1. What is measurement? Can we measure any physical quantity?

2. What are the factors of the measurement process? Which factors suffer from environmental
conidition?

3. Discriminate from accuracy and precision? Give examples.

4. Describe principles and calculations for PMMC. Is PMMC linear or non-linear?

5. Describe 1 measurement device that can measure voltage and current in digital signal. Give the
advantage of this device.

6. Describe 1 device that measures electrical paramaters (R,L,C).

7. What is the basic element of power and energy measurement? Describe 1 device that measures
power.

8. Describe AC energy meter. What are the steps to check this meter when installing? (counter)

9. Describe principle, configuration and conditioning circuit for temperature and weight measurement.

10. What is the function of 3-wire and 4-wire bridge circuit? Draw and explain.

11. How can you compensate for wire resistance when connecting from sensor and measuring circuit?
Draw and explain.

10,11. Answer in question 9 (more info in slide).

Exercise: Error, electrical and non-electrical

1. What is measurement? Can we measure any physical quantity?

Some basic definitions:

Measurement: (answer this question)

- a process of numerical evaluation of a dimension

- an act , or the result of quantitative comparison between a predetermined standard and an
unknown magnitude.
- Set of operations having the objective of determining a value of a quantity
- provides means for describing various phenomena in a quantitative terms

The basic aim of measurement in industries: is to check whether a component has been manufactured
to the requirement of a specification or not -> Calibration (which is a procedure and apparatus
employed for obtaining a comparison)

- Standards employed must be accurate and universally acceptable.

- Standard must be of same character as the measurand.
- The apparatus used and methods adopted for comparison purpose must be provable.

(to answer this question)In principle, most physical quantities can be measured, numerous tools and
methods are used measure various aspects of the physical world.

- Fundamental quantity: Single quantity that is directly measurable. measurement of the diameter
of a cylindrical Specimen. directly measured using an instrument such as vernier calipers
- Derived quantity: When a quantity of interest is not directly measurable by a single
measurement process. The quantity of interest needs to be estimated by using an appropriate
relation involving several measured primary quantities

Methods of measurements: (more info in slide)

- Direct method of measurement : value of the quantity to be measured is obtained directly

without any calculations
Exp: scales, vernier callipers, micrometers
- Indirect method of measurement : value of quantity to be measured is obtained by measuring
other quantities which are functionally related to the required value
Exp: angle measurement by sine bar
- Probe or intrusive method: Measurement of a physical quantity uses a probe that is placed inside
the system. Since a probe invariably affects the measured quantity the measurement process is
referred to as an intrusive type of measurement.
- Non-intrusive method: When the measurement process does not involve insertion of a probe
into the system the method is referred to as being non-intrusive. A typical example for such a
process is the use of laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV) to measure the velocity of a flowing fluid.

Characteristics of measurement:

- Measurement range
- Accuracy and precision
- Error: absolute/relative, systematic/random
- Sensitivity: rate of displacement of the indicating device of an instrument, with respect to the
measured quantity
- Resolution: Smallest increment in the input signal which can be satisfactorily detected by
measuring instruments
- Linearity: measure of maximum deviation of any point from the straight line
- Reliability
 - Repeatability: ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same results for the
measurements for the same quantity
- Hysteresis: lag or delay when input value changes

A physical quantity:

- one that can be measured and that consists of numerical magnitude and unit.
- can be defined in terms of the operations necessary to measure it.

Unit: an established standard for a physical quantity against which particular examples of that physical
quantity can be compared

SI units: length – m, amount of substances – mol, mass – kg, luminous intensity – cd, current – A,
temperature – K, time – s

All other quantities are derived from this base quantities.

Measurement = physical quantity/unit

Measurand: (đại lượng đo/ đối tượng đo): A physical quantity or the characteristic condition which is
the object of interest for measurement in an instrumentation system

- Fundamenatal quantity: mass, length

- Derived quantity: spped, velocity, acceleration

Instrumentation:

- refers to a group of permanent systems which help us measure objects and maintain retroactive
control of a process
- Instruments and systems of measurement constitute the "tools" of measurement and metrology

Types of instruments:

- MECHANICAL: These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. But their
disadvantage is that they are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and
transient conditions.
- ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical, indicating the output are rapid than mechanical
methods. But it depends on the mechanical movement of the meters. The response is 0.5 to 24
seconds.
- ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other system. It uses semiconductor devices and weak
signal can also be detected

Load effect:

- Occur when measurement operations may require connection (in situ invasive, semi-invasive or
contact measurement) or without contact.
- This linking of an instrument to an object or site of investigation means that a transfer of energy
and/or information termed "a load effect" takes place.

2. What are the factors of the measurement process? Which factors suffer from environmental
conidition?

There are 5 factors of the measurement process:

- Standards, units:
Standards: used to denote universally accepted specifications for devices.
Classification:
 o Calibration standards: Working standards of industrial or governmental laboratories.
o Metrology standards: Reference standards of industrial or governmental laboratories
o National standards: It includes prototype and natural phenomenon of Sl (Systems
International), the world wide system of weight and measures standards.
Regular calibration of instruments against recognized standards is crucial for maintaining
accuracy. Using established reference points or standards helps ensure consistency and accuracy
in measurements across different instruments and laboratories.
- Signals: analog, digital, or pulse. They are defined by how they convey useful information (data).
Attributes such as amplitude, state, frequency, pulse width, and phase can represent data.
- Measurement user: caused by human factors such as observational mistakes, misreading
instruments, inadequate training, or cognitive biases can affect the measurement process.
Minimizing human error often involves proper training, standard operating procedures, and
careful attention to detail.
- Device configuration/instruments: includes scale error, effect of friction, mechanical parts,
repeatability and readability
The quality and calibration of the measuring instruments or devices used significantly impact the
measurement process. The accuracy and precision of instruments directly affect the reliability of
the measurements.
- Environmental conditions: includes factors such as:
o Temperature, humidity, pressure, illuminance, e.t.c
o Clean surroundings and minimum vibration
o Temperature equalization between standard, work piece, and instrument
o Noise from environment, system or during transmitting signal
Proper environmental controls or corrections are necessary to mitigate these effects and ensure
accurate readings.

3. Discriminate from accuracy and precision? Give examples.

Accuracy: agreement of the measured value with the true value of the measured quantity. If the
measurement of dimensions of a part approximates very closely to the true value of that dimension, it is
said to be accurate

Accuracy of the measurement: is absolute error over the measurement value

Factors affecting accuracy:

- The accuracy and design of the measuring instrument

- The skill of the operator
- Method adopted for measurement
- Temperature variations
- Elastic deformation of the part or instrument etc

Precision:

- the repeatability of the measuring process, refers to the group of measurements for the same
characteristics taken under identical conditions
- indicates to what extent the identically performed measurements agree with each other

If the instrument is not precise it will give different (widely varying) results for the same dimension when
measured again and again
In general, accuracy relates to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value, but precision
relates to how close repeated measurements are to each other, regardless of their closeness to the true
value.

4. Describe principles and calculations for PMMC. Is PMMC linear or non-linear?

PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) consists of:

- Permanent magnet: create magnetic field within instrument.

- Moving coil: a coil of wire that can rotate around its axis.
- Controlling or restoring spring: controlling the coil movement to indicate the measurement value
or let the coil return to initial position when current stops flowing.

Working principle: based on the principle that the torque experienced by the coil due to the interaction
between the magnetic fields is proportional to the current passing through it, allowing for accurate
measurement of DC currents.

- When a current I flows through a one-turn coil in a magnetic field , a force exerted on each side
of the coil: F=BIL which…
- Since the force acts on each side of the coil, the total force for a coil of N turns is: F = N.BIL
- The force on each side acts at a coil diameter D, producing a deflecting torque: TD = F.D = N.BIL.D
- The controlling torque exerted by the spiral springs is proportional to the angle of deflection of
the pointer: TC = k.phi which k – spring const, phi – deflection angle
- For given deflection angle, , the controlling and deflecting torques are equal:
TD = TC -> NBILD = k.phi -> phi = (NBLD/k).I
- Since all quantities except phi and I are consts for any given instrument, pointer deflection is
always proportional to coil current.
 The scale of the instrument is linear.

DC Ammeter:

- An ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit.

- The internal resistance should be very low
- The pointer can be deflected by a very small current
 - Extension of ranges of ammeter can be achieved by connecting a very low shunt resistor

Multirange: A make-
before-break must be used so that instrument is not left without a shunt in parallel to prevent a large
current flow through ammeter.

Ayrton shunt: used with an ammeter consists of several seriesconnected resistors all connected in
parallel with the PMMC instrument. Range change is effected by switch between resistor junctions

DC Voltmeter:

- An ammeter is always connected across or parallel with the

points in a circuit at which the voltage is to be measured.
- The internal resistance should be very high
- The reciprocal of full scale current is the voltmeter sensitivity
(kΩ/V)
- The total voltmeter resistance = Sensitivity X Range
- Extension of ranges: by muliplier resistance connected in
series with PMMC

Multirange:

5. Describe 1 measurement device that can measure voltage and current in digital signal. Give the
advantage of this device.

One measurement device that can measure both voltage and current in a digital signal is a Digital
Multimeter (DMM). It's a versatile tool that combines several measurement functions into a single
instrument. DMMs are commonly used by technicians, engineers, electricians, and hobbyists for testing
and troubleshooting electrical circuits in different applications.

Features and functions of DMM:

- Measurement capabilities: DMMs can measure many electrical quantities such as both DC and
AC voltage, current, resistance, capacitance, frequency, e.t.c with very wide range, or diode
testing and continuity testing
- Digital Display: DMMs feature a digital display (usually an LCD 7-segment) where measurements
are shown numerically. The display often provides high resolution and accuracy, showing
readings with decimal precision.
- Safety Features: Many DMMs come with safety features such as overload protection, fuses for
current measurement, insulated probes, and safety ratings for working in potentially hazardous
environments.
- Portable and Handheld: typically compact, handheld devices, making them easy to carry around
and suitable for use in various settings including laboratories, workshops, field service, and at
home.

Advantages of DMM comparing to analog meter

6. Describe 1 device that measures electrical paramaters (R,L,C).

One device used to measure electrical parameters like resistance (R), inductance (L), and capacitance (C)
is an LCR meter (inductance, capacitance, and resistance meter). An LCR meter is a specialized
instrument designed specifically to accurately measure these electrical properties. LCR meters provide
accurate and precise measurements of R, L, and C within specified tolerances, ensuring reliability in
measurements.

Working Principle of an LCR Meter:

An LCR meter operates based on the principles of AC (Alternating Current) circuit analysis. It generates
an AC signal at different frequencies and measures the response of the tested component or circuit to
this signal.

Features of an LCR Meter:

- Measurement of Resistance (R): LCR meters can accurately measure resistance by applying an AC
signal and analyzing the voltage and current phase difference to determine resistance values.
 - Measurement of Inductance (L): For inductance measurement, the LCR meter sends an AC signal
through the test component and measures the resulting voltage and current phase shift to
determine inductance.
- Measurement of Capacitance (C): Similarly, capacitance is measured by analyzing the phase
difference between the applied AC signal and the resulting current in the capacitor under test.
- Frequency Selection: LCR meters can vary the frequency of the applied AC signal. This capability
is essential because the electrical characteristics of components like inductors and capacitors can
change with frequency due to factors like reactance.
- Display and controls: These meters come with displays (usually LCD 7-segment) that show the
measured values and often have various controls and settings to adjust frequency, range, and
measurement mode.

R measurement:

- Medium resistance (1-100k): Wheatstone bridge, Voltmeter – Ammeter method

- Low resistance (<1): Kelvin bridge, kelvin double bridge, voltmeter – ammeter method
- High resistance (>100k): Mega-ohm bridge, loss of charge method, ohmeter

Medium R: When the value of resistance is below one ohm, then it is called as low resistance e.g.
resistance of armature winding of generator, resistance of series field winding of DC series generator,
resistance of transformer winding, bus bar resistance, earth wire resistance etc.

Voltmeter – Ammeter method: the measured value of the unknown resistances is equal to the reading of
voltmeter divided by reading of ammeter.

Let the reading of voltmeter is V and ammeter I -> measured value of the resistances = Rm =V/I.

In fig. A:

- The reading of ammeter is equal to I = the current flowing

through resistances
 Reading of voltmeter = the voltage across resistance +
voltage across ammeter: V=Va + Vr
- Let the resistance of ammeter be Ra Ω s.
- V = IRa+IR = I(Ra+R) → Rm=V/I=I(Ra+R)/I → Rm=Ra+R
- R = Rm-Ra → R=Rm(1-Ra/Rm) : From this expression
R=Rm only when Ra=0.
- This is the ideal case but practically ammeter has low resistance.

→ Hence to reduce the error in measurement this method is used for measurement medium and high
resistances. As in this case ‘Rm’ will be very much greater than ‘Ra’ Hence the ratio ‘Ra/Rm’ is
approximately = 0

In fig. B:

- Rm =V/I. The reading of ammeter is equal to I= Iv+ Ir let the

resistance of voltmeter by ‘Rv’: I=V/Rv+V/R
- Reading of voltmeter V=Voltage across resistance VR.
- Rm=V/(V/R+V/Rv) = 1/(1/R+1/Rv )=1/R+1/Rv

→1/R=1/Rm-1/Rv → R=RmRv/(Rv-Rm) → R=Rm/(1-Rm/Rv)

 Resistance R=Rm only when resistance of voltmeter is

‘∞’(ideal case). In practically Rv is in medium or high resistance class.
  Hence this method is used for measurement of low resistance as in this case Rm /Rv will be
approximately equal to zero.

In both cases % error in measurement of resistance is equal to true value R-measured value of Rm
divided by product of R and Rm.

Wheatstone bridge: (book, balanced, unbalanced condition (thevenin))

Low R:

Kelvin bridge (Kelvin double bridge): modification of the Wheatstone bridge and provides greatly
increased accuracy measurement of low resistance.

In Wheatstone bridge, it is difficult to measure low resistance since lead resistance and contact
resistance leads to the increment in net resistance.

With additional low value resistors and the adjustment of internal configuration of the bridge,
measurement errors by voltage drops in the high current (low resistance) arm of the bridge can be
substantially reduced. <insert fig.>

It consist of two ratio arms

- Outer ratio arm: contains the known resistors

- Inner ratio arm: connect one terminal of galvanometer at appropriate point.

(analysis in book, result in slide)

High R:

Mega-Ohm bridge: modified form of a Wheatstone bridge, which is a circuit used to measure an
unknown electrical resistance. It has a range from 0.1 MΩ to 10⁶ MΩ

In Wheatstone bridge, because of large resistance, the value of the current in the circuit will be very
small. It is very difficult to sense such small currents in the circuit. Thus, galvanometer cannot be used
anymore as you will not see the needle move anymore. Moreover, high-resistance measurementss are
affected by shunt-leakage, leads to measurement error.

However, if the same resistance is measured by a Megohm Bridge with a guard connection, the error in
measurement is considerably reduced. Guard terminals is connected to bridge corner such that leakage
resistances are placed across bridge arm with low resistances. <insert analysis in book>

L,C measurement: (slides, book)

AC bridge (slide, similar to wheatstone bridge): impedances on their branch, powered by an AC source
and AC galvanometer or oscilloscope as detector

7. What is the basic element of power and energy measurement? Describe 1 device that measures
power.

Basic element of power and energy measurement is multiplier.

In DC circuit:

Power: P = U.I = I2.R = U2/R

In AC circuit:

- Instantaneous power: p=u.i

- Average power: P = 1/T x (integral p(t) from 0 -> T) = W/T

For 1 phase sinusoidal wave current/voltage: u(t) = Um.cos(wt+phi), i(t) = Im.cos(wt+theta)

- Active power: P = Urms.Irms.cos(angle U - angle I)

- Lossy power (reactive power): Q = Urms.Irms.sin(angle U - angle I)
- Total power: S2 = P2 + Q2

For 3 phase circuit:

- P = PA + PB + PC = Ufa.Ifa.cos(phiA) + Ufb.Ifb.cos(phiB) + Ufc.Ifc.cos(phiC)

- Q = QA + QB + QC = = Ufa.Ifa.sin(phiA) + Ufb.Ifb.sin(phiB) + Ufc.Ifc.sin(phiC)
which: Uf, If: rms phase voltage/current

Energy: W = (integral p(t) from 0 -> T)

In 3 phase: sum of W in 3 phase

Analog method: Dynamometer - an electromechanical device for

measuring real power in single-phase DC or AC circuits (large AC
current and voltage). The main structure of the electrodynamic
oatmeter is the electrodynamic indicator structure.

Static coil has 2 parts (current coil), in which moving voltage coil lies
within the current coil.

Characteristic:

- Used in DC and AC circuits

- combination of electromagnetism and electromagnetism
- High accuracy due to no loss on the steel core
- The scale is irregular because the deflection angle α
depends on current in coils
- Under the influence of external magnetic field, low
sensitivity

Dynamometers measure power(current, voltage) indirectly by

quantifying torque (rotational force) and rotational speed (angular velocity) and then calculating the
power based on these measurements.

When used as an ammeter, the measured current is applied to both coils. The torque is thus
proportional to current2. If the measured current is a.c., the meter is unable to follow the alternating
torque values and it displays instead the mean value of current2.

The formula for calculating power is:

P = torque x angular velocity = torque x 2pi x n(rpm)

Torque is proportional product of current in current coil and current in voltage coil.

In DC circuit:
Which:

D: reactance moment of reactance spring

I1, I2: current in current coil and current in voltage coil

M12: mutual inductance

K: dynamometer coefficient

alpha: indicator of dynamometer

In AC circuit:

With

From eq. (1), indicator is proportional to power in load. -> Linear

8. Describe AC energy meter. What are the steps to check this meter when installing? (counter)

AC 1-phase:

Energy:

The measuring instrument to measure energy is the counter. The counter is made based on induction
indicator structure.

Structure:

Coil 1 (making up electromagnet 1): called the voltage coil, is

connected in parallel with the load. large number of turns and
a small wire cross section to withstand high voltage.

Coil 2 (making up electromagnet 2): called the current coil, is

connected in series with the load, has large wire, few turns,
and can withstand large currents.

Aluminum disc 3: mounted on a shaft against a cylinder that

can rotate freely between two coils.

Mechanical gearbox 5: attached to the shaft of aluminum disc.

Permanent magnet 4: has its magnetic field penetrate the aluminum disc to create a braking torque

Working Principle:

- When a current I flows in the load, through the current coil creates a magnetic flux ΦI that cuts
the aluminum disc twice.
- At the same time, a voltage U is applied to the voltage coil, generating a current Iu, which flows
in the voltage coil to create a magnetic flux ΦU:

which kI, kU: are proportional coefficients of current and voltage;

Zu: is total resistance of the voltage coil

Since voltage coil has a small net resistance compared to its reactance,

The torque of the induction indicator mechanism is calculated:

To implement condition , we can adjust angle β, that is,

adjust Φu by changing the magnetic sun position of the pressure coil or adjust angle α by adding or
removing short circuit turns of the current coil.

Torque is proportional to power:

The braking torque is generated due to magnetic flux of permanent magnet ΦM and eddy current
generated in aluminum disc IM: MC = k1.ΦM.IM

In balance condition:

After time t, the disk rotates N times, that is:

 N = Cp P.t = Cp.W

Which Cp is counter constant (kwH)

Sai số của công tơ được tính như sau :

WN, CPN: là năng lượng và hằng số công tơ định mức. ; Wđo, CPđo: là năng lượng và hằng số công tơ đo được.

Cấp chính xác của công tơ thường là: 0,5; 1; 1,5; 2; 2,5
 Check counter: to ensure that friction compensation torque is a little larger than friction torque.

Circuit diagram of counter connected with 3-phase source

There are 2 main steps to check counter:

- Adjusting the automatic rotation of counter:

+ Adjust L2 so that U = UN; point L1 so that I=0 -> the counter is stationary. If counter rotates, it rotates
automatically, adjust the braking torque.
+ Adjust L2 so that U=UN, I=IN, adjust the phase difference angle ‘phi’. At this time, the wattmeter shows
0, the counter should stand still.
If the counter rotates, it means phi=pi/2 and the counter are not proportional to the power. We can
adjust the magnetic flux Φu by adjusting the magnetic branching part of the coil pressure
- Adjust counter constant:
+ Adjust L2 so that U=UN, I=IN, adjust the phase difference angle ‘phi’.
+ Measure the rotation time of counter. Count the number of revolutions N that counter rotates in time
t. From there we can calculate the counter constant: <insert formula>

+ Error: (similar in above formula)

We can determine the relative conversion error with different loads and different cos(phi).

9. Describe principle, configuration and conditioning circuit for temperature and weight measurement.

- Temperature: RTD, thermistor, thermocoupler

- Weight: load cell

RTD (Resistor Temperature Detector) sensor: resistor change when temp change

There are 2 types: Metal and semi-conductor

Metal:

• The metal resistive temperature is characterized by an almost linear relationship between its resistance
and temperature, and the repeatability of that relationship is very high, so the device is simple.

• Metal thermometer are further divided into noble metal (Pt) and non-precious metal thermistors. For
Pt RTD, the repeatability is very high, the random error is very low (0.01%), can be used to measure low
temperatures, the difference is 0.01°C

• Copper and Nickel RTD belong to the category of metal resistive temperature not precious, cheap
price. Repeatability is not as high as Pt, often used in cases where it is cheap and not required highly
accurate but still meets technical requirements

Metal thermometer are made into resistance thermometer, which is wound with Pt wire, copper etc...
on a core and placed in a stainless steel tube connected wire connector.
Resistance Vs. Temperature curve:

(sìmplied, limited range 0 – 100*C)

With Pt thermometer:

Callendar-Van Dusen Equation (in book)

To measure temp from -50 – 600*C , use Pt, Ni, Cu -100

Measurement configuration: bridge circuit 2 wire, 3 wire, 4 wire

2 wire:

- Simplest, each wire connect to end of RTD

- Formula: <insert voltage bridge formula>
- In practical, there is always resistance in wire
 R_total = Rwire + RTD which lead to higher temperature
indicator and actual temp
 Solve this problem by using 3 – wire, 4 - wire

3 wire:

- 2 wires link the sensing element to the monitoring device on

one side of the sensing element, and one links it on its other
side.
- This will remove error due to wire resistance when R1 = R3
- Wire resistance reduce the current through RTD -> remove error by replace Vs to Is -> with every
wire resistance, the current is still the same

4 – wire:

- 2 wire connected to sensing element and 2 wire connected to current

source. Output voltage of sensor is measured by high input
impedance amplifier.
- If the source is ideal and input impedance is infinity -> all error due to
wire resistance is removed

Thermistor: (in book)

- NTC: high sensitivity, highly nonlinear

- PTC: insert Barium and Titan mixture, called switching thermistor
(switch point -20 – 125*C)

Formula, self-heating, application (slides)

Thermocoupler: is 2-wire device, Composed of dissimilar metals or alloys

with one end welded together

Measurement range: large, -200 -> 2320*C

Types of thermocouple junctions, working principle: (slides)

ET = KT (t1 – t2)

Which ET: emf produced at hot junction; KT: seebeck coeffcient, t1: hot junction temperature, t2 – free
junction temp

Wire material – normal metal: Cu, Ag, Ni

-- thermal metal: volfram, Pt, Constantan

Comparison between RTDs, thermistor, thermocoupler

Characteristics RTDs Thermistor Thermometer

Temperature range Average range Limit range High temperature
-200 – 600*C -50 – 200*C -200*C -> 2000*C
up to 25000*C
Cost Expensive (Ni, Cu, Pt) Cheapest Cheap (copper)
Sensitivity Slow (1-2s) Fast (0.5-1s) Fastest (<1s)
Accuracy High, 0.1-1*C Highest (0.05-1.5*C) Poor, 2-4*C
Linearity Highly linear Non-linear Non-linear
Stability High Average (fluctuating High
resistance)
Duration Long-lasting (better Good (0.2*C/year) Average (chemical
material) reaction in sensor, bad...)
(0.02*c/year) (1-2*C/year)
Lead resistance Yes None None
(cause self-
heating)
Application Industrial Safety application, home Used in industrial settings
appliances, exp. fire
detector, thermometers

Load cell
Load cell is an electromechanical device. A load cell is a force transducer that converts force or weight
acting on it into an electrical signal. Load cell can be used to measure force, torque and pressure. Load
cell can measure a wide range of force, from 25 grams to over 1000 tons.

Application (slide)

Classification: Hydramatic; pneumatic; R, L, C based (more info in slide)

Strain gauge load cell: (copy in slide and book)

- A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain of an object and convert the load acting on
them into electrical signals.
- Due to application of load, strain changes the electrical resistance of the gauge in proportion to
the applied load.
- Strain gauge shows a very high accuracy of 0.03%.

Load cell implementation:

Configuration: use wheatstone bridge circuit, usually 2 or 4 branches configuration in strain gates

Quarter-bridge, half bridge, full bridge configuration (book, more info in slide)