Sets

An introduction of sets and its definition in mathematics. The concept of sets is used for the foundation
of various topics in mathematics.

To learn sets we often talk about the collection of objects, such as a set of vowels, set of negative
numbers, a group of friends, a list of fruits, a bunch of keys, etc.

What is set (in mathematics)?

The collection of well-defined distinct objects is known as a set. The word well-defined refers to a
specific property which makes it easy to identify whether the given object belongs to the set or not. The
word ‘distinct’ means that the objects of a set must be all different.

For example:

1. The collection of children in class VII whose weight exceeds 35 kg represents a set.

2. The collection of all the intelligent children in class VII does not represent a set because the word
intelligent is vague. What may appear intelligent to one person may not appear the same to another
person.
Elements of Set:

The different objects that form a set are called the elements of a set. The elements of the set are written
in any order and are not repeated. Elements are denoted by small letters.

Notation of a Set:

A set is usually denoted by capital letters and elements are denoted by small letters

If x is an element of set A, then we say x ϵ A. [x belongs to A]

If x is not an element of set A, then we say x ∉ A. [x does not belong to A]

For example:

The collection of vowels in the English alphabet.

Solution :

Let us denote the set by V, then the elements of the set are a, e, i, o, u or we can say, V = [a, e, i, o, u].
We say a ∈ V, e ∈ V, i ∈ V, o ∈ V and u ∈ V.

Also, we can say b ∉ V, c ∉ v, d ∉ v, etc.

How to state that whether the objects form a set or not?

1. A collection of ‘lovely flowers’ is not a set, because the objects (flowers) to be included are not well-
defined.

Reason: The word “lovely” is a relative term. What may appear lovely to one person may not be so to the
other person.

2. A collection of “Yellow flowers” is a set, because every red flowers will be included in this set i.e., the
objects of the set are well-defined.

3. A group of “Young singers” is not a set, as the range of the ages of young singers is not given and so it
can’t be decided that which singer is to be considered young i.e., the objects are not well-defined.

4. A group of “Players with ages between 18 years and 25 years” is a set, because the range of ages of
the player is given and so it can easily be decided that which player is to be included and which is to be
excluded. Hence, the objects are well-defined.

Now we will learn to state which of the following collections are set.

State, giving reason, whether the following objects form a set or not:

(i) All problems of this book, which are difficult to solve.

Solution:
The given objects do not form a set.

Reason: Some problems may be difficult for one person but may not be difficult for some other persons,
that is, the given objects are not well-defined.

Hence, they do not form a set.

(ii) All problems of this book, which are difficult to solve for Aaron.

Solution:

The given objects form a set.

Reason: It can easily be found that which are difficult to solve for Aaron and which are not difficult to
solve for him.

Hence, the objects form a set.

(iii) All the objects heavier than 28 kg.

Solution:
The given objects form a set.

Reason: Every object can be compared, in weight, with 28 kg. Then it is very easy to select objects which
are heavier than 28 kg i.e., the objects are well-defined.

Hence, the objects form a set.

The members (objects) of each of the following collections form a set:

(i) students in a class-room

(ii) books in your school-bag

(iii) counting numbers between 5 to 15

(iv) students of your class, which are taller than you and so on.

What are the elements of a set or members of a set?

The objects used to form a set are called its element or its members.

Generally, the elements of a set are written inside a pair of curly (idle) braces and are represented by
commas. The name of the set is always written in capital letter.
Solved Examples to find the elements or members of a set:

1. A = {v, w, x, y, z}

Here ‘A’ is the name of the set whose elements (members) are v, w, x, y, z.

2. If a set A = {3, 6, 9, 10, 13, 18}. State whether the following statements are ‘true’ or ‘false’:

(i) 7 ∈ A

(ii) 12 ∉ A

(iii) 13 ∈ A

(iv) 9, 12 ∈ A

(v) 12, 14, 15 ∈ A

Solution:
(i) 7 ∈ A

False, since the element 7 does not belongs to the given set A.

(ii) 10 ∉ A

False, since the element 10 belongs to the given set A.

(iii) 13 ∈ A

True, since the element 13 belongs to the given set A.

(iv) 9, 10 ∈ A

True, since the elements 9 and 12 both belong to the given set A.

(v) 10, 13, 14 ∈ A

False, since the element 14 does not belongs to the given set A.

3. If set Z = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}. State which of the following statements are ‘correct’ and which are
‘wrong’ along with the correct explanations

(i) 5 ∈ Z
(ii) 12 ∈ Z

(iii) 14 ∈ Z

(iv) 9 ∈ Z

(v) Z is a set of even numbers between 2 and 16.

(vi) 4, 6 and 10 are members of the set Z.

Solution:

(i) 5 ∈ Z

Wrong, since 5 does not belongs to the given set Z i.e. 5 ∉ Z

(ii) 12 ∈ Z

Correct, since 12 belongs to the given set Z.

(iii) 14 ∈ Z

Correct, since 14 belongs to the given set Z.

(iv) 9 ∈ Z

Wrong, since 9 does not belongs to the given set Z i.e. 9 ∉ Z

(v) Z is a set of even numbers between 2 and 16.

Correct, since the elements of the set Z consists of all the multiples of 2 between 2 and 16.

(vi) 4, 6 and 10 are members of the set Z.

Correct, since the 4, 6 and 10 those numbers belongs to the given set Z.

What are the two basic properties of sets?

The two basic properties to represent a set are explained below using various examples.

1. The change in order of writing the elements does not make any changes in the set.

In other words the order in which the elements of a set are written is not important. Thus, the set {a, b,
c} can also be written as {a, c, b} or {b, c, a} or {b, a, c} or {c, a, b} or {c, b, a}.

For Example:

Set A = {4, 6, 7, 8, 9} is same as set A = {8, 4, 9, 7, 6}

i.e., {4, 6, 7, 8, 9} = {8, 4, 9, 7, 6}

Similarly, {w, x, y, z} = {x, z, w, y} = {z, w, x, y} and so on.

2. If one or many elements of a set are repeated, the set remains the same.

In other words the elements of a set should be distinct. So, if any element of a set is repeated number of
times in the set, we consider it as a single element. Thus, {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4}

The set of letters in the word ‘GOOGLE’ = {G, O, L, E}

For Example:

The set A = {5, 6, 7, 6, 8, 5, 9} is same as set A= {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

i.e., {5, 6, 7, 6, 8, 5, 9} = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

In general, the elements of a set are not repeated. Thus,

(i) if T is a set of letters of the word ‘moon’: then T = {m, o, n},

There are two o’s in the word ‘moon’ but it is written in the set only once.

(ii) if U = {letters of the word ‘COMMITTEE’}; then U = {C, O, M, T, E}

Solved examples using the properties of sets:

1. Write the set of vowels used in the word ‘UNIVERSITY’.

Solution:

Set V = {U, I, E}

2. For each statement, given below, state whether it is true or false along with the explanations.

(i) {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, ……..} = {9}

(ii) {p, q, r, s, t} = {t, s, r, q, p}

Solution:
(i) {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, ……..} = {9}

True, since repetition of elements does not change the set.

(ii) {p, q, r, s, t} = {t, s, r, q, p}

True, since the change in order of writing the elements does not change the set.

In representation of a set the following three methods are commonly used:

(i) Statement form method

(ii) Roster or tabular form method

(iii) Rule or set builder form method

1. Statement form:

In this, well-defined description of the elements of the set is given and the same are enclosed in curly
brackets.

For example:

(i) The set of odd numbers less than 7 is written as: {odd numbers less than 7}.
(ii) A set of football players with ages between 22 years to 30 years.

(iii) A set of numbers greater than 30 and smaller than 55.

(iv) A set of students in class VII whose weights are more than your weight.

2. Roster form or tabular form:

In this, elements of the set are listed within the pair of brackets { } and are separated by commas.

For example:

(i) Let N denote the set of first five natural numbers.

Therefore, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} → Roster Form

(ii) The set of all vowels of the English alphabet.

Therefore, V = {a, e, i, o, u} → Roster Form

(iii) The set of all odd numbers less than 9.

Therefore, X = {1, 3, 5, 7} → Roster Form

(iv) The set of all natural number which divide 12.

Therefore, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} → Roster Form

(v) The set of all letters in the word MATHEMATICS.

Therefore, Z = {M, A, T, H, E, I, C, S} → Roster Form

(vi) W is the set of last four months of the year.

Therefore, W = {September, October, November, December} → Roster Form

Note:

The order in which elements are listed is immaterial but elements must not be repeated.

3. Set builder form:

In this, a rule, or the formula or the statement is written within the pair of brackets so that the set is well
defined. In the set builder form, all the elements of the set, must possess a single property to become
the member of that set.

In this form of representation of a set, the element of the set is described by using a symbol ‘x’ or any
other variable followed by a colon The symbol ‘:‘ or ‘|‘ is used to denote such that and then we write the
property possessed by the elements of the set and enclose the whole description in braces. In this, the
colon stands for ‘such that’ and braces stand for ‘set of all’.

For example:

(i) Let P is a set of counting numbers greater than 12;

the set P in set-builder form is written as :

P = {x : x is a counting number and greater than 12}

or

P = {x | x is a counting number and greater than 12}

This will be read as, 'P is the set of elements x such that x is a counting number and is greater than 12'.
Note:

The symbol ':' or '|' placed between 2 x's stands for such that.

(ii) Let A denote the set of even numbers between 6 and 14. It can be written in the set builder form as;

A = {x|x is an even number, 6 < x < 14}

or A = {x : x ∈ P, 6 < x < 14 and P is an even number}

(iii) If X = {4, 5, 6, 7} . This is expressed in roster form.

Let us express in set builder form.

X = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 8}

(iv) The set A of all odd natural numbers can be written as

A = {x : x is a natural number and x = 2n + 1 for n ∈ W}

Solved example using the three methods of representation of a set:

The set of integers lying between -2 and 3.

Statement form: {I is a set of integers lying between -2 and 3}

Roster form: I = {-1, 0, 1, 2}

Set builder form: I = {x : x ∈ I, -2 < x < 3}

What are the different notations in sets?

To learn about sets we shall use some accepted notations for the familiar sets of numbers.

Some of the different notations used in sets are:

: or |

n(A)
∪

I or Z

Z+

Q+

R+

Belongs to
Does not belongs to

Such that

Null set or empty set

Cardinal number of the set A

Union of two sets

Intersection of two sets

Set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, ……}

Set of whole numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3, ………}

Set of integers = {………, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ………}

Set of all positive integers

Set of all rational numbers

Set of all positive rational numbers

Set of all real numbers

Set of all positive real numbers

Set of all complex numbers

These are the different notations in sets generally required while solving various types of problems on
sets.

Note:

(i) The pair of curly braces { } denotes a set. The elements of set are written inside a pair of curly braces
separated by commas.

(ii) The set is always represented by a capital letter such as; A, B, C, …….. .

(iii) If the elements of the sets are alphabets then these elements are written in small letters.

(iv) The elements of a set may be written in any order.

(v) The elements of a set must not be repeated.

(vi) The Greek letter Epsilon ‘∈’ is used for the words ‘belongs to’, ‘is an element of’, etc.

Therefore, x ∈ A will be read as ‘x belongs to set A’ or ‘x is an element of the set A'.

(vii) The symbol ‘∉’ stands for ‘does not belongs to’ also for ‘is not an element of’.

Therefore, x ∉ A will read as ‘x does not belongs to set A’ or ‘x is not an element of the set A'.

The standard sets of numbers can be expressed in all the three forms of representation of a set i.e.,
statement form, roster form, set builder form.

1. N = Natural numbers

= Set of all numbers starting from 1 → Statement form

= Set of all numbers 1, 2, 3, ………..

= {1, 2, 3, …….} → Roster form

= {x :x is a counting number starting from 1} → Set builder form

Therefore, the set of natural numbers is denoted by N i.e., N = {1, 2, 3, …….}

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Standard Sets of Numbers

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The standard sets of numbers can be expressed in all the three forms of representation of a set i.e.,
statement form, roster form, set builder form.

1. N = Natural numbers

= Set of all numbers starting from 1 → Statement form

= Set of all numbers 1, 2, 3, ………..

= {1, 2, 3, …….} → Roster form

= {x :x is a counting number starting from 1} → Set builder form

Therefore, the set of natural numbers is denoted by N i.e., N = {1, 2, 3, …….}

2. W = Whole numbers

= Set containing zero and all natural numbers → Statement form

= {0, 1, 2, 3, …….} → Roster form

= {x :x is a zero and all natural numbers} → Set builder form

Therefore, the set of whole numbers is denoted by W i.e., W = {0, 1, 2, .......}

3. Z or I = Integers

= Set containing negative of natural numbers, zero and the natural numbers
→ Statement form

= {………, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …….} → Roster form

= {x :x is a containing negative of natural numbers, zero and the natural numbers}

→ Set builder form

Therefore, the set of integers is denoted by I or Z i.e., I = {...., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ….}

4. E = Even natural numbers.

 = Set of natural numbers, which are divisible by 2 → Statement form

= {2, 4, 6, 8, ……….} → Roster form

= {x :x is a natural number, which are divisible by 2} → Set builder form

Therefore, the set of even natural numbers is denoted by E i.e., E = {2, 4, 6, 8,.......}

5. O = Odd natural numbers.

= Set of natural numbers, which are not divisible by 2 → Statement form

= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ……….} → Roster form

= {x :x is a natural number, which are not divisible by 2} → Set builder form

Therefore, the set of odd natural numbers is denoted by O i.e., O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9,.......}

Therefore, almost every standard sets of numbers can be expressed in all the three methods as
discussed above.

What are the different types of sets?

The different types of sets are explained below with examples.

Empty Set or Null Set:

A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set, or the null set or the void set and it is
denoted by ∅ and is read as phi. In roster form, ∅ is denoted by {}. An empty set is a finite set, since the
number of elements in an empty set is finite, i.e., 0.

For example: (a) The set of whole numbers less than 0.

(b) Clearly there is no whole number less than 0.

Therefore, it is an empty set.

(c) N = {x : x ∈ N, 3 < x < 4}

• Let A = {x : 2 < x < 3, x is a natural number}

Here A is an empty set because there is no natural number between

2 and 3.

• Let B = {x : x is a composite number less than 4}.

Here B is an empty set because there is no composite number less than 4.

Note:

∅ ≠ {0} ∴ has no element.

{0} is a set which has one element 0.

The cardinal number of an empty set, i.e., n(∅) = 0

Singleton Set:

A set which contains only one element is called a singleton set.

For example:

• A = {x : x is neither prime nor composite}

It is a singleton set containing one element, i.e., 1.

• B = {x : x is a whole number, x < 1}

This set contains only one element 0 and is a singleton set.

• Let A = {x : x ∈ N and x² = 4}

Here A is a singleton set because there is only one element 2 whose square is 4.

• Let B = {x : x is a even prime number}

Here B is a singleton set because there is only one prime number which is even, i.e., 2.

Finite Set:

A set which contains a definite number of elements is called a finite set. Empty set is also called a finite
set.

For example:

• The set of all colors in the rainbow.

• N = {x : x ∈ N, x < 7}
• P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...... 97}

Infinite Set:

The set whose elements cannot be listed, i.e., set containing never-ending elements is called an infinite
set.

For example:

• Set of all points in a plane

• A = {x : x ∈ N, x > 1}

• Set of all prime numbers

• B = {x : x ∈ W, x = 2n}

Note:

All infinite sets cannot be expressed in roster form.

For example:

The set of real numbers since the elements of this set do not follow any particular pattern.
Cardinal Number of a Set:

The number of distinct elements in a given set A is called the cardinal number of A. It is denoted by n(A).

For example:

• A {x : x ∈ N, x < 5}

A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Therefore, n(A) = 4

• B = set of letters in the word ALGEBRA

B = {A, L, G, E, B, R}

Therefore, n(B) = 6

Equivalent Sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if their cardinal number is same, i.e., n(A) = n(B). The symbol
for denoting an equivalent set is ‘↔’.
For example:

A = {1, 2, 3} Here n(A) = 3

B = {p, q, r} Here n(B) = 3

Therefore, A ↔ B

Equal sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain the same elements. Every element of A is an
element of B and every element of B is an element of A.

For example:

A = {p, q, r, s}

B = {p, s, r, q}

Therefore, A = B

The various types of sets and their definitions are explained above with the help of examples.
The relations are stated between the pairs of sets. Learn to state, giving reasons whether the following
sets are equivalent or equal, disjoint or overlapping.

Equal Set:

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if all the elements of set A are in set B and vice versa. The symbol
to denote an equal set is =.

A = B means set A is equal to set B and set B is equal to set A.

For example;

A = {2, 3, 5}

B = {5, 2, 3}

Here, set A and set B are equal sets.

Equivalent Set:
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent sets if they contain the same number of elements. The symbol
to denote equivalent set is ↔.

A ↔ means set A and set B contain the same number of elements.

For example;

A = {p, q, r}

B = {2, 3, 4}

Here, we observe that both the sets contain three elements.

Notes:

Equal sets are always equivalent.

Equivalent sets may not be equal.

Disjoint Sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint, if they do not have any element in common.
For example;

A = {x : x is a prime number}

B = {x : x is a composite number}.

Clearly, A and B do not have any element in common and are disjoint sets.

Overlapping sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be overlapping if they contain at least one element in common.

For example;

• A = {a, b, c, d}

B = {a, e, i, o, u}

• X = {x : x ∈ N, x < 4}

Y = {x : x ∈ I, -1 < x < 4}

Here, the two sets contain three elements in common, i.e., (1, 2, 3)
The above explanations will help us to find whether the pairs of sets are equal sets or equivalent sets,
disjoint sets or overlapping sets.

Definition of Subset:

If A and B are two sets, and every element of set A is also an element of set B, then A is called a subset of
B and we write it as A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A

The symbol ⊂ stands for ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’

• Every set is a subset of itself, i.e., A ⊂ A, B ⊂ B.

• Empty set is a subset of every set.

• Symbol ‘⊆’ is used to denote ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’.

• A ⊆ B means A is a subset of B or A is contained in B.

• B ⊆ A means B contains A.
For example;

1. Let A = {2, 4, 6}

B = {6, 4, 8, 2}

Here A is a subset of B

Since, all the elements of set A are contained in set B.

But B is not the subset of A

Since, all the elements of set B are not contained in set A.

Notes:

If ACB and BCA, then A = B, i.e., they are equal sets.

Every set is a subset of itself.

Null set or ∅ is a subset of every set.

2. The set N of natural numbers is a subset of the set Z of integers and we write N ⊂ Z.
3. Let A = {2, 4, 6}

B = {x : x is an even natural number less than 8}

Here A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.

Hence, we can say A = B

4. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

B = {4, 5, 6, 7}

Here A ⊄ B and also B ⊄ C

[⊄ denotes ‘not a subset of’]

Super Set:

Whenever a set A is a subset of set B, we say the B is a superset of A and we write, B ⊇ A.

Symbol ⊇ is used to denote ‘is a super set of’

For example;

A = {a, e, i, o, u}

B = {a, b, c, ............., z}

Here A ⊆ B i.e., A is a subset of B but B ⊇ A i.e., B is a super set of A

Proper Subset:

If A and B are two sets, then A is called the proper subset of B if A ⊆ B but B ⊇ A i.e., A ≠ B. The symbol
‘⊂’ is used to denote proper subset. Symbolically, we write A ⊂ B.

For example;

1. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Here n(A) = 4

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Here n(B) = 5

We observe that, all the elements of A are present in B but the element ‘5’ of B is not present in A.

So, we say that A is a proper subset of B.

Symbolically, we write it as A ⊂ B

Notes:

No set is a proper subset of itself.

Null set or ∅ is a proper subset of every set.

2. A = {p, q, r}

B = {p, q, r, s, t}

Here A is a proper subset of B as all the elements of set A are in set B and also A ≠ B.

Notes:

No set is a proper subset of itself.

Empty set is a proper subset of every set.

Power Set:

The collection of all subsets of set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted by P(A). In P(A), every
element is a set.

For example;

If A = {p, q} then all the subsets of A will be

P(A) = {∅, {p}, {q}, {p, q}}

Number of elements of P(A) = n[P(A)] = 4 = 22

In general, n[P(A)] = 2m where m is the number of elements in set A.

Universal Set

A set which contains all the elements of other given sets is called a universal set. The symbol for
denoting a universal set is ∪ or ξ.

For example;

1. If A = {1, 2, 3} B = {2, 3, 4} C = {3, 5, 7}

then U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}

[Here A ⊆ U, B ⊆ U, C ⊆ U and U ⊇ A, U ⊇ B, U ⊇ C]

2. If P is a set of all whole numbers and Q is a set of all negative numbers then the universal set is a set of
all integers.

3. If A = {a, b, c} B = {d, e} C = {f, g, h, i}

then U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i} can be taken as universal set.

Definition of operations on sets:

When two or more sets combine together to form one set under the given conditions, then operations
on sets are carried out.

What are the four basic operations on sets?

Solution:

The four basic operations are:

1. Union of Sets

2. Intersection of sets

3. Complement of the Set

4. Cartesian Product of sets

Definition of Union of Sets:

Union of two given sets is the smallest set which contains all the elements of both the sets.

To find the union of two given sets A and B is a set which consists of all the elements of A and all the
elements of B such that no element is repeated.

The symbol for denoting union of sets is ‘∪’.

For example;

Let set A = {2, 4, 5, 6}

and set B = {4, 6, 7, 8}

Taking every element of both the sets A and B, without repeating any element, we get a new set = {2, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8}

This new set contains all the elements of set A and all the elements of set B with no repetition of
elements and is named as union of set A and B.
The symbol used for the union of two sets is ‘∪’.

Therefore, symbolically, we write union of the two sets A and B is A ∪ B which means A union B.

Therefore, A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Solved examples to find union of two given sets:

1. If A = {1, 3, 7, 5} and B = {3, 7, 8, 9}. Find union of two set A and B.

Solution:

A ∪ B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9}

No element is repeated in the union of two sets. The common elements 3, 7 are taken only once.

2. Let X = {a, e, i, o, u} and Y = {ф}. Find union of two given sets X and Y.

Solution:
X ∪ Y = {a, e, i, o, u}

Therefore, union of any set with an empty set is the set itself.

3. If set P = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, set Q = {0, 3, 6, 9, 12} and set R = {2, 4, 6, 8}.

(i) Find the union of sets P and Q

(ii) Find the union of two set P and R

(iii) Find the union of the given sets Q and R

Solution:

(i) Union of sets P and Q is P ∪ Q

The smallest set which contains all the elements of set P and all the elements of set Q is {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 9, 12}.

(ii) Union of two set P and R is P ∪ R

The smallest set which contains all the elements of set P and all the elements of set R is {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8}.
(iii) Union of the given sets Q and R is Q ∪ R

The smallest set which contains all the elements of set Q and all the elements of set R is {0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8,
9, 12}.

Notes:

A and B are the subsets of A ∪ B

The union of sets is commutative, i.e., A ∪ B = B ∪ A.

The operations are performed when the sets are expressed in roster form.

Some properties of the operation of union:

(i) A∪B = B∪A (Commutative law)

(ii) A∪(B∪C) = (A∪B)∪C (Associative law)

(iii) A ∪ ϕ = A (Law of identity element, is the identity of ∪)

(iv) A∪A = A (Idempotent law)

(v) U∪A = U (Law of ∪) ∪ is the universal set.

Notes:

A ∪ ϕ = ϕ ∪ A = A i.e. union of any set with the empty set is always the set itself.

Definition of Intersection of Sets:

Intersection of two given sets is the largest set which contains all the elements that are common to both
the sets.

To find the intersection of two given sets A and B is a set which consists of all the elements which are
common to both A and B.

The symbol for denoting intersection of sets is ‘∩‘.

For example:

Let set A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

and set B = {3, 5, 7, 9}

In this two sets, the elements 3 and 5 are common. The set containing these common elements i.e., {3,
5} is the intersection of set A and B.

The symbol used for the intersection of two sets is ‘∩‘.

Therefore, symbolically, we write intersection of the two sets A and B is A ∩ B which means A
intersection B.

The intersection of two sets A and B is represented as A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Solved examples to find intersection of two given sets:

1. If A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and B = {1, 3, 8, 4, 6}. Find intersection of two set A and B.

Solution:

A ∩ B = {4, 6, 8}

Therefore, 4, 6 and 8 are the common elements in both the sets.

2. If X = {a, b, c} and Y = {ф}. Find intersection of two given sets X and Y.

Solution:

X∩Y={}

3. If set A = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, set B = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18} and set C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

(i) Find the intersection of sets A and B.

(ii) Find the intersection of two set B and C.

(iii) Find the intersection of the given sets A and C.

Solution:

(i) Intersection of sets A and B is A ∩ B

Set of all the elements which are common to both set A and set B is {6, 12}.

(ii) Intersection of two set B and C is B ∩ C

Set of all the elements which are common to both set B and set C is {3, 6, 9}.

(iii) Intersection of the given sets A and C is A ∩ C

Set of all the elements which are common to both set A and set C is {4, 6, 8, 10}.

Notes:

A ∩ B is a subset of A and B.

Intersection of a set is commutative, i.e., A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

Operations are performed when the set is expressed in the roster form.

Some properties of the operation of intersection

(i) A∩B = B∩A (Commutative law)

(ii) (A∩B)∩C = A∩ (B∩C) (Associative law)

(iii) ϕ ∩ A = ϕ (Law of ϕ)

(iv) U∩A = A (Law of ∪)

(v) A∩A = A (Idempotent law)

(vi) A∩(B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) (Distributive law) Here ∩ distributes over ∪

Also, A∪(B∩C) = (AUB) ∩ (AUC) (Distributive law) Here ∪ distributes over ∩

Notes:

A ∩ ϕ = ϕ ∩ A = ϕ i.e. intersection of any set with the empty set is always the empty set.

How to find the difference of two sets?

If A and B are two sets, then their difference is given by A - B or B - A.

• If A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6}

A - B means elements of A which are not the elements of B.

i.e., in the above example A - B = {2, 3}

In general, B - A = {x : x ∈ B, and x ∉ A}

• If A and B are disjoint sets, then A – B = A and B – A = B

Solved examples to find the difference of two sets:

1. A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6}.

Find the difference between the two sets:

(i) A and B

(ii) B and A

Solution:

The two sets are disjoint as they do not have any elements in common.

(i) A - B = {1, 2, 3} = A

(ii) B - A = {4, 5, 6} = B

2. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and B = {b, d, f, g}.

Find the difference between the two sets:

(i) A and B

(ii) B and A

Solution:

(i) A - B = {a, c, e}

Therefore, the elements a, c, e belong to A but not to B

(ii) B - A = {g)

Therefore, the element g belongs to B but not A.

3. Given three sets P, Q and R such that:

P = {x : x is a natural number between 10 and 16},

Q = {y : y is a even number between 8 and 20} and

R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}

(i) Find the difference of two sets P and Q

(ii) Find Q - R

(iii) Find R - P

(iv) Find Q – P

Solution:

According to the given statements:

P = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}

Q = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18}

R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}

(i) P – Q = {Those elements of set P which are not in set Q}

= {11, 13, 15}

(ii) Q – R = {Those elements of set Q not belonging to set R}

 = {10, 12, 16}

(iii) R – P = {Those elements of set R which are not in set P}

= {7, 9, 18, 20}

(iv) Q – P = {Those elements of set Q not belonging to set P}

= {10, 16, 18}

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Complement of a Set

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In complement of a set if ξ be the universal set and A a subset of ξ, then the complement of A is the set
of all elements of ξ which are not the elements of A.

Symbolically, we denote the complement of A with respect to ξ as A’.

For Example; If ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

A = {1, 3, 7} find A'.

Solution:
We observe that 2, 4, 5, 6 are the only elements of ξ which do not belong to A.

Therefore, A' = {2, 4, 5, 6}

Note:

The complement of a universal set is an empty set.

The complement of an empty set is a universal set.

The set and its complement are disjoint sets.

For Example;

1. Let the set of natural numbers be the universal set and A is a set of even natural numbers,

then A' {x: x is a set of odd natural numbers}

2. Let ξ = The set of letters in the English alphabet.

A = The set of consonants in the English alphabet

then A' = The set of vowels in the English alphabet.

3. Show that;

(a) The complement of a universal set is an empty set.

Let ξ denote the universal set, then

ξ' = The set of those elements which are not in ξ.

= empty set = ϕ

Therefore, ξ = ϕ so the complement of a universal set is an empty set.

(b) A set and its complement are disjoint sets.

Let A be any set then A' = set of those elements of ξ which are not in A'.

Let x ∉ A, then x is an element of ξ not contained in A'

So x ∉ A'

Therefore, A and A' are disjoint sets.

Therefore, Set and its complement are disjoint sets

Similarly, in complement of a set when U be the universal set and A is a subset of U. Then the
complement of A is the set all elements of U which are not the elements of A.

Symbolically, we write A' to denote the complement of A with respect to U.

Thus, A' = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A}

Obviously A' = {U - A}

For Example; Let U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16}

A = {6, 10, 4, 16}

A' = {2, 8, 12, 14}

We observe that 2, 8, 12, 14 are the only elements of U which do not belong to A.

Some properties of complement sets

(i) A ∪ A' = A' ∪ A = ∪ (Complement law)

(ii) (A ∩ B') = ϕ (Complement law)

(iii) (A ∪ B) = A' ∩ B' (De Morgan’s law)

(iv) (A ∩ B)' = A' ∪ B' (De Morgan’s law)

(v) (A')' = A (Law of complementation)

(vi) ϕ' = ∪ (Law of empty set

(vii) ∪' = ϕ and universal set)