II Sem. - Calculus of Single Variable - I - 0

CALCULUS OF
SINGLE VARIABLE - I
STUDY MATERIAL
SECOND SEMESTER
CORE COURSE : MTS2B02
For
B.Sc. MATHEMATICS
(2019 ADMISSION)
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Calicut University P.O, Malappuram, Kerala, India 673635
19554
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
STUDY MATERIAL
SECOND SEMESTER
B.Sc. MATHEMATICS
(2019 ADMISSION)
CORE COURSE
MTS2B02 : CALCULUS OF SINGLE VARIABLE - I
Prepared by :
Sachin Chandran,
Assistant Professor on Contract,
School of Distance Education.
.
Scrutinized by :
Dr.Anil Kumar V,
Professor, Dept. of Mathematics,
University of Calicut.
Calculus of Single Variable - I Page 2

Content
1. Module 1 : Functions and limits
2. Module 2 : Application of derivatives
3. Module 3 : Integration
4. Module 4 : Application of Definite Integrals

Module 1 : Functions and limits
Functions
Definition 1. A function f from a set A to a set B is a rule that assigns to each element x
in A one and only one element y in B. We denote it by f : A → B.
The set A is called the domain of the function f . The elements y in B, called the values
of f at x is denoted by f (x). The set of all values y = f (x), as x varies over the domain of
f is called the range of f .
Example 1: f (x) = x + 1
Domain = (−∞, ∞)
Range = (−∞, ∞)
√
Example 2: f (x) = x
Domain = [0, ∞)
Range = [0, ∞)
If a function f is described by y = f (x), then we call x the independent variable and y

the dependent variable.
√
Evaluating function: Given a function f (x) = x, to evaluate the function √ f at real
number a, we simply replace x by a in the function equation. Thus, f (100) = 100 = 10.
√
Exercise: Evaluate f (x) = x2 + 3 x at
1. x = 1
2. x = 10
Finding the domain of function: If the domain of the function f is not specifically men-
tioned, we will adopt the convention that the domain of f is the set of all numbers x for
which f (x) is a real number.
Example :√Find the domain of

1. f (x) = x
2.f(x)= x22x+1
−x−2
Solution 1. Square root of a negative number is not real. Therefore, the domain of f con-
tains only non negative numbers. Domain = [0, ∞).
2. Division ny 0 is not allowed. The denominator of f (x), x2 − x − 2 = 0 for x = −1 and
x = 2 (these are the roots of the quadratic equation). Therefore, the domain of f is all the
real number expect −1 and 2. Domain = (−∞.∞) \ {−1, 2}.
Exercise: Find the domain of

√
1. f (x) = √
x+1
x+ x+1
2. f (x) = 3x+1
Graph of a function: The graph of a function is the set of all points (x, y) such that
y = f (x), where x lies in the domain of f .
1
Example : Graph of f (x) = x
1
Exercies: Plot the graph of f (x) = x
+ 1.
The vertical line test: A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function f defined by
the equation y = f (x) if and only if the no vertical line intersect the curve at more than one
point.
Piece-wise defined function: In certain situations, a function is defined by several equa-

tions, each valid over a certain portion of the domain of the function.
Example :
−x x<0
f (x) = |x| =
x x≥0
Odd and even function: A function f that satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for every x in its do-
main is called an even function. The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect
to the x-axis. An example of an even function is f (x) = xx .
A function f that satisfies f (−x) = −f (x) for every x in its domain is called an odd func-
tion. The graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin. An example of
an odd function is f (x) = x3 .
Operations on functions:Let f and g be functions with domains A and B, respectively.

Then their sum f + g, difference f − g ,product f g , and quotient fg are defined as follows:
• (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), with domain = A ∩ B
• (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x), with domain = A ∩ B

• (f g)(x) = f (x).g(x), with domain = A ∩ B
f (x)
• ( fg )(x) = g(x)
, with domain ={x|x ∈ A ∩ B and g(x) 6= 0}
There is another way to cook up new functions from simpler function, namely by compo-
sition of functions. Given two functions f and g, the composition of g and f , denoted by
g ◦ f , is the function defined by
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))
The domain of is the set of all x in the domain of f for which f (x) is in the domain of g.
Example: Let f (x) = sin(x) and g(x) = 1−2x. Then (f ◦g)(x) = f (g(x)) = sin(1−2x)
and (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = 1 − 2sin(x).
Function transformation
1. Vertical translations: The graph of the function defined by g(x) = f (x) + c , where
c is a positive constant, is obtained by shifting the graph of f vertically upward by c units.
Similarly, the graph of the function defined by g(x) = f (x) − c , where c is a positive
constant, is obtained by shifting the graph of f vertically downward by c units.
2. Horizontal Translations: The graph of the function defined by g(x) = f (x + c) , where

c is a positive constant, is obtained by shifting the graph of f horizontally to the left by c
units. Similarly, the graph of the function defined by g(x) = f (x − c) , where c is a positive
constant, is obtained by shifting the graph of f horizontally to the right by c units.
3. Vertical Stretching and Compressing: The graph of the function defined by g(x) =
cf (x), where c is a constant with c > 1, is obtained from the graph of f by stretching the
latter vertically by a factor of c. Similarly, if 0 < c < 1, then the graph of g is obtained
from f by compressing the latter vertically by a factor of 1/c.
4. Horizontal Stretching and Compressing: The graph of the function defined by g(x) =
f (cx) , where c is a constant with 0 < c < 1, is obtained from the graph of f by stretching
the graph of the latter horizontally by a factor of 1/c. Similarly if c > 1 , then the graph of
g is obtained by compressing the graph of f horizontally by a factor of c.
5. Reflecting: The graph of the function defined by g(x) = −f (x) is obtained by reflecting
the graph of f with respect to the x-axis. The graph of g(x) = f (−x) is obtained by
reflecting the graph of f with respect to the y-axis.
School of Distance Education
Chapter-1
LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
Consider the function ( ) = . The function is not defined at = 1. The

values of f(x) below and above 1 can be tabulated as given below.
Values of x −
near 1 ( )= = + , ≠
−
0.9 1.9
1.1 2.1
0.99 1.99
1.01 2.01
0.999 1.999
1.001 2.001
0.999999 1.999999
1.000001 2.000001
The values of f(x) seem to approach 2 as x get closer to 1.
We say that limit of f(x) as x approaches 1 is 2 and we write lim → ( ) = 2.
Informal Definition of Limit
Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about , except possibly at itself. If

f(x) gets arbitrarily close to L for all x sufficiently close to , we say that f approaches the limit
L as x approaches , and we write
lim → ( )=
EXAMPLE:
i. lim → 2 = 2
ii. lim → (5 − 3) = 5 × 2 − 3 = 7
×
iii. lim → = =−
Foundations of Mathematics Page 3

Chapter-2
RULES OF EVALUATING LIMITS
To evaluate the limits of functions we use the following rules.

If lim → ( ) = , and lim → ( ) = ( and are real numbers)
1. Sum Rule: lim → ( ) + ( ) = +
2. Difference Rule: lim → ( ) − ( ) = −
3. Product Rule: lim → ( ). ( ) = .
4. Constant Multiple Rule: lim → ( ) = (for any constant k)
5. Quotient Rule: lim → ( )/ ( ) = / , ≠0
/ /
6. Power Rule: lim → ( ) = , m and n are integers
EXAMPLES:
i. lim → = ( lim → )(lim → ) = 2×2=4

ii. lim → (4 = 4 lim → = 4× 4 = 16
iii. lim → (4 − 3) = lim → 4 − lim → 3 = 16-3=13
iv. lim → = =
/ /
v. lim → √4 − 3 = lim → (4 − 3) = 13 =√13
EXAMPLE:
( ) ( )
Suppose lim ( ) = 1, and lim ( ) = −5. Find lim .
→ → → ( ( ) )
( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))
Solution: lim = →
= →
→ ( ( ) ) ( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
→ →
Using the above rules we can evaluate the limits of polynomials rational functions etc..
Limits of Polynomial Functions and Rational Functions
Theorem1: If ( ) = + +−−−−+ , then,
lim ( ) = + +−−−−+ = ( )
→
Theorem2: If ( ) and ( ) are polynomials and ( ) ≠ 0, then,

( ) ( )
lim =
→ ( ) ( )
EXAMPLE:
×
lim = = , can now be evaluated directly.
→
Eliminating Zero Denominators Algebraically
When the denominator of a rational function is not zero we can evaluate the
limit directly. But, when the denominator and numerator both becomes zero as → ,
− will be a factor of both numerator and denominator. So the rational function reduces
to a fraction by cancelling, − . The limit of the function can now be evaluated using this
simplified fraction.
EXAMPLE:
i. Evaluate lim
→
Solution: By direct substitution we get the value of the limit as .But, + −2
can be factorized to ( − 1)( + 2) and − is ( − 1). So = , when

≠ 1.
+ −2 +2
lim = lim =3
→ − →
√ √
ii. Find lim
→
Solution: As in the above problem, we get the value of the limit as . But to remove
the zero factors we have to multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate
expression √2 + ℎ + √2.
√ √ (√ √ ) √ √ ( )
Now , lim = lim × =lim (√
= lim
→ → √ √ → √ ) → (√ √ )
= lim (√
= =
→ √ ) √ √ ) √ )

The Sandwich Theorem
Suppose a function is sandwiched between two functions approaching the same

limit. Then the sandwiched function also approach the same limit.
Theorem 3: Suppose ( ) ≤ ( ) ≤ ℎ( ) for all x in some open interval containing c, except

possibly at = itself. Suppose also that lim ( ) = limℎ( ) = .
→ →
Then, lim ( ) = .
→
EXAMPLE:
i. Given that
1− ≤ ( )≤1+ for all ≠ 0. Find lim ( ).
→
2 2
Solution: We have, lim 1 − 4
= 1 and lim 1 +
2
=1.
→ →
So by Sandwich theorem, lim ( ) = 1.
→
ii. Show that itif lim⎹ ( )⎹ = 0, then lim ( ) = 0.

→ →
Solution: We have -⎹ ( )⎹ ≤ ( ) ≤ ⎹ ( )⎹
lim − ⎹ ( )⎹=0 and lim⎹ ( )⎹=0. So by Sandwich theorem,

→ →
lim ( ) = 0
→
EXERCISES:
Evaluate the following limits:
1. lim (2 + 5)
→
2. lim
→
√
3. lim
→
( ) ( )
4. Suppose lim → ( ) = 1 and lim → ( ) = −5 . Find lim
→ ( ( ) )
5. If √5 − 2 ≤ ( ) ≤ √5 − , find lim ( ).
→

Chapter-3
TARGET VALUES AND FORMAL DEFINITION OF LIMIT
Suppose you are contracting to grind engine cylinders of cross section

area 9 . Suppose the ideal cylinder diameter is 3.385m and you have to know that
how much variation from the ideal diameter 3.385m can be allowed so that the area of
cross section of the cylinder is within 0.01 of the required 9 .
To solve this problem we consider the inequality ⎹ − 9⎹ < 0.01 , where the area of
cross section of the cylinder = = , being the diameter. We have to find
the quantity δ such that ⎹x-3.385⎹< δ.
⎹ − 9⎹ < 0.01
⇒⎹ − 9⎹ < 0.01
⇒-0.01 < − 9 < 0.01
⇒ 8.99 < < 9.01

4
8.99 × 4 9.01 × 4
⇒ < <
⇒ 11.446 < < 11.472
⇒ √11.446 < < √11.472

⇒ 3.3832 < < 3.3870
⇒ −0.0018 < − 3.385 < 0.002
So keeping diameter within a variation of 0.0018, we can keep the cross section area
within the prescribed variation of 0.01 .
ie: x-3.385⎹< 0.0018 ⇒ ⎹ − 9⎹ < 0.01
Here we find the interval about x, corresponding to an interval of target values
of = ( ).
Formal Definition of Limit
To show that the limit of ( ) as → equals , we must be able to

show that the gap between ( ) and can be made less than any prescribed error, no
matter how small, by holding close enough to .
Definition
Let ( ) be defined on an open interval containing , except possibly at . We say

that ( ) approaches as approaches , and write lim → ( ) = , if for every
number > 0, there exists a corresponding number > 0, such that for all ,
0<⎹ − ⎹< ⇒ ⎹ ( )− ⎹ <
EXAMPLE:
1. Show that lim → (5 − 3) = 2 .
Solution: Take any > 0. Consider ⎹ ( ) − ⎹ <
⇒ ⎹(5 − 3) − 2⎹ <
⇒ ⎹5 − 5⎹ <
⇒ 5⎹ − 1⎹ <
⇒ ⎹ − 1⎹ <
So we can choose = . Now, for this we can see that,
0 < ⎹ − 1⎹ < ⇒ ⎹(5 − 3) − 2⎹ <

5
2. Show that a) lim → = and b) lim → = ( where k is a constant)
Solution: a) Take any > 0. Consider ⎹ ( ) − ⎹ <
⇒⎹ − ⎹<
Choose = . Then,
0<⎹ − ⎹< ⇒⎹ − ⎹< and hence lim → = , is proved.
b) Take any > 0. Consider ⎹ ( ) − ⎹ <

⇒⎹ − ⎹<
⇒ 0 < . This is true for any > 0. So we can
consider any positive number as . Therefore,
0<⎹ − ⎹< ⇒ ⎹ − ⎹ < , always hold. And hence, lim → =
Note: When the interval of values about is not symmetric about , we can take to be the
distance from to the interval’s nearer end point.
EXAMPLE:
For the limit lim → √ − 1 = 2, find the value of corresponding to =1
We have to find a > 0 such that for all ,
0 < ⎹ − 5⎹ < ⇒ ⎹√ − 1 − 2⎹ < 1
Consider, ⎹√ − 1 − 2⎹ < 1
⇒ −1 < √ − 1 − 2 < 1
⇒ 1<√ −1<3
⇒ 1< −1<9
⇒ 2 < < 10
⇒ −3 < − 5 < 5
Choose = min {⎹ − 3⎹, ⎹5⎹}= 3. Now,
0 < ⎹ − 5⎹ < 3 ⇒ ⎹√ − 1 − 2⎹ < 1
( ) = 4, ( )= , ≠2
3. Prove lim →
2, =2
For ≠ 2, we have ( ) = . So,
⎹ ( )− ⎹<
⇒⎹ − 4⎹ <
⇒ − < −4<

⇒ 4− < <4+
⇒ − < −4<
Exercises:
1. Using formal definition find the values of δ corresponding to given values of for the
following data.
a) f(x) = x + 1, L = 5, a = 4, = 0.01
b) ( ) = √ + 1, = 1, = 0, = 0.1
c) ( ) = , = 3, = √3, = 0.1
d) ( ) = , = −1, = −1, = 0.1
2. Prove the following limit statements:
4. lim → (9 − ) = 5
5. lim → √ − 5 = 2
, ≠1
6. lim → ( ) = 1, ( )=
2, = 1

Chapter-4
EXTENSION OF THE LIMIT CONCEPT
The concept of limits can be extended to one sided limits and infinite limits.
One sided limits are limits as x approaches ‘a’ from the left hand side or right hand side only.
Infinite limits are not really limits, but provide useful symbols and language for describing the
behaviour of functions whose values become arbitrarily large, positive or negative.
One Side Limits
Consider the function ( ) = ⎹ ⎹ .
The function has no value at = 0. But, the values above and below can be tabulated as
given below.
Values of x below and ( )=⎹ ⎹, ≠

above x=0
-0.1 -1
-0.01 -1
-0.001 -1
-0.0000001 -1
0.1 1
0.01 1
0.001 1
0.0000001 1

From the table it is clear that f(x) approaches -1 as x approaches 0 from left, and f(x)
approaches +1 as x approaches zero from right. Using notations we write,
lim → ( ) = −1 and lim → ( ) = 1.
Informal Definition of One Sided Limits:
Let ( ) be defined on an interval ( , ) where < . If ( ) approaches arbitrarily close to ,

as approaches a from within the interval, then we say that has a right hand limit at and
we write lim → ( )= .
Let ( ) be defined on an interval ( , ) where < . If ( ) approaches arbitrarily close to ,

as approaches a from within the interval, then we say that has a left hand limit at and
we write lim → ( )= .
EXAMPLE:
Consider the function ( ) = √4 − , x ∈ [−2,2]. Find the one sided limits of

( ) at -2 and 2.
The function is not defined to the left of -2. So the x cannot approach -2 from left. So
lim → ( ) does not exist.
lim → ( )=lim → √4 − = √4 − 4 = 0
In a similar way, lim → ( ) does not exist.
lim → ( )=lim → √4 − = √4 − 4 = 0

One Sided Limits and Limits

A function f(x) has a limit as x approaches a, if and only if, it has left hand side and right
hand side limits there , and these one sided limits are equal. ie:
lim → ( )= ⇔ lim → ( ) = lim → ( )= .
Note: Let f be a function defined on [ , ]. Then f has no left limit at the left end point , and no
right limit at the right end point .
EXAMPLE:
1. . From the following graph find the one sided limits and limits at =
0,1,2,3,4
Solution:
lim → ( ) does not exist, since = 0 is the left end point of the domain. In a
similar way, lim → ( ) does not exist.
At = 0, lim ( ) = 1,
→
At = 1, lim → ( ) = 0,
lim → ( ) = 1,
At = 2 lim → ( ) = 1,
lim → ( ) = 1,
At = 3 lim → ( ) = 2,
And, lim → ( ) = 1.
2. Show that = sin has no limit as x approaches zero from either side.
Solution:

As x approaches zero becomes arbitrarily large and the values of sin cycle
repeatedly
oscillates from -1 to 1. There is no single value approached by ( ) as approaches
zero from either side. So f(x) = sin has no one sided limits and limits at = 0.
3− , <2
2. Graph the function, ( ) = + 1, > 2
a) Find lim → ( ) and lim → ( ).

b) Does lim → ( ) exist? If yes, what is it? If not, why?
c) Find lim → ( ) and lim → ( ).
d) Does lim → ( ) exist? If yes, what is it? If not, why?
Solution: The graph of the function is given below.
a) As x approaches 2 from left, the value of the function reaches near 1. So,
lim → ( ) = 1. But as x approaches 2 from right the value of the
function is near 2. Therefore, lim → ( )=2
b) No. Since the one sided limits have different values.
c) lim → ( ) = + 1 = 3 .Again, lim → ( ) = + 1 = 3.
(Since, for x> 2, ( ) = + 1 )
d) lim → ( ) exists and its value is 3.

Infinite Limits
Consider the values of the functions ( ) = near =0
The values of x Values of ( ) =

above and below valus of f at x
f(x)=1/x
0
0.1 10
0.01 100
0.001 1000
0.000001 1000000
-0.1 -10
-0.01 -100
-0.001 -1000
-0.000001 -1000000
From the table it is clear that → 0 , the value of f(x) grow without bound surpassing every
positive real numbers. Similarly as → 0 the value of f(x) grow negatively, surpassing every
negative real numbers.
We write lim → = +∞ and lim → = −∞
In the case of ( ) = , both left and right limits at 0 is +∞
So, we may write, lim → = +∞ .
EXAMPLE:
1. Find the one sided infinite limits, lim → and lim → .

→ 1 ⇒ > 1 ⇒ − 1 > 0. So as x approaches 0 from

right, f(x) grows positively to + ∞.
In a similar reasoning we may write lim → = −∞
2. Discuss the behavior of ( ) = ( )

near = −3
→ −3 ⇒ > −3 ⇒ + 3 > 0 ⇒ ( + 3) > 0.
Again,
→ −3 ⇒ < −3 ⇒ + 3 < 0 ⇒ ( + 3) > 0. So,

lim → ( )
= +∞ .
3. lim → = lim → ( )( )
= lim → ×, lim → = − × ∞ = −∞
4. lim → = lim → ( )( )
= lim → ×, lim → = − × −∞ = +∞
Formal Definition of One Sided Limits
We say f(x) has a right hand limit as x approaches a, and we write lim → ( ) = , if
for every number > 0, there exists a corresponding > 0, such that for all x,
< < + ⇒⎹ ( )− ⎹<
We say f(x) has a left hand limit as x approaches a, and we write lim → ( ) = , if for
every number > 0, there exists a corresponding > 0, such that for all x,
− < < ⇒⎹ ( )− ⎹<
Formal Definition of Infinite Limits
We say f(x) approaches infinity as x approaches a, and we write lim → ( ) = ∞, if for

every positive real number > 0, there exists a corresponding > 0, such that for all
x,
0<⎹ − ⎹< ⇒ ( )> .
We say f(x) approaches minus infinity as x approaches a, and we write lim → ( ) =
−∞, if for every positive real number > 0, there exists a corresponding > 0, such
that for all x,
0<⎹ − ⎹< ⇒ ( )<− .
EXAMPLE: Consider the function ( ) = .

1 1 1 1
0< < ⇒ > − < <0⇒ <−
0 < ⎹ − 0⎹ < ⇒ > .

√
EXERCISES:
3− , <2
3. Let ( ) = + 1, > 2
e) Find lim → ( ) and lim → ( ).
f) Does lim → ( ) exist? If yes, what is it? If not, why?
g) Find lim → ( ) and lim → ( ).
h) Does lim → ( ) exist? If yes, what is it? If not, why?

3− , <2
4. Let ( ) = 2, = 2
, >2
a) Find lim → ( ) and lim → ( ).
b) Does lim → ( ) exist? If yes, what is it? If not, why?
c) Find lim → ( ) and lim → ( ).
d) Does lim → ( ) exist? If yes, what is it? If not, why?
√1 − , 0 ≤ < 1
5. Graph ( ) = 1, 1≤ <2
2, = 2.
a) What are the domain and range of f?
b) At what points a, lim → ( ) exist?
c) At what points does only one sided limits exist?
6. Find the following limits:
a) lim → .
⎹ ⎹
b) lim → ( + 3)
⎹ ⎹
c) lim → ( + 3)
[ ]
d) lim →
7. Evaluate the following infinite limits:
a) lim →
b) lim → ( )
8. Evaluate lim as
a) →2
b) →0
c) → −2
d) →1

CONTINUITY
A function f is continuous at an interior = , if,
1) lim → ( ) exists,
2) ( ) exists, and,
3) lim → ( ) = ( )
Rules of Continuity
If a functions and are continuous at = , then the following functions are

continuous at = .
1. ±
2.
3.
4. (provided ≠ 0 ))
5. ( ) , where m and n are integers.
Continuity of Polynomials and Rational Functions
All polynomials are continuous. Every rational function is continuous at every point where its
denominator is not zero.
EXAMPLES:
1. ( )= − 8 is continuous and ( ) = − 4 is continuous, but the rational function

( )= is continuous when ≠ 4
2. Consider ( ) = ⎹ ⎹ . ( ) = , when ≥ 0, and ( ) = − , when < 0.
As → 0 , lim → ( ) = lim → = 0,
And, as → 0 ,lim → ( ) = lim → (− ) = 0,
So ( ) is continuous at = 0. Since ( ) = and ( ) = − are polynomials they
are continuous. Hence ( ) = ⎹ ⎹ is a continuous function.
Continuity of Trigonometric Functions
and sin are continuous functions. All other trigonometric functions are
continuous at the points where they are defined.
For example, tan = , is not continuous at the points where cos = 0 ie: odd
multiples of .
Theorem: If is continuous at and is continuous at ( ), then ∘ is continuous at

EXAMPLES:
1. The function ( ) = and ( ) = are continuous. So,

∘ ( )= ( ) = (sin ) = sin is continuous and,
∘ ( )= ( ) = sin( ) is continuous.
2. The function ( ) = is continuous by the rules of continuity and composition

rule.
3. The function ( ) = − 3 is continuous everywhere except when = 2.
Types of Discontinuities
 Removable Discontinuity: f has a removable discontinuity at = , if

lim → ( ) exists, but ( )either does not exist, or is not equal to the value
( ).
EXAMPLE: Consider ( ) = . lim → ( ) = 2, but (1) does not exist.

So has a removable discontinuity at = 2.
1.
 Jump Discontinuity: has a jump discontinuity at = if, lim → ( ) and

lim → ( ) have different values.
EXAMPLE:( ) = ⎹ ⎹
, has a jump discontinuity at = 0.
 Infinite Discontinuity: has an infinite discontinuity at = , if the one sided

limits , lim → ( ) and lim → ( )are ±∞.
EXAMPLE: ( ) = has infinite discontinuity at = 0.
 Oscillating Discontinuity: Sometimes the discontinuity of ( ) = sin is

called an oscillating discontinuity.
Continuous Extension
Suppose has a removable discontinuity at = , or ( ) is not defined while lim → ( )
exists. If we define a new function ( ) by,

( ), ≠
( )= , we can see that Iiss continuous at = , and is called a continuous
, =
extension of to = .
EXAMPLE:
( )= , ≠1
1. , is a continuous extension of ( ) = to =1
2, =1
( )( )
, ≠1
The above function can be written as ( ) =
2, =1
+ 1, ≠1
⇒ ( )=
2, =1
+ 1, ≠1
⇒ ( )=
1 + 1, =1
+ 1, ≠1
⇒ ( )=
+ 1, =1
⇒ ( )= +1
So to get the continuous extension of a rational function we cancel the zero divisors.
2. Consider ( ) = . To get the continuous extension to = 2, cancel the factor

( − 2) from ( ).
( )( )
ie: ( ) = =( )( )
=
One-Sided Continuity
A function is called left continuous at = if, lim → ( ) = ( ), and right
continuous if, lim → ( ) = ( ).
A function is continuous at a point, if and only if it is right continuous and left continuous
there.
EXAMPLE:
[ ]
1. ( )= , is right continuous at integer points, but not left continuous there.
2. ( )=
⎹ ⎹
, is neither left continuous nor right continuous at =0

Continuity on Intervals
A function is called continuous if it is continuous at each point in its domain. A
function is continuous on a closed interval [ , ], if it is right continuous at a, and left
continuous at b, and continuous at the interior points.
EXAMPLE:
1. Consider the function ( ) = √4 − .
lim → ( ) does not exist.

lim → ( )=lim → √4 − = 0 = f(−2)
In a similar way, lim → ( ) does not exist.
lim → ( )=lim → √4 − = 0 = f(2).
The function ( ) = √4 − is continuous on each points of (−2,2).
So the function is continuous on [−2,2].
2. The function ( ) = is continuous on (0, ∞) and on (−∞, 0)

− , 0≤ <1
⎧ 1, 1 ≤ < 2
⎪
⎪ 2, =2
3. Consider the function ( ) = , 2≤ <3 .
⎨
⎪ 5− , 3≤ <4
⎪
⎩ , =4
The graph of the function is,
The function is continuous on the intervals, [0,1), [1,2), (2,4).
Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose f(x) is continuous on an interval I and a and b are two points on I. Then, if y0 is
a point between f(a) and f(b), there exists a number c between a and b, such that f(c)=y0.
In other words, continuous functions assume each value between any two given values.
EXAMPLE:
Is any real number exactly one less than its cube?
Solution: Is there any x such that = − 1?
Is there any x such that, − x − 1 = 0?
Let f(x)= − x − 1.
(0) = −1 , (1) = −1 (2) = 5. So at some point between 0 and 1, x becomes zero.
So there is such a real number between 1 and 2 , by intermediate value theorem.
………

Tangent lines
Tangent line problem is one of the important problem that played a fundamental role in the
development of calculus. As shown in the figure below, the tangent line T to a curve at P
is a straight line that ”just touches” the curve at P (x, f (x)). The slope of the tangent lines
at the point P on the graph y = f (x) provides us a way for measuring the rate of change of
one quantity (y) with respect to another quantity (x).
The discovery of the relationship between the problem of finding the slope of the tangent
line and the problem of finding the rate of change of one quantity with respect to another
spurred the development in the seventeenth century of the branch of calculus called differ-
ential calculus.
Definition 1. Let P (a, f (a)) be a point on the graph of a function f . Then the tangent
line at P (a, f (a)) (if it exists) to the graph of f is the line passing through P (a, f (a)) and
having slope
f (a + h) − f (a)
m = lim
h→0 h
Example: Find the slope and equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = x2 at the
point P (1, 1).
Solution: The slope of tangent line ‘m0 is given by,
f (a + h) − f (a)
m = lim
h→0 h
Here a = 1, thus we get
f (1 + h) − f (1)
m = lim
h→0 h
1 + 2h + h2 − 1
= lim
h→0 h
2
2h + h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 2 + h
h→0
=2
Using the point-slope equation, we get the equation of the tangent line as,
y − 1 = 2(x − 1)
Tangent lines and Rate of change
We mentioned that there is a connection between the slope of the tangent line at a given
point P (a, f (a)) of a function f and the rate of change of f at x = a. We will now show
that it is true.
Consider the function f as shown in the figure above. let a be a point in its domain and
h be a small increment in x. The average rate of change of a function over an interval
[a, a + h] is defined as
f (a + h) − f (a)
(1)
h
In the figure below, observe that the slope of the line passing through P (a.f (a)) and
Q(a + h, f (a + h)) is
f (a + h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
m0 = =
(a + h) − a h
The expression for m0 is same as (1). Thus, we conclude that the average rate of change of
f with respect to x over the interval [a, a + h] has the same value as the slope of the line
passing through the points (a, f (a)) and (a + h, f (a + h)).
Now, when h approaches zero in (1), we obtain the instantaneous rate of change of f at
x = a. The instantaneous rate of change of a function with respect x to at a is defined as
f (a + h) − f (a)
lim
h→0 h
if the limit exists. This expression is same as the slope of tangent line of f at P (a, f (a)).
Thus, we conclude that the instantaneous rate of change of f with respect to x at a has the
same value as the slope of the tangent line at the point a.
Derivatives
Definition 2. The derivative of a function f with respect to x is the function f 0 defined by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
n→0 h
The domain of f 0 consist of all values of x for which the limit exists.
The derivative f 0 can be interpreted in two ways:

1. Geometric interpretation: The derivative of a function f is a measure of the slope of the
tangent line to the graph of at any point (x,f(x)), provided that the derivative exists.
2. Physical interpretation: The derivative of a function f measures the instantaneous rate

of change of f at x.
Example: Let the position of vehicle 0 s‘ at any given time t be given by the equation
s = f (t) = 4t2 .
f (t + h) − f (t)
f 0 (t) = lim
h→0 h
4(t + h)2 − 4(t)2
= lim
h→0 h
4t + 8th + h2 − 4t2
2
= lim
h→0 h
8th + h2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 8t + h
h→0
= 8t
Thus, the rate of change of the position of the vehicle with respect to time, at time t, as well
as the slope of the tangent line at the point (t, f (t)) on the graph of , is given by
f 0 (t) = 8t
The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation. We can view
differentiation as an operation on the function f to yield another function f 0 . If we are
differentiating with respect with x, then we denote the differentiation operation as Dx or
d
dx
. For example,
df
f 0 = Dx (f ) =
dx
dy
The value of the derivative of f at a is denoted by f 0 (a) or by | .
dx x=a
√
Example: Let y = x.
1. Find the derivative of y. √
2. Find the slope and the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x at the point
x = 4. √
Solution:1. Given y = f (x) = x.
dy f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim
dx h→0
√ h
√
x+h− x
= lim
√ h
h→0
√ √ √
( x + h − x)( x + h + x)
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
x+h−x
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
h
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
1
= lim √ √
h→0 x+h+ x
1
= √
2 x
√ dy
2. The slope m of the curve y = x at the point x = 4 is given by dx |x=4 . Thus, substituting
1
√
x = 4, we get m = 4 . When x = 4, y = 4 = 2, giving (4, 2) as the point of tangency.
Therefore, using the point-slope formula, the equation of tangent line at x = 4 is
1
y − 2 = (x − 4)
4
1
Example: Find the derivative of y = x+1
.
1
Solution: We have y = f (x) = x+1
dy f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim
dx h→0 h
1 1
x+h+1
− x+1
= lim
h→0 h
x+1−x−h−1
(x+1)(x+h+1)
= lim
h→0 h
−1
= lim
h→0 (x + 1)(x + h + 1)
−1
=
(x + 1)2
st that point. aA function

A function is said to be differentiable at a point if it has a derivative at
may fail to be differentiable at one or more than one points on its domain. A function does
not have a derivative at if the graph of does not have a tangent line at , or if the tangent line
does exist, then it is vertical. We will now study few functions that is not differentiable.
Example: Consider the function

0 x<0
H(x) =
1 x≥0
Check the differentiability of H(x) at x = 0.
Solution: Consider the left hand limit at x = 0

f (x + h) − f (x) H(0 + h) − H(0)
lim− = lim−
h→0 h h→0 h
H(h) − H(0)
= lim−
h→0 h
0−1
= lim−
h→0 h
=∞
So, H 0 (0) does not exits and therefore, H is not differentiable at x = 0.
Example: Show that the function f = |x| is not differentiable at 0.

Solution:
−x x<0
f (x) = |x| =
x x≥0
Consider the left hand limit at x = 0
f (x + h) − f (x) |0 + h| − |0|
lim− = lim−
h→0 h h→0 h
−h
= lim−
h→0 h
= −1
Now, the right hand limit
f (x + h) − f (x) |0 + h| − |0|
lim+ = lim+
h→0 h h→0 h
h
= lim+
h→0 h
=1
So, the limit dose not exists and the the function is not differentiable at x = 0.
Theorem 0.0.1. If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
Proof.
f (x) − f (a)
lim (f (x) − f (a)) = lim (x − a)
x→a x→a x−a
f (x) − f (a)
= lim lim (x − a)
x→a x−a x→a
= f 0 (a).0
=0
Thus, limx→a (f (x) − f (a)) = 0, which implies limx→a f (x) = f (a). This shows that f is
continuous at a.
Module 2 : Application of
Derivatives
1
Module1
Applications of Derivatives
Chapter1
Extreme value of Functions
Definition:-Let be a function with domain , then has an absolute maximum
value on at point if
( ) ≤ ( ) for all ∈
and an absolute minimum value on at point if
( ) ≥ ( ) for all ∈
Remark:- Absolute maximum and minimum values are called absolute extrema
or Global extrema
Example:- If = [0,2] then y attain the absolute maximum value 4 at =2
and absolute minimum 0 at = 0 .
A function which is continuous at every point of a closed
interval has absolute maximum and absolute minimum value on the
interval.when
W we try to graph the function, we can locate these points clearly
Theorem I
If is continuous at every point of a closed interval , then assumes both an
absolute maximum value M and absolute minimum value somewhere in . That
is, there are numbers & in with ( ) = and ( ) = and ≤ ( ) ≤ for
every other in .
Example :- let = [− , ] and ( )= then ( ) takes maximum value ‘1’ at
= 0 and minimum value ‘0’ at two points =∓
Definition:- A function has a local maximum value at an interior point of its
domain if ( ) ≤ ( ) for all in some open interval containing .
A function has a local minimum value at an interior point of its domain if
( ) ≥ ( ) for all in some open interval containing .
This local maximum and minimum values are called local extrema
Remark: If we consider the set of all local local maximum values , then the global
maximum (if there is )will be one of the element of this set. Similarly If we
consider the set of all local local minimum values , then the global minimum (if
there is )will be one of the element of this set
Theorem II
If has a local maximum or minimum value at an interior point of its domain ,
and is defined at then ( ) = 0
Calculus 5
Proof: to prove ( ) = 0 at the local extremum , it is enough to prove ( ) is

niether negative nor positive.
So suppose has a local maximum at = , then ( ) − ( ) ≤ 0 for all values of
near enough to .since of ’s domain , ( ) is defined by the
two sided limit
( ) ( )
lim →
This means that the right hand side limit and left hand side limit are exist at
= and equal to ( )
When we examine these limits seperatly we find that
( )− ( )
( ) = lim → −
≤ 0 (because ( − ) > 0 & ( ) ≤ ( )) ….(1)
( )− ( )
Similarly, ( ) = lim → −
≥ 0 (because ( − ) < 0 & ( ) ≤ ( )) ….(2)
From (1) & (2) we have ( )=0
Similarly we can prove the case of local minimum value.
Definition:- an interior point of the domain of a function where or
undefined is known as critical point of
Remark: - the only domain points where a function can assume extreme values
are critical points and end points.
Example:-Find absolute maximum and minimum values of ( ) = on [-2, 1]
Solution:- the function is differentiable over its entire domain, so the critical point
is where ( )=2 =0
Which gives =0
At =0, ( )= 0
At the endpoints = −2 ( )=4
=1 ( )=1
The function has an absolute maximum value 4 at = −2 and an absolute
minimum value 0 at = 0
Chapter 2
The mean value Theorems
Theorem III: Rolle’s theorem:-
Suppose that = ( ) is continuous at every point of the close interval [a, b]
and differentiable at every point of its interior (a, b). If ( ) = ( ) = 0, then there is
atleast one number c in (a, b) at which ( ) = 0
Proof:- Given is continuous , so assume absoute maximum and minimum
values on [a, b]
Calculus Page 6
Since exist at every interior points , the absolute extrema will attain in critical
point or end points.
If either the maximum or minimum occurs at a point c inside the interval then
( ) = 0 and hence the proof.
If both maximum and minimum are at then is constant ( since ( )=
( )) which imply that =0 anywhere in the interval.
Which completes the proof.
Theorem IV : Mean Value Theorem
Suppose ( )is continuous in a closed inteval [a, b] and differentiable on
the interval’s interior (a,b). Then there is at least one point c in (a, b) at which
( ) ( )
= ( )
Proof:- consider two points ( , ( ) & ( , ( ) on the graph of ( ).Now draw a
stright line joining these two points.its equation is
( )
( ) ( )
=
( ) ( )
= ( )+ ( − )
If we set = ( )
( ) ( )
We have ( )= ( )+ ( − )
Now the vertical distance between the grapphs of & is given by
ℎ( ) = ( ) − ( )
( ) ( )
= ( )− ( )− ( − )
Clearly ℎ( ) = ℎ( ) = 0
Note that ℎ( ) satisfy the hypotheses of Roll’es theorem in [a, b] .There fore there
exist a point ∈ ( , ) such that ℎ ( ) = 0
( ) ( )
Which implies ( )− ( )− ( − ) =0
( ) ( )
implies ( )− =0
( ) ( )
ie, ( )=
hence the proof.
Corollory 1
If ( ) = 0 at each of an interval I then ( ) = for all in I , where c is constant
Proof: - to prove is constant , we show that if & are any two points of I then
( )= ( )
Calculus Page 7
Suppose & are any two points in I, such that < . Then satisfy the the
hypothesis of the Mean Value Theorem in [x, y] , hence the exist a value c
( ) ( )
between & such that ( ) =
( ) ( )
Since = 0 for all , we have ( )=0=
Implies ( ) − ( ) = 0
ie, ( ) = ( )
Hence the proof
Corollary 2
If ( ) = ( ) at each point of an interval I then there exists a constant C
such that ( ) = ( ) + for all ∈
Proof:-at each point in I, define ℎ( ) = ( ) − ( )
Then ℎ( )= ( )− ( )=0
Then by corollary 1 ℎ( ) = , implies ( ) = ( ) + .
Example:- find the function ( ) whose derivative is and whose graph passes
through (0, 2)
Solution:- since ( ) has same derivative as ( ) = − , we have ( ) = − +
for some constant C, where C is determind by the condition (0) = 2
ie, (0) = − cos 0 + =2
gives , =3
so ( ) = − +3 is the desired function
Defition:-Let be a function defined on an interval I and let & are any two
points in .
 increases on I if < ⟹ ( )< ( )
 decreases on I if < ⟹ ( )< ( )
Corollary 3:-The first derivative Test for increasing and decreasing
Suppose is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a, b)
 If > 0 at each point of (a,b) then [ , ]
 If < 0 at each point of (a,b) then [ , ]
Proof:- Let & are any two points in [a, b] with <
Then by mean value theorem , ( ) − ( ) = ( )( − ) for some c between &
Now suppos ( ) > 0 implies ( ) > ( ), is increasing
Similarly if ( ) < 0 implies ( ) < ( ), is decreasing
Calculus Page 8
The First derivative Test for Local Extremum Values

Theorem 5: (First Derivative Test)
The following test applies to a continuous funcion ( )
At critical point c,
1. If changes from positive to negative at ( >0 < & <0 >0
), then has a local maximum value at c.
2. If changes from negative to positive at c( <0 < & >0 >0
) then has a local minimum value at
3. If doesnot change sign at c ( has same sign on both sides of c )then
has no extremum value at
At left end point a
1. If <0 > then ℎ local maximum value at
2. If >0 > then ℎ local minimum value at
At right end point
1. If <0 < then ℎ local minimum value at
2. If <0 < then ℎ local maximum value at
Example : Find the interval on which ( ) = − + 12 + 5, − 3 ≤ ≤ 3 is
increasing and decreasing.where does the function assume the extreme values
and what are these values
Solution: The function in its domain. The first derivative is
( ) = −3 + 12
= −3( − 4)
= −3( + 2)( − 2)
Which is defined for all points of [-3,3], and is zero at = −2 & =2
This two ponts are the critical points
These critical points devide the domain of in to intervals on which is either
positive or negative
By substitutions, we can observe that has a local maxima at = −3 & = 2.
Similarly local minima at = −2 & =3
The corresponding value of ( )
Local maxima : (−3) = −4 & (2) = 21
Local minima : (−2) = −11 & (3) = 14
Since is defined in a closed interval , we have (−2) = −11 is the absolute
minimum and (2) = 21 is the absolute maximum.
Calculus Page 9
Module II
CHAPTER 1
OPTIMIZATION
Solving Optimization Problem
Introduce variables: List every relation in the problem as an equation or algebraic
expression.
Identify the unknown:Write an equation for it. If you can, express the unknown as a
function of a single variable or in two equations in two unknowns.
Test the critical points and endpoints. The points where either first derivative is zero
or not defined
Example1 :Find two positive numbers whose sum is 20 and whose product is as large as
possible.
Solution:If one number is x, then the other is (20 - x). Their product is f (x) = x(20 - x) =
20x - x2.
We want the value or values of x that make f (x) as large as possible. The domain of f is the
closed interval 0 ≤x ≤20.
We evaluate f at the critical points and endpoints. The first derivative,
fI(x) =20 - 2x,is defined at every point of the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 20 and is f(x) = 0 only at x = 10.
Listing the values of f at this one critical point and the endpoints gives
Critical-point value : f (10) = 20(10) - (10)2 = 100 Endpoint values : f (0) = 0, f (20) = 0.
We conclude that the maximum value is f (10) =100. The corresponding numbers are x = 10
And (20 -10) = 10
Example 2 : A rectangle is to be inscribed in a semicircle of radius 2. What is the largest
area the rectangle can have, and what are its dimensions?
Solution:To describe the dimensions of the rectangle, we place the semicircle and
rectangle in the coordinate plane ( The length, height, and area of the rectangle can then
be expressed in terms of the position x of the lower right hand corner:
Length: 2x , Height:√4-x2 Area: 2x √4-x2
Notice that the values of x are to be found in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.
Now, our practical problem reduces to the mathematical problem of finding absolute
maximum value of the continuous function
A(x) = 2x√4 - x2
Calculus Page 10
on the domain [0, 2]. We do this by examining the values of A at the critical points and
endpoints. The derivative
= +2√4 − x2 ……………….(1)
√
is not defined when x = 2 . The derivative (1) is equal to zero when +2√4 − x2 =0
√
Multiplying both sides by √4 – x2. ,we get -2x2 + 2(4 – x2) = 0  8- 4x2 = 0  X2= 2
Ie
i.e. x = -√2 or x = √2
Of the two zeros, x = √2 and x = - √2, only x =√2 lies in the interior of A's domain and
makes the critical-point list. The values of A at the endpoints and at this one critical point
are:
Critical-point value: A (√2) = 2√2√4 - 2 = 4
Endpoint values : A(0) = 0, A(2) = 0.
The area has a maximum value of 4 when the rectangle is √4 – x2 =√2 units high and
x = 2√2 units long.
Example: An open-top box is to be made by cutting small congruent squares from the
corners of a 12-by-12-in. sheet of tin and bending up the sides. How large should the
squares cut from the corners be to make the box hold as much as possible?
Solution
We take the corner squares are x inches on a side and hence the height of the open top
box is x. Note that the volume of the box is V = hlw,
where h is the height, l is the length and w is the width. Here h = x;
l= 12 - x - x = 12 - 2x;
w = 12 - x - x = 12 - 2 x.
Hence the volume of the box is a function of the variable x:
V(x) = x(12 - 2x)(12-2x) = 144x - 48x2 + 4x3.
Since the sides of the sheet of tin are only 12 in. long, 2x cannot exceed 12 and hence x £ 6
and the domain of V(x) is the interval 0 < x < 6.
A minimum value of 0 at x = 0 and x = 6 and a maximum near x = 2. To locate the exact
point, we examine the first derivative of with respect to x:
= 144 - 96x + 12x2 = 12(12 - 8x + x2) = 12(2 - x)(6 - x).
At the critical point dV = 0 , which gives x = 2 and x = 6 . Only x = 2 lies in the interior of the
function domain and is the required critical- point.
Calculus Page 11
Critical-point value: V (2) = 128.

Endpoint values: V(0) = 0, V(6) = 0
The maximum volume is 128 in3. The cut-out squares should be 2 in on a side.
COST AND REVENUE IN ECONOMICS
Here we want to point out two of the many places where calculus makes a contribution to
economic theory. The first has to do with the relationship between point, revenue (money
received), and cost.
Suppose that
r (x) = the revenue from selling x items
c( x)=the cost of producing the x items
p(x) = r(x) - c(x) = the profit from selling x items.
The marginal revenue and marginal cost at this production level (items) are
= marginal revenue
= marginal cost.
Next theorem is about the relationship of the profit to these derivatives.
Theorem: Maximum profit (if any) occurs at a production level at which marginal revenue
equals marginal cost.
Example: The cost and revenue functions at a soft drink company are c(x) = x3 - 6x2+15x,
6
and r(x) = 9x , where x represents thousands of soft drink bottles. Is there a production
level that will maximize company's profit? If so, what is it?
Solution
r(x) = 9x, c(x) = x3 - 6x2+15x
Differentiating with respect to x, we obtain r'(x) = 9, C'(x) = 3x2-12x+15
By the Theorem, maximum profit occurs when
r'( x) = c'( x), which implies 3x2-12x +15 = 9  3x2 -12x + 6 = 0  33x2-12x + 6 = 0  x2 -
4x + 2 = 0
( √
Solving the above quadratic equation, we obtain x = ) = 2-√2
The possible production levels for maximum profit are x = 2 + √2 thousand units and x = 2 -
√2 thousand units.
x = 2 + √2 to be a point of maximum proﬁt and x = 2 - √2 to be a local maximum for loss.
Calculus Page 12
Theorem
The production level (if any) at which average cost is smallest is a level at which
the average cost equals the marginal cost.
Example:The cost function at a soft drink company is c(x) = x3 - 6x2
6 +15x (x in thousands
of units). Is there a production level that minimizes average cost? If so, what is it?
Solution
Cost : c(x) = x3 - 6x2 +15x
Marginal cost : c'(x) = 3x2 -12x + 15
( )
Average cost : = x2 - 6x +15
By the Theorem, the production level is minimum at which average cost equals marginal
cost. Hence
X2 - 6x +15 = 3x2 - 12x +15 => 2x2 - 6x = 0 =>2x(x - 3) = 0 => x = 0 or x = 3
Since x > 0, the only production level that might minimize average cost is three thousand
units.
We check the derivatives:
( )
Average cost = x2-6x+15
( )
( ) = 2x-6
( )
( ) =2 >0
The second derivative is positive, so x = 3000 units gives an absolute minimum.
LINEARIZATION AND APPROXIMATIONS
Definitions
If f is differentiable at x = a, then the approximating function
L(x)= f(a)+ f'(a) (x-a)……………….. (1) is the linearization of f at a . The approximation
f (x)≅L(x) of f by L is the standard linear approximation of f at a. The point x = a is the
center of the approximation
Example: Find the linearization of f (x) =√1 + x at x = 3.
Solution
f (x) =√1 + x
f'(x) =
√
Then ,f (3) = 2, f '(3) = 1/4, and the linearization is
Calculus Page 13
L(x) = 2 +1/4 (x - 3) = 5/4 + x/4

At x = 3.2 , the linearization in Example gives
√1+x = √1 + 3.2 ≅ 5/4 + 3.2/4 = 2.050
Example 2:Find the linearization of f(x)=x4 at x =1
L(x)= f(1)+(x-1) f' (1)
f(x)=x4 , f' (x) = 4 x3
f(1)= 1 , f' (1)= 4
L(x)=1+4(x-1)= 4x-3
Differentials
Definitions Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. The differential dx is an independent
variable. The differential dy is
dy = f'(x) dx.
Example: Find dy if
a) y = x5 + 37 x b) y = sin3x
Solution
a) dy = (5x4 + 37)dx b) dy = (3cos3x)dx
We sometimes write
df = f'(x) dx in place of dy = f'(x) dx, and call df the differential of f . For instance, if f (x) =
3x2 - 6, then
df = d(3x2 -- 6) = 6xdx.
( )
Every differentiation formula like has corresponding differential form like d (u + v)
= du + dv,
obtained by multiplying both sides by dx.
Formulas for differentials
dc = 0 , d (cu) = cdu
d (u + v) = du + dv d (uv) = udv + vdu
( )
d( )=
d (sin u) = cosudu d(cosu) = - sinudu
d (tan u) = sec2udu d (cot u) = -csc2udu
d(secu) = secu tan udu d(cscu) = - cscu cot udu
Calculus Page 14
Example
d (tan 2 x) = sec2 (2x)d(2x) = 2sec22xdx
( ) ( )
d( )= ] = dx/(x+1)
( )
The Differential Estimate of Change

Let f (x) be differentiable at x = x0. The approximate change in the value of f when x
changes from x0 to x0 + dx is
df = f ’(x0) dx.
Example: The radius r of a circle increases from r0 =10 m to 10.1m. Estimate the increase
in the circle's area A by calculating dA . Compare this with the true change D A
Solution
Since A = πr2, the estimated increase is
dA = A'(r0)dr = 2πr0dr = 2π (10)(0.1) = 2π m2.
The true change is
DA =π (10.1)2 -π102 = (102.01 - 100) π = 2.01π
Absolute, Relative, and Percentage Change
As we move from x0 to a nearby point x0 + dx, we can describe the change is f in three
ways:
True Estimate
Absolute change Df = f (x0 + dx) - f (x0) df = f'(x0)dx
Relative Change Df /f(x0) df/ f(x0)
Percentage Change Df /f(x0) .100 df/ f(x0).100
Example :Show that the relative error in computing the volume of a sphere due to an
error in measuring the radius is approximately equal to three times the relative error in the
radius.
Solution
Let V be the volume and r be the radius of the sphere. Then they are related by the
equation
V = πr3. ………... . . (1)
Taking logarithms on both sides of (1), we obtain
logV = log ( )π + 3 log r
Calculus Page 15
Now taking differentials, we get

=3
since the differential of the constant log (3/4)π is 0, the error relation is
=3 . . ………….. . (2)
where is the relative error in computing the volume and is the relative error in
computing the radius.
The error relation (2) simply says that the relative error in computing the volume of a
sphere due to an error in measuring the radius is approximately equal to three times the
relative error in the radius.
Example: About how accurately should we measure the radius r of a sphere to calculate
the surface area S = 4πr2 within 1% of its true value?
Solution
We want any inaccuracy in our measurement to be small enough to make the
corresponding increment DS in the surface area satisfy the inequality
| DS | = =
We replace DS in this inequality with
dS = = 8πrdr.
dS = dr= 8πrdr
This gives |8πrdr| = 4πr2/100  dr=r/200
We should measure r with an error dr that is no more than 0.5% of the true value.
Example :The volume V of fluid flowing through a small pipe or tube in a unit of time at a
fixed pressure is a constant time the fourth power of the tube's radius r. How will a 10%
increase in r affect V?
Solution
Here we can take V = kr4.
dV = dr = 4kr3dr  = =4
The relative change in V is 4 times relative change in r, so a 10% increase in r will produce a
40% increase in the flow.
Example :The radius of a sphere is found to be 10 cms, with a possible error of 0.02 cms.
What is the relative error in the computed volume?
Calculus Page 16
Solution
If V is the volume and r is the radius of the sphere,
V =(4/3)πr3
Taking logarithms, we get,
log V = log(4/3)π + 3 log r.
Taking differentials on both sides,
=3
The error relation is, =3 approximately.
Given Dr = 0.02, when r = 10. , = 3. (002/10)= .006

Hence, relative error in the volume = 0.006.
Exercises
In exercises 1-3, find the linearization L(x) of f (x) at x = a
1.f (x) = sinx at x=π
2.f (x) = x3 - x at x = 1
3.f (x) =√x at x = 4
We want linearizations that will replace the functions in Exercise 4-5, over intervals that
include the given points x0. To make our subsequent work as simple as possible, we want
to center each linearization not at x 0 but at a nearby integer x = a at which the given
function and its derivative are easy to evaluate. What linearization do we use in each case?
4.f (x) = x2 + 2x, x0 = 0.1
5.f (x) = 2x2 + 4x - 3, x0 =1
6. The diameter of a tree was 10 inch. During the following year the circumference
increases 2 inch. About how much did the tree diameter grow? About how much the tree’s
cross section area grow?
7.Estimate allowable percentage error in measuring the Diameter D of a sphere if the
volume is calculated correctly to within 3% ?
Answers
1.π-x 2 .2x-2 3 . x +1 4. 2x 5. -5
6. 2/ π inch ; 10 sq inch 7. 1%
Calculus Page 17
Concavity and inflection points
Definition 1. Suppose f is differentiable on an open interval I. Then,
1. the graph of f is concave upwards on I if f 0 is increasing on I

2. the graph of f is concave downwards on I if f 0 is decreasing on I
Note: Observe that if the graph of is concave upward on an open interval I, then it lies
above all of its tangent lines, and if the graph is concave downward on I, then it lies below
all of its tangent lines.
If a function has a second derivative , we can use it to determine the intervals of con-
cavity of the graph of f .
Theorem. Suppose f has a second derivative on an open interval I, then

a. If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ I , then the graph of f is concave upward on I.
b. If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ I , then the graph of f is concave downward on I.
Procedure for determining the intervals of concavity of a function

• Find all values of x for which f 00 (x) = 0 or f 00 (x) does not exist. Use these values of
x to partition the domain of into open intervals.
• Select a test number in each interval found in the step above and determine the sign
of f 00 (x) in that interval.
a. If f 00 (x) > 0, the graph of is concave upward on that interval.
b. If f 00 (x) < 0, the graph of is concave downward on that interval.
2
Example: Determine the intervals where the graph of f (x) = x 3 is concave upward and
where it is concave downward.
Solution:
2 −1
f 0 (x) = x 3
3
and
−2
f 00 (x) = 4
9x 3
00
f (x) is discontinuous at x = 0 (the function shoots to infinity).
f 00 (x) < 0 f or x ∈ (−∞, 0)
f 00 (x) < 0 f or x ∈ (0, ∞)
Thus, the graph of f concave downwards on (−∞, 0) and on (0, ∞).
Example: Determine the intervals where the graph of f (x) = x4 − 4x3 + 12 is concave
upward and the intervals where it is concave downward.
Solution:
f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 12x2
and
f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 24x
f 00 (x) is continuous everywhere (as it is polynomial) and has zeros at 0 and 2.
f 00 (x) > 0 f or x ∈ (−∞, 0) and thus concave upwards in the interval.
f 00 (x) < 0 f or x ∈ (0, 2) and thus concave downwards in the interval.
f 00 (x) > 0 f or x ∈ (2, ∞) and thus concave upwards in the interval.
Definition 2. (Inflection Point) Let f be a continuous function on an open interval I con-

taining the point c, and suppose the graph of f has a tangent line at P (c, f (c)) . If the
graph of f changes from concave upward to concave downward (or vice versa) at P , then
the point P is called an inflection point of the graph of f .
Examples of point of inflection
Note: Observe that the graph of a function crosses its tangent line at a point of inflection.
Procedure for finding the point of inflection:
• Find all numbers c in the domain of f for which f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c) does not exist.
These numbers give rise to candidates for inflection points.
• Determine the sign of f 00 (x) to the left and to the right of each number c found in
the step above. If the sign of f 00 (x) changes, then the point p(c, f (c)) is an inflection
point of f , provided that the graph of has a tangent line at P .
The Second derivative test
Theorem. Suppose that f has a continuous second derivative on an interval (a, b) con-
taining a critical number c of f
a. If f 00 (x) < 0 then f has a relative maximum at c.
b. If f 00 (x) > 0 then f has a relative minimum at c.
c. If f 00 (x) = 0 then the test is inconclusive
Example: Find the relative extremas of f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 24x + 32 using the Sec-
ond Derivative Test.
Solution:
f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x − 24
Setting f 0 (x) = 0, we get -2 and 4 as the critical points of f . Next,
f 00 (x) = 6x − 6
f 00 (−2) = −18 < 0. Thus, -2 is a relative maximum of f . f 00 (4) = 18 > 0. Thus, we get 4
is a relative minimum of f .
In a Nutshell:
Module 3 : Integration
CHAPTER 2
INTEGRATION - I
Sigma Notation for Finite sums

Definitions (Sigma Notation for Finite Sums)
The symbol ∑ denotes the sum a1+ a2 + ……… + an. The ai ’s are the terms of the sum:
a1 is the first term, a2 is the second term, ak is the k th term, and an is the n th and last
term. The variable k is the index of summation. The values of k run through the integers
from 1 to n. The number 1 is the lower limit of summation; the number n is the upper limit
of summation.
Illustrative Example
2
∑ 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 +42 = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 =30
∑ = + + =
Algebraic Rules for Finite Sums
∑ (ak + bk) = ∑ ak + ∑ bk
∑ (ak − bk) = ∑ ak - ∑ bk
∑ (C ak) = C ∑ ak
Riemann Sums
Given an arbitrary continuous function y = f (x) on an interval [a, b] , we partition the
interval into n subintervals by choosing n -1 points, say x1 , x2 , ……….xn-1; between a and b
subject only to the condition that
a< x1 < x2< ••• < xn-1<b .
To make the notation consistent, we usually denote a by x0 and b by xn . The set
P = { x1 , x2 , ……….xn}
is called a partition of [a, b].
The partition P defines n closed subintervals
[ x0 x1], [ x1, x2], ……… …..[ xn-1 xn].
The typical closed subinterval [xk-1 xk] is called the k th subinterval of P.
The length of the k th subinterval is Dxk = xk – xk-1.
In each subinterval [xk-1 xk], we select a point ck and construct a vertical rectangle from the
subinterval to the point (ck, f (ck)) on the curve y = f (x). The choice of c k does not matter as
long as it lies in [xk-1 xk].
Calculus Page 18
If f (ck) is positive, the number f (ck)Dxk = height • base is the area of the rectangle. If f (c k)
is negative, then f (ck)Dxk is the negative of the area. In any case, we add the n products f
(ck)Dxk to form the sum
Sp = ∑ f (ck)Dxk
This sum, which depends on P and the choice of the numbers ck , is called a Riemann sum
for f on the interval [a, b].
As the partitions of [a,b] become finer, the rectangles defined by the partition
approximate the region between the x -axis and the graph of f with increasing accuracy. So
we expect the associated Riemann sums to have a limiting value. To test this expectation,
we need to develop a numerical way to say that partitions become finer and to determine
whether the corresponding sums have a limit. We accomplish this with the following
definitions.
The norm of a partition P is the partition's longest subinterval length. It is denoted by
||P|| (read "the norm of P").
The way to say that successive partitions of an interval become finer is to say that the
norms of these partitions approach zero. As the norms go to zero, the subintervals become
shorter and their number approaches infinity.
Example : The set P = {0, 0.2, 0.6,1,1.5, 2} is a partition of [0, 2]. There are five subintervals
of P: [0, 0.2], [0.2,0.6], [0.6,1], [1,1.5], and [1.5, 2].
The lengths of the subintervals are Dx1 = 0.2, Dx2 = 0.4, Dx3 = 0.4, Dx4 = 0.5, and Dx5 = 0.5.
The longest subinterval length is 0.5, so the norm of the partition is ||P|| = 0.5. In this
example, there are two subintervals of this length.
Definition (The Definite integral as a Limit of Riemann Sums)
Let f (x) be a function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. We say that the limit of the
Riemann sums Sp = ∑ f (ck)Dxk k k
on [a, b] as ||P|| => 0 is the number I if the
following condition is satisfied:
Given any number € > 0, there exists a corresponding number d> 0 such that for every
partition P of [a, b]with ||P||<d => | ∑ f (ck)Dxk - L|< €
for any choice of the numbers ck in the subintervals [xk-1;xk
k-1
,
k
].
If the limit exists, we write
Lim|| ||  ∑ f (ck)Dxk = L
We call L the definite integral of f over [a, b], we say that f is enterable over [a, b], and
we say that the Riemann sums of f on [a, b] converge to the number L.
We usually write L as ∫ ( ) which is read "integral of f from a to b ." Thus, if the
limit exists,
Calculus Page 19
Lim → ∑ f (ck)Dxk = ∫ ( )
Upper and Lowe Riemann Sum
Riemann upper sum : Up = ∑ Maxf(x) Dxk
Riemann lower sum: Lp= ∑ Minf(x) Dxk
If f(x) is Riemann integrable then Up =Lp as ||P|| 0
Theorem (The Existence of Definite Integrals)
All continuous functions are integrable. That is, if a function f is continuous on an
interval [a, b], then its definite integral over [a, b] exists.
Functions with No Riemann Integral
The function
f(x)= 1, when x is rational,
0, when x s irrational
has no Riemann integral over [0,1]. For any partition P of [0,1], the upper and lower sums
are
Up = ∑Maxf(x)Dxk= ∑1 Dxk= ∑Dxk= 1,
(sum of length of all sub intervals) as every subinterval contains a rational number and
hence maxf(x) = 1
Lp = ∑_Minf(x)Dxk=
k
∑ 0 Dxk = 0,
k
as every subinterval contains an irrational number and hence Minf(x) = 0 .
For the integral of f to exist over [0,1], U p and Lp would have to have the same limit as
||P|| 0. But they do not:
limLp = 0 while lim Up = 1.
Therefore, f has no integral on [0,1].
Example :Express the limit of Riemann sums
2
lim → (3ck2
k
− 2ckk + 5)
as an integral if P denotes a partition of the interval [ -1, 3].
Solution: The function being evaluated at ckk in each term of the sum is f (x) = 3x 2 - 2x + 5 .
The interval being partitioned is [ -1, 3]. The limit is therefore the integral of f from -1 to 3:
2 2
lim → (3ck2
k
− 2ckk + 5) = ∫ 3x2 − 2x + 5
Constant Functions
Result : If f (x) has the constant value c on [a, b], then ∫ ( ) =c(b-a)
Calculus Page 20
Example
∫ 3dx = 3(4 - (-1)) = (3)(5) = 15
∫ (−3) = -3(4 - (-1)) = (-3)(5) = -15

The Area Under the Graph of a Nonnegative Function
Definition Let f (x) t 0 be continuous on [a, b]. The area of the region between the graph of
f and the x -axis is
A=∫ ( )
Whenever we make a new definition, as we have here, consistency becomes an issue.
Does the definition that we have just developed for nonstandard shapes give correct
results for standard shapes? The answer is yes, but the proof is complicated and we will
not go into it.
Example :Using an area, evaluate the definite integral ∫ 0<a<b
Solution :We sketch the region under the curve y = x, a <x < b, and see that it is a
trapezoid with height (b - a) and bases a and b . The value of the integral is the area of this
trapezoid:
∫ = (b - a) = −
In particular,
( ) ( )
∫ == − == − = 12
Notice that = is an antiderivative of x, further evidence of a connection between

antiderivatives and summation.
Example: Use a definite integral to find the area of the region between the parabola y = x 2
and x -axis on the interval [0, b].
Solution: We evaluate the integral for the area as a limit of Riemann sums.
We sketch the region (a nonstandard shape) and partition [0, b] into n subintervals of
length
( )
Dx = = . The points of the partition are
X0 = 0, x1 = Dx, x2 = 2Dx, ..........., xn-1 = (n -l)Dx, xn = nDx = b.
We are free to choose the ck 's any way we please. We choose each ck to be the right-hand
endpoint of its subinterval, a choice that leads to manageable arithmetic. Thus, c 1 = x1, c2 =
x2, and so on. The rectangles defined have areas f (c 1)Dx = f (Dx)Dx = (Dx)2 Dx = (12)(Dx)3
f (c2)Dx = f (2Dx)Dx = (2Dx)2Dx = (22)(Dx)3
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
f (cn )Dx = f (nDx)Dx = (nDx)2 Dx = (n2)(Dx)3
Calculus Page 21
The sum of these areas is

Sn = ∑ f (ckk )Dxkk
2 3
= ∑ k2 (Dxkk )3
3 2
= ( k)3 ∑ k2
k
3 ( )((2n+1)
)
= 3
, as Dxk= .
3 2
=
3
= (2+ + ) ……………………….. (6)
We can now use the definition of definite integral
Lim → ∑ f (ck
k
)Dxk = ∫ ( )
k
to find the area under the parabola from x = 0 to x = b as
∫ = Lim → Sn ,In this example, → 0 is equivalent to n0.
= Lim (2+ + )
→
= (2+ 0+0) =
With different values of b we get
( )
∫ = =
Exercises
Write the sums in Exercises 1-3 without sigma notation. Then evaluate them.
1.∑ 2. ∑
Express the sums in Exercises 3-4 in sigma notation. The form of your answer will depend
on your choice of the lower limit of summation.
3.1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 4. ½ + ¼ + 1/8+ 1/16
5.Suppose that .∑ k
= -5 and .∑ k
= 6. Find the values of
a) ∑ 3 k
a) ∑ k c) .∑ ( k
− k
)
6.Evaluate the sums .
2 2
a) .∑ b) .∑ 2 c) .∑ (3 − 2)
In Exercises 7-8, graph each function f (x) over the given interval. Partition the interval into
four subintervals of equal length. Then add to your sketch the rectangles associated with
the Riemann sum∑ f (ckk )Dxkk . given that ck is the (a) left-hand endpoint, (b) right-hand
Calculus Page 22
endpoint, (c) midpoint of the k th subinterval. (Make a separate sketch for each set of
rectangles.)
7. f (x) = x2 -1, [0,2] 8. f (x) = sin x, [-p, p]
9.Find the norm of the partition P = [0,1.2,1.5, 2.3, 2.6, 3].
Express the limits in Exercises 18-21 as definite integrals.
2
10. Lim → ∑ ck2Dxk ,where P is the partition of [0 2]
k k
2
11. Lim → ∑ (ck2
k − 3ck)Dxk
k
, where P is the partition of [-7 5]
k
12.Use areas to evaluate the integrals
a) ∫ , b>0 b) ∫ 2
RULES FOR INTEGRATION
Rules for definite integrals

1.Zero: ∫ ( ) =0
2.Order of Integration ∫ ( ) = −∫ ( )
3.Constant Multiples ∫ ( ) = ∫ ( )
4.Sum and Differences ∫ ( ( ) − ( )) = ∫ ( ) −∫ ( )
5.Additivity: ∫ ( ) +∫ ( ) = ∫ ( )
6.Max-Min Inequality: If max f and min f are the maximum and minimum values of f
on
[a, b], then
min f (b - a) ≤ ∫ ( ) ≤ max f (b - a)
Example: Suppose that
∫ ( ) = 5, ∫ ( ) = -2, ∫ ( ) = 7.
Then
∫ ( ) = -∫ ( ) = -(-2) = 2 Using Rule 2
∫ [2 ( ) + 3ℎ( )] =2 ∫ ( ) + 3 ∫ ℎ( ) =2(5) + 3(7) =31 , Using Rules 3 and

4
∫ ( ) =∫ ( ) +∫ ( ) = 5 + (-2) = 3 Using Rule 5
Example: ∫ ( − 7 + 5)
Calculus Page 23
Solution
∫ ( − 7 + 5) = ∫ 2 + 7∫ + ∫ (5)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
== ( - ) -7( − ) + 5(2-0)
2
Example: ∫ 2
Solution :We cannot apply equation (3) directly because the lower limit of integration is
different from 0. We can, however, use the Additivity Rule to express ∫ as a
difference
of two integrals that can be evaluated with equation (3):
2 2 2
∫ 2 +∫ 2 =∫ 2 Rule 5
2 2 2
∫ 2 =∫ 2 −∫ 2
( ) ( )
= −
= − =
The Max-Min Inequality for definite integrals (Rule 6) says that min f (b - a) is a lower
bound for the value of ∫ ( ) and that max f (b - a) is an upper bound.
Example:Show that the value of √1 + cos xdx cannot possibly be 2.
Solution:The maximum value of √1 + cos x on [0,1] is √1+I = √2, so
√1 + cos xdx ≤ ma (√1 + cos x) (1 - 0), using max-min inequality
Ie √2.1=√2
The integral cannot exceed 46, so it cannot possibly equal 2.
2
Example: Use
Usethe
the inequality cos x =≠ (1- ) which holds for all x, to find a lower bound
approximation
for the value of ∫

Solution
2
∫ ≠= ∫ (1 − )dx
2
≠= ∫ 1dx − ∫ ) dx Rules 3 and 4
3
( )
20 =≠1 (1-0) - = =0.83
(1 _ 0) _ 2 ^3- = 5 » 0.83 . The value of the integral is at least 5.

The Average Value of an Arbitrary continuous Function
Definition: If f is integrable on [a, b], its average (mean) value on [a, b] is
Calculus Page 24
av(f) = ∫ ( )
( )
Example : Find the average value of f (x) = 4 - x2 on [0,3]. Does f actually take on this value
at some point in the given domain?
Solution
( )
av(f) = av(f) = ∫ ( ) = ∫ (4 − 2) = (4 (3-0) – ) = (12 − 9) = 1
( ) ( )
The average value of f (x) = 4 – x2 over the interval [0, 3] is 1. The function assumes this
value when
4 – x2 = 1 or x = −√3 . Since one of these points, x =√3 lies in [0, 3], the function does
assume its average value in the given domain .
The Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals Theorem (The Mean value theorem for Definite Integrals)
If f is continuous on [a, b], then at some point c in [a, b],
( )= ∫ ( )
( )
The continuity of f is important here. A discontinuous function can step over its average
value.
Example: Show that if f is continuous on [a, b], and if ∫ ( ) = 0, then f (x) = 0 at least
once in [a, b].
Solution
The average value of f on [a, b] is
av(f) = ∫ ( ) == .0 = 0
( ) ( )
By Theorem, f assumes this value at some point c in [a, b].

Exercises
1.Suppose that f and g are continuous and that
∫ ( ) = -4, ∫ ( ) = 6, ∫ ( ) =8 ,
Use the rules at the beginning of this Chapter to find
a) ∫ ( ) b) ∫ ( )
c) ∫ 3 ( ) d) ∫ ( )
e) ∫ ( ( ) − ( )) f) ∫ [4 ( ) − ( )]
2. Suppose that f is continuous and that ∫ ( ) =3 and ∫ ( ) =7
a) ∫ ( ) b) ∫ ( )
Calculus Page 25
3. Evaluate the integrals

a) ∫ 7 b) ∫ (2 − 3) c) ∫ |1 + |
d) ∫ 3 22
Answers
1. a) 0 b) -8 c) -12 d) 10 e) -2 f) 16
2. a) 4 b) -4
3. a) -14 b) -2 c) -7/4 d)7
CHAPTER 6
INTEGRATION II
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS OF CALCULUS
In this chapter we discuss two parts of fundamental theorem of calculus.

Theorem (The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1)
If f is continuous on [a, b], then F(x) = ∫ ( ) has a derivative at every point of [a, b]
and = ∫ ( ) = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b………….. (1)
Example : if y = ∫ costdt
Solution: Notice that the upper limit of integration is not x but x: To find we must
therefore treat y as the composite of
y = ∫ costdt and u = x2
and apply the Chain Rule:
=
= ∫ costdt d Substitute the formula for y.
=cosu Eq. (1) with f (t) = cos t

=cosx2 2x
Example :Express the solution of the following initial value problem as an integral.
Differential equation: = tan x
Initial condition : y(1) = 5
Calculus Page 26
Solution
The function F(x) = ∫ tantdt
is an antiderivative of tan x. Hence the general solution of the equation is
y =∫ tantdt + C
As always, the initial condition determines the value of C :
5 = ∫ tantdt + C y(1) = 5
5=0+C ……………………….. (2)
C = 5.
The solution of the initial value problem is y = ∫ tantdt + 5 .
How did we know where to start integrating when we constructed F (x) ? We could have
started anywhere, but the best value to start with is the initial value of x (in this case x =1).
Then the integral will be zero when we apply the initial condition (as it was in Eq. 2) and C
will automatically be the initial value of y .
The Evaluation of Definite Integrals using FTC2
Theorem (The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2)
If f is continuous at every point of [a, b] and F is any antiderivative of f on [a, b], then
∫ f(x)dx = F(b) - F(a) ……………………… (3)

Example
П
∫ cosxdx = [sinx] = sin П - sin0 = 0 -0 = 0
П
∫ П secxtanxdx = [sec x] = sec0 -sec (− ) = 1 -√2
We can now see that without any restriction on the signs of a and b ,
2 2 2 2
∫ xdx = = − becuase is an antiderivative of x
Example:Find the area of the region between the x -axis and the graph of
2
f (x) = x33 - x2 - 2 .x, -1 ≤ x ≤ 2.
Solution:First find the zeros of f . Since
3 2 2
f (x) = x2 - x2 - 2x = x(x2 - x - 2) = x(x +1)(x - 2), the zeros are x = 0, -1, and 2 The
zeros partition [ -1, 2] into two subintervals: [ -1, 0], on which f < 0 and [0, 2], on which f >
0. We integrate f over each subinterval and add the absolute values of the calculated
values.
Calculus Page 27
4 3 2
3 2
Integral over [ -1, 0]: ∫ ( 3− 2−2 ) =[ + − ]=0–[ + − ]=
4 3 2
2
Integral over [0, 2]: ∫ ( 33 − 2 − 2 ) =[ + − ] = [ 4- -4] -0 =
Enclosed area: Total enclosed area = + | | =

Exercises
Evaluate the integrals in Exercises 1-13.
7
2
1. ∫ (2x + 5)dx 2. ∫ (x2 + √x)dx 3. ∫√ ( − )du 4.. ∫ |x|dx
In Exercises 5- 8, use a substitution to find an antiderivative and then apply the
Fundamental Theorem to evaluate the integral.
2
5. . ∫ (1 − 2x3)dx 6. . ∫ t√1 + t2 dt 7. . ∫ (sin2 cos )dx
In Exercises 8-10, find the total area between the region and the x -axis.
8. y = -x2 - 2x, -3 ≤ x ≤ 2
9.y = x3 - 3x2+ 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
3
10.y = x3, -1 ≤ x ≤8
Answers
1. 6 2. 8 3. 1 4. 16 5. 0 6. (2√2 − 1) 7. √2/3
Calculus Page 28
Module 4 : Application of Definite
Integrals
MODULE III
Chapter 1
APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRALS
Things like areas between curves, volumes and surface areas of solids, lengths of curves etc can be
calculated with integrals. We define all of these as limits of Riemann sums of continuous functions
on closed intervals, that is, as integrals, and evaluate these limits using calculus. In this module we
discuss some of the above mentioned applications.
Areas Between Curves
Here we discuss how to find the areas of regions in the coordinate plane by integrating the
functions that define the regions boundaries.
Definition: If and are continuous functions with ( ) ≥ ( ) ; ∀ ∈ [ , ], then the area of
the region between the curves = ( ) = ( ) is the integral of − from
a to b : = ∫ [ ( ) − ( )]
Example1: Find the area between = = from 0 4
.
Solution:
Step1: Identifying upper curve and lower curve
We know that ≥ ∈ [0, ]. Therefore take ( )= ( )=
Step2 : Finding the limits of integration
The limits of integration are already given: = 0, =
Step3: Write a formula for ( ) − ( )
Here ( )− ( )= −
Step4: Applying formula
The required area is
= ∫ [ ( ) − ( )] =∫ ( − ) =[ + ] =
√
Example2: Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola

=2− ℎ =−
Solution:
Since the curve = 2 − ℎ = − ,the upper curve is ( ) = 2 − and
the lower curve is ( ) = −
Calculus Page 29
We find the limits of integration by equating the two curves:

2− =−
− +2=0 ( ℎ )
( + 1)( − 2) = 0 ( ℎ )
= −1, = 2( ℎ )
The limits of integration are = −1 , =2
( ) − ( ) = (2 − )— =2− +
= [ ( ) − ( )] = (2 − + ) =
Example 3:
Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that is bounded above by = √ and below by
the -axis and the line = − 2
Solution :
The sketch shows that the region’s upper boundary is the curve ( ) = √ and the lower
boundary changes from ( ) = 0 0≤ ≤2 ( )= −2 2 ≤ ≤ 4. We divide the
region in to two subregions A and B.
The limits of integration for region A are =0 = 2.The left hand limit for region B is = 2.
To find the right-hand limit, we solve the equations =√ = − 2 simaltaneously for x:
√ = −2
= ( − 2)
= −4 +4
−5 +4=0
( − 1)( − 4) = 0
= 1, =4
Calculus Page 30
Only the value = 4 satisfies the equation √ = − 2 . So the right hand limit is =4
For 0 ≤ ≤2 ∶ ( )− ( )=√ −0=√
For 2 ≤ ≤4 ∶ ( ) − ( ) = √ − ( − 2) = √ − +2
Total Area = ∫ √ + ∫ (√ − + 2) =
Remark: The above problem can be easily solved with the help of geometry as follows
The required area in the problem (example3) is the area between the curve = √ ,0 ≤ ≤ 4,
and the -axis, minus the area of a triangle with base 2 and height 2
1 10
= √ − (2)(2) =
2 3
Example4:
Find the area of the region in example 3 by integrating with respect to y
Solution :
Step1: We sketch the region and a typical horizontal rectangle based on a partition of an interval
of y-values . The regions right hand boundary is the line = + 2, so ( ) = + 2.The left hand
boundary is the curve = ( )=
Step2: The lower limit of integration is = 0.The upper limit is obtained by solving:
+2=
− −2=0
( + 1)( − 2) = 0
= −1, =2
The upper limit of integration is =2
Step3:
( )− ( )= +2−
Calculus Page 31
Step4:
= ∫ [ ( ) − ( )] =∫ [ +2− ] = .
Exercises:
Find the areas of the regions enclosed by the following curves:
1. = −2 =2
2. = =8
3. = =− +4
4. = −4 +4 =
5. = | | 5 = +6
6. =2 , =0 =3
7. −4 =4 4 − = 16
8. =2 = 2 ,0 ≤ ≤
9. = = , =− , =
10. =3 = 0,0 ≤ ≤
Answers
1. 2. 3. 4. 8 5. 6. 18
7. 8. 4 9. 10. 2
Chapter 2
Volumes of Solids of Revolution

Solids of revolution are solids whose shapes can be generated by revolving plane regions
about axes
Volume of a solid of Revolution (Rotation about the x-axis)
The volume of the solid generated by revolving about the x-axis the region between the x-axis and
the graph of the continuous function = ( ), ≤ ≤ is
=∫ ( ) = ∫ ( ( ))
Example1: The region between the curve = √ , 0 ≤ ≤ 4, and the X-axis is revolved about
the X-axis to generate a solid. Find its volume.
Solution : The Volume is
=∫ ( ( )) =∫ [ ] = ∫ =8
Calculus Page 32
Example2: Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by =√
and the lines = 1, = 4 about the line = 1
Solution: Here the radius function is ( ) = √ − 1
The volume is
7
= [ ( )] = [√ − 1] = − 2√ + 1 =
6
Volume of a solid of Revolution (Rotation about the Y-axis)

The volume of a solid of generated by revolving about the Y-axis the region between the Y-
axis and the graph of the continuous function = ( ), ≤ ≤ is = ∫ ( ) =
∫ [ ( )]
Example3: Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the Y-axis
and the curve = ,1 ≤ ≤ 4 about the Y-axis.
Solution: Here the rotation is about the Y-axis and the radius function is ( ) =
The volume is =∫ [ ( )] =∫ =3
Example4: Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the
parabola = + 1 and the line = 3 about the line = 3.
Solution: Here the rotation is about the line = 3, which is parallel to the Y-axis
The radius function is ( ) = 3 − ( + 1) = 2 −
√ √ ] √
The volume is =∫ [ ( )] =∫ √
[2 − ] = ∫ √
[4 − 4 + =
Exercises
Find the volumes of the solids generated by revolving the regions bounded by the
following curves about the X-axis
1. = , = 0, = 2
2. = √9 − , = 0
3. =√ , 0≤ ≤ , = 0, =0
Find the volumes of the solids generated by revolving the regions bounded by the following curves
about the X-axis
4. = √5 , = 0, = −1, = 1
5. = 2 2 , 0≤ ≤ , =0
6. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by = √ , and
the lines = 2 = 0 about:
a) The X-axis
b) The Y-axis
Calculus Page 33
c) The line =2
d) The line =4
Answers:
1. 2. 36 3. 4.2 5.2 6.(a):8 (b) : (c) : (d)
Lengths of Plane Curves

Definition:
A function with a continuous first derivative is said to be smooth and its graph is called a
smooth curve
Definition:
If is smooth on [ , ] then the length of the curve = ( ) from is defined by the
integral =∫ 1+( ) =∫ 1 + ( ( ))
Definition:
The length of the smooth curve = ( ) from is defined by the formula
= 1+( ) = 1 + ( ( ))
√
Example1: Find the length of the curve = – 1, 0≤ ≤1
3 2
4√ 2 2
Solution: = 3
– 1⟹ = 2√2 ⟹ ( ) =8
The length of the curve from =0 = 1 is
=∫ 1+( ) = ∫ √1 + 8 = (The last integral can be evaluated using the

substitution = 1+8 )
Example2:
Find the length of the curve = ( 2) from =0 = 2.
Solution : The derivative = is not defined at = 0 , so we cannot use the first

formula. We therefore rewrite the equation to express in terms of :
= ( 2) ⟹ = ⟹ =2
2
Thus the required length is the length of the curve =2 =0 =1
Calculus Page 34
The derivative =3 is continuous on [0,1] . Therefore the required length is given by the
formula =∫ 1+( ) =∫ 1+9 = 10√10 − 1 ≈ 2.27
Exercises :
Find the l1engths of the following curves:
1. = ( + 2) =0 =3
2. 1
= 3 + (4 ) from =1 = 3 (Hint : 1 + is a perfect square)
3. = 1 = 2 (Hint : 1 + is a perfect square)

4 + (8 ) =1
4. = 34 − 38 + 5 ,1 ≤ ≤8
5. =∫ √ −1 ,− ≤ ≤
Answers:
1. 12 2. 3. 123/32 4. 99/8 5.2
Chapter 3
Areas of surfaces of revolution:
Surface Area Formula for the revolution about the X-axis:
If the function ( ) ≥ 0 is smooth on [ , ] then the area of the surface generated by
revolving the curve = ( ) about the X-axis is
=∫ 2 1+ =∫ 2 ( ) 1 + ( ( ))
Surface Area Formula for the revolution about the Y-axis:

If the function ( ) ≥ 0 is smooth on [ , ] then the area of the surface generated by
revolving the curve = ( ) about the Y-axis is
=∫ 2 1+ =∫ 2 ( ) 1 + ( ( ))
Example1: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve
= 2√ , 1 ≤ ≤ 2 , about the X-axis
Solution : Here = 2√ , = 1, =2
1 1
= ⟹ =
√
Calculus Page 35
1
= 2 1+ = 2 . 2√ 1+ =4 √1 +
8
= 3√3 − 2√2
3
Example2: The line segment = 1 − , 0 ≤ ≤ 1, is revolved about the Y-axis to generate a
cone. Find its lateral surface area
Solution: Here = 0, = 1, =1− ⟹ = −1 ⟹ 1+ = √2
= 2 1+ = 2 (1 − )√2 = 2√2 (1 − ) = √2
Remark: The above calculation agrees with the formula from geometry;
= × ℎ ℎ = √2
2
The Short Differential Form
The equations =∫ 2 1+ , =∫ 2 1+ are often written in

terms of the arc length differential = ( ) +( ) as:
=∫ 2 =∫ 2 .
In the first of these, is the distance from the X-axis to an element of the arc length .In the
second , is the distance from the Y-axis to an element of the arc length .Both integrals have
the form: = ∫ 2 ( )( ℎ) = ∫ 2 , ℎ is the radius from the axis of
revolution to an element of arc length
Example: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve = ,0 ≤ ≤ ,
about the X-axis
Solution : We start with the short differential form:
= ∫2 = ∫2 = ∫2 ( ) +( ) (For revolution about the X-
axis the radius function is )
We then decide whether to express in terms of or in terms of .The original form of
the equation, = , makes it easier to express in terms of , so we continue the
calculation with = ⟹ =3 , ( ) + ( ) = √1 + 9
With these substitutions, becomes the variable of integration and
=∫ 2 ( ) +( ) =∫ 2 √1 + 9 = (the last integral is evaluated

using the substitution = 1 + 9 )
Calculus Page 36
Exercises:
Find the areas of the surfaces generated by revolving the following curves about the indicated
axes:
1. = ,0 ≤ ≤2; −
2. = √2 − , 0.5 ≤ ≤ 1.5 ; −
3. = ,0 ≤ ≤1; −
4. = 2 4 − ;0 ≤ ≤ ; −
5. = + ,1 ≤ ≤2; − (Hint: Express = ( ) +( ) in terms of

, and evaluate the integral = ∫2 with appropriate limits)
6. Find the lateral surface area of the cone generated by revolving the line segment
= , 0 ≤ ≤ 4, about the X-axis. Also check your answer with the geometry formula
Answers:
(√8 − 1) √5
1. 98 81 2. 2 3. 9 4. 35 3 5. 253 20 6. 4 √5
Calculus Page 37
Module IV
Chapter I
Moments and Center of Mass

Introduction
Many structures and mechanical systems behave as if their masses were concentrated at a
single point called the center of mass.
Masses along a Line
Let , are masses on a rigid -axis supported by a fulcrum at the origin .Each mass
exerts a downward force equal to the magnitude of the mass times the acceleration of
gravity. Each of these forces has a tendency to turn the -axis about the origin. This turning effect
is called a torque. It is measured by multiplying the force by the signed distance from the
point of application to the origin. Masses to the left of the origin exert negative (counter
clockwise) torque. Masses to the right of the origin exert positive (clockwise) torque.
The sum of the torques measures the tendency of the system to rotate about the origin.
This sum is called system toque.
system toque = m gx + m gx + m gx
Remark
 The system will balance if and only if torque is zero.
 System torque= ( + + )
,the torque is the product of the gravitational acceleration ,which is a feature of
environment.
Definition
The number + + is called the moment of the system about the origin.
= Moment of the system about the origin=∑
Remark
The torque of each mass about the fulcrum in special location is
Torque of about ⃐ = ( )
⃐
=( − ⃐)
An equation we can solve for ⃐
∑( − ⃐) =0 (sum of the torques equals zero)
∑( − ⃐) =0 (by constant multiple rule)
∑( − ⃐) =0 as g≠0
Calculus Page 38
∑( −⃐ )=0
∑
∑ −∑⃐ =0⇒∑ =∑⃐ ⇒⃐ = =
∑
The point ⃐ is called the system’s center of mass.

Wires and thin Rods
Imagine along strip lying along x-axis from x=a to x=b and cut into small pieces of mass
∆ by a partition of the interval [ , ].The piece is ∆ units long and lies approximately
units from the origin. Now observe the three things .First, the strips center of mass ⃐ is nearly the
same as that of the system of point masses we would by attaching each masses ∆ to the
point :
⃐≈ …………………….(1)
Second, the moment of each piece of the strip about the origin is approximately ∆ ,so the
system moment is approximately the sum of the ∆ .
i.e. System moment ≈∑ ∆ ………………………….(2)
Third, if the density of the strip at is ( ) expressed in terms of mass per unit length and is
continuous, then ∆ is approximately equal to ( )∆ (mass per unit length times length):
∆ ≈ ( )∆ ……………………………………….(3)
Combining these three observations gives
∑ ∆ ∑ ( )∆
⃐≈ ≈ ≈ ∑ (
……………………….(4)
∆ )∆
Note that ∑ ( )∆ is Riemann sum for the continuous function ( ) over the closed
interval [ , ] and ∑ ( )∆ is a Riemann sum for the function ( ) over this interval. We
expect the approximations in (4) to improve as the strip partitioned more finely and we led to the
to the equation
∫ ( )
⃐=
∫ ( )
Moment, Mass and Center of mass of a thin rod or strip along the x-axis with density function ( )
Moment about the origin = =∫ ( )
Mass=M=∫ ( )
Center of mass = ⃐ =
Example:1
Show that the center of mass of a straight, thin, strip or rod of constant density lies half
way between two ends.
Calculus Page 39
Solution:
We model the strip a portion of the x-axis from x=a to x=b.We want to show that ⃐ =
.Given that density having constant value. So we take the function ( ) as a constant call it δ.
= ( ) = = = = = = ( − )
2 2
=∫ ( ) =∫ = ∫ = [ ] = ( − )
⃐= =
Example:2
The 10m-long rod, the thickness from left to right so that its density is ( ) = 1 + .Find
the rod’s center of mass.
Solution:
The rod’s moment about origin
=∫ ( ) =∫ 1+ =∫ + = + =
50 + = 250 .
The rod’s mass
, =∫ ( ) =∫ ( ) =∫ 1+ = + = 10 + = 15
The center of mass = ⃐ = = = ≈ 5.56

∗
Masses Distributed over a plane Region
Suppose we have a finite collection of masses located in the plane, with mass at the
point ( , ).The mass of the system is
System mass = M= ∑ .
Each mass has a moment about each axis is and it’s moment about y-axis is
is .The moments of the entire system about the two axes are
Moment about x-axis: =∑
Moment about y-axis: =∑ .
The x-coordinate of system’s center of mass is defined to be
∑
⃐= = ∑
………………………..(5)
The y-coordinate of the system’s center of mass is defined to be

∑
ӯ= = ∑
………………………..(6)
Calculus Page 40
The point ( ⃐, ӯ) is called the system’s center of mass.

Thin, Flat plates
Imagine the plate occupying a region in the xy-plane, cut into thin strips parallel
one of the axes. The center of mass of a typical strip is (x᷈,y᷈) .Which treat the strips mass ∆m as if it
was concentrated at (x᷈,y᷈).The moment of the strip about the y-axis is x᷈∆m.The moment of the
strip about the x-axis is y᷈∆m.
Now equation (5) and (6)implies
∑ ᷈∆
⃐= = ∑∆
∑ ᷈∆
ӯ= = ∑∆
As in the one dimensional case, the sums are Riemann sums for integrals and approach these
integrals as limiting values of the strips in to which the plate is cut into narrower and narrower.
Then we get
∫ ᷈ ∫ ᷈
⃐= And ӯ=
∫ ∫
Moments, Mass and center of mass of a thin plate covering a region in the xy-plane.
Moment about x-axis: =∫ ᷈
Moment about y-axis: ∫ ᷈
Mass=M=∫
Center of mass= ⃐ = and ӯ =
Remark
To evaluate these integrals, we picture the plate in the coordinate plane and sketch a strip
of mass parallel to one of the coordinate axes. Then we express the strip’s mass dm and the
coordinates (x᷈,y᷈) of the strip’s center of mass in terms of x or y.Finally we integrate ᷈ and ᷈
and dm between limits of the integration determined by the plate’s location in the plane.
Example:3
The triangular plate is obtained by joining (0,0),(1,0) and (1,2) has a constant density of
δ=3 / .Find
a) the plate’s moment about the y-axis)
b) the plate’s mass M
c) the x-coordinate of the plate’s center of mass.
Solution:
Consider a vertical strip as shown in figure
a)The moment :The typical vertical strip has center of mass(c.m)= (x᷈,y᷈)=(x,x).
Calculus Page 41
length=2x
Area=dA=2xdx
Width=dx
Mass = dm=δdA=3.2Xdx=6xdx
Distance of c.m from y-axis =x᷈=x
The moment of the strip about y-axis is, x᷈dm=x.6x=6 dx
The moment of the plate about y-axis is,
= ᷈ = 6 = [2 ] =2 .
b) the plate’s mass M =∫ =∫ 6 = [3 ] =3

. .
c)the x-coordinate of the plate’s center of mass = ⃐ = = =
Example:4
Find the center of mass of a wire of constant density δ shaped like a semi circle of radius a
Solution:
We model the wire with the semi circle = √ − .The distribution of mass is
symmetric about y-axis ,so ⃐ = 0.To find ӯ imagine the wire divided into short segments. The
typical segment has
Length=ds=adθ
Mass=dm=δds=δadθ
Distance of c.m to x-axis=y᷈=asinθ
∫ ᷈ ∫ [ ]
Hence ,ӯ= = = = .
∫ ∫
Centroids:
When the density function is constant, it cancels out of the numerator and denominator of
the formulas ⃐ and ӯ.Thus when the density is constant the location of the center of masses a
feature of the geometry the object and not of the material from which it is made. In such cases
the center of mass is called the centroid of the shape
Exercise
1. An 80-lb and a100-lb child are balancing on a seasaw.The 80-lb child is 5ft from the
fulcrum. How far from the fulcrum is the 100-lb child?
2. The ends of a log are placed on two scales. One scale reads 100 kg and the other 200
kg.Where is the log’s center of mass?
3. The ends of two thin steel rods of equal length are welded together to make a right
angled frame. Locate the frame’s center of mass.
Calculus Page 42
Exercise 4-6 give density functions of thin rods lying along various intervals of the x-
axis. Find each rod’s moment about the origin, mass, and center of mass.
4. ( ) = 4 , 0 ≤ ≤2
5. ( ) = 1 + , 0 ≤ ≤3
6. ( ) = 1 + , 1≤ ≤4
√
Chapter 2
WORK
In everyday life, work means an activity that requires muscular or mental effort.
Work Done by a constant Force
When a body moves distance d along a straight line as a result of being acted on by a
force of constant magnitude F in the direction of motion. We calculate the work W
done by the force on the body with the formula
W=Fd (constant force formula for work)…………………………….(1)
From this equation we see that the unit of work is in any system is the unit of force
multiplied by the unit of distance. So the unit of work is nN.m.This combination is
called Joule.
Work done by a variable force
Definition
The work done by a variable force F(x) directed along the x axis from x=a to x=b is
W=∫ ( )
Example:1
The work done by a force of F(X)= along the x-axis from x=1m to x=10m is
W=∫ ( )
=∫ = = + 1 = 0.9
Example:2
A leaky 5lb bucket is lifted from the ground into the air by pulling in 20ft of rope at a constant
speed. The rope weighs 0.08lb/ft.The bucket starts with 2gal of water (16lb) and leaks at a
constant rate. It finishes draining just as reaches the top. How much work has spent?
a) Lifting the water alone.
b) Lifting the water and bucket together.
c) Lifting the water, bucket and rope.
Calculus Page 43
Solution:
a) The water alone: The force required to lift the water is equal to the water’s weight which
varies steadily from 16 to 0 lb over the 20ft lift. When the bucket is x-ft of the ground the
water weighs
20 − 4
( ) = 16 = 16 1 − = 16 −
20 20 5
The work done is W=∫ ( ) =∫ 16 − = 16 − 2
= 320 − 160 = 160
b) The water and bucket together. According to equation (1),it takes 5*20=100 ft lb to a 5lb weight
20ft.
So,160+100=260ft.lbof work were spent lifting the water and bucket together
d) The water, bucket and rope. :
Now the total weight at level x is
4
( ) = 16 − + 5 + (0.08)(20 − )
5
The work lifting the top is
Work on rope =∫ (0.08)(20 − ) = ∫ (1.6 − 0.08 ) = 16 −
The total work for the water bucket and rope is 160+100+16=276ft-lb.
Hooke’s Law for springs: =
Hooke’s law says that the force it takes to stretch or compress a spring x length units from
its natural (unstressed) length is proportional to x. In symbols F=kx .The constant k is measured
in force units per length, it is called force constant spring constant of the spring
Example: 3
Find the work required to compress a spring from its natural length of 1ft to a length of
0.75 ft .If the force constant is k=16lb/ft.
Solution:
We assume the uncompressed spring laid along the x-axis with its movable end at the
origin and its fixed end at x=1.This enables us to describe the force required to compress the
spring from 0 to x with the formula F=16x.To compress the spring from 0 to 0.25ft the force must
increases from F (0) =16*0=0lb to F(0.25)=16(0.25)=4lb.
The work done by F over this interval is
.
W=∫ 16 = 0.5 −
Example: 5
A spring has a natural length of 1m.A force of 24N stretches the spring to a length of 1.8m.
Calculus Page 44
a) Find the force constant k

b) How much work will take to stretch the spring 2m beyond it natural length.
c) How far will a 45-N force stretch the spring?
Solution:
a) The force constant: We have, F=kx
F=24N, x=1.8-1=0.08m, so k=24/0.8=30N/m
b) The work to stretch the spring 2m: We imagine the unstressed spring hanging along the
x-axis with its free end at x=0.The force required to stretch the spring x m beyond its
natural length is the force required to pull the free end of the spring x units from the
origin. Hooke’s law with k=30 says that this force is
F(X)=30x.
The work done by F on the spring from x=0 to x=2 m is
= 30 = [5 ] = 60
c) How far will a 45-N force stretch the spring:

We substitute F=45m equation F=30x to find
45=30x or x=1.5m
Exercises
1. A mountain climber is about to haul up a 50-m length of hanging rope. How much work will it
take if the rope weights 0.624N/m?
2. An electric elevator with a motor at the top has a multistoried cable weighing 4.5 lb/ft.
a) When the car is at the first floor, 180 ft of cable are paid out, and effectively 0 ft is out
b) When the car is at the top floor. How much work does the motor do just lifting the cable
c) When it takes the car from the first floor to the top?
Calculus Page 45

II Sem. - Calculus of Single Variable - I - 0

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CALCULUS OF

Calculus of Single Variable - I Page 2

1. Module 1 : Functions and limits

2. Module 2 : Application of derivatives

4. Module 4 : Application of Definite Integrals

If a function f is described by y = f (x), then we call x the independent variable and y

Example :√Find the domain of

Exercise: Find the domain of

Piece-wise defined function: In certain situations, a function is defined by several equa-

Operations on functions:Let f and g be functions with domains A and B, respectively.

• (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), with domain = A ∩ B

• (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x), with domain = A ∩ B

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))

2. Horizontal Translations: The graph of the function defined by g(x) = f (x + c) , where

Consider the function ( ) = . The function is not defined at = 1. The

The values of f(x) seem to approach 2 as x get closer to 1.

We say that limit of f(x) as x approaches 1 is 2 and we write lim → ( ) = 2.

Informal Definition of Limit

Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about , except possibly at itself. If

Foundations of Mathematics Page 3

RULES OF EVALUATING LIMITS

To evaluate the limits of functions we use the following rules.

i. lim → = ( lim → )(lim → ) = 2×2=4

Limits of Polynomial Functions and Rational Functions

Theorem1: If ( ) = + +−−−−+ , then,

Theorem2: If ( ) and ( ) are polynomials and ( ) ≠ 0, then,

Foundations of Mathematics Page 4

Eliminating Zero Denominators Algebraically

Solution: By direct substitution we get the value of the limit as .But, + −2

can be factorized to ( − 1)( + 2) and − is ( − 1). So = , when

Foundations of Mathematics Page 5

The Sandwich Theorem

Suppose a function is sandwiched between two functions approaching the same

Theorem 3: Suppose ( ) ≤ ( ) ≤ ℎ( ) for all x in some open interval containing c, except

ii. Show that itif lim⎹ ( )⎹ = 0, then lim ( ) = 0.

lim − ⎹ ( )⎹=0 and lim⎹ ( )⎹=0. So by Sandwich theorem,

Evaluate the following limits:

Foundations of Mathematics Page 6

TARGET VALUES AND FORMAL DEFINITION OF LIMIT

Suppose you are contracting to grind engine cylinders of cross section

⇒-0.01 < − 9 < 0.01

⇒ 8.99 < < 9.01

⇒ √11.446 < < √11.472

⇒ −0.0018 < − 3.385 < 0.002

Formal Definition of Limit

To show that the limit of ( ) as → equals , we must be able to

Let ( ) be defined on an open interval containing , except possibly at . We say

0<⎹ − ⎹< ⇒ ⎹ ( )− ⎹ <

1. Show that lim → (5 − 3) = 2 .

Solution: Take any > 0. Consider ⎹ ( ) − ⎹ <

So we can choose = . Now, for this we can see that,

0 < ⎹ − 1⎹ < ⇒ ⎹(5 − 3) − 2⎹ <

2. Show that a) lim → = and b) lim → = ( where k is a constant)

Solution: a) Take any > 0. Consider ⎹ ( ) − ⎹ <

b) Take any > 0. Consider ⎹ ( ) − ⎹ <

Foundations of Mathematics Page 8

0<⎹ − ⎹< ⇒ ⎹ − ⎹ < , always hold. And hence, lim → =

For the limit lim → √ − 1 = 2, find the value of corresponding to =1

We have to find a > 0 such that for all ,