THE LANGUAGE OF SETS

By
HAROLD FLETCHER

“ gET S” is a word that is spreading all over the two ways of describing a set—we can either list
world and the question always arises “to what the members or we can give a description of them.
end ? ”So let me make it clear that the language of
sets is purely a language; it is a way of presenting Here are some examples of sets and we always
mathematics in which we can see a common denote our sets by these braces:— { }
language in the explanations that we give. It does A {John, honesty, 5, cabbage}
not mean that you are going to change any of B {46, 48, 50}
the ways in- which you teach your concepts, but C {Red, Blue, Yellow}
that you will use the language of sets in order to D {All whole numbers > 17}
clarify and simplify your work in arithmetic,
algebra and geometry. You will still teach calculus A is a set; the members are John, honesty, 5
the same way; you will teach the other things the and cabbage, but we cannot find any description
same way, but you will probably discuss it and for it.
present it in the manner of sets if you feel that it Set B is the set of even numbers between 45
is appiopriate for what you want to do. and 51.
Also, it not only simplifies, but brings certain When we come to set G, it is the set—red, blue,
of the concepts into sharper focus than perhaps yellow. There we have listed them; if we want
the old system did. But do not run away with the to describe them, they will be the primary colours.
idea that here is something new, that the end
product is going to be something entirely different. Set D is the set of all whole numbers greater
than 17; there we have given a description. Can
What is a set? A set is a collection of things, we list them? You can try but it is going to take
ideas, movements that you can define; it is made a long time because the whole numbers that are
up of a selection of members, and each member greater than 17 are an infinite series. Therefore,
of the set is easily definable. All through your the description will be far better than the listing.
teaching career, you have been teaching this; So here we have the idea of how, when we are
you have been teaching the set of prime numbers, looking at sets, we either list them or we define
the set of even numbers, the set of odd numbers, them.
the set of square numbers; whenever you have
been looking at a collection of these things, you I would like to give you a few definitions before
have actually been dealing with sets. It was I put them into practice.
Georg Cantor of course who brought this to light Equal sets are sets that have the same elements
when he was thinking about sets of points in the though not necessarily in the same order. For
circumference of a circle. Everything is made up example, Set A could be {10, — 7, 4} and set B
of different sets. Some of these have a particular can be {4, 10, — 7}. They have the same members,
description and a particular name. Even in the same number of members and therefore they
English you have heard of a gaggle of geese— are equal. Another example is set A which is
gaggle is a name for a set. What we called collective {l2, 22, 32, 42} and set B which is {yd, y/256,
nouns were actually sets. Anything that we can r/16, -v/81}. It is interesting that those two sets
well define, where we can define each member, are equal; in set B \/256 is 16, and I have got 42
can be called a set. The jive is a collection of in set A. When we have sets which have the same
movements in a dance—that too is a set. We have elements, though not necessarily in the same order,
also the idea of triangles as a set of figures with we say they are equal.
certain characteristic properties; this is a set.
Some of them have special names and some of The biggest set is the universal set. For example,
the sets have no special name; the last four all the ladies in this room is one particular set
houses in the street is a collection, but has no and all the gentlemen in this room is another set;
particular name. The objects that are in your this implies we have got two sets. There must be
pockets at the moment, figures half of whose another set in which they are all involved and that
perimeter is curved—these are things to which no is what we call the universal set. In mathematics
name is given, but they are still sets. There are it is always the universal set that is of piime

66 SY M POSIUM 1965
importance, because when we are doing graphical of that set or is a sub-set of that set. All the ladies
work we have to consider whether we are using in this room now are a sub-set of all the people
the universal set of natural numbers, the universal who are present. All the men are a sub-set. If I
set of rational numbers or the universal set of ask you how many different hands of five you can
real numbers. This universal set must always be select from a pack of 52 cards, you are looking
given if you are going to do any particular work for the sub-sets of five members out of the set
in the graphical line. of 52. You will be amazed at how many different
The universal set is represented by Q or the hands you can get. We can of course list the sub­
letter U. May I give you an example? Take, for sets. For example I can take the set {1, 2, 3}
instance, all the children in your school—that as the universal set and I want to know how many
would be a universal set. Divide them into two sub-sets I can get out of that. The set itself is its
categories—the ones who wear spectacles and the own sub-set; that is the first one. The rest but one
ones who do not. Those who wear glasses would that I am going to do at the end are called “proper
be set A; all the others (those who do not wear sub-sets”. This is not called a proper sub-set
glasses) are known as the complement and are but it is a sub-set; you can be a sub-set of yourself.
classed as A'. Therefore, A + A' make up the Next I have got {1} as a sub-set {2} as a sub-set
whole of the universal set. We can represent it thus: {3} as a sub-set. The next sub-set is (1, 2} then
(1, 3} then {2, 3}. Lastly we have got satisfying
this condition the set with no members, the
empty set { }.

Now how many sub-sets have we got out of

there? 8 sub-sets. We have 3 members in our
universal set and we have 23 sub-sets. If we had
had 4 members in the universal set, we should
have had 24 and so the answer is that in all our
sets, we can get 2” sub-sets out of them. If you
ever ask your children to write down the sub-sets
of some particular thing, you have not got to
work out the answer; you have only to say 2 to
the power of however many elements are contained
and that is the answer; so if they have not found
that number, you tell them to go on working and
looking for the others.
We can, of course, have sets that have nothing
to do with each other; there is nothing actually
in common between them. Here is set A (1, 2, 3} So we have the idea of universal sets, of disjoint
and here is set B {4, 5, 6}. These are two sets which or empty sets, we have the idea of sub-sets and
have nothing in common and nothing to do with now we have probably the greatest idea of all,
each other and they are known as disjoint sets. the idea of equivalent sets. Two sets are equivalent
An empty set is a set that does not satisfy the when we have a one-to-one correspondence of one
conditions at all. An example is the set of two- set to the other. In other words, any set is
digit even primes. The answer is that there are equivalent to a multitude of other sets. This is
none—the set is empty. “All in front of me now an important point that I am sure that all those
who have played for England in the Cup Final” who deal with infants will have appreciated.
is an empty set. Here is a set, I will call it +> -f-}. Now that is
equivalent to a multitude of sets. I could have
So we have equal sets, universal sets, empty put in the equivalent set of three traffic light
sets and disjoint sets. signals, or I could have put the primary colours,
or I could have put solid, liquid and gas or I
Suppose I name {1, 2, 3, 4} as set A; each could have put P, Q,, R. I could have put a
element or member is a member of the set and we multitude of things there and if they are all
say that 2 is a member of set A or 4 is a member matched in one-to-one correspondence, then they
of set A. We write this as follows:— are equivalent.
2 e A :4 6 A
But it is interesting that in this set are also Here then is the basis of cardinal number, that
contained other sets or “subsets”; if I said that if we have got this set (and of course, this is done
set B is 2 and 3, you can see that set B is part with children, only they use concrete objects)—

SYM POSIUM 1965 67

 Here we have the commutative law coming out
in the matter of sets. This kind of work is regularly
done in schools. Take for example all the boys
in the football team and all those in the cricket
team. We have 11 in the football team and we
have 11 in the cricket team, but it does not follow
that there are 22 altogether because there may be
some who are in both the football team and the
cricket team. This is the kind of thing that is done
in the infant school.
The most important point about this set
language is that number through set language can
have its greatest force in the infant school.
Taking this a step further, let us look at the
numbers 6, 9 and 15. We are going to split them
up into their prime factors. The prime factors
of 6 will be the set A, which will be 2 and 3.
Similarly, the prime factors of 9 will be the set B,
which will be 3 and 3 and the prime factors of
15 will be the set C, which will be 3 and 5.
Diagramatically, we can present this as follows:—
which we have said by a one-to-one corres-
dence has a shorthand sign of “6”, then any other
set that can be matched in a one-to-one corres­
pondence with this will take this sign—6. When
we talk about bringing up children with the idea
of fiveness and fourness and threeness, all we are
doing is matching sets in a one-to-one corres­
pondence and where they completely match and
none remain extra, they are identical or
equivalent. If this is so, then we have the definition
of cardinal number—the cardinal number is a
class of equivalent sets, such that all sets that are
equivalent will be given the same cardinal number.
Let us now proceed to the operation of sets.
The first operation and probably the most
important is the intersection of sets.

From this diagram, I am sure you will see that A

intersected with B and then intersected with C
is the same as A intersected with B with C. In
other words, we have got the associative law
coming out in this. What do you think is going
to go in the very centre of the diagram? In that
section there is the intersection of set A, set B
and set G. What have we there? We have got
a 3 in sets A, B and G. What then have I got
left? In set B I have a 3 left. In set C I have a 5,
and in set A a 2. If we multiply those together,
We have one set A here and we have intersected we shall have the LCM, 90.
it with set B. We write this: A f| B, and it is very
evident that the intersection of A and B is the Now let us look for the HCF of 6, 9 and 15.
shaded part in the diagram. It is easy to see Have we anything now that we can put into the
that A intersected with B is the same as B inter­ middle. We have the 3. Now in set A, we have
sected with A and we write this A f| B = B f] A. the 2 and 3; in set B, the 3 and another 3 and in

68 SY M POSIUM 1965
set C we have the 3 and a 5. Thus here we have sets of people. Now let us have a look at the Coca
the HCF of 3. From that intersection, which is Cola people. 26 are already in, 64 drank it
the same thing, we can work out HGF’s and altogether and so we can say 38 drank Coca Cola
things like that. only. Now when we come to the orangeade, we
have got 26 already in and 71 drank orangeade,
We can do exactly the same with algebra if so according to that, there were 45 people who
we wish. Here is an illustration drank orangeade only. Let us now arrange these
x2y = K , x2, y i} facts on a Venn diagram:—
xy2 = K, j>u y 2} CO CA-COLA ORANGEADE
xy = {Xl, y i \
Here we put our three given algebraic expres­
sions into the form of sets. Let us now try, as
before, to put these three sets into one of our
diagrams, which are called “Venn Diagrams” :—

Now if you add them all up together, how many

have we got? 109. Then there are 109 in all
those, but how many people were interviewed?
114. So 5 of them did not drink either. Thus we
have analysed the information given to us and
we have come to the conclusion that 5 of them
did not drink either.
I have said previously that it is no good thinking
about equals unless we are going to think about
“greater than” and “less than” . Perhaps one of
the most recent innovations is that children are
dealing with inequalities. This equation for
example:

( a + 1)(« - 3 ) > 0
By doing an analysis similar to the previous one,
we find that the HCF is xy, and the LGM x2y 2. can be solved by the intersection of sets. “The
So this kind of intersection is a very powerful product of (a + 1) and (a — 3) is greater than
way to bring out such things as LCM and HCF. nought.” The mathematical point about this is
that “is greater than nought”, because if die
These diagrams also bring out other kinds of product of two things is greater than nought,
information. Remember a Venn diagram is not then they must either both be positive or they
anything mathematical, but is something that must both be negative because the product of two
tries to make the development and the ensuing positives is a positive and the product of two
mathematical thought clearer. negatives is a positive, (a + 1) is greater than
nought and (a — 3) is greater than nought, so we
Let us take another example. 114 people were have got our two positives; or (a + 1) is less
interviewed. They were asked whether they drank than nought and (a — 3) is less than nought,
Coca Cola or orangeade. 64 drank Coca Cola out so we have got our two negatives. Now let us
of the 114 that were interviewed. 71 drank solve these. To make them positive, a must be
orangeade and 26 drank both. Now let us see greater than — 1 in the first bracket and a must
what information we can get out of this. First of be greater than 3 in the second bracket. To make
all we have the people who drank Coca Cola, the two brackets negative, a must be less than
then we have the people who drank orangeade. —1 and less than +3. N ow ifi put these facts on
26 drank both. It is evident that the 26 who drank our number line, this is how we shall represent
both are in effect the intersection of those two the facts we have just deduced:—-

SY M PO SIU M 1965 69
 in both A and in B. There is only one, 3, and so
a -- '-I---2--- !--- i--- 1-- i the intersection of them is the set {3}. We write
this again, A f| B = {3}.
!
It is considered that it is the language that is the
©-------------------------- ---------------- (-
1 I vital thing in sets. May I stress again that, as I
1 I
see it, it is not that you have got to go and teach
®- things any differently, it is that you may use
1 I this kind of language to join and bind them up,
I I
I I although there may be some people who will
_J--------------------------- -------------------------- ft) now teach LCM and HCF on Venn diagrams.
i i I also said that it was useful for making definitions
From the number line above, we see that the clearer. For example, I think the definition of
solution to this problem which we have based on cardinal number is clearer on this particular
intersection is that a is greater than 3 or a is less thing and we might have a look at this—-
than — 1. We are therefore using for this exactly (* + 2)* = x (* + 10) - 6(* - f)
the same idea of intersection that we used with
our LCM and our HCF. Here again I suggest There is an open sentence for which we are
that on the language that we are using we can looking for the truth set. If I develop this, it
get quite a lot of what we would call common becomes—
concepts, coming over in exactly the same way.
x2 + 4x + 4 = x2 + 10* — 6x + 4
The next point is the union of sets. We have seen
above that sets are intersected when there are or
common elements to both. The definition of union 0 = 0
of sets is that the union between A and B occurs
when we have in the set the elements which are We shall agree that the left-hand side above and
common to A or common to B or both. the right-hand side above seem to us to be alike.
In other words, we could say that, for any value
I like to place on x, the left-hand side and the
right-hand side above will agree. When this
happens, this is called an identity. So what is an
identity ? An identity is a statement that can
select the whole of the universal set of numbers.
It defines it carefully, skilfully and accurately and
if you have got an identity, it does not matter
which particular kind of any number you select
out of any universe at all, you will make the
statement true.
As another example, let us take—
(* + 5)2 = x(x + 10) + 26
This becomes:
For example, the shaded part in the above x2 + 10* + 25 = x2 + 10* + 26
sketch is the union of sets A and B. You can see
again that it is the same as B united with A. i.e. 0 = 1
Here is the intersection sign, n , which in some
books is called “cap” and here is the union sign, This, of course, is absurd. You cannot take any
U, which in some books is known as “cup”. number that will make this second statement true
If I wanted to illustrate the union of sets, I would and therefore that is the nul set.
probably do it in this way.
In an identity, we use the universal set and in
Set A {1, 2, 3} and set B {3, 4, 5}. The union the second example, we are using the nul set.
of set A with set B is the elements that are common In between comes what you know as the equation.
to A or common to B or both, which are An equation is a statement where we imply that
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, so that would be the union of A and B. the solution set that we are after is neither the
We write this: A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The universal set nor empty. It is possible that if you
intersection of A and B is the elements which are use this language as we have used it here then the

70 SY M PO SIU M 1965
child will be able to see quite clearly the difference
between an identity and an equation. There may real numbers, then I would have had as my graph
be many who say “Well we shall not be teaching the entire plane. This is the difference between
this kind of stuff up to this standard.” My answer making a universal set a set of those nine numbers,
is that the people in the secondary schools should as against making the universal set the set of all
know what is going on in the infant schools and real numbers. The important point in all this
that the infant teachers also should know what work is “What is your universal set?” When we
is going on in other parts of the school. I do not only have a few points, we set up a lattice; when
know where primary mathematics ends and it is a question of all real numbers, it is then that
secondary starts. This particular language of sets we have a plane.
is offered in order that we may be able to clarify If I were to take the equation y — x, then this
things throughout. has selected all the ordered pairs that satisfy that
When we come to consider ordered pairs, here relationship. But it has done something that I
I think sets give us rather a good description. think is even more interesting, for if we graph
Why are they called ordered? If I were to take it, we see that it has divided the plane into three
the numbers 1 and 3, then the pair (1, 3) is not parts. It has firstly a part which satisfies the
the same as the pair (3, 1). The order is the
important thing, you see. In our Cartesian work,
we put the value of x first and the value of y
second and so we write our ordered pairs like this:
(2, 3) or (8, 1), the first number corresponding
to the x value and the next one corresponding
to the y value. What ordered pairs can we get
out of numbers? Take for example, the numbers
1, 2, 3. Each number is going to be matched
with every one and so we have 1, 2, 3 numbers
which we are going to match with 1, 2, 3; and if
we match them we shall have 1, 1; 1, 2; 1, 3.
We shall also have 2, 1; 2, 2; 2, 3; and finally we
have 3, 1; 3, 2; 3, 3.
Another interesting comment on ordered pairs—
we have used three numbers, 1, 2, 3 in our universal
set. This is the universal set we are going to make
all these from and we have how many ordered
pairs? 9 or 32. And if we had four members to
work with, we should find we could get 16 ordered
pairs or 42, rather different from the sub-sets.
If I put these 9 pairs on to a graph, then I condition y = x, i.e. a straight line, then we have
would have 9 points, because this was my universal the part “A” in which y > x and finally, we have
set. Had I made the universal set of the set of the part “B” where y < x.
3
I am going to ask you, whatever you do, to try
to work in these three different kinds of things;
not only should you have a graph where y = x,
but you should also have a graph where y is
greater than x, and where y is less than x. We do
not work this trichotomy law nearly as much as
2 we should.
Finally, we come to the question of locus.
A locus is a set of points, and only those points
that satisfy a given condition—which may be an
equation. The given condition may be an
I inequality with two variables. For example, the
locus that satisfies this equation: x2 -j-y2 = 16.
I do not think we should ever leave it at that
with our pupils and I suppose you have gathered
what I would have done in my school if we were
working on this kind of thing. We should do
x2 y 2 > 16; x2 + y 2 < 16 and for an extra

SY M POSIUM 1965 71
bit of fun: x2 -j-j2 = 16. What are we going to
do about this? x2 + y 2 — 16— you will have to
accept that it is a circle with the radius of 4 units.
Now let us take a line that cuts the circumference
(which is a set of points). Our first relationship
is that x2 -\-y2 should be equal to 16. The locus
of such a point is a circle whose radius is 4 units.
PRIMARY
Our second relationship is “ it is greater than 16”,
so if it is greater than, it is a point outside the
circumference of the circle. The next one is
MATHEMATICS
“it is less than 16”, so it is a point inside the circle.
Why not do them all at once? And when we AN INTRODUCTION TO THE
come to the special one, “it is less than or equal to”, LANGUAGE OF NUMBER
then I hope you can see that the solution to that
is the universal set of all real numbers that is
inside and all the points that are round the J. S. FLAVELL
circle, so we have got all the points inside and all
the points that are on the circumference. and B. B. WAKELAM
In conclusion, I would like to stress that the way This series embodies a new approach to
we work in our language of sets will bring out the teaching of mathematics, intended to
functions and relationships clearer than anything bring about a genuine understanding of
else I know. The language is the essential thing, numbers rather than mere ability in computa­
because that is all that is in it. It is a very good tion. The teacher's books contain answers
and an explanation of the theory and teaching
exercise for teachers to have to do something method.
where new symbols are involved. They will
appreciate how difficult it is for the child sometimes
to understand just the one lot they are giving him. BASIC BOOK I 5s
TEACHER'S BOOK I ....................................... 6s
The language of sets offers a language that you ANSWER BOOK I ...............................................2s 6d
can use throughout your mathematics teaching,
where you will use the idea of sets, not only in BASIC BOOK II ............................................ 5s
number, but in all the numbers in your algebra, TEACHER’S BOOK I I ....................................... 6s
in your geometry, in your trigonometry. All those
ANSWER BOOK I I .............................................. 2s 6d
things which have properties somewhat similar
and can be defined are included in the language BASIC BOOK I I I ............................................ 5s
of sets. TEACHER'S BOOK III ................................. 6s
ANSWER BOOK III .........................................2s 6d
W AY IN — An introductory book 2s6d
HOW MANY — A supplementary book 2s6d
LINES AND S H A P E S ......................................... 2s 6d
BEST W AY I — Supplementary books • ■ • 2s 6d

METHUEN o

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72 SY M POSIUM 1965