Sets

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An introduction of sets and its definition in mathematics. The concept of sets is used for the
foundation of various topics in mathematics.

To learn sets we often talk about the collection of objects, such as a set of vowels, set of
negative numbers, a group of friends, a list of fruits, a bunch of keys, etc.

What is set (in mathematics)?

The collection of well-defined distinct objects is known as a set. The word well-defined
refers to a specific property which makes it easy to identify whether the given object belongs
to the set or not. The word ‘distinct’ means that the objects of a set must be all different.

For example:

1. The collection of children in class VII whose weight exceeds 35 kg represents a set.

2. The collection of all the intelligent children in class VII does not represent a set because
the word intelligent is vague. What may appear intelligent to one person may not appear the
same to another person.

Elements of Set:

The different objects that form a set are called the elements of a set. The
elements of the set are written in any order and are not repeated. Elements
are denoted by small letters.

Notation of a Set:

A set is usually denoted by capital letters and elements are denoted by small
letters

If x is an element of set A, then we say x ϵ A. [x belongs to A]

If x is not an element of set A, then we say x ∉ A. [x does not belong to A]

For example:

The collection of vowels in the English alphabet.

Solution :

Let us denote the set by V, then the elements of the set are a, e, i, o, u or we
can say, V = [a, e, i, o, u].

We say a ∈ V, e ∈ V, i ∈ V, o ∈ V and u ∈ V.

Also, we can say b ∉ V, c ∉ v, d ∉ v, etc.

Objects Form a Set

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How to state that whether the objects form a set or not?

1. A collection of ‘lovely flowers’ is not a set, because the objects (flowers) to
be included are not well-defined.

Reason: The word “lovely” is a relative term. What may appear lovely to one
person may not be so to the other person.

2. A collection of “Yellow flowers” is a set, because every red flowers will be

included in this set i.e., the objects of the set are well-defined.

3. A group of “Young singers” is not a set, as the range of the ages of young
singers is not given and so it can’t be decided that which singer is to be
considered young i.e., the objects are not well-defined.

4. A group of “Players with ages between 18 years and 25 years” is a set,

because the range of ages of the player is given and so it can easily be
decided that which player is to be included and which is to be excluded.
Hence, the objects are well-defined.

Now we will learn to state which of the following collections are set.

State, giving reason, whether the following objects form a set or not:

(i) All problems of this book, which are difficult to solve.

Solution:

The given objects do not form a set.

Reason: Some problems may be difficult for one person but may not be difficult for
some other persons, that is, the given objects are not well-defined.

Hence, they do not form a set.

(ii) All problems of this book, which are difficult to solve for Aaron.

Solution:
The given objects form a set.

Reason: It can easily be found that which are difficult to solve for Aaron and which
are not difficult to solve for him.

Hence, the objects form a set.

(iii) All the objects heavier than 28 kg.

Solution:

The given objects form a set.

Reason: Every object can be compared, in weight, with 28 kg. Then it is very easy to
select objects which are heavier than 28 kg i.e., the objects are well-defined.

Hence, the objects form a set.

The members (objects) of each of the following collections form a set:

(i) students in a class-room

(ii) books in your school-bag

(iii) counting numbers between 5 to 15

(iv) students of your class, which are taller than you and so on.

Elements of a Set
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What are the elements of a set or members of a set?

The objects used to form a set are called its element or its members.

Generally, the elements of a set are written inside a pair of curly (idle) braces
and are represented by commas. The name of the set is always written in capital
letter.

Solved Examples to find the elements or members of a set:

1. A = {v, w, x, y, z}

Here ‘A’ is the name of the set whose elements (members) are v, w, x, y, z.

2. If a set A = {3, 6, 9, 10, 13, 18}. State whether the following statements
are ‘true’ or ‘false’:
(i) 7 ∈ A

(ii) 12 ∉ A

(iii) 13 ∈ A

(iv) 9, 12 ∈ A

(v) 12, 14, 15 ∈ A

Solution:

(i) 7 ∈ A

False, since the element 7 does not belongs to the given set A.

(ii) 10 ∉ A

False, since the element 10 belongs to the given set A.

(iii) 13 ∈ A

True, since the element 13 belongs to the given set A.

(iv) 9, 10 ∈ A

True, since the elements 9 and 12 both belong to the given set A.

(v) 10, 13, 14 ∈ A

False, since the element 14 does not belongs to the given set A.

3. If set Z = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}. State which of the following statements are
‘correct’ and which are ‘wrong’ along with the correct explanations

(i) 5 ∈ Z

(ii) 12 ∈ Z

(iii) 14 ∈ Z

(iv) 9 ∈ Z

(v) Z is a set of even numbers between 2 and 16.

(vi) 4, 6 and 10 are members of the set Z.

Solution:

(i) 5 ∈ Z

Wrong, since 5 does not belongs to the given set Z i.e. 5 ∉ Z

(ii) 12 ∈ Z
Correct, since 12 belongs to the given set Z.

(iii) 14 ∈ Z

Correct, since 14 belongs to the given set Z.

(iv) 9 ∈ Z

Wrong, since 9 does not belongs to the given set Z i.e. 9 ∉ Z

(v) Z is a set of even numbers between 2 and 16.

Correct, since the elements of the set Z consists of all the multiples of 2 between 2
and 16.

(vi) 4, 6 and 10 are members of the set Z.

Correct, since the 4, 6 and 10 those numbers belongs to the given set Z.

Properties of Sets
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What are the two basic properties of sets?

The two basic properties to represent a set are explained below using various
examples.

1. The change in order of writing the elements does not make any
changes in the set.

In other words the order in which the elements of a set are written is not
important. Thus, the set {a, b, c} can also be written as {a, c, b} or {b, c, a}
or {b, a, c} or {c, a, b} or {c, b, a}.

For Example:

Set A = {4, 6, 7, 8, 9} is same as set A = {8, 4, 9, 7, 6}

i.e., {4, 6, 7, 8, 9} = {8, 4, 9, 7, 6}

Similarly, {w, x, y, z} = {x, z, w, y} = {z, w, x, y} and so on.

2. If one or many elements of a set are repeated, the set remains the
same.

In other words the elements of a set should be distinct. So, if any element of
a set is repeated number of times in the set, we consider it as a single
element. Thus, {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4}

The set of letters in the word ‘GOOGLE’ = {G, O, L, E}

For Example:
The set A = {5, 6, 7, 6, 8, 5, 9} is same as set A= {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

i.e., {5, 6, 7, 6, 8, 5, 9} = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

In general, the elements of a set are not repeated. Thus,

(i) if T is a set of letters of the word ‘moon’: then T = {m, o, n},

There are two o’s in the word ‘moon’ but it is written in the set only once.

(ii) if U = {letters of the word ‘COMMITTEE’}; then U = {C, O, M, T, E}

Solved examples using the properties of sets:

1. Write the set of vowels used in the word ‘UNIVERSITY’.

Solution:

Set V = {U, I, E}

2. For each statement, given below, state whether it is true or false along
with the explanations.

(i) {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, ……..} = {9}

(ii) {p, q, r, s, t} = {t, s, r, q, p}

Solution:

(i) {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, ……..} = {9}

True, since repetition of elements does not change the set.

(ii) {p, q, r, s, t} = {t, s, r, q, p}

True, since the change in order of writing the elements does not change the
set.

Representation of a Set
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In representation of a set the following three methods are commonly used:

(i) Statement form method

(ii) Roster or tabular form method

(iii) Rule or set builder form method

1. Statement form:
In this, well-defined description of the elements of the set is given and the
same are enclosed in curly brackets.

For example:

(i) The set of odd numbers less than 7 is written as: {odd numbers less
than 7}.

(ii) A set of football players with ages between 22 years to 30 years.

(iii) A set of numbers greater than 30 and smaller than 55.

(iv) A set of students in class VII whose weights are more than your weight.

2. Roster form or tabular form:

In this, elements of the set are listed within the pair of brackets { } and are
separated by commas.

For example:

(i) Let N denote the set of first five natural numbers.

Therefore, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} → Roster Form

(ii) The set of all vowels of the English alphabet.

Therefore, V = {a, e, i, o, u} → Roster Form

(iii) The set of all odd numbers less than 9.

Therefore, X = {1, 3, 5, 7} → Roster Form

(iv) The set of all natural number which divide 12.

Therefore, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} → Roster Form

(v) The set of all letters in the word MATHEMATICS.

Therefore, Z = {M, A, T, H, E, I, C, S} → Roster Form

(vi) W is the set of last four months of the year.

Therefore, W = {September, October, November, December} → Roster Form

Note:

The order in which elements are listed is immaterial but elements must not be
repeated.
3. Set builder form:
In this, a rule, or the formula or the statement is written within the pair of brackets
so that the set is well defined. In the set builder form, all the elements of the set,
must possess a single property to become the member of that set.

In this form of representation of a set, the element of the set is described by using a
symbol ‘x’ or any other variable followed by a colon The symbol ‘:‘ or ‘|‘ is used to
denote such that and then we write the property possessed by the elements of the
set and enclose the whole description in braces. In this, the colon stands for ‘such
that’ and braces stand for ‘set of all’.

For example:

(i) Let P is a set of counting numbers greater than 12;

the set P in set-builder form is written as :

P = {x : x is a counting number and greater than 12}

or
P = {x | x is a counting number and greater than 12}

This will be read as, 'P is the set of elements x such that x is a counting number and
is greater than 12'.

Note:

The symbol ':' or '|' placed between 2 x's stands for such that.

(ii) Let A denote the set of even numbers between 6 and 14. It can be written
in the set builder form as;

A = {x|x is an even number, 6 < x < 14}

or A = {x : x ∈ P, 6 < x < 14 and P is an even number}

(iii) If X = {4, 5, 6, 7} . This is expressed in roster form.

Let us express in set builder form.

X = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 8}

(iv) The set A of all odd natural numbers can be written as

A = {x : x is a natural number and x = 2n + 1 for n ∈ W}

Solved example using the three methods of representation of a set:

The set of integers lying between -2 and 3.
Statement form: {I is a set of integers lying between -2 and 3}

Roster form: I = {-1, 0, 1, 2}

Set builder form: I = {x : x ∈ I, -2 < x < 3}

Different Notations in Sets

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What are the different notations in sets?

To learn about sets we shall use some accepted notations for the familiar sets of
numbers.

Some of the different notations used in sets are:

∈ Belongs to

∉ Does not belongs to

: or | Such that

∅ Null set or empty set

n(A) Cardinal number of the set A

∪ Union of two sets

∩ Intersection of two sets

N Set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, ……}

W Set of whole numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3, ………}

I or Z Set of integers = {………, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ………}

Z+ Set of all positive integers

Q Set of all rational numbers

Q+ Set of all positive rational numbers

R Set of all real numbers

R+ Set of all positive real numbers

C Set of all complex numbers

These are the different notations in sets generally required while solving various
types of problems on sets.
Note:

(i) The pair of curly braces { } denotes a set. The elements of set are written inside
a pair of curly braces separated by commas.

(ii) The set is always represented by a capital letter such as; A, B, C, …….. .

(iii) If the elements of the sets are alphabets then these elements are written in
small letters.

(iv) The elements of a set may be written in any order.

(v) The elements of a set must not be repeated.

(vi) The Greek letter Epsilon ‘∈’ is used for the words ‘belongs to’, ‘is an element of’,
etc.

Therefore, x ∈ A will be read as ‘x belongs to set A’ or ‘x is an element of the set A'.

(vii) The symbol ‘∉’ stands for ‘does not belongs to’ also for ‘is not an element of’.

Therefore, x ∉ A will read as ‘x does not belongs to set A’ or ‘x is not an element of

the set A'.

Standard Sets of Numbers

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The standard sets of numbers can be expressed in all the three forms of
representation of a set i.e., statement form, roster form, set builder form.

1. N = Natural numbers

= Set of all numbers starting from 1 → Statement form

= Set of all numbers 1, 2, 3, ………..

= {1, 2, 3, …….} → Roster form

= {x :x is a counting number starting from 1} → Set builder form

Therefore, the set of natural numbers is denoted by N i.e., N = {1, 2, 3,

…….}

2. W = Whole numbers

= Set containing zero and all natural numbers → Statement form

= {0, 1, 2, 3, …….} → Roster form

= {x :x is a zero and all natural numbers} → Set builder form

Therefore, the set of whole numbers is denoted by W i.e., W = {0, 1, 2, .......}

3. Z or I = Integers

= Set containing negative of natural numbers, zero and the natural numbers
→ Statement form

= {………, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …….} → Roster form

= {x :x is a containing negative of natural numbers, zero and the natural numbers}

→ Set builder form

Therefore, the set of integers is denoted by I or Z i.e., I = {...., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ….}

4. E = Even natural numbers.

= Set of natural numbers, which are divisible by 2 → Statement form

= {2, 4, 6, 8, ……….} → Roster form

= {x :x is a natural number, which are divisible by 2} → Set builder form

Therefore, the set of even natural numbers is denoted by E i.e., E = {2, 4, 6,

8,.......}

5. O = Odd natural numbers.

= Set of natural numbers, which are not divisible by 2 → Statement form

= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ……….} → Roster form

= {x :x is a natural number, which are not divisible by 2} → Set builder form

Therefore, the set of odd natural numbers is denoted by O i.e., O = {1, 3, 5, 7,

9,.......}

Therefore, almost every standard sets of numbers can be expressed in all the three
methods as discussed above.

Types of Sets
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What are the different types of sets?

The different types of sets are explained below with examples.

Empty Set or Null Set:

set or the void set and it is denoted by ∅ and is read as phi. In roster form, ∅
A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set, or the null

is denoted by {}. An empty set is a finite set, since the number of elements
in an empty set is finite, i.e., 0.

For example: (a) The set of whole numbers less than 0.

(b) Clearly there is no whole number less than 0.

Therefore, it is an empty set.

(c) N = {x : x ∈ N, 3 < x < 4}

• Let A = {x : 2 < x < 3, x is a natural number}

Here A is an empty set because there is no natural number between

2 and 3.

• Let B = {x : x is a composite number less than 4}.

Here B is an empty set because there is no composite number less than 4.

Note:

∅ ≠ {0} ∴ has no element.

{0} is a set which has one element 0.

The cardinal number of an empty set, i.e., n(∅) = 0

Singleton Set:

A set which contains only one element is called a singleton set.

For example:

• A = {x : x is neither prime nor composite}

It is a singleton set containing one element, i.e., 1.

• B = {x : x is a whole number, x < 1}

This set contains only one element 0 and is a singleton set.

• Let A = {x : x ∈ N and x² = 4}

Here A is a singleton set because there is only one element 2 whose square is
4.
• Let B = {x : x is a even prime number}

Here B is a singleton set because there is only one prime number which is
even, i.e., 2.

Finite Set:

A set which contains a definite number of elements is called a finite set.

Empty set is also called a finite set.

For example:

• The set of all colors in the rainbow.

• N = {x : x ∈ N, x < 7}

• P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...... 97}

Infinite Set:

The set whose elements cannot be listed, i.e., set containing never-ending
elements is called an infinite set.

For example:

• Set of all points in a plane

• A = {x : x ∈ N, x > 1}

• Set of all prime numbers

• B = {x : x ∈ W, x = 2n}

Note:

All infinite sets cannot be expressed in roster form.

For example:

The set of real numbers since the elements of this set do not follow any
particular pattern.

Cardinal Number of a Set:

The number of distinct elements in a given set A is called the cardinal

number of A. It is denoted by n(A).
For example:

• A {x : x ∈ N, x < 5}

A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Therefore, n(A) = 4

• B = set of letters in the word ALGEBRA

B = {A, L, G, E, B, R}

Therefore, n(B) = 6

Equivalent Sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if their cardinal number is same,
i.e., n(A) = n(B). The symbol for denoting an equivalent set is ‘↔’.

For example:

A = {1, 2, 3} Here n(A) = 3

B = {p, q, r} Here n(B) = 3

Therefore, A ↔ B

Equal sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain the same elements.
Every element of A is an element of B and every element of B is an element
of A.

For example:

A = {p, q, r, s}

B = {p, s, r, q}

Therefore, A = B

The various types of sets and their definitions are explained above with the
help of examples.

Pairs of Sets
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The relations are stated between the pairs of sets. Learn to state, giving
reasons whether the following sets are equivalent or equal, disjoint or
overlapping.

Equal Set:

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if all the elements of set A are in set B
and vice versa. The symbol to denote an equal set is =.

A = B means set A is equal to set B and set B is equal to set A.

For example;

A = {2, 3, 5}

B = {5, 2, 3}

Here, set A and set B are equal sets.

Equivalent Set:

Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent sets if they contain the same
number of elements. The symbol to denote equivalent set is ↔.

A ↔ means set A and set B contain the same number of elements.

For example;

A = {p, q, r}

B = {2, 3, 4}

Here, we observe that both the sets contain three elements.

Notes:

Equal sets are always equivalent.

Equivalent sets may not be equal.

Disjoint Sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint, if they do not have any element in
common.

For example;
A = {x : x is a prime number}

B = {x : x is a composite number}.

Clearly, A and B do not have any element in common and are disjoint sets.

Overlapping sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be overlapping if they contain at least one
element in common.

For example;

• A = {a, b, c, d}

B = {a, e, i, o, u}

• X = {x : x ∈ N, x < 4}

Y = {x : x ∈ I, -1 < x < 4}

Here, the two sets contain three elements in common, i.e., (1, 2, 3)

The above explanations will help us to find whether the pairs of sets are
equal sets or equivalent sets, disjoint sets or overlapping sets.

Subset
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Definition of Subset:

B, then A is called a subset of B and we write it as A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A

If A and B are two sets, and every element of set A is also an element of set

The symbol ⊂ stands for ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’

• Every set is a subset of itself, i.e., A ⊂ A, B ⊂ B.

• Empty set is a subset of every set.

• Symbol ‘⊆’ is used to denote ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’.

• A ⊆ B means A is a subset of B or A is contained in B.

• B ⊆ A means B contains A.
For example;

1. Let A = {2, 4, 6}

B = {6, 4, 8, 2}

Here A is a subset of B

Since, all the elements of set A are contained in set B.

But B is not the subset of A

Since, all the elements of set B are not contained in set A.

Notes:

If ACB and BCA, then A = B, i.e., they are equal sets.

Every set is a subset of itself.

Null set or ∅ is a subset of every set.

write N ⊂ Z.
2. The set N of natural numbers is a subset of the set Z of integers and we

3. Let A = {2, 4, 6}

B = {x : x is an even natural number less than 8}

Here A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.

Hence, we can say A = B

4. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

B = {4, 5, 6, 7}

Here A ⊄ B and also B ⊄ C

[⊄ denotes ‘not a subset of’]

Super Set:

write, B ⊇ A.
Whenever a set A is a subset of set B, we say the B is a superset of A and we

Symbol ⊇ is used to denote ‘is a super set of’

For example;

A = {a, e, i, o, u}

B = {a, b, c, ............., z}

Here A ⊆ B i.e., A is a subset of B but B ⊇ A i.e., B is a super set of A

Proper Subset:

If A and B are two sets, then A is called the proper subset of B if A ⊆ B but B
⊇ A i.e., A ≠ B. The symbol ‘⊂’ is used to denote proper subset. Symbolically,
we write A ⊂ B.

For example;

1. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Here n(A) = 4

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Here n(B) = 5

We observe that, all the elements of A are present in B but the element ‘5’ of
B is not present in A.

Symbolically, we write it as A ⊂ B
So, we say that A is a proper subset of B.

Notes:

No set is a proper subset of itself.

Null set or ∅ is a proper subset of every set.

2. A = {p, q, r}

B = {p, q, r, s, t}

Here A is a proper subset of B as all the elements of set A are in set B and
also A ≠ B.

Notes:

No set is a proper subset of itself.

Empty set is a proper subset of every set.

Power Set:

The collection of all subsets of set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted
by P(A). In P(A), every element is a set.

For example;

If A = {p, q} then all the subsets of A will be

P(A) = {∅, {p}, {q}, {p, q}}

Number of elements of P(A) = n[P(A)] = 4 = 22

In general, n[P(A)] = 2m where m is the number of elements in set A.

Universal Set

a universal set. The symbol for denoting a universal set is ∪ or ξ.

A set which contains all the elements of other given sets is called

For example;

1. If A = {1, 2, 3} B = {2, 3, 4} C = {3, 5, 7}

then U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}

[Here A ⊆ U, B ⊆ U, C ⊆ U and U ⊇ A, U ⊇ B, U ⊇ C]

2. If P is a set of all whole numbers and Q is a set of all negative numbers

then the universal set is a set of all integers.

3. If A = {a, b, c} B = {d, e} C = {f, g, h, i}

then U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i} can be taken as universal set.

Subsets of a given Set

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Number of Subsets of a given Set:

If a set contains ‘n’ elements, then the number of subsets of the set is 2 22.
Number of Proper Subsets of the Set:
If a set contains ‘n’ elements, then the number of proper subsets of the set is
2nn - 1.

If A = {p, q} the proper subsets of A are [{ }, {p}, {q}]

⇒ Number of proper subsets of A are 3 = 2 22 - 1 = 4 - 1

In general, number of proper subsets of a given set = 2 mm - 1, where m is the
number of elements.

For example:

1. If A {1, 3, 5}, then write all the possible subsets of A. Find their numbers.

Solution:

The subset of A containing no elements - { }

The subset of A containing one element each - {1} {3} {5}

The subset of A containing two elements each - {1, 3} {1, 5} {3, 5}

The subset of A containing three elements - {1, 3, 5)

Therefore, all possible subsets of A are { }, {1}, {3}, {5}, {1, 3}, {3, 5}, {1, 3, 5}

Therefore, number of all possible subsets of A is 8 which is equal 2 33.

Proper subsets are = { }, {1}, {3}, {5}, {1, 3}, {3, 5}

Number of proper subsets are 7 = 8 - 1 = 2 33 - 1

2. If the number of elements in a set is 2, find the number of subsets and proper
subsets.

Solution:

Number of elements in a set = 2

Then, number of subsets = 222 = 4

Also, the number of proper subsets = 222 - 1

=4–1=3

3. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

then the number of proper subsets = 255 - 1

= 32 - 1 = 31 {Take [2nn - 1]}
and power set of A = 255 = 32 {Take [2nn]}
Definition of operations on sets:

When two or more sets combine together to form one set under the given conditions, then
operations on sets are carried out.

What are the four basic operations on sets?

Solution:

The four basic operations are:

1. Union of Sets

2. Intersection of sets

3. Complement of the Set

4. Cartesian Product of sets

Some of the combining operations to be discussed in details with examples:

(i) Union of sets: Click Here to know the definition with worked-out examples.

(ii) Intersection of sets: Click Here to know the definition with worked-out examples.

(iii) Difference of two sets: Click Here to know the definition with worked-out examples.

Union of Sets
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Definition of Union of Sets:

Union of two given sets is the smallest set which contains all the elements of
both the sets.

To find the union of two given sets A and B is a set which consists of all the
elements of A and all the elements of B such that no element is repeated.

The symbol for denoting union of sets is ‘∪’.

For example;

Let set A = {2, 4, 5, 6}

and set B = {4, 6, 7, 8}
Taking every element of both the sets A and B, without repeating any element,
we get a new set = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

This new set contains all the elements of set A and all the elements of set B with
no repetition of elements and is named as union of set A and B.

The symbol used for the union of two sets is ‘∪’.

Therefore, symbolically, we write union of the two sets A and B is A ∪ B which

means A union B.

Therefore, A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Solved examples to find union of two given sets:

1. If A = {1, 3, 7, 5} and B = {3, 7, 8, 9}. Find union of two set A and B.

Solution:

A ∪ B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9}
No element is repeated in the union of two sets. The common elements 3, 7 are
taken only once.

2. Let X = {a, e, i, o, u} and Y = {ф}. Find union of two given sets X and Y.

Solution:

X ∪ Y = {a, e, i, o, u}

Therefore, union of any set with an empty set is the set itself.

3. If set P = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, set Q = {0, 3, 6, 9, 12} and set R = {2, 4, 6, 8}.

(i) Find the union of sets P and Q

(ii) Find the union of two set P and R

(iii) Find the union of the given sets Q and R

Solution:

(i) Union of sets P and Q is P ∪ Q

The smallest set which contains all the elements of set P and all the elements of
set Q is {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12}.

(ii) Union of two set P and R is P ∪ R

The smallest set which contains all the elements of set P and all the elements of
set R is {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
(iii) Union of the given sets Q and R is Q ∪ R

The smallest set which contains all the elements of set Q and all the elements of
set R is {0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12}.

Notes:

A and B are the subsets of A ∪ B

The union of sets is commutative, i.e., A ∪ B = B ∪ A.

The operations are performed when the sets are expressed in roster form.

Some properties of the operation of union:

(i) A∪B = B∪A (Commutative law)

(ii) A∪(B∪C) = (A∪B)∪C (Associative law)

(iii) A ∪ ϕ = A (Law of identity element, is the identity of ∪)

(iv) A∪A = A (Idempotent law)

(v) U∪A = U (Law of ∪) ∪ is the universal set.

Notes:

A ∪ ϕ = ϕ ∪ A = A i.e. union of any set with the empty set is always the set itself.

Intersection of Sets
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Definition of Intersection of Sets:

Intersection of two given sets is the largest set which contains all the
elements that are common to both the sets.

To find the intersection of two given sets A and B is a set which consists of all
the elements which are common to both A and B.

The symbol for denoting intersection of sets is ‘∩‘.

For example:

Let set A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

and set B = {3, 5, 7, 9}

In this two sets, the elements 3 and 5 are common. The set containing these
common elements i.e., {3, 5} is the intersection of set A and B.

The symbol used for the intersection of two sets is ‘∩‘.

Therefore, symbolically, we write intersection of the two sets A and B is A ∩ B

which means A intersection B.

The intersection of two sets A and B is represented as A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and

x ∈ B}

Solved examples to find intersection of two given sets:

1. If A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and B = {1, 3, 8, 4, 6}. Find intersection of two set A and
B.

Solution:

A ∩ B = {4, 6, 8}

Therefore, 4, 6 and 8 are the common elements in both the sets.

2. If X = {a, b, c} and Y = {ф}. Find intersection of two given sets X and Y.

Solution:

X∩Y={}

3. If set A = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, set B = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18} and set C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

(i) Find the intersection of sets A and B.

(ii) Find the intersection of two set B and C.

(iii) Find the intersection of the given sets A and C.

Solution:

(i) Intersection of sets A and B is A ∩ B

Set of all the elements which are common to both set A and set B is {6, 12}.

(ii) Intersection of two set B and C is B ∩ C

Set of all the elements which are common to both set B and set C is {3, 6, 9}.

(iii) Intersection of the given sets A and C is A ∩ C

Set of all the elements which are common to both set A and set C is {4, 6, 8, 10}.

Notes:
A ∩ B is a subset of A and B.

Intersection of a set is commutative, i.e., A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

Operations are performed when the set is expressed in the roster form.

Some properties of the operation of intersection

(i) A∩B = B∩A (Commutative law)

(ii) (A∩B)∩C = A∩ (B∩C) (Associative law)

(iii) ϕ ∩ A = ϕ (Law of ϕ)

(iv) U∩A = A (Law of ∪)

(v) A∩A = A (Idempotent law)

(vi) A∩(B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) (Distributive law) Here ∩ distributes over ∪

Also, A∪(B∩C) = (AUB) ∩ (AUC) (Distributive law) Here ∪ distributes over ∩

Difference of Two Sets

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How to find the difference of two sets?

If A and B are two sets, then their difference is given by A - B or B - A.

• If A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6}

A - B means elements of A which are not the elements of B.

i.e., in the above example A - B = {2, 3}

In general, B - A = {x : x ∈ B, and x ∉ A}

• If A and B are disjoint sets, then A – B = A and B – A = B

Solved examples to find the difference of two sets:

1. A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6}.

Find the difference between the two sets:

(i) A and B

(ii) B and A
Solution:

The two sets are disjoint as they do not have any elements in common.

(i) A - B = {1, 2, 3} = A

(ii) B - A = {4, 5, 6} = B

2. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and B = {b, d, f, g}.

Find the difference between the two sets:

(i) A and B

(ii) B and A

Solution:

(i) A - B = {a, c, e}

Therefore, the elements a, c, e belong to A but not to B

(ii) B - A = {g)

Therefore, the element g belongs to B but not A.

3. Given three sets P, Q and R such that:

P = {x : x is a natural number between 10 and 16},

Q = {y : y is a even number between 8 and 20} and

R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}

(i) Find the difference of two sets P and Q

(ii) Find Q - R

(iii) Find R - P

(iv) Find Q – P

Solution:

According to the given statements:

P = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}

Q = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18}

R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}

(i) P – Q = {Those elements of set P which are not in set Q}

= {11, 13, 15}

(ii) Q – R = {Those elements of set Q not belonging to set R}

= {10, 12, 16}

(iii) R – P = {Those elements of set R which are not in set P}

= {7, 9, 18, 20}

(iv) Q – P = {Those elements of set Q not belonging to set P}

= {10, 16, 18}

Complement of a Set
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In complement of a set if ξ be the universal set and A a subset of ξ, then the

complement of A is the set of all elements of ξ which are not the elements of
A.

Symbolically, we denote the complement of A with respect to ξ as A’.

For Example; If ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

A = {1, 3, 7} find A'.

Solution:

We observe that 2, 4, 5, 6 are the only elements of ξ which do not belong to

A.

Therefore, A' = {2, 4, 5, 6}

Note:

The complement of a universal set is an empty set.

The complement of an empty set is a universal set.

The set and its complement are disjoint sets.

For Example;

1. Let the set of natural numbers be the universal set and A is a set of even
natural numbers,

then A' {x: x is a set of odd natural numbers}

2. Let ξ = The set of letters in the English alphabet.

A = The set of consonants in the English alphabet

then A' = The set of vowels in the English alphabet.

3. Show that;

(a) The complement of a universal set is an empty set.

Let ξ denote the universal set, then

ξ' = The set of those elements which are not in ξ.

= empty set = ϕ

Therefore, ξ = ϕ so the complement of a universal set is an empty set.

(b) A set and its complement are disjoint sets.

Let A be any set then A' = set of those elements of ξ which are not in A'.

Let x ∉ A, then x is an element of ξ not contained in A'

So x ∉ A'

Therefore, A and A' are disjoint sets.

Therefore, Set and its complement are disjoint sets

Similarly, in complement of a set when U be the universal set and A is a

subset of U. Then the complement of A is the set all elements of U which are
not the elements of A.

Symbolically, we write A' to denote the complement of A with respect to U.

Thus, A' = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A}

Obviously A' = {U - A}

For Example; Let U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16}

A = {6, 10, 4, 16}

A' = {2, 8, 12, 14}

We observe that 2, 8, 12, 14 are the only elements of U which do not belong
to A.
Some properties of complement sets

(i) A ∪ A' = A' ∪ A = ∪ (Complement law)

(ii) (A ∩ B') = ϕ (Complement law)

(iii) (A ∪ B) = A' ∩ B' (De Morgan’s law)

(iv) (A ∩ B)' = A' ∪ B' (De Morgan’s law)

(v) (A')' = A (Law of complementation)

(vi) ϕ' = ∪ (Law of empty set

(vii) ∪' = ϕ and universal set)

Cardinal Number of a Set

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What is the cardinal number of a set?

The number of distinct elements in a finite set is called its cardinal number. It
is denoted as n(A) and read as ‘the number of elements of the set’.

For example:

(i) Set A = {2, 4, 5, 9, 15} has 5 elements.

Therefore, the cardinal number of set A = 5. So, it is denoted as n(A) = 5.

(ii) Set B = {w, x, y, z} has 4 elements.

Therefore, the cardinal number of set B = 4. So, it is denoted as n(B) = 4.

(iii) Set C = {Florida, New York, California} has 3 elements.

Therefore, the cardinal number of set C = 3. So, it is denoted as n(C) = 3.

(iv) Set D = {3, 3, 5, 6, 7, 7, 9} has 5 element.

Therefore, the cardinal number of set D = 5. So, it is denoted as n(D) = 5.

(v) Set E = { } has no element.

Therefore, the cardinal number of set D = 0. So, it is denoted as n(D) = 0.

Note:

(i) Cardinal number of an infinite set is not defined.

(ii) Cardinal number of empty set is 0 because it has no element.

Solved examples on Cardinal number of a set:

1. Write the cardinal number of each of the following sets:

(i) X = {letters in the word MALAYALAM}

(ii) Y = {5, 6, 6, 7, 11, 6, 13, 11, 8}

(iii) Z = {natural numbers between 20 and 50, which are divisible by 7}

Solution:

(i) Given, X = {letters in the word MALAYALAM}

Then, X = {M, A, L, Y}

Therefore, cardinal number of set X = 4, i.e., n(X) = 4

(ii) Given, Y = {5, 6, 6, 7, 11, 6, 13, 11, 8}

Then, Y = {5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 8}

Therefore, cardinal number of set Y = 6, i.e., n(Y) = 6

(iii) Given, Z = {natural numbers between 20 and 50, which are divisible by
7}

Then, Z = {21, 28, 35, 42, 49}

Therefore, cardinal number of set Z = 5, i.e., n(Z) = 5

2. Find the cardinal number of a set from each of the following:

(i) P = {x | x ∈ N and x22 < 30}

(ii) Q = {x | x is a factor of 20}

Solution:

(i) Given, P = {x | x ∈ N and x22 < 30}

Then, P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Therefore, cardinal number of set P = 5, i.e., n(P) = 5

(ii) Given, Q = {x | x is a factor of 20}

Then, Q = {1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20}

Therefore, cardinal number of set Q = 6, i.e., n(Q) = 6

Cardinal Properties of Sets

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Cardinal Properties of Sets:

We have already learnt about the union, intersection and difference of sets.
Now, we will go through some practical problems on sets related to everyday
life.

If A and B are finite sets, then

• n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

If A ∩ B = ф , then n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B)

It is also clear from the Venn diagram that

• n(A - B) = n(A) - n(A ∩ B)

• n(B - A) = n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

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Problems on Cardinal Properties of Sets

1. If P and Q are two sets such that P ∪ Q has 40 elements, P has 22
elements and Q has 28 elements, how many elements does P ∩ Q have?

Solution:

Given n(P ∪ Q) = 40, n(P) = 18, n(Q) = 22

We know that n(P U Q) = n(P) + n(Q) - n(P ∩ Q)

So, 40 = 22 + 28 - n(P ∩ Q)

40 = 50 - n(P ∩ Q)

Therefore, n(P ∩ Q) = 50 – 40

= 10

2. In a class of 40 students, 15 like to play cricket and football and 20 like to

play cricket. How many like to play football only but not cricket?

Solution:

Let C = Students who like cricket

F = Students who like football

C ∩ F = Students who like cricket and football both

C - F = Students who like cricket only

F - C = Students who like football only.

n(C) = 20 n(C ∩ F) = 15 n (C U F) = 40 n (F) = ?

n(C ∪ F) = n(C) + n(F) - n(C ∩ F)

40 = 20 + n(F) - 15

40 = 5 + n(F)

40 – 5 = n(F)

Therefore, n(F)= 35

Therefore, n(F - C) = n(F) - n (C ∩ F)

= 35 – 15

= 20

Therefore, Number of students who like football only but not cricket = 20

More problems on cardinal properties of sets

3. There is a group of 80 persons who can drive scooter or car or both. Out of
these, 35 can drive scooter and 60 can drive car. Find how many can drive
both scooter and car? How many can drive scooter only? How many can drive
car only?

Solution:

Let S = {Persons who drive scooter}

C = {Persons who drive car}

Given, n(S ∪ C) = 80 n(S) = 35 n(C) = 60

Therefore, n(S ∪ C) = n(S) + n(C) - n(S ∩ C)

80 = 35 + 60 - n(S ∩ C)

80 = 95 - n(S ∩ C)

Therefore, n(S∩C) = 95 – 80 = 15

Therefore, 15 persons drive both scooter and car.

Therefore, the number of persons who drive a scooter only = n(S) - n(S ∩ C)

= 35 – 15

= 20

Also, the number of persons who drive car only = n(C) - n(S ∩ C)

= 60 - 15

= 45

4. It was found that out of 45 girls, 10 joined singing but not dancing and 24
joined singing. How many joined dancing but not singing? How many joined
both?

Solution:

Let S = {Girls who joined singing}

D = {Girls who joined dancing}

Number of girls who joined dancing but not singing = Total number of girls -
Number of girls who joined singing

45 – 24
= 21

Now, n(S - D) = 10 n(S) =24

Therefore, n(S - D) = n(S) - n(S ∩ D)

⇒ n(S ∩ D) = n(S) - n(S - D)

= 24 - 10

= 14

Therefore, number of girls who joined both singing and dancing is 14.

Venn Diagrams
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Venn diagrams are useful in solving simple logical problems. Let us study about
them in detail. Mathematician John Venn introduced the concept of representing the
sets pictorially by means of closed geometrical figures called Venn diagrams. In
Venn diagrams, the Universal Set ξ is represented by a rectangle and all other sets
under consideration by circles within the rectangle. In this chapter, we will use Venn
diagrams to illustrate various operations (union, intersection, difference).

What are Venn Diagrams?

Pictorial representations of sets represented by closed figures are called set

diagrams or Venn diagrams.

Venn diagrams are used to illustrate various operations like union,

intersection and difference.

We can express the relationship among sets through this in a more

significant way.

In this,

• A rectangle is used to represent a universal set.

• Circles or ovals are used to represent other subsets of the universal set.

Venn diagrams in different situations

• If a set A is a subset of set B, then the circle representing set A is drawn

inside the circle representing set B.
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• If set A and set B have some elements in common, then to represent them,
we draw two circles which are overlapping.

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• If set A and set B are disjoint, then they are represented by two non-
intersecting circles.

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In this diagrams, the universal set is represented by a rectangular region and its
subsets by circles inside the rectangle. We represented disjoint set by disjoint circles
and intersecting sets by intersecting circles.