Strathmore University Strathmore Business School

MAT 1202: Business Mathematics II Lecture Notes

Titus Orwa ([email protected]) Nov, 2019 - March, 2020
Office: Jasiri Staffroom Contact Hours: 39

Aim
• To provide students knowledge about concept of limits and continuity of functions.

• To provide students knowledge about techniques and applications of differentiation.

• To provide students knowledge about techniques and applications of integration.

• To foster students’ abilities to think analytically via abstractions and generalizations of formal
processes in order to help in problem analysis.

Course content
The following describes the areas that the course will cover for the stated duration.

(1) Limits of Functions: An Introduction to Limits, Properties of Limits, Techniques for Eval-
uating Limits, One-Sided Limits, Infinite Limits.

(2) Continuity of functions: Definition, Theorems of Continuity, Types of Discontinuity.

(3) Derivatives: Slope of a line, rate of change, Slope of tangent lines, instantaneous rates of
change, Definition of derivative at a point, Basic Differentiation Rules, The Product/Quotient
Rules, The Chain Rule.

(4) Applications of Derivatives: Related rate problems, Increasing and decreasing functions,
Extrema: first and second derivative tests, Maximum/minimum problems, Concavity: Concave
up and concave down.

(5) Integration: Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration, The Fundamental Theorem of Cal-
culus, Basic Integration Rules, Integration by Substitution, Integration by Parts, Partial Frac-
tions.

(6) Application of integrals.

Reference materials
The following materials can be used by the students for further references on the contents taught in
class: Core reference materials include: ref [1, 2, 3]). Other reference books for this course include:
ref [4, 5, 6]) presented below.

1
References
[1] Armstrong Bill and Don Davies. Brief Calculus: The Study of Rates of Change. Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA, 2000.

[2] George Brinton Thomas, Ross L Finney, and Maurice D Weir. Thomas’ calculus. Addison
Wesley Longman, 2002.

[3] Frank Ayres and Elliott Mendelson. Schaum’s Outline of Calculus. McGraw Hill Professional,
2009.

[4] Roswell E. Fairbank. Applied Business Mathematics (13th Edition). South-Western Educational
Publishing, 1989.

[5] J Etgen Garret. Applied mathematics for business, economics, life sciences and social sciences.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2003.

[6] Raymond A Ziegler Barnett and R Michael. Applied calculus for business, economics, life
science, and social sciences (8th edition). Pearson, 2002.

Assignments and tests

The assessment of the course will be done as follows:-

Type of assessment Weighting (%)

Examination 70
CATS and Assignments 30
Total 100

Precautions
(i) Assignments handed in after the due date will attract a penalty (to be determined in class).

(ii) Plagiarism is a serious offence. If detected in any form in course work and assignments, the
following will apply:

a. In partial or non-serious cases (such as not citing whole word-for-word quotes), half the
total possible marks of the assignment are duly struck off.
b. In serious cases (such as whole duplication of a paper), a zero policy will apply i.e., all
offending assignments will be awarded a mark of zero.

(ii) Notwithstanding the above, collaboration in course work is certainly encouraged as this pro-
motes team spirit and group synergy as long as the provided originality is preserved.

2
1 Limits of functions
• Consider the function
x2 − 4
f (x) = .
x−2
Since x = 2 is not in the domain of the function, (f (2) is undefined), there appears to be a
‘hole’ in the graph. However, what is the behaviour of f (x) as x gets very very close to the
value 2? By behaviour, we mean what is happening to the function values (or the y-values)
as x approaches 2?
Solution: Construct a table to numerically analyze the behaviour of f as x gets closer and
closer to 2. Since we could approach 2 from the left side of 2 or from the right side of 2, we
must include values of x less than 2 and values greater than 2 as shown below.

Table 1

→ ←
x approaches 2 from the left x approaches 2 from the right
x 1 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 2 2.00001 2.001 2.01 2.1 3
f (x) 3 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 4.00001 4.001 4.01 4.1 5

It appears from Table 1, that if we start to the left of x = 2 or to the right of x = 2, as we

allow x to approach 2, our functional values are approaching 4. We can say that,
x2 −4
“The limit of f (x) = x−2 , as x approaches 2, is 4”.

• Using an arrow (→) for “approaches” and the shorthand (lim) for limit, the mathematical
notation is

x2 − 4
lim =4 (1)
x→2 x − 2

Simply, interprete this limit as follows: as x gets closer and closer to 2, from both sides of 2,
x2 −4
x−2 gets closer and closer to 4.

Definition 1.0.1. If f is a function, then we say that L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches a if
the value of f (x) gets arbitrarily close to L as x approaches a.
Mathematically,
lim f (x) = L (2)
x→a

• Limit concept is used to introduce instantaneous rate of change (rate of change at a particular
moment)

• The two branches of calculus, differential and integral calculus, depend on the limit concept.

3
1.1 Left-hand and Right-hand Limits
“the limit as x approaches a from the left side of a” is denoted by lim f (x) and is called the
x→a−
left-hand limit (LHL). Similarly,

“the limit as x approaches a from the right side of a” is denoted by lim f (x) and is called the
x→a+
right-hand limit (RHL).

For any function f , if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L, then lim f (x) = L.
x→a− x→a+ x→a
NOTE:

1. If the left-hand limit does not equal the right-hand limit, then we say that the limit does not
exist.

2. The existence of lim f (x) does not depend on whether f (a) is defined.
x→a

3. The existence of lim f (x) does not depend on the value of f (a) if f (a) is defined.
x→a

Fig. 1: (a) lim f (x) does not exist since lim f (x) 6= lim f (x). (b) lim f (x) exists even though
x→a x→a− x→a+ x→a
f (a) is undefined. (c) f (a) is defined, but does not equal lim f (x).
x→a

1.2 Theorems on Limits

If a, c and n are real numbers (or constants), then

1. lim c = c (the limit of a constant is that contant)

x→a

2. lim x = a
x→a

3. lim [c.f (x)] = c. lim f (x)]

x→a x→a

4. lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x)]

x→a x→a x→a

4
 5. lim [f (x).g(x)] = lim f (x). lim g(x)]
x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

6. lim = x→a provided that lim g(x) 6= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a

7. lim [f (x)]n = [ lim f (x)]n

x→a x→a

Substitution principle: When attempting to algebraically determine a limit, first try direct sub-
stitution. In other words, when attempting to find lim f (x), first try to compute f (a) (substitute
x→a
a for x)

Example 1.2.1. Determine the following limits:

p 5xh + 2h2
(a) lim 7 (b) lim (2x2 − 3x + 5) (c) lim (2x − 1) (d) lim
x→2 x→1 x→3 h→0 h
Solutions:

(a) Since 7 is a constant, we utilize Limit theorem 1 and have: lim 7 = 7

x→2

(b) Here, we simply substitute and get

lim (2x2 − 3x + 5) = 2(1)2 − 3(1) + 5 = 4

x→1

(c) Again, we simply substitute and have

p p √
lim (2x − 1) = (2(3) − 1) = 5
x→3

(d) Notice that there are two variables here (x, h). However, as h → 0, x acts as a constant.
Therefore
5xh + 2h2 h(5x + 2h)
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (5x + 2h)
h→0
= 5x

NOTE: When substitution produces a fraction of the form 00 , called the indeterminate form,
then we have to use other techniques to determine the limit. This may involve simplifying the given
function before applying the limit.
 2 
x −1
Example 1.2.2. Determine lim .
x→1 x−1

5
Solution: We try substitution, which gives

x2 − 1 (1)2 − 1 0
lim = = .
x→1 x − 1 1−1 0
0
Since we have the indeterminate form 0, we try a little algebra. We factor the numerator and
cancel as follows:
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
lim = lim Factor
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1
= lim (x + 1). (cancel, provided that x 6= 1)
x→1
=1+1=2 (substitution principle)

Exercise 1. Determine the indicated limit algebraically

(1). lim (3x + 1) (2). lim (−2x2 + 50x) (3). lim (x2 + 9) (4). lim (x2 − 8x + 15)
x→−2 x→2 x→−4 x→3

√
x2 − 9 x+1 x−2
(5). lim (6). lim 2 (7). lim
x→3 x − 3 x→−1 x − 1 x→4 x−4

x2 − x − 6 x−3 x2 + 5x + 6
(8). lim (9). lim (x+1)2 .(3x−1)3 (10). lim 2
(11). lim
x→3 x−3 x→2 x→3 x − x − 6 x→−2 x+2
(12). lim (−2x2 + 50x) (13). lim (x2 + 9) (14). lim (x2 − 8x + 15)
x→2 x→−4 x→3

4x2 h − 2h2 4x3 h2 + 3xh3 + 5h4

(15). lim (2x + h) (16). lim (17). lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h

Example 1.2.3. Estimate lim f (x) for

x→2
(
1−x :x≤2
f (x) =
4 :x>2

Solution: From Table 2 below, we conclude that lim f (x) = −1 whereas lim f (x) = 4
x→2− x→2+

Table 2

x → 2− x → 2+
x 1 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1 3
f (x) 0 -0.9 -0.99 -0.999 4 4 4 4

Since the left-hand limit does not equal the right-hand limit, we conclude that lim f (x) does not
x→2
exist. Graphically, this corresponds to a jump in the graph.

6
 Fig. 2: Limit does not exist at x=2

Exercise 2. For each of the following functions, determine

(a) f (x + h)
f (x + h) − f (x)
(b) lim
h→0 h
1
(1). f (x) = 2x + 3 (2). f (x) = x2 − 1 (3). f (x) = x2 − 2x + 3 (4). f (x) = x

√
(5). f (x) = x (6). f (x) = |x|

1.3 Limits of Absolute value functions

Limits involving absolute values often involve breaking things into cases. Remember that
(
f (x) if f (x) ≥ 0
|f (x)| =
−f (x) if f (x) < 0
By studying these cases separately, we can often get a good picture of what a function is doing just
to the left of x = a, and just to the right of x = a. By combining these, we can understand the
limit as x → a.

Example 1.3.1. Find the limits of the following absolute value functions
x
(a) lim
x→0 |x|
x
Solution: Here, f (x) = |x| and
(
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if < 0

7
 The function f (x) can therefore be rewritten into:
(
x
x if x ≥ 0
f (x) = x
−x if < 0

For the right-hand limit (RHL), we have

x
lim f (x) = lim = lim (1) = 1
x→0+ x→0+ x x→0+

Similarly, the left-hand limit (LHL) is given by

 
x
lim f (x) = lim = lim (−1) = −1
x→0− x→0− −x x→0−

x
Since the LHL 6= RHL, we conclude that lim does not exist.
x→0 |x|
(b) lim (2x + |x − 3|)
x→3
Solution: Here, f (x) = 2x + |x − 3| and
(
(x − 3) for (x − 3) ≥ 0 or x ≥ 3
|x − 3| =
−(x − 3) for (x − 3) < 0 or x < 3

Therefore f (x) can be rewritten as

(
2x + (x − 3) for x ≥ 3
f (x) =
2x − (x − 3) for x < 3

RHL:
lim f (x) = lim 2x + (x − 3) = lim (3x − 3) = 3(3) − 3 = 6
x→3+ x→3+ x→3+

LHL:
lim f (x) = lim 2x − (x − 3) = lim (x + 3) = 3 + 3 = 6
x→3− x→3− x→3−

Since the RHL = LHL=6, lim 2x + |x − 3| = 6.

x→3

x2 + 3x − 10
 
(c) lim
x→2 |x − 2|
x2 +3x−10
Solution: Here, f (x) = |x−2| and
(
(x − 2) for (x − 2) ≥ 0 or x ≥ 2
|x − 2| =
−(x − 2) for (x − 2) < 0 or x < 2

Thus,

8
 x2 +3x−10
(
x−2 for x ≥ 2
f (x) = x2 +3x−10
−(x−2) for x < 2

The right and left hand limits are hence given as follows:
RHL:
x2 + 3x − 10
 
(x − 2)(x + 5)
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 5) = 2 + 5 = 7
x→2+ x→2+ x−2 x→2+ x−2 x→2+

LHL:
x2 + 3x − 10
 
(x − 2)(x + 5)
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim −(x + 5) = −(2 + 5) = −7
x→2− x→2− −(x − 2) x→2− −(x − 2) x→2−

x2 + 3x − 10
 
Since the LHL 6= RHL, we conclude that lim does not exist.
x→2 |x − 2|

Exercise 3. Evaluate the following limits

x+1 |x + 2| x2 −(x + 6)
(i). lim (ii). lim (iii). lim (iv). lim
x→−1 |x + 1| x→−2 x + 2 x→0 |x| x→−6− |x + 6|

x2 − x − 6 x2 − 5x + 4
(v). lim (vi). lim
x→3 |x − 3| x→3 |x − 3|

Solutions: (i) limit does not exist. (ii) limit does not exist. (iii) 0. (iv) 1. (v) -1 (vi) -∞

1.4 Infinite Limits

1
Consider f (x) = x1 . Numerically and graphically estimate lim .
x→0 x
Solution:

Table 3

x → 0− x → 0+
x -1 -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
f (x) -1 -10 -100 -1000 1000 100 10 1

9
 Fig. 3: Infinite Limits

1
Notice that as x → 0+ , is positive and appears to increase without bound. This ”increase without
x
1
bound” behaviour is represented by lim = ∞. Likewise, as x → 0− , x1 is negative and appears
x→0+ x
1
to be decreasing without bound. This behaviour is written as lim = −∞.
x→0− x
1 1 1
Since both Table 3 and Graph 1, suggest that lim 6= lim , we conclude that lim does not
x→0− x x→0+ x x→0 x
exist.
1 1
NOTE: Technically speaking, in neither case does the limit, lim nor lim , exists, since ∞
x→0− x x→0 x
+
and −∞ are not real numbers, they are merely concepts.

Consider f (x) = x12 . Use the table below to determine the following:
1 1 1
(a) lim 2 (b) lim 2 (c) lim 2
x→0 x
− x→0 x
+ x→0 x

Table 4

x → 0− x → 0+
x -1 -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
f (x) 1 100 10000 1000000 1000000 10000 100 1

10
 Fig. 4: Infinite Limits

Solution:

(a) Both Table 4 and Figure 4, suggest that, as x → 0− , 1

x2
increases without bound. That is,
1
lim 2 = ∞.
x→0 x
−

1 1
(b) Similarly, as x → 0+ , x2
increases without bound. That is, lim = ∞.
x→0+ x2
(b) From our knowledge of left-hand and right-hand limits, the results from parts (a) and (b)
1
suggests that lim 2 = ∞.
x→0 x
It is important to observe that none of these limits really exists, since −∞ and ∞ are not
real numbers. We use the symbols −∞ and ∞ to describe the behaviour of the function near
x = 0.

1.5 Infinite limits and vertical asymptotes

The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f if at least one of the following holds:

1. lim f (x) = ±∞
x→a−

2. lim f (x) = ±∞
x→a+

3. lim f (x) = ±∞
x→a

NOTE: If both the left-hand and the right-hand limits exhibit the same behaviour, we say that
lim f (x) = ∞(or − ∞).
x→a

1
Example 1.5.1. Consider the function f (x) = x−1 . The lim f (x) = −∞. Similarly, lim f (x) =
x→1− x→1+
+∞

11
 Fig. 5: vertical asymptote, at x = 1

x2 −9x+14
Exercise 4. Find the vertical asymptotes of f (x) = x2 −5x+6
. [ Solution: x = 3].

1.6 Special Limits at Infinity

1
Definition 1.6.1. For n, a positive real number, lim = 0, provided that xn is a real number
x→±∞ xn
for all values of x.

1.7 Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes

If f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to a specific value L by making x sufficiently large, we write
lim f (x) = L and we say, the limit at infinity of f (x) is L.
x→∞

If f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to a specific value L by making x sufficiently large and negative,
we write lim f (x) = L, and we say, the limit at negative infinity of f (x) is L.
x→−∞

For any function f , if lim f (x) = L, then the line y = L is a horizontal asymptote.
x→±∞

x2 +1
Example 1.7.1. For f (x) = 2x2 −1
, determine lim f (x) and lim f (x) algebraically and deter-
x→∞ x→−∞
mine the horizontal asymptote for the graph of f .
Solution: Since we have a rational function, the algebra manipulation is generally performed as
follows:

12
Divide every term in the numerator and denominator by xb , where b is the larger degree of the
numerator and the denominator.

In this problem, since both degrees are 2, we have b = 2. Next, we divide every term in the
numerator and denominator by x2 . This gives

x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)/x2
f (x) = =
2x2 − 1 (2x2 − 1)/x2
x2
x2
+ x12 1+ 1
x2
= 2x 2 = 1
x2
− x12 2− x2

So, to determine the limit algebraically, we have

1
x2 + 1 1+ 1 lim (1 +
)
lim = lim = x→∞
x2 x2
2
x→∞ 2x − 1 x→∞ 2 − 1 1
x2lim (2 − 2 )
x→∞ x
1
lim 1 + lim 1+0 1
x→∞ x
= x→∞ = =
1 2−0 2
lim 2 − lim 2
x→∞ x→∞ x

We conclude that the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 12 .

6x−9
Example 1.7.2. Find the horizontal asymptotes of f (x) = x−1

Solution: Graphically, we have

Fig. 6: horizontal asymptote, at y = 6

13
And the horizontal asymptote is y = 6.

Algebraically, we have

 
9
  6x−9
! lim 6 −
6x − 9 x x→∞ x
lim = lim x−1 =  
x→∞ x−1 x→∞ 1
x lim 1 −
x→∞ x
9
lim 6 − lim 6−0
x→∞ x
= x→∞ = =6
1 1−0
lim 1 − lim
x→∞ x→∞ x

And the horizontal asymptote is y = 6.

Exercise 5. Determine the indicated limit algebraically. If the limit exists, state the horizontal
asymptote for the graph f (x).

2x + 5 2x + 5 3x2 − x + 2 3x2 − x + 2
(1). lim (2). lim (3). lim (4). lim
x→−∞ x − 1 x→∞ x − 1 x→∞ 2x2 + x − 5 x→−∞ 2x2 + x − 5

2x2 + 2x + 1 3x2 − 2x + 5 2x2 + 2x + 1

(5). lim (6). lim (7). lim
x→∞ 5x3 + 3x − 5 x→∞ 2x3 + x2 − 2x + 3 x→−∞ 5x3 + 3x − 5
2
3x − 2x + 5
(8). lim
x→−∞ 2x3 + x2 − 2x + 3

APPLICATIONS

1. The number of dollars spent on advertising for a product influences the number of items of
the product that will be purchased by consumers. If x is the number of dollars spent, in
thousands, then N (x), in thousands, is the number of items sold, as given by the function
520
N (x) = 2000 −
x
(a) Graph N in the viewing window [0,20] by [0,2500].
(b) Determine N (10) and interprete.
(c) Determine lim N (x) and interpret.
x→10
(d) Determine lim N (x) and interpret.
x→∞

Solution:

14
 Fig. 7

(a)
(b) N (10) = 2000 − 520
10 = 1948; When $10000 is spent on advertising, 194,800 items are
sold.  
520
(c) lim N (x) = lim 2000 − = 1948; As the level of advertising expenditures ap-
x→10 x→10 x
proaches $ 10000, the number of items sold approaches 194,800.
 
520
(d) lim N (x) = lim 2000 − = 2000; As the amount of money spent on advertising
x→∞ x→∞ x
grows without bound, the number of items sold approaches 2000000.

2. The cost of producing x units of a product is given by C(x) = 22500 + 7.35x. The average
cost, AC, is given by
C(x) 22500 + 7.35x
AC(x) = =
x x
(a) Graph AC in the viewing window [0,25] by [0,20000].
(b) Determine AC(10) and interprete.
(c) Determine lim AC(x) and interpret.
x→10

Solution:

15
 Fig. 8

(a)
(b) AC(10) = 22500+7.35(10)
10 = 2257.35; The average cost of producing 10 units of a product
is 2257.35 units.  
22500 + 7.35x
(c) lim AC(x) = lim = 2257.35; As the level of production approaches
x→10 x→10 x
10 units, the average cost approaches 2257.35 units.

3. The cost, C(x), in thousands of dollars of removing x% of a city’s pollutants discharged into
a lake is given by

113x
C(x) =
100 − x

(a) Determine the reasonable domain for C and graph

(b) Evaluate C(50) and interprete.
(c) Determine lim C(x) and interprete.
x→100−

Solution

(a) Since our independent variable, x, represents a percentage, the reasonable domain for C
is [0,100]. A graph of C is given as follows

16
 Fig. 9

(b) C(50) = 113(50)

100−50 = 113. This means that it will cost the city $113000 to remove 50% of
the pollutants being discharged into the lake.
(c) Figure 5 suggests that lim C(x) = ∞. This means that as the city tries to remove
x→100−
all the pollutants (100%) the cost to do so is ”increasing without bound”.

** End of Topic One **

17
2 Continuity of functions
Definition 2.0.1. A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a if the following three
conditions hold:

(i) f (a) is defined;

(ii) lim f (x) exists;

x→a

(iii) lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Simply: A function is said to be continuous if its graph has no breaks in it such as holes, gaps
or jumps. If the graph of a function has a hole, gap or jump at x = a, we say that the function is
discontinuous at x = a.
x2 −4
Example 2.0.1. Determine the continuity of f (x) = x−2 at (a) x = 1 and (b) x = 2.

Solution:

(a) At x = 1
According to the definition 2.0.1, three items must be true for continuity to exist.
12 −4
(i) Is f (1) defined? Yes; f (1) = 1−2 =3
x2 − 4
(ii) Does lim exist? Yes; The substitution principle shows that
x→1 x − 2

x2 − 4 (1)2 − 4
lim = =3
x→1 x − 2 1−2
x2 − 4
(iii) Does lim = g(1)? Yes; 3=3.
x→1 x − 2
2 −4
So we conclude that f (x) = xx−2 is continuous at x = 1.

(b) At x = 2
x2 −4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
f (x) = x−2 is discontinuous at 2 because f (2) is not defined. However, lim f (x) = lim =
x→2 x→2 x−2
lim (x + 2) = 4 so that condition (ii) holds.
x→2

• The discontinuity at x = 2 is said to be removable. This is because, we can extend the

function f by defining its value at x = 2 to be 4, so that the extended function would
be continuous at x = 2.
• We therefore fix removable discontinuity at x = 2 by redefining the original function in
piecewise form as follows:
(
x2 −4
x−2 if x 6= 2
f (x) =
4 if x = 2

so that it becomes continuous at x = 2.

18
 • Removable discontinuities are characterized by the fact that the limit exists.
1
Example 2.0.2. Determine the continuity of f (x) = x−2 at x = 2.
1
Solution: f (x) = x−2 is discontinuous at x = 2 because f (2) is not defined and also
because lim f (x) does not exist (since lim f (x) = ∞). See figure 10 below.
x→2 x→2

Fig. 10

• Since the limit does not exist, the discontinuity at x = 2 is said to be non-removable.
1
Redefining the value of f at 2 cannot change the fact that lim does not exist.
x→2 x − 2
• Non-removable discontinuities may further be classified into: jump, infinite, endpoint
and mixed discontinuity. They are characterized by the fact that the limit does not
exist.

Example 2.0.3. Define a function f (x) as follows

x2 if

x 6= 2
f (x) =
0 if x=2

Here, lim f (x) = 4, but f (2) = 0. Hence, condition (iii) fails, so that f has a discontinuity
x→2
at 2. But if we change the value of f at 2 to be 4, then we obtain a function h such that
h(x) = x2 for all x, and h is continuous at 2. Thus, the discontinuity of f at x = 2 is
removable.

x2 if x 6= 2

h(x) =
4 if x = 2

Example 2.0.4. Let f be a function such that f (x) = |x|x for all x 6= 0. The graph of f is
shown in Figure 11. f is discontinuous at x = 0 because f (0) is not defined.

Moreover,

x −x
lim f (x) = lim =1 and lim f (x) = lim = −1 (3)
x→0+ x→0+ x x→0− x→0− x

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 Thus, lim f (x) 6= lim f (x). Hence, the discontinuity of f at x = 0 is non-removable.
x→0− x→0+

Fig. 11

The kind of discontinuity is called a jump discontinuity. In general, a function f (x) has a
jump discontinuity at x0 if lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist and lim f (x) 6= lim f (x).
x→x−
0 x→x+
0 x→x−
0 x→x+
0
Such a discontinuity is not removable.

2.1 Theorems of Continuity

Assume that f and g are continuous at x = a. Then:

(i) The constant function h(x) = c for all x is continuous at every a.

(ii) cf is continuous at a, for any constant c.

(iii) f ± g is continuous at a.

(iv) f g is continuous at a.

(v) f /g is continuous at a if g(x) 6= 0.

√ p
(vi) n f is continuous at a if n f (a) is defined.

2.2 Continuity for specific functions

1. A polynomial function is continuous for all real x

2. A rational function is continuous for all real x except those values of x for which the denom-
inator is 0.

3. An exponential function is continuous for all real x

4. The natural logarithmic function is continuous for all real x in its domain.

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 5. A radical function, or rational exponent function, is continuous for all real x in its domain.

Example 2.2.1. Determine the intervals where the following functions are continuous
2x+1
√
(a) f (x) = (x−1)(2x+1) (b) g(x) = (1.21)x (c) h(x) = x−7

Solution:

(a) Since this is a rational function, we conclude that it is continuous everywhere except at x = 1
1
and at x =
1

− 2 , 1the
values of x that make the denominator 0. The function is continuous on
−∞, − 2 ∪ − 2 , 1 ∪ (1, ∞).

(b) Since this is an exponential function, it is continuous for all reals.

(c) The domain of this radical function is [7, ∞), so we conclude that the function is continuous
on [7, ∞).

Fig. 12

Exercise 6. Determine the continuity of the given functions at the indicated point.

(i) g(x) = 3x − 2, x = −2
x+1
(ii) f (x) = x−3 , x=3
x2 −25
(iii) h(x) = x−5 , x=0

x − 3, x≤0
(iv) h(x) =
x2 + x − 3, x > 0, at x = 0

x + 2, x≤1
(v) f (x) =
x2 + 3, x > 1, at x = 1

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2.3 Practice Exercise
1. Find the discontinuities of the following functions. Determine whether they are removable.
If not removable, determine whether they are jump discontinuities.
2
(a) f (x) = x

Solution: Clearly, the function f is discontinuous at x = 0. This is because f (0) is undefined.

Secondly, the lim f (x) = −∞ and lim f (x) = ∞. Since the limits do not exist, the
x→0− x→0+
discontinuity at x = 0 is Nonremovable.
In summary, f (x) has a non-removable discontinuity at x = 0.
3
x −27
2. f (x) = (x 2 −9) .

Solution: From the denominator (x2 − 9) = (x − 3)(x + 3), the function f has discontinuities
x2 + 3x + 9
at x = 3 and x = −3. Both f (3) and f (−3) are undefined. For x = 3, lim = 27/6
x→3 x+3
(limit exists). Hence, f (x) has a removable discontinuity at x = 3. For x = −3, lim f (x)
x→−3
does not exist. Hence, f (x) has a nonremovable discontinuity at x = −3.
Summary: f (x) has a removable discontinuity at x = 3 and a nonremovable discontinuity at
x = −3.

3. 
0 if x=0
f (x) =
2 if x 6= 0
Solution: Removable discontinuity at x = 0.

4. 
 x if x ≤ 0
f (x) = x 2 if 0 < x < 1
2−x if x ≥ 1.


Solution: No discontinuities.
x−1
5. f (x) = (x+3)(x−2) . Solution: Nonremovable discontinuity at x = −3 and x = 2.

6. f (x) = 3x3 − 7x2 + 4x − 2. Solution: A polynomial has no discontinuities.

2.4 Practice Exercise

Determine the discontinuities of the following functions and state why the function fails to be
continuous at those points. Check your answers by graphing the functions.

2 x + 3 if x ≤ 2
(a) f (x) = x −3x−10 (b) f (x) =
x+2 x2 + 1 if x < 2

 4−x if x < 3
(c) f (x) = |x| − x (d) f (x) = x − 2 if 0 < x < 3
x−1 if x ≤ 0


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 x4 −1 x3 +x2 −17x+15
(e) f (x) = x2 −1
(f) f (x) = x2 +2x−15
(g) f (x) = x3 − 7x
x2 −4 x2 +3x+2 x−2
(h) f (x) = x2 −5x+6
(i) f (x) = x2 +4x+3
(j) f (x) = x2 −4

Solutions
(a) Removable discontinuity at x = 2. (Note that x2 − 3x − 10 = (x + 2)(x − 5).)
(b) , (c), (g): None (No discontinuities)
(d) Jump discontinuity at x = 0.
(e) Removable discontinuities at x = ±1.
(f) Removable discontinuities at x = 3, x = −5.
(h) Removable discontinuity at x = 2 and nonremovable discontinuity at x = 3.
(i) Removable discontinuity at x = −1 and nonremovable discontinuity at x = −3.
(j) Removable discontinuity at x = 2 and nonremovable discontinuity at x = −2.

2.5 Graphing piecewise functions

Sketch the graphs of the following piecewise functions.
 
x if x < 0 2 if x < 1
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) =
5 if x ≥ 0 x + 3 if x > 2
1
  
 2x + 1 if x < 1  3x + 4 if x < 0  x if x < 0
(c) f (x) = 1 if x = 1 (d) f (x) = 2 if x = 0 (e) f (x) = 3 if 0≤x<3
 √
−x2 if x > 1 x if x > 1 −x + 5 if x ≥ 3
 

Exercise 7. Sketch the graphs of the following functions and determine whether they are continuous
on the closed interval [0, 1].

 −1 if x < 0  1
(a) f (x) = 0 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (b) f (x) = x if x > 0
1 if x ≤ 0
1 if x > 1


 2  x if x ≤ 0
−x if x ≤ 0
(c) f (x) = (d) f (x) = 0 if 0 <x<1
x2 if x > 0
x if x ≥ 1


(e) f (x) = 1 if 0 < x ≤ 1

Solutions
(a) Yes. (b) No. Not continuous on the right at 0. (c) Yes. (d) No. Not defined at 0.
(e) No. Not continuous on the left at 1.

** End of Topic two **

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