Emi 2018

Course Name: Electronic Measurement
and Instrumentation
Course Code: MC1307
Wednesday, July 10, 2019 1

Course Outcomes
CO.1 [MC1307.1] Measure various electrical parameters with accuracy, precision,
resolution.
CO.2 [MC1307.2] Explain the use of various electrical/electronic instruments, their
construction, principles of operation, standards and units of
measurements.
CO.3 [MC1307.3] Explain the industrial and laboratory applications of Electrical/Electronic
instruments.
CO.4 [MC1307.5] Understand the concept of AC and DC bridges for the measurement of
Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance.
CO.5 [MC1307.4] Select appropriate passive or active transducers for measurement of
physical phenomenon like temperature, pressure, flow, liquid level,
displacement, speed etc.
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2019
Course Syllabus
Basic concepts of measurements: System configuration, calibration - Errors in measurements,
measuring instruments: Permanent magnet moving coil, Moving iron, Electrodynamometer type
and Rectifier type instruments, Applications - Measurement of Resistance, Inductance &
Capacitance: A.C. Bridges. Temperature Measurement: Temperature and heat, Definitions,
temperature scales, bimetallic thermometers, filled-bulb and glass stem thermometers, Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD), principle and types, measuring circuits, Linear and Quadratic
approximation Thermistors, Thermocouples, optical pyrometers, Pressure Measurement:
Manometers, Elastic types, Bell gauges, Electrical types, Differential Pressure transmitters, Dead
weight Pressure gauges, Low Pressure Measurement: Mc. Leod gauge, Knudsen gauge, Pirani
gauge, Thermal conductivity gauges, Ionization gauge. Flow measurement: Classification of flow
meters, orifice meters, Venturi Flow meter, variable area flow meters, Laser Doppler
Anemometer (LDA), ultrasonic flow meters, Doppler flow meters, V-cone flow meters, purge
flow regulators, Measurement of mass flow rate: Radiation, angular momentum, Displacement
measurement (LDR, Photodiode, LVDT), Vibration measurement, Level Measurement, Angular
Velocity Measurement

2019
Course Objective
To provide students with a fundamental understanding

of the concepts, principles, procedures and the
computations used by engineers and technologies to
analyse select, specify design and maintain modern
instrumentation.

2019
Course Summary
This course is electronics based course dealing with measurements and

instrumentation designed for students in Physics Electronics, Electrical
and Electronics Engineering and allied disciplines. It is a theory course
based on the use of electrical and electronics instruments for
measurements. The course deals with topics such as Principle of
measurements, Errors, Accuracy, Units of measurements and electrical
standards, , introduction to the design of electronic equipment’s for
temperature, pressure, level, flow measurement, speed etc.

2019
Books/References
Text Books:
• A.K. Sawhney, Electrical & Electronic Measurements and
Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Co, New Delhi, 19th Edition, 2011.
• E. O. Doeblin, Measurement Systems: Application and Design,
McGraw Hill, New York, 6th Edition, 2012.
References:
• D. Patranabis, Principles of Industrial Instrumentation, Tata McGraw
Hill, New Delhi, 3rd Edition, 2010.
• A. K. Sawhney, A course in Mechanical Measurement and
Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai and Co, New Delhi, 12th edition, 2002.
• Bela G. Liptak, Process Measurement and Analysis, Chilton Book
Company, Pennsylvania, 4th Edition, 2012
2019
Marks Scheme
 30 Marks –Sessional I & 2
 30 Marks Assignment
- Tutorial -5 Marks
- Quiz -10 marks
- Seminar -10 Marks
- Class Performance and Attendance- 5 marks
90 above- 5 marks
85-89- 4 marks
80– 84-3 marks
75-79 -2 marks
< 75 – 0 marks
 40 Marks –End Semester

2019
Electrical & Electronics
 Electronics is a subset of electrical where you influence and control the behaviour
of electrons in a circuit by another current, without mechanical parts (switches,
relays ) or electro magnetism (coils, oscillators)
 Electric things are those deal with higher voltages , transformers , generators etc.
where as electronic are those which uses low voltages like IC.s of mag (0-15 V)
X1 Y1
Inputs
X2
Electronics Y2
Outputs
X3 Y3
Introduction
Instrumentation : Instrumentation is the use

of measuring instruments to monitor and
control a process. It is the art and science of
measurement and control of process variables
within a production, laboratory, or
manufacturing area.

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Few Definitions
Measurement: It is the act, or the result of quantitative comparison between a

predetermined std. and or an unknown magnitude. Since two quantities are compared and
the result are expressed in numerical value.
Measurand: The physical quantity or the characteristic conditions which is the object of
measurement in an instrumentation system is termed as measurand or measurement
variable or process variable.
e.g. Fundamental Quantity: length, mass, time et.
Derived Quantity : Speed, Velocity, Pressure etc.
Measurand (Qty. to be measured)
Std. Unknown Quantity Result (Read out)

Process of Comparison

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Significance of Measurement
“When you can measure, what you are speaking and express it
in numbers, you know something about and can express it in
numbers, you know something about it, when you cannot
express in it numbers in knowledge is of meagre and
unsatisfactory kind” – Lord Kelvin
The measurement confirms the validity of a hypothesis and

also add to it the understanding. This eventually leads to new
discoveries that require new and sophisticated measuring
techniques.
Through measurement a product can be designed or a process

be operated with max. efficiency , minimum cost and with
desired degree of reliability and maintainability
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Contd..
Measured Value: Any value or any reading calculated from measurement system
or measuring instrument.
True value: Any value calculated from rated value known as True value of Actual
Value.
e.g. Motor Actual Speed
True Value Measured Value
Measuring Instrument
Error : Any deviation of measured

value from true value
Measured Value-True Value

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Methods of Measurement
Method of Measurement
Direct Method Indirect Method

The unknown quantity (measurand) In this method the comparison
is directly compared against a standard. Is done with a standard through
The result is expressed as a numerical number the use of a calibration s/m. These
and a unit. Direct methods are common methods are used those cases
for the measurement of physical quantities where the desire parameter to
like length, mass and time be measured. E.g. Acceleration,
power
2019
Direct Methods Classified as:
Deflection methods
Deflection method” includes the deflection of pointer on a scale due
to the quantity to be measured. Example: Wattmeter, ammeter
voltmeter
Comparison methods
“Comparison method” include the comparison of the quantity under
measurement with a pre-defined standard quantity which gives
measurement. Example: potentiometer

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Sensor VS transducer

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Functional Elements of an Instruments
Any instrument or measuring can be represented by block

diagram, that indicates necessary elements and its functions.
The entire operation of the measuring system can be
understand fro the bock diagram
Data storage element
Qty. to be
measured Primary Variable Variable Data Data
sensing conversion manipulation transmission presentation
element element element element element
Data conditioning element Observer

2019
Take an example:
 Just take an example of an Analog meter (Ammeter) which

measures current.
Current Moving Magnets and other Force Mechanical Pointers and

Coil components Linkages scale
Primary Sensing Data conditioning Data Transmission Observer
BASIC SCHEMATIC OF AN AMMETER

2019
Classification of Instruments
Measurement involve the use of instruments as a physical means of
determining quantities or variables.
 Absolute/ Secondary Instruments

 Analog/ Digital Instruments
 Mechanical/Electrical or Electronic Instruments
 Active/Passive Instruments
 Manual/Automatic Instruments
 Self contained /Remote Indicating Instruments
 Deflection/null o/p instruments

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Active/Passive Instruments

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Absolute or Primary/Secondary
Instruments
Absolute Instruments
 It gives the magnitude of quantity under measurement in
terms of physical constants of the instrument e.g. Tangent
Galvanometer
 In this type of instruments no calibration
or comparison with other instruments is necessary.
 They are generally not used in laboratories and
are seldom used in practice by electricians and engineers.
Secondary Instruments
 These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be
determined by the output indicated by the instrument.
 These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another
secondary instrument, which has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
e.g. Ammeter, Voltmeter etc.

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Classification of Secondary
Instruments
(a) Classification based on the various effects of electric current (or voltage) upon which
their operation depend.
• Magnetic effect: Used in ammeters, voltmeters,
watt-meters, integrating meters etc.
• Heating/thermal effect: Used in ammeters and voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic field of attraction/repulsion
• Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters,
voltmeters, watt meters and integrating meters.
(b) Classification based on the Nature of their Operations
• Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be

measured by means of a pointer which moves on a scale. Examples are ammeter, voltmeter,
wattmeter etc.
• Recording instruments: These instruments record continuously the variation of any
electrical quantity with respect to time. In principle, these are indicating instruments but so
arranged that a permanent continuous record of the indication is made on a chart or dial

2019
Classification of Secondary
Instruments
Integrating instruments: These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of
electricity, energy etc., during a particular period of time. : Ampere-hour meter: kilowatt thour
(kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour (kVARh) meter.
(c) Classification based on the Kind of Current that can be Measurand.
• Direct current (dc) instruments
• Alternating current (ac) instruments
(d) Classification based on the method used

Direct measuring instruments: These instruments converts the energy of the measured
quantity directly into energy that actuates the instrument and the value of the unknown
quantity is measured or displayed or recorded directly Examples are Ammeter, Voltmeter,
Watt meter etc.
• Comparison instruments: These instruments measure the unknown quantity by comparison
with a standard. Examples are dc and ac bridges and potentiometers. They are used when a
higher accuracy of measurements is desired

2019
Analog /Digital Instruments
Analogue Instruments: The signal of an analog unit vary in a

continuous fashion and can take an infinite no. of values in a given
range. E.g. ammeters, voltmeter, wrist watch , speedometer etc.
Digital instruments: Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on

a finite no. of different values in a given range are digital signals e.gs
timer on a score board, odometer of an automobile

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Analog Instruments
Analog Instruments
Working Principle
Quantity to be measured  Magnetic field effect Representation
 Current-Ammeter  Electrostatic field effect
 Voltage-Voltmeter  Electromagnetic Field of
 Power-Wattmeter attraction/repulsion
P=V x I  Induction effect
 Energy –Energy Meter  Heating effect
𝑡
E= ‫𝑡𝑑𝑃 ׬‬
0
Indicating type Recording type Integrating type Null Deflection

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Deflection /Null o/p Instruments
Deflection Null
 Only one source of input reqd. Require two input- measurand
and balance input
 Output reading is based on the deflection Must have feedback operation that
from the initial condition of the instrument compares the measurand with std. value
• The measurand value of the qty. depends Most accurate and sensitive
on the calibration of the instrument

2019
Essential Requirements of Indicating
Instruments
1. Deflecting torque (Td) : Deflecting torque causes the moving system and
pointer of the instrument to move from its zero position. Production of
deflecting torque depends upon the type of indicating instrument and its
principle of operation
2. Controlling torque (Tc) : Controlling torque limits the movement of pointer
and ensures that the magnitude of deflection is unique and is always same for
the given value of electrical quantity to be measured.
Two methods of Controlling Torque
i. Spring Control method

ii. Gravity control method

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Spring Control Method
 Two phosphor bronze hair springs of spiral

shapes are attached to the spindle of the
moving system of the instrument.
 They are wound in opposite direction
 Pointer is attached to the spindle of the
moving system

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Gravity Control Method
 In gravity control method, a

small weight is attached to the
spindle of the moving system
 Due to the gravitational pull, a
control torque (acting in
opposite direction to the
deflecting torque) is produced
whenever the pointer tends to
move away from its initial
position.

2019
Instruments

2019
Instruments
3. Damping Torque: Damping torque minimizes the oscillations of the pointer about the final
steady state deflection and makes it steady.. In the absence of this torque, pointer continues
oscillating to its final position after reaching to its final position. Depending on the
magnitude of damping, it can be classified as underdamped, over damped and critically
damped

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Damping Methods
Air friction Damping

Fluid Friction Damping
Electromagnetic/ Eddy current
Damping

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Air Friction Damping

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Fluid Friction Damping

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Eddy Current Damping

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Types of Instruments
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type

Instrument.
2. Moving Iron type Instrument
3. Electro Dynamometer type Instrument
4. Hot wire type Instrument
5. Thermocouple type Instrument
6. Induction type Instrument
7. Electrostatic type Instrument
8. Rectifier type Instrument

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Permanent Magnet Coil Instrument
(PMMC)

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(PMMC)- Torque Equation

2019
Controlling Torque: The value of
control torque depends on the mechanical
design of the control device. For spiral
springs and strip suspensions, the
controlling torque is directly proportional
to the angle of deflection of the coil.

2019
It is provided by the induced currents in a metal former or core on which the coil is wound or
in the circuit of the coil itself.

2019
Errors
Frictional Error
Temperature Error
Errors due weakening of permanent magnet
Error due to ageing of spring
Stray magnetic field error

2019
Advantages of PMMC
Low Power consumption

Scales are uniform
No hysteresis loss (iron loss)
High Torque/wt. ratio
They have a very effective and efficient eddy current
damping
Range can be extended with shunts or multipliers

2019
disadvantages of PMMC
Use only for dc

 The cost of these instruments is higher than that of
moving iron instrument

2019
Numericals
1. A permanent magnet moving coil instrument has a coil of dimensions 15mm x 12 mm.
The flux density in the air gap is 1.8 x 103 Wb/𝑚2 and the spring constant is 0.14 x 10−6
Nm/rad. Determine the number of turns required to produce an angular deflection of 90
degrees when a current of 5mA is flowing through the coil.
2. The control spring of an instrument has the following dimensions:
Length of strip =370 mm , thickness of strip =0.073 mm, width of strip= 0.51mm
The young modulus is 112.8 GN/𝑚2 . Estimate the torque exerted by spring when it is
turned through 90𝑜 .
3. The coil of a moving coil voltmeter is 40mm long and 30mm wide and has turns on it.
The control spring exerts a torque of 240 x 10−6 N-m when the deflection is 100
divisions on full scale. If the flux density of the magnetic field in the air gap is 1.0
wb/𝑚2 , estimate the resistance that must be put in series with the coil to give one volt per
division. The resistance of the voltmeter coil may be neglected.

2019
Ammeter Shunts
DC Ammeter
Its is always connected in series
low internal resistance
maximum pointer deflection is produced by a very small current
For a large currents, the instrument must be modified by connecting a
very low shunt resister
 Extension of Ranges of Ammeter
- Single Shunt Type of Ammeter

2019
Ammeter Shunts
Vsh  Vm
I sh Rsh  I m Rm
I m Rm
Rsh 
I sh
I sh  I  I m
I m Rm
 Rsh 
I  Im

2019
Ammeter Shunts
Multirange Ammeters
Make-before-break switch
The instrument is not left without a shunt in
parallel with it.
During switching there are actually two shunts
in parallel with the instrument.

2019
Ayrton or Universal Shunts

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Voltmeter Multipliers
A basic d’Arsonval movement can be converted into dc voltmeter by adding in series

resistor multiplier as shown in figure.

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Multirange dc Voltmeter
A DC voltmeter can be converted into a multirange voltmeter by connecting a number

of resistors (multipliers) in series with the meter movement. A practical multi-range DC
voltmeter is shown in Figure

2019
Moving Iron Instruments
-Torque Equation
Classification
1. Moving Iron Attraction Type Instruments
1. Moving Iron Repulsion Type Instruments.

2019

2019
Advantages
 Uniform scale
• Power consumption can be made very low (25 μW to 200 μW)
• Torque to weight ratio can be made high with a view to achieve
high accuracy (typically 2%)
• Single instrument can be used for multi-range ammeters and voltmeters
• Error due to stray magnetic field is very small

2019
 Radial Vane Type

 Coaxial Vane Type

2019
Limitations
They are suitable for direct current only

The instrument cost is high
Variation of magnet strength with time

2019
Characteristics of Instruments
The performance of an instrument is described by means

of a quantitative qualities termed as characteristics. These
are broken down into:
1. Static Characteristics: These characteristics pertain to
a system where the quantities to be measures are
constant or vary slowly with time
2. Dynamic Characteristics: Performance criteria based
on dynamic relations (involving rapidly varying
quantities)

2019
Static Characteristics
 Accuracy
It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the
true value of the quantity measured.
 Precision : The degree to which repeated measurements show the
same results.
Low Accuracy Low Accuracy

Low Precision High Precision
High Accuracy High Accuracy

Low Precision High Precision

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Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy may be specified in terms of inaccuracy or limit of errors

and can be expressed in the following ways:
1. Point Accuracy
2. Accuracy as “Percentage of Scale Range”
3. Accuracy as “Percentage of True value”
Indication of Precision
Significant Figures: It is an indication of precision of measurement. It
convey the actual information regarding the magnitude and the
measurement precision of a qty. The more the significant figures, the
greater the precision.
e.g. 302 A = 3S.F
302.10 V = 5 S.F
0.00030 = 5 S.F
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2019
Resolution or Discrimination: The smallest detectable incremental

change of the input parameter that can be detected in the output
signal. Eg; Scale, Multi range meters.
Sensitivity: For an instrument or sensor with input x and output y.
Sensitivity = dy/dx
output output
Input Input
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Static sensitivity = Infinitesimal change in output /infinitesimal
2019 change in input
 Repeatability: Closeness of output reading when the same input is applied

repeatedly over a short period of time with the same measurement conditions
, same instrument and observer , same location and same conditions od use
maintained throughout.
 Reproducibility: Closeness of output readings for the same input when
there are changes in method of measurement , observer, location , conditions
of use, and time of measurement.
 Span & Range:
Range : High measurement possible
Span : Difference between max. and min measurement possible
E.g. Thermocouple (700 0C to 1200 0C)
Ammeter (0 to 10 A)
 Dead zone : The largest of a measured variable for which the instrument
does not respond Cause: friction in mechanical measurement system
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2019
 Dead Time :The time before the instrument begins to respond after the measured
quantity has been changed. E.g: Camera, Data acquisition card, Ammeter
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2019
 Drift : It is an undesired gradual departure of the instrument o/p over a period of

time that is unrelated to changes in i/p , operating conditions or load.
The drift may be caused by the following factors:

1) Mechanical vibrations
2) Temp. changes
3) Wear and Tear etc.
Classification:
1) Zero drift : If the whole of instrument calibration gradually shifts one by same
amount. It may be due to presence set or slippage and can be corrected by
shifting pointer position.
Characteristics with zero drift
output
Normal characteristics
Wednesday, July 10,
2019 Zero
2) Span Drift : If the calibration from zero upwards changes proportionally
output
Span drift
3) Zonal Drift : When the drift occurs only over a portion of span of an instrument.
output
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2019 zonal drift
 Linearity: If the calibration from zero upwards changes proportionally.

If input-output relationship is a straight line passing through origin
• Nonlinearity cause lot of problem during signal conditioning even though it is more
accurate in some cases e.g. LVDT (linear) , Thermistor (Non-linear)
Actual calibration curve
output
Idealised St. Line
Input
Any departure from straight line relationship is non-linearity
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2019
 Error: Error is the degree to which a measurement conforms to the expected or

true value .Errors are due to measuring instruments (causing the change in the
value of the parameter being measured) or due to persons carrying out the
measurements (human errors).Errors may be expressed as absolute or
percentage.
Types of Errors
 Gross errors
- Human errors
 Systematic errors
- Instrument errors
- Environmental errors
- Observational errors
Random errors
Wednesday, July 10,

2019
 Error: Error is the degree to which a measurement conforms to the expected or

true value .Errors are due to measuring instruments (causing the change in the
value of the parameter being measured) or due to persons carrying out the
measurements (human errors).Errors may be expressed as absolute or
percentage.
Types of Errors
 Gross errors
- Human errors
 Systematic errors
- Instrument errors
- Environmental errors
- Observational errors
 Random errors
Wednesday, July 10,

2019
Errors in Measurement
Static Error/Absolute Error- It is defined as the difference between the measured value and
the true value of the quantity. Then:
∆ A= Am-At (1)
Where ∆ A= error
Am = measured value of quantity
At = True value of quantity
∆ A is also absolute static error of quantity A
we have ɛ0 = ∆ A (2)
Where ɛ0 = absolute static error of quantity A
Relative Static Error
ɛr = absolute error/ true value (3)
= ∆ A/ At
= ɛ0 /At
Percentage static error % ɛr = ɛ x 100
r (4)
We have At = Am - ∆ A
= Am - ɛ 0= Am - ɛr At = Am/(1+ ɛr ) (5)
Wednesday, July 10,
2019
Errors in Measurement
Equation (5) can also be written as

At = Am (1- ɛr) (6)
Static Correction
∆ C= At -Am (7)
Wednesday, July 10,

2019
Question
1. Which of the following instrument is more quality instrument.
Instrument A Instrument B
∆ A= 1 A ∆ A= 10 A
At = 2 amp At= 1000 amp
a) Only A
b) Only B
c) Both A and B
d) None of above
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2019
Errors in sum and Difference of
Quantities
Error in the sum of quantities Error in the difference of quantities

equal the sum of absolute errors equal the sum of absolute errors
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Errors in product and Quotient of
Quantities
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2019
Dynamic Characteristics
1) Speed of Response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement

system responds to changes in the measurement quantity.
2) Measurement Lag: It refers to retardation or delay in the response of

measurement system to changes in measured quantity . The lag is caused by
conditions such as capacitance, inertia or resistance.
Measuring lag are of two types:
a) Retardation type lag
b) Time delay type lag
3) Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates

changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic error.
4) Dynamic error or measurement error : It is the difference between true value of

the quantity changes with time and the value indicated by the measurement system
if no static error is assumed.
Wednesday, July 10,
2019
Numericals
 The output voltage of a 5 V DC supply is measured as 4.9 V. Find (1) Absolute error (2)
Percent error (3) Relative accuracy and (4) Percent accuracy
 The three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 have the following ratings:
R1= 25Ω± 4 %
R2= 65Ω± 4%
R3= 45Ω± 4%
Determine the following
a) Limiting value of resultant resistance
b) % Limiting error of series combinations of resistance.
Wednesday, July 10,

2019

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Course Name: Electronic Measurement

Wednesday, July 10, 2019 1

Wednesday, July 10, 3

To provide students with a fundamental understanding

Wednesday, July 10, 4

This course is electronics based course dealing with measurements and

Wednesday, July 10, 5

Wednesday, July 10, 7

Instrumentation : Instrumentation is the use

Wednesday, July 10, 9

Measurement: It is the act, or the result of quantitative comparison between a

Measurand (Qty. to be measured)

Std. Unknown Quantity Result (Read out)

Wednesday, July 10, 10

The measurement confirms the validity of a hypothesis and

Through measurement a product can be designed or a process

Error : Any deviation of measured

Wednesday, July 10, 12

Direct Method Indirect Method

Wednesday, July 10, 14

Wednesday, July 10, 15

Any instrument or measuring can be represented by block

Data storage element

Data conditioning element Observer

Wednesday, July 10, 16

 Just take an example of an Analog meter (Ammeter) which

Current Moving Magnets and other Force Mechanical Pointers and

Primary Sensing Data conditioning Data Transmission Observer

BASIC SCHEMATIC OF AN AMMETER

Wednesday, July 10, 17

 Absolute/ Secondary Instruments

Wednesday, July 10, 18

Wednesday, July 10, 19

Wednesday, July 10, 20

(b) Classification based on the Nature of their Operations

• Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be

Wednesday, July 10, 21

(d) Classification based on the method used

Wednesday, July 10, 22

Analogue Instruments: The signal of an analog unit vary in a

Digital instruments: Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on

Wednesday, July 10, 23

Indicating type Recording type Integrating type Null Deflection

Wednesday, July 10, 24

Wednesday, July 10, 25

Two methods of Controlling Torque

i. Spring Control method

Wednesday, July 10, 26

 Two phosphor bronze hair springs of spiral

Wednesday, July 10, 27

 In gravity control method, a

Wednesday, July 10, 28

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Air friction Damping

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