
current Damping
2019
Air Friction Damping
Wednesday, February 6,
32
Fluid Friction Damping
33
Eddy Current Damping
34
2019
Types of Instruments
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)

type Instrument.
2. Moving Iron type Instrument
3. Electro Dynamometer type Instrument
4. Hot wire type Instrument
5. Thermocouple type Instrument
6. Induction type Instrument
7. Electrostatic type Instrument
8. Rectifier type Instrument
2019
Permanent Magnet Coil Instrument
(PMMC)
2019 6
(PMMC)- Torque Equation
37
Controlling Torque: The value of
control torque depends on the mechanical
design of the control device. For spiral
springs and strip suspensions, the
controlling torque is directly proportional
to the angle of deflection of the coil.
2019 8
It is provided by the induced currents in a metal former or core on which the coil is wound or
in the circuit of the coil itself.
Wednesday, February 39
2019 6,
Errors
 Frictional Error
 Temperature Error
 Errors due weakening of permanent
magnet
 Error due to ageing of spring
 Stray magnetic field error
Wednes ay, February 6,

d
2019 40
Advantages of PMMC
 Low Power consumption

 Scales are uniform
 No hysteresis loss (iron loss)
 High Torque/wt. ratio
They have a very effective and efficient eddy current
damping
 Range can be extended with shunts or multipliers
2019
disadvantages of PMMC
 Use only for dc

The cost of these instruments is higher than that of
moving iron instrument
2019
Numericals
1. A permanent magnet moving coil instrument has a coil of dimensions 15mm x 12 mm.
The flux density in the air gap is 1.8 x 103 Wb/𝑚2 and the spring constant is 0.14 x 10−6
Nm/rad. Determine the number of turns required to produce an angular deflection of 90
degrees when a current of 5mA is flowing through the coil.
2. The control spring of an instrument has the following dimensions:
Length of strip =370 mm , thickness of strip =0.073 mm, width of strip= 0.51mm
The young modulus is 112.8 GN/𝑚2. Estimate the torque exerted by spring when it is
turned through 90𝑜 .
3. The coil of a moving coil voltmeter is 40mm long and 30mm wide and has 100 turns on
it. The control spring exerts a torque of 240 x 10−6 N-m when the deflection is 100
divisions on full scale. If the flux density of the magnetic field in the air gap is 1.0
wb/𝑚2, estimate the resistance that must be put in series with the coil to give one volt per
division. The resistance of the voltmeter coil may be neglected.
2019
Ammeter Shunts
DC Ammeter
 Its is always connected in series
 low internal resistance
 maximum pointer deflection is produced by a very small current
 For a large currents, the instrument must be modified by connecting a
very low shunt resister
 Extension of Ranges of Ammeter
- Single Shunt Type of Ammeter
2019
Ammeter Shunts
 Vm
V sh
 I m Rm
I s h R sh
R sh  I m R m
I sh
 I  Im
I sh
 Rsh  I m R m
I  Im
Ammeter Shunts
 Multirange Ammeters
Make-before-break switch
The instrument is not left without a
shunt in parallel with it.
During switching there are actually two shunts
in parallel with the instrument.
2019
Ayrton or Universal Shunts
2019
Numerical
Design an Aryton shunt to provide an ammeter with a current ranges 1A, 5A and 10A.
A basic meter resistance is 50 ohms and full scale deflection current is 10mA.
2019
Numerical
2019 9
Voltmeter Multipliers
A basic d’Arsonval movement can be converted into dc voltmeter by adding in series

resistor multiplier as shown in figure.
2019
Multirange dc Voltmeter
A DC voltmeter can be converted into a multirange voltmeter by connecting a number

of resistors (multipliers) in series with the meter movement. A practical multi-range
DC voltmeter is shown in Figure
Wednesday, February 6 , 51
2019
Ammeter/Voltmeter Sensitivity
 Ammeter sensitivity is determined by the amount of current required by the meter coil
to produce full-scale deflection of the pointer.
 The smaller the amount of current required producing this deflection, the greater
the sensitivity of the meter.
 The sensitivity of a voltmeter is given in ohms per volt. It is determined by dividing the sum
of the resistance of the meter (Rm), plus the series resistance (Rs), by the full-scale reading
in volts. In equation form, sensitivity is expressed as follows:
 This is the same as saying the sensitivity is equal to the reciprocal of the full-scale
deflection current. In equation form, this is expressed as follows:
2019
PMMC
Animation
2019
Numericals
 Calculate the value of the shunt resistance required to convert a 1-mA meter
movement, with a 100 Ohm internal resistance, into a 0- to 10 mA ammeter
 Compute the value of the shunt resistors for the circuit below. I3 = 1A, I2 = 100 A, I1 = 10
mA, Im = 100 uA and Rm = 1K Ohm.
2019
Solutions
 Solution 1: V m  I m Rm  Vm  0.1V
V sh
 1mA* 100   I  Im
0.1V I  10mA 1mA 
 Solution 2 : This is the shunt for the 10 mA
sh 9mA  0.1V 11.11
Rsh  Vsh
range. When the meter is set on the 100-mA I sh 9mA
range, the resistor Rb and Rcprovide the shunt
. The total shunt resistance is found by the
equation. Rb  (R b  Rc )  Rc
Rsh  Rm  1K 
 1.01  0.101 
I (Rb  Rc ) 100 10.1
R  R  mn 1 0.909
Ra  Rsh  (Rb  Rc )
b c
1 2 I Rsh  Ra10.1
 Rb R(0.909
c
 0.101) 
(100 uA) * (10.1  0.909
9.09  0.909  0.101  10.1

1K)
 1.01
100 mA
(Rb  R6,
Wednesday,I mFebruary c ) 55
R R 
b2019 c
I
Moving Iron Instruments
-Torque Equation
Classification
1. Moving Iron Attraction Type Instruments
1. Moving Iron Repulsion Type Instruments.
2019
57
 Radial Vane Type

 Coaxial Vane Type
58
Torque Equation
59
Torque Equation
60
Advantages
 Can be used both in D.C. as well as in A.C. circuits.

 Robust and simple in construction.
 Possess high operating torque.
 Can withstand overload momentarily.
 Since the stationary parts and the moving parts of the instrument
are simple so they are cheapest.
 Suitable for low frequency and high power circuits.
 Capable of giving an accuracy within limits of both precision and
industrial grades.
2019
Limitations
 Scales not uniform.

 For low voltage range the power consumption is higher.
 The errors are caused due to hysteresis in the iron of the operating system and due
to stray magnetic field.
 In case of A.C. measurements, change in frequency causes serious error.
 With the increase in temperature the stiffness of the spring decreases.
2019
Errors
Errors with both A.C and D.C
1.Hysteresis error : This error occurs as the value of flux density is different of same current for ascending
and descending values. The flux density is higher for descending value there for instruments read higher
for descending value current this error can be minimize using small iron parts and other method is used
nickel iron alloy
2.Temperature error: the effect of temperature change on moving iron instruments aries chiefly from the
temperature coefficient of spring.for minimize the error the series resistance should be made of material
like Manganin which has small temperature coefficient. the value of resistance should large as compare
with coil resistance.in order to reduce the self heating.
3.Stray Magnetic fields: It is a also called demagnetization fields. this is weak at full scale deflection
hence it can easily distorted . these error can be minimized using an iron case or iron shied over working
parts
Errors with A.C. only:

4.Frequency error: Change in frequency is also cause of change in reactance of working coil and also
change the eddy currents setup in the metal parts of instrument.
5.Reactance of Instruments coil: the change of reactance of the instrument coil is importance in case of
voltmeter. where a addition resistance put in series with instrument coil to reduce this effect.
2019
Moving Iron Instrument Animation
2019
Moving Iron Instrument (Repulsive)
2019
Electrodynamometer Instruments
Wednesd y, February 6, 66
a 2019
Electrodynamometer Instruments
Wednesday, Februa ry 67
2019 6,
Torque Equation
68
Torque Equation
69
Torque Equation
70
Advantages
 As the coils are air cored, these instruments are free

from hysteresis and eddy current losses.
 They have a precision grade security
 These instruments can be used on both a.c. and d.c. They are also
used as a transfer instruments.
 Electrodynamometer voltmeter are very useful where accurate
r.m.s values of voltage, irrespective of waveforms, are required.
 Free from hysteresis errors.
 Low power Consumption.
 Light in weight.
2019
Disadvantages
 These instruments have a low sensitivity due to a low torque to

weight ratio. Also it introduces increased frictional losses. To
get accurate results, these errors must be minimized.
 They are more expensive than other type of instruments.
 These instruments are sensitive to overload and mechanical
impacts. Therefore can must be taken while handling
them.
 They have a non-uniform scale.
 The operation current of these instruments is large due to the
fact that they have weak magnetic field.
2019
Errors
1. Torque to weight ratio

2. Frequency errors
3. Eddy current errors currents.
4. Stray magnetic field error :.
5. Temperature error :
2019
Numericals
1. In an electrodynamometer instrument the total resistance of the voltage coil circuit is

8.00 Ω and mutual inductance changes uniformly from -173µH at zero deflection to +
175µH at full scale, the angle of full scale being 95 degree. If a potential difference of
100V is applied across the voltage circuit, and a current of 3A at a power factor of 0.75 is
passed through the current coil, what ill be the deflection , if the spring control constant
is 4.63 x 106 𝑁 − 𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑
2019
Characteristics of Instruments
The performance of an instrument is described by means

of a quantitative qualities termed as characteristics. These
are broken down into:
1. Static Characteristics: These characteristics pertain to
a system where the quantities to be measures are
constant or vary slowly with time
2. Dynamic Characteristics: Performance criteria based
on dynamic relations (involving rapidly varying
quantities)
2019
Static Characteristics
 Accuracy
It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the
true value of the quantity measured.
 Precision : The degree to which repeated measurements show the
same results.
Low Accuracy Low Accuracy

Low High
Precision Precision
High High Accuracy

Accuracy High Precision
Low Precision
2019
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy may be specified in terms of inaccuracy or limit of errors

and can be expressed in the following ways:
1. Point Accuracy
2. Accuracy as “Percentage of Scale Range”
3. Accuracy as “Percentage of True value”
Indication of Precision
Significant Figures: It is an indication of precision of measurement. It
convey the actual information regarding the magnitude and the
measurement precision of a qty. The more the significant figures, the
greater the precision.
e.g. 302 A = 3S.F
302.10 V = 5 S.F
0.00030 = 5 S.F
2019
 Resolution or Discrimination: The smallest detectable incremental

change of the input parameter that can be detected in the output
signal. Eg; Scale, Multi range meters.
 Sensitivity: For an instrument or sensor with input x and output y.
Sensitivity = dy/dx
output output
Input Input
Static sensitivity = Infinitesimal change in output
2019 /infinitesimal
 Repeatability: Closeness of output reading when the same input is applied

repeatedly over a short period of time with the same measurement conditions
, same instrument and observer , same location and same conditions od use
maintained throughout.
 Reproducibility: Closeness of output readings for the same input when
there are changes in method of measurement , observer, location , conditions
of use, and time of measurement.
 Span & Range:
Range : High measurement possible
Span : Difference between max. and min measurement possible
E.g. Thermocouple (700 0C to 1200
0C) Ammeter (0 to 10 A)
 Dead zone : The largest of a measured
variable for which the instrument
does not respond Cause: friction in
mechanical measurement system
2019
 Dead Time :The time before the instrument begins to respond after the
measured quantity has been changed. E.g: Camera, Data acquisition card,
Ammeter
Wednesday, February
2019 6,
 Drift : It is an undesired gradual departure of the instrument o/p over a period

of time that is unrelated to changes in i/p , operating conditions or load.
The drift may be caused by the following factors:

1) Mechanical vibrations
2) Temp. changes
3) Wear and Tear etc.
Classification:
1) Zero drift : If the whole of instrument calibration/ characterstics gradually shifts
one by same amount. It may be due to presence set or slippage and can be
corrected by shifting pointer
Characteristics with zero drift
position.
output
Normal characteristics
2019 Zero
2) Span or senstivtity Drift : If the calibration from zero upwards

changes proportionally
output
Span drift
3) Zonal Drift : When the drift occurs only over a portion of span of
an instrument.
output
2019 zonal drift
Linearity: If the calibration from zero upwards changes proportionally.

If input-output relationship is a straight line passing through origin
• Nonlinearity cause lot of problem during signal conditioning even
though it is more
accurate in some cases e.g. LVDT (linear) , Thermistor (Non-linear)
Actual calibration curve
output
Idealised St. Line
Input
Any departure from straight line relationship is non-linearity
2019
 Error: Error is the degree to which a measurement conforms to the expected or

true value .Errors are due to measuring instruments (causing the change in the
value of the parameter being measured) or due to persons carrying out the
measurements (human errors).Errors may be expressed as absolute or
percentage.
Types of Errors
 Gross errors
- Human errors
 Systematic errors
- Instrument
errors
- Environmenta
l errors
- Observational
errors
Wednesday,
Random February 6,
errors
2019
 Error: Error is the degree to which a measurement conforms to the expected or

true value .Errors are due to measuring instruments (causing the change in the
value of the parameter being measured) or due to persons carrying out the
measurements (human errors).Errors may be expressed as absolute or
percentage.
Types of Errors
 Gross errors
- Human errors
 Systematic errors
- Instrument
errors
- Environmenta
l errors
- Observational
errors
Wednesday,errors
 Random February 6,
2019
Errors in Measurement
Static Error/Absolute Error- It is defined as the difference between the measured value and
the true value of the quantity. Then:
∆ A= Am- (1)
Where ∆ A= error At
Am = measured value of quantity
At = True value of quantity
∆ A is also absolute static error of quantity
A we have ɛ0 = ∆ A (2)
Where ɛ0 = absolute static error of quantity
A
Relative Static Error (3)
ɛr = absolute error/ true value
= ∆ A/ At
= ɛ0 /At
Percentage static error % ɛr = ɛ x 100
r (4)
We have At = Am - ∆ A
= Am - ɛ 0= Am - ɛr At = ) (5)
2019 Am/(1+ ɛr
Errors in Measurement
Equation (5) can also be written as

At = Am (1- (6)
ɛ) r
Static Correction (7)

∆ C= At -Am
2019
Question
1. Which of the following instrument is more quality

instrument.
Instrument A Instrument B
∆ A= 1 A ∆ A= 10 A
At = 2 amp At= 1000 amp
a) Only A
b) Only B
c) Both A and B
d) None of above
2019
Errors in sum and Difference of
Quantities
Error in the sum of quantities Error in the difference of quantities

equal the sum of absolute errors equal the sum of absolute errors
2019
Errors in product and Quotient of
Quantities
2019
Dynamic Characteristics
1) Speed of Response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement

system responds to changes in the measurement quantity.
2)Measurement Lag: It refers to retardation or delay in the response of

measurement system to changes in measured quantity . The lag is caused by
conditions such as capacitance, inertia or resistance.
Measuring lag are of two types:
a) Retardation type lag
b) Time delay type lag
3) Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates

changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic error.
4) Dynamic error or measurement error : It is the difference between true value of

the quantity changes with time and the value indicated by the measurement
system if no static error is assumed.
2019
Numericals
 The output voltage of a 5 V DC supply is measured as 4.9 V. Find (1) Absolute error
(2) Percent error (3) Relative accuracy and (4) Percent accuracy
 The three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 have the following ratings:
R1= 25Ω± 4 %
R2= 65Ω± 4%
R3= 45Ω± 4%
Determine the
following
a) Limiting value of
resultant resistance
b) % Limiting error of
series combinations
of resistance.
2019
 AC and DC bridges
 Bridges circuit are used for measuring components such as R, L and C and other
circuit parameters derived from component values such as frequency, phase angle and
temperature.
 Operate on a null indication principle (Comparison). That is known (standard) value
is adjusted until it is equal to unknown value
 Very high degrees of accuracy can be achieved using the bridges
Types of Bridge Circuits used in the Measurement
DC Bridges
 Low Resistance Measurement High Resistance Measurement
Ammeter Voltmeter method Direct Deflection Method
Kelvin Double Bridge Method Loss of Charge Method
Potentiometer method Megohm Bridge
 Medium Resistance Measurement Meggar
Ammeter voltmeter method
Substitution Method
Wheatstone bridge method
2019
AC bridges
Self Inductance Capacitance
 De sauty’s Bridge
 Maxwell’s Bridge
 Schering Bridge
Maxwell inductance bridge
Maxwell inductance capacitance bridge
 Hay’s Bridge
 Anderson Bridge Mutual Inductance
 Owen’s Bridge
 Carry Foster
Haydweiller bridge
Frequency
 Wien’s Bridge
2019
Ammeter Voltmeter Method
 Resistance can be measured using Ammeter and Voltmeter and Applying ohms law.
 When voltmeter is connected across supply then resistance R= (E+Ev)/I
In both cases measured value of unknown resistance is equal to the reading of voltmeter
divided by reading of ammeter.
From fig.(1) R = Rm (𝟏 − 𝑹 𝒂/ 𝑹 𝒎 )
Ideally R = Rm only when Ra = 0
From fig.(2)
R = 𝑹 𝒎 /(𝟏− 𝑹 𝒎/ 𝑹 𝒗 )
Ideally R = Rm when resistance of
voltmeter is ‘∞
2019
Substitution Method
 Accuracy depends on the EMF of the battery and also depends on the resistance of
the circuit other than R & S
 Substitution method is more accurate than ammeter voltmeter method
Wheatstone Bridge
• R1 and R2 are called the ratio arms.

• R3 is called the standard arm containing the standard known resistance.
• R4 is the unknown resistance to be measured.
• Battery connected between A and C.
• Galvanometer attached between B and D.
Wednesday, Feb ruary

2019 6,
Balanced Condition
2019
Wheatstone Bridge
2019
Sensitivity
Current Sensitivity:-
Voltage Sensitivity:-
Bridge Sensitivity:-
2019
Under small Unbalance Condition
2019
2019
2019
Thevenin Voltage
2019
Sensitivity under unbalanec
2019
Errors in Wheatstone Bridge
 The difference between the true and the mark value of the three
resistances can cause the error in measurement.
 The galvanometer is less sensitive. Thus, inaccuracy occurs in
the
balance point.
 The resistance of the bridge changes because of the self-heating
which generates an error.
 The thermal emf cause serious trouble in the measurement of low-
value resistance.
 The personal error occurs in the galvanometer by taking the reading
or by finding the null point.
2019
Kelvin Bridge
2019
Kelvin Bridge
2019
Kelvin Double Bridge
2019
2019
2019
Measurement of High Resistance
Loss of Charge Method

Direct Deflection Method
Meggar
Megohm Bridge Method
2019
Loss of Charge Method
Construction:
 R, an unknown resistance is connected in parallel with a capacitor C and
electrostatic voltmeter.
 A battery with emf V in parallel with R and C.
Operation:
 Capacitor is charged to suitable voltage by battery.
 Then allowed to discharge through resistance.
 Terminal voltage is observed over a considerable period of time during discharge.
 After application of voltage, Voltage across capacitor at any instant ‗t‘
Loss of Charge Method
Results:
 If R is very large, time for appreciable fall in voltage is very large.
 Care is to be taken while measuring V and v i.e. voltage at beginning and end of time
‗t‘
 Error in V/v
 Better results by change in voltage (V-v) directly and calculating R as
Direct Deflection Method
Cable having Sheath

Cable having no conducting Sheath
Measurement of volume and surface
resistivity
AC Bridges
 The ac bridge is a natural out growth of the Wheatstone bridge.

 The four arms is impedance. The battery and galvanometer are
replaced by an ac source and a detector sensitive to small
alternating potential difference.
 Detectors commonly used are:
 Head phones
 Vibration galvanometer
 Tunable amplifies detector.
 Headphones widely used as detectors at frequency of 250 Hz and
above up to 3 or 4kHz. Vibration galvanometer at frequency 5 Hz to
1000 Hz .commonly used below 200 Hz.
General AC Bridge
•When the four resistive arms of the basic Wheatstone bridge are replaced
by impedances and the bridge is excited by an AC source, the result is an
AC Bridge.
•To balance the bridge, two conditions must be satisfied, the resistive (R)
and the reactive components (XC or XL). Once balanced, the AC Bridge
indicates a null.
•AC bridge circuits are also used for shifting phase, providing feedback
paths for oscillators and amplifiers, filtering out undesired signals, and
measuring the frequency of audio and radio frequency (RF) signals.
General AC Bridge
Bridge balance condition
In admittance form
Polar form of impedance
Sub. The polar values in balance

condition
Maxwell Inductance Bridge
2
Maxwell Inductance Bridge
4
Maxwell Inductance-Capacitance
Bridge
Bridge
Bridge
Quality Factor
Bridge
Disadvantage:
Maxwell bridge is that, they are unsuitable of measuring the
low and high quality factor coils.
Anderson Bridge
•Need of Anderson's bridge though we have Maxwell bridge to measure quality factor
of the circuit.
•The main disadvantage of using Maxwell bridge is that, they are unsuitable
of measuring the low and high quality factor.
•However Maxwell bridge are suitable for measuring accurately medium quality factor
respectively.
•So, there is need of bridge which can measure low quality factor and this bridge is
modified Maxwell's bridge and known as Anderson's bridge.
Anderson Bridge
Anderson Bridge
Anderson Bridge
Schering Bridge
This bridge is used to measure to the capacitance of the capacitor,

dissipation factor and measurement of relative permittivity.
Schering Bridge
Balance equation
Schering Bridge
Desauty’s Bridge
 The De Sauty’s bridge is an A.C Bridge works on the principle of Wheat stone’s bridge
 This bridge is used to determine the capacity of an unknown capacitor C1 in terms of a
standard
known capacitor C2.
Modified Desauty’s Bridge
Desauty’s Bridge
Owens Bridge
 It is used for the measurement of inductance and is expressed in terms of capacitance.

Owens Bridge
Advantages
 Balance equations are simple and does
not contain any frequency
component.
 Can be used over a wide range of
frequencies.
Disadvantages
 Variable Capacitor is expensive.
 C2 tends to become large when
measuring high Q values.
Weins Bridge
• It is primarily known as frequency determining bridge.

• The bridge is also used in a harmonic distortion analyzer, as a Notch filter, and in audio
frequency and radio frequency oscillators as a frequency determining element.
Weins Bridge
Temperature Measurement
Temperature Measurement
The International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) defines six primary
fixed points for reference temperatures in terms of:
 The triple point of equilibrium hydrogen 259.34C
 The boiling point of oxygen 182.962C
 The boiling point of water 100.0C
 The freezing point of zinc 419.58C
 The freezing point of silver 961.93C
The freezing point of gold 1064.43C
(all at standard atmospheric pressure)
The freezing points of certain other metals are also used as secondary
fixed points to provide additional reference points during calibration
procedures.
140
Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate
classes according to the physical principle on which they operate.
The main principles used are:
 The thermoelectric effect
 Resistance change
 Sensitivity of semiconductor device
 Radiative heat emission
 Thermography
 Thermal expansion
 Resonant frequency change
 Sensitivity of fibre optic devices
 Acoustic thermometry
 Colour change
 Change of state of material.
141
Resistance Thermometer
142
Thermistor (Thermally sensitive
Resistor)
Disk Type (10mm) Bead Type (0.15 mm)
Rod Type
4mm dia Washer Type
12.5-
50mmlo 143
Thermistors ng
THERMally sensitive resISTOR
Thermistor Example
144
RTD , Thermistor & Thermocouple
145
Thermocouple
Thermocouple Connection Current through Two Dissimilar Metals
V = α(Th - Tc) Seebeck Effect Circuit 146

Thermocouple
Seebeck effect & Peltier effect
147
Thermocouples (Types)
148
Thermocouple
O/p Voltage Vs Temperature
149
Thermocouple circuit
150
Thermocouple Compensation Circuits
Type T
Type K Cold Junction Compensation
151
Type J Thermocouple using
Isothermal Block
152
Reference Junction
Compensation
Reference Junction Compensation
153
Thermopiles
Multiple-junction thermocouple circuit designed to amplify the output of the
circuit
T Srinivasa Rao Electronicsurements and

Mea 154
Thermocouples in Parallel
155
Different Types of Thermocouples
156
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Thermocouples
 Wide temperature range (-270oC to 2700oC
 Rugged Construction
 Bridge Circuits not required for temperature measurement.
 Comparatively cheaper in cost
 Good reproducibility
 Speed of response is high compared to thermometer systems.
 Calibration checks can be easily performed
 Using extension leads and compensating cables, long distance transmission for
temperature measurement is possible.
 Good Accuracy
 Compensation circuits is essential for accurate measurements

 They exhibit non-linearity in the emf versus temperature characteristics.
 Many applications needs signal amplifications.
 Proper separation of extension leads from thermocouple is required to avoid
electrical
stray signal pickup. 157
Radiation Pyrometers
• Pyrometry is a technique for measuring temperature

without physical contact.
• It depends upon the relationship between the
temperature of hot body and eletromagnetic radiation
emitted by the body.
• It is a technique for determining a body’s temperature by
measuring its eletromagnetic radiation .
• Pyro’ is the ‘Greek’ word which means fire.
158
• Two types of pyrometers used in industries :
Radiation Pyrometers Optical Pyrometers
159
Principle
• A pyrometer has an optical system and detector. The

optical system focuses the thermal radiation onto the
detector. The output signal of the detector(Temperature T)
is related to the thermal radiation or irradiance j * of the
target object through the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the
constant of proportionality, called the Stefan Boltzmann
constant and the emissivity ε of the object.
Workin
g
• The radiation pyrometer has an optical system, including a lens, a mirror and
an adjustable eye piece. The heat energy emitted from the hot body is passed
on to the optical lens, which collects it and is focused on to the detector with
the help of the mirror and eye piece arrangement. The detector may either be a
thermistor or photomultiplier tubes. Though the latter is known for faster
detection of fast moving objects, the former may be used for small scale
applications. Thus, the heat energy is converted to its corresponding electrical
signal by the detector and is sent to the output temperature display device.
Optical Pyrometer
Construction and Working and
Construction Working
1. An eye piece at the left side and an optical lens on the right.
2. A reference lamp, which is powered with the help of a battery.
3. A rheostat to change the current and hence the brightness intensity.
4.So as to increase the temperature range which is to be measured, an absorption screen is
fitted between the optical lens and the reference bulb.
5.A red filter placed between the eye piece and the reference bulb helps in narrowing the
band of wavelength.
Working
The radiation from the source is emitted and the optical objective lens captures it. The lens
helps in focusing the thermal radiation on to the reference bulb. The observer watches the
process through the eye piece and corrects it in such a manner that the reference lamp
filament has a sharp focus and the filament is super-imposed on the temperature source
image. The observer starts changing the rheostat values and the current in the reference
lamp changes. This in turn, changes its intensity. This change in current can be observed in
three different ways.
6. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than the temperature source.
7. Filamnet is bright. That is, hotter than the temperature source.
8.Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal brightness between the filament and
temperature source. At this time, the current that flows in the reference lamp is measured,
as its value is a measure of the temperature of the radiated light in the temperature source,
when calibrated.
Disadvantages
• ABILITY TO MEASURE HIGH TEMP

• NO NEED FOR PHYSICAL CONTACT
• FAST RESPONSE SPEED
• HIGH O/P
• MODERATE COST
Disadvantages
• Emissivity errors are introduced

• Errors due to the absorption of radiation
by carbon dioxide, water or other
apparently transparent gases.
Applications
• They are used for temperatures above the practical operating range of
thermocouples.
• They can be used in the environments which contaminate or limit
the life of thermocouple.
• Used for moving targets.
• They are used for measurement of average temperature of
large surface areas.
• They are used for the targets which would be damaged by contact
with primary elements like thermocouples and resistance
thermometers.
Pressure Measurement
It is defined as force/unit area. Pressure are exerted by gases, vapours and

liquids. Units of psi, mm Hg and kPa
Atmospheric Pressure
It is the pressure that an area experience due to force exerted by the atmosphere. The
atmospheric pressure at sea level ( above absolute zero) called std. atmospheric pressure.
Gauge Pressure
It is measured with the help of pressure measuring instrument in which atmospheric
pressure is taken at datum. Gauge pressure record above or below atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure
Any pressure above the absolute zero of pressure. The actual pressure at given position.
Absolute pressure= Atmospheric +gauge pressure

Vacuum pressure= Atmospheric pressure+ Absolute pressure
Positive gauge pressure
Atmospheric pressure
Negative gauge pressure or vacuum
Absolute pressure
Zero absolute pressure

Static pressure (Ps)

It is defined as force/ unit area acting on the wall by a fluid at rest or flowing parallel to
the wall in a pipeline.
Total or Stagnation Pressure (Pt)

It is defined as the pressure that would be obtained if the fluid stream were brought to
rest isentropically.
For an incompressible fluid or gas flowing at low velocities.

2
𝑉
Dynamic pressure =
2𝑔
Total = static +
2
dynamic
Pt= Ps+ 𝑉
2𝑔
Pressure Measuring Instruments
 Low Pressure Measurement (below 1 mm of Hg)

- Manometers
- Low pressure gauges
 Medium and High Pressure (b/w 1mm of Hg to 1000 atm)
- Bourdon Tubes
- Diaphragm
- Bellow pressure gauges
- Dead Weight pressure gauge
 Low Vacuum and Ultra High Vacuum (760 Torr to 10^-9 Torr and beyond)
- Mcleod. Gauge
- Thermal Conductivity
- Ionisation Gauges
 Very High Pressure (1000 atm. and above)
- Diaphragm gauges
- Electrical resistance pressure gauges
Two methods for the measurement of low pressure
 Direct Method : Here the displacement deflection caused by the pressure is

measured and is correlated to pressure
- Spiral Bourdon tubes
- Flat and Corrugated Diaphragms
- Capsules
- Manometers
 Indirect Method : In these methods , pressure is determined through the

measurement of certain other pressure controlled properties including volume and
thermal conductivity.
- Mcleod. Gauge
- Thermal conductivity gauges
- Ionisation gauges
- Radioactive vacuum meters
Manometers
• Simplest form is U-shaped, liquid filled tube

• Reference and measured pressure applied to ends of tube
• Difference in pressure causes difference in liquid level between sides
Principles: Hydrostatic Law

∆P=ρ g h
U tube Manometer
Inclined Type Manometer
Well Type Manometer
Applications, Advantages and
Disadvantages
Mainly spot checks or calibration
– Modern calibration using electronic
meters
• Low range measurements
– Higher measurements require mercury
- toxic, therefore hazardous
- Advantages
Simple operation and Construction
Inexpensive
Disadvantages
Range (water)
Higher pressure range requires
mercury Readings are localised
Sensing Elements
The main types of sensing elements are

•Bourdon tubes
•diaphragms
•bellows
The basic pressure sensing element can be configured as a C-shaped Bourdon

tube (A); a helical Bourdon tube (B); flat diaphragm
(C); a convoluted diaphragm (D); a capsule (E); or a set of bellows (F).
Bellows
•Bellows sensor is an axially flexible, cylindrical enclosure with folded sides. When
pressure is applied through an opening, the closed end extends axially.
• Bellows elements can measure absolute pressure, gauge pressure, vacuum, or differential
pressure.
Bourdon Tubes
•A Bourdon gauge uses a coiled tube, which, as it expands due to pressure

increase causes a rotation of an arm connected to the tube.
•bourdon are often used in harsh environments and high pressures, but can also be used
for very low pressures; the response time however, is slower than the bellows or
diaphragm.
C-type bourdon
psi Range as low as 0 - 15 psi up to 0-1500
Helical bourdon
Range as low as 0 - 200 psi up to 0 – 6000 psi
Spiral bourdon
.Range as low as 0-10 psi up to 0-100,000 psi
Diaphragms
•A diaphragm is a circular-shaped convoluted membrane that is attached to the pressure fixture

around the circumference . The pressure medium is on one side and the indication medium is on
the other.
•Diaphragms provide fast acting and accurate pressure indication. However, the movement or
stroke is not as large as the bellows .
Electrical Transducers as Secondary Transducers
Resistance Type
Inductive Type
Capacitive Pressure Transducer
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Photoelectric
Indirect method for the measurement of
pressure
 Pirani Gauge
 Thermocouple vaccum gauge
 Ionisation gauges
 McLeod Gauges
 Dead Weight Tester
Knudsen Gauges
Pirani Gauge
Thermocouple Vaccum Gauge
Ionisation Gauges
Mcleod Gauge
Dead Weight Tester
Applications, Advantages and
Disadvantages
Applications: It is used to calibrated all kinds of pressure gauges such as industrial pressure
gauges, engine indicators and piezoelectric transducers.
Advantages: it is simple in construction and easy to use. It can be used to calibrated a wide
range of pressure measuring devices. Fluid pressure can be easily varied by adding weights
or by changing the piston cylinder combination.
Limitations: the accuracy of the dead weight tester is affected due to the friction between
the piston and cylinder, and due to the uncertainty of the value of gravitational constant 'g'
Stroboscope ( Measurement of Angular Velocity)
This method measures the periodic or rotary motions by a device called a

STROBOSCOPE.
• This instrument is a simple and manually operated device.
•The speed is measured by adjusting the receptor frequency so that the moving
section is visible at a particular time interval.
Principle
The receptor circuit is based upon variable frequency oscillator which controls
the flashing frequency.
•A strong light is flashed on a moving object , at the time each flash occurs , in an
instantaneous position , the object will appear to be stationary
Stroboscope ( Measurement of Angular Velocity)
A strobotron is the high frequency source of light whose frequency can be varied and
controlled.
• For measuring the speed of shaft , a mark is made on the disc attached to the shaft.
• The flashing frequency is adjusted until the mark appears stationary.
•The flashing rate is reduced gradually and the flashing frequencies are noted for all
single line images.
Advantages
Advantages
• Imposes no load on the shaft hence no power loss.
• Non contact type hence, no attachments needed.
• Convenient to use for spot checks on machinery speeds and laboratory work.

Course Name: Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation Course Code: MC1307 Course Instructor-Princy Randhawa

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Course Name: Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation Course Code: MC1307 Course Instructor-Princy Randhawa

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Course Name: Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation Course Code: MC1307 Course Instructor-Princy Randhawa

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Course Name: Electronic Measurement

and Instrumentation Course Code:

Wednesday, February 6, 2019 1

To provide students with a fundamental understanding

This course is electronics based course dealing with measurements and

Instrumentation : Instrumentation is the use

Measurement: It is the act, or the result of quantitative comparison between a

The measurement confirms the validity of a hypothesis and

Through measurement a product can be designed or a process

True Value Measuring Instrument Measured Value

Error : Any deviation of measured

Direct Method Indirect Method

 Any instrument or measuring can be represented by block

Data conditioning element Observer

 Just take an example of an Analog meter (Ammeter) which

Current Moving Magnets and other Force Mechanical Pointers and

Primary Sensing Data conditioning Data Transmission Observer

BASIC SCHEMATIC OF AN AMMETER

 Absolute/ Secondary Instruments

(b) Classification based on the Nature of their Operations

•Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be

(d) Classification based on the method used

Analogue Instruments: The signal of an analog unit vary in a

Digital instruments: Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on

Indicating type Recording type Integrating type Null Deflection

Two methods of Controlling Torque

i. Spring Control method

 Two phosphor bronze hair springs of spiral

 In gravity control method, a

Air friction Damping

1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)

Wednes ay, February 6,

 Low Power consumption

 Use only for dc

A basic d’Arsonval movement can be converted into dc voltmeter by adding in series

A DC voltmeter can be converted into a multirange voltmeter by connecting a number

 Radial Vane Type

 Can be used both in D.C. as well as in A.C. circuits.

 Scales not uniform.

Errors with both A.C and D.C

Errors with A.C. only:

 As the coils are air cored, these instruments are free

 These instruments have a low sensitivity due to a low torque to

1. Torque to weight ratio

1. In an electrodynamometer instrument the total resistance of the voltage coil circuit is

The performance of an instrument is described by means

Low Accuracy Low Accuracy

High High Accuracy

Accuracy may be specified in terms of inaccuracy or limit of errors

 Resolution or Discrimination: The smallest detectable incremental

 Repeatability: Closeness of output reading when the same input is applied

 Drift : It is an undesired gradual departure of the instrument o/p over a period

The drift may be caused by the following factors:

2) Span or senstivtity Drift : If the calibration from zero upwards

Linearity: If the calibration from zero upwards changes proportionally.

Actual calibration curve

Any departure from straight line relationship is non-linearity

 Error: Error is the degree to which a measurement conforms to the expected or

 Error: Error is the degree to which a measurement conforms to the expected or