Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms.

Carrillo

Section 2.1 – Basic Set Concepts

We tend to place things in categories, which allows us to order and structure the world. Our minds
cannot find order and meaning without creating collections. Mathematicians call such collections sets.
 A set is a collection of objects whose contents can be clearly determined.
 The objects in a set are called the elements, or members, of the set.
 A set must be well-defined, meaning that its contents can be clearly determined.
Example: Is the collection of Academy-Award-winning actors a set? What about the collection
of great actors?

Capital letters are generally used to name sets. Let’s use W to represent the set of the days of the
week. What are the elements of set W?

Three methods are commonly used to designate a set:

1. Word Description involves describing the set in words:

2. Roster Method involves listing the elements of a set inside a pair of braces, { }. Use commas to
separate the elements of the set. So we can designate the set W by listing its elements:

Note: Symbols like parentheses ( ) and square brackets [ ] are not used to represent sets, and
only commas are used to separate the elements, not colons or semicolons.

3. Set-Builder Notation: W  {x | x is a day of the week}

We read this notation as “Set W is the set of all elements x such that x is a day of the week.”
Before the vertical line is the variable x, which represents an element in general. After the
vertical line is the condition x must meet in order to be an element of the set.

Example. Given the set A = {x | x is a month that begins with the letter M}, express it using

1. Word Description:

2. Roster Method:

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Example. Given the set O = {x | x is a positive odd number less than 10}, express it using

1. Word Description:

2. Roster Method:

Example. Set L is the set of all lowercase letters of the English alphabet. Express L using:

1. Roster Method:

2. Set-Builder Notation:

The Empty Set

Now consider the set {x | x is a number greater than 10 and less than 4}. What are its elements?
The empty set, also called the null set, is the set that contains no elements. The empty set is represented
by { } or ø . The empty set is not represented by { ø } . This notation represents a set containing the
element ø .

Example. Which of the following is an empty set?

a. { 0 }

b. 0

c. { x | x is a number less than 4 or greater than 10 }

d. { x | x is a square with exactly three sides}

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Notations for Set Membership

The symbol ∈ is used to indicate that an object is an element of a set. The symbol ∈ is used to replace
the words “is an element of.”

The symbol ∉ is used to indicate that an object is not an element of a set. The symbol ∉ is used to
replace the words “is not an element of.”

Example. Determine whether each statement is true or false:

a. r ∈ { a, b, c, … , z }

b. 7 ∉ { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }

c. { a } ∈ { a, b }

d. Monday ∈ {x | x is a day of the week}

Sets of Natural Numbers

The set of counting numbers is also called the set of natural numbers. We represent this set by the bold
face letter N.
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}
The ellipsis after the 5 indicates that there is no final element and that the listing goes on forever.

Example. Express each of the following sets using the roster method:

a. Set A is the set of natural numbers less than 5.

b. Set B is the set of natural numbers greater than or equal to 25.

c. E = { x | x ∈ N and x is even }

d. { x | x ∈ N and x > 100 }

e. { x | x ∈ N and 70 ≤ x < 100 }

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Cardinality and Equivalent Sets

The number of elements in a set is called the cardinal number, or cardinality, of the set. For example,
the set { a, e, i, o, u } contains five elements and therefore has the cardinal number 5. We can also say
that the set has a cardinality of 5.

Definition. The cardinal number of set A, represented by n ( A ) , is the number of distinct elements
in set A. The symbol n ( A ) is read “n of A.”

Example. Find the cardinal number of each of the following sets:

a. A = { 7,9,11,13 } b. B = { 0 }

c. C = { 3, 5, 5, 7, 7, 7 } d. ∅

Definition. Set A is equivalent to set B means that set A and set B contain the same number of
elements. For equivalent sets, n ( A ) = n ( B ).

Here is an example of two equivalent sets:

A = { x | x is a vowel } = { a, e, i, o, u }
    
B = { x | x ∈ N and 3 ≤ x ≤ 7 } = {3,4,5,6,7}

The lines with arrowheads, ↕ , indicate that each element of set A can be paired with exactly one
element of set B and each element of set B can be paired with exactly one element of set A. We say that
the sets can be placed in a one-to-one correspondence.

One-To-One Correspondences and Equivalent Sets

1. If set A and set B can be placed in a one-to-one correspondence, then A is equivalent to B:
n (A ) = n ( B ) .
2. If set A and set B cannot be placed in a one-to-one correspondence, then A is not equivalent to B:
n(A)≠n(B).

Example. Consider the following info:

 Joe is 6 feet tall. Let A = the set of the four men.
 John is 5’10” tall.
 Ryan is 5’8” tall. Let B = the set of their heights.
 Todd is 6 feet tall.

Are these sets equivalent?

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

If there is not a one-to-one correspondence, the sets have different cardinalities and are not equivalent.
Although this idea is obvious in the case of finite sets, some unusual conclusions emerge when dealing
with infinite sets.

Finite and Infinite Sets

Set A is a finite set if n ( A ) = 0 (that is, A is the empty set) or n ( A ) is a natural number. A set whose
cardinality is not 0 or a natural number is called an infinite set.

An example of an infinite set is the set of natural numbers N = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , … } , where the

ellipsis indicates that there is no last, or final, element.

Example. Determine whether each set is finite or infinite:

1. {x | x  N and x  100}

2. {x | x  N and x  1,000,000}

Definition. Set A is equal to set B means that set A and set B contain exactly the same elements,
regardless of order or possible repetition of elements. We symbolize the equality of sets A and B using
the statement A = B .

Example. Are the following pairs of sets equal? Equivalent?

1. A = {w, x, y, z} 2. W = {1, 2, 3}

B = {z, y, x, w} V = {0, 1, 2, 3}

Important point: What conclusion can you make on the relationship between equal and equivalent sets?

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Section 2.2 – Subsets

We can divide any set into smaller sets based on categories of interest. For example, a Harris poll
conducted in 2008 estimated that 32 million Americans, 14% of the population, have at least one tattoo.
The set of tattooed Americans can be examined by dividing it up into smaller sets, subsets, like age
groups or gender. Then each subset can be broken into still-smaller subsets. For example, tattooed
American males can be categorized by race/ethnicity, political affiliation, or any other area of interest.

Situations in which all the elements of one set are also elements of another set are described by the
following definition:

Definition. Set A is a subset of set B, expressed as A ⊆ B, if every element in set A is also an element
in set B.

The notation A  B means that A is not a subset of B. Set A is not a subset of set B if there is at least
one element of set A that is not an element of set B.

Example. Use subset notation and decide is A is a subset of B.

1. Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11} and let B = {1, 3, 5, 7}.

2. Let A = {x | x is a letter in the word roof} and let B = {y | y is a letter in the word proof}.

3. Let A = {x | x is a day of the week} and let

B = {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday}.

Proper Subsets
In example 3 above, the given sets are equal, which illustrates that every set is a subset of itself. If A is
any set, then A ⊆ A because it is obvious that each element of A is a member of A. If we know that set
A is a subset of set B and we exclude the possibility of the sets being equal, then set A is called a proper
subset of set B, written A ⊂ B.

Definition. Set A is a proper subset of set B, expressed as A ⊂ B , if set A is a subset of set B and sets
A and B are not equal ( A ≠ B ).

Try not to confuse the symbols for subset, ⊆ , and proper subset, ⊂. Because the lower part of the
subset symbol in A ⊆ B suggests an equal sign, it is possible that sets A and B are equal, although they
do not have to be. By contrast, the missing lower line for the proper subset symbol in A ⊂ B indicates
that sets A and B cannot be equal.

Example. Choose the correct symbol, either ⊆ or ⊂, to fill in the blanks below:

1. {1, 3, 5} _____ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} 2. {1, 3, 5} _____ {1, 3, 5}

3. Let A = { } and B = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 } . Is A a subset of B?

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Example 3 illustrates the principle that the empty set is a subset of every set. Furthermore the empty
set is a proper subset of every set except itself. Hence, we have
1. For any set B, ∅ ⊆ B , and
2. For any set B other than the empty set, ∅ ⊂ B.

The Number of Subsets of a Given Set.

If a set contains n elements, how many subsets can be formed? Make a list of subsets in a table below.

Set # of Elements List of All Subsets # of Subsets

What is happening to the number of subsets as the set increases by one element?

Thus, the number of subsets of a set with n elements is ___________.

And, we know that every subset except the set itself is a proper subset. Thus, the number of proper

subsets of a set with n elements is ____________.

Example. Find the number of subsets and the number of proper subsets for each set:

1. {a, b, c, d, e}

2. { x | x ∈ N and 3 ≤ x ≤ 8 }

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Section 2.3 – Venn Diagrams and Set Operations

We can obtain a more thorough understanding of sets and their relationship to a universal set by
considering diagrams that allow visual analysis. Venn diagrams, named for the British logician John
Venn (1834–1923), are used to show the visual relationship among sets. In discussing sets, it is
convenient to refer to a general set that contains all elements under discussion. This general set is called
the universal set. A universal set, symbolized by U, is a set that contains all the elements being
considered in a given discussion or problem.

Construct a basic Venn diagram. The universal set is represented by a region inside a rectangle. Subsets
within the universal set are depicted by circles, or sometimes by ovals or other shapes. In this Venn
diagram, shade in circle A. Set A is represented by the shaded region inside the circle.

The unshaded region inside the rectangle represents the set of elements in
the universal set U that are not in set A. By combining the shaded region,
as well as the unshaded region, we obtain the universal set, U.

Example. Use the Venn diagram given to determine each of the following sets:
1. U =

2. A =

3. set of elements in U that are not in A =

Representing TWO Sets in a Venn Diagram

1. Disjoint Sets: Two sets that have no elements in common

are called disjoint sets. Disjoint sets are represented as circles
that do not overlap. No elements of set A are elements of set B,
and vice versa.

2. Proper Subsets: ( A ⊂ B ) All elements of set A are elements

of set B. If an x representing an element is placed inside circle A,
it automatically falls inside circle B.

3. Equal Sets: If A = B, then set A contains exactly the same elements

as set B. Because all elements in set A are in set B, and vice versa,
this diagram illustrates that when A = B , then A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A .

4. Sets with Some Common Elements: In mathematics, the word

some means there exists at least one. If set A and set B have
at least one element in common, then the circles representing
the sets must overlap.

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Example. Given the following Venn diagram with regions I, II, III, and IV, determine each of the sets:
1. A =

2. set of elements in B but not A =

3. set of elements in U that are not in A =

4. set of elements in U that are not in A or B =

Definition. The complement of set A, symbolized A ′, is the set of all elements in the universal set that
are not in A. This idea can be expressed in set-builder notation as follows:
A ′ = { x | x ∈ U and x ∉ A }.

In order to find A ′, a universal set U must be given. A fast way to find A ′ is to cross out the elements in
U that are given to be in set A. A ′ is the set that remains.

Example. Let U = { a, b, c, d, e } and A = { a, d } . Find A ′.

Helpful tip: Sometimes the solution is easier to visualize using a Venn diagram.

Definition. The intersection of sets A and B, written A ∩ B, is the set of elements common to both set
A and set B. This definition can be expressed in set-builder notation as follows:
A ∩ B = { x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B }.

To find the intersection of two sets, list the common elements of both sets. Because the intersection of
two sets is also a set, we enclose these elements with braces.

Example. Find each of the following intersections:

a. { 1, 3, 5, 7, 10 } ∩ { 6 , 7 , 10 , 11 }

b. { 1, 2, 3 } ∩ { 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 }

c. { 1 , 2, 3 } ∩ ∅

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Definition: The union of sets A and B, written A ∪ B , is the set of elements that are members of set A
or of set B or of both sets. This definition can be expressed in set-builder notation as follows:
A ∪ B = { x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B }.

We can find the union of set A and set B by listing the elements of set A. Then, we include any elements
of set B that have not already been listed. Enclose all elements that are listed with braces. This shows
that the union of two sets is also a set.

Example. Find each of the following unions:

a. { 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 }  { 6 , 8 , 10 , 12 }

b. { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 }  { 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 }

c. { 1 , 3 , 5, 7 , 9 }  ∅

Example. For any set A, find the following:

a. A ∩ ∅ =

b. A ∪ ∅ =

Example. Given U = { a, b, c, d, e }, A = { b, c }, and B = { b, c, e }, find each of the following sets:

Helpful tip: Always begin by performing any operations inside parentheses. Sometimes the solution is
easier to visualize using a Venn diagram.

a. (A ∪ B ) ′ =

b. A ′ ∩ Β ′ =

c. A ∪ B’ =

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

The Cardinal Number of the Union of Two Finite Sets

Refer to the Venn diagram. Can the number of elements
in A or B, n(A∪B) , be determined by adding the number
of elements in A and the number of elements in B,
n(A) + n(B)?

Formula. n(A∪B) =

Example. Some of the results of the campus blood drive survey indicated that 490 students were
willing to donate blood, 340 students were willing to help serve a free breakfast to blood donors, and
120 students were willing to donate blood and serve breakfast. How many students were willing to
donate blood or serve breakfast?

Example. The admissions department at a college looked at the registration of 500 of its students and
found the following results: 244 students were registered in a mathematics class, 230 students were
registered in an English class, and 89 students were registered in a math class and an English class. How
many students were registered in a math class or an English class?

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Section 2.4 – Set Operations and Venn Diagrams with Three Sets

Example. Given U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {1, 2, 3, 6, 8}, and C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Find each of the following:
a. A  B  C 

b.  A  B   A  C 

c. A  B  C'

Example. Use the given Venn diagram to determine each of the following sets:

a. A

b. A  B

c. B  C

d. C’

e. A B C

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Example. Construct a Venn diagram illustrating the following sets:

A = {a, d, e, g, h, i, j}
B = {b, e, g, h, l}
C = {a, c, e, h}
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l}

Example. Use a Venn diagram to prove that  A  B'  A '  B ' .

De Morgan’s Laws
1.  A  B'  A '  B '
The complement of the union of two sets is the intersection of the complements of those sets.

2.  A  B '  A '  B '

The complement of the intersection of two sets is the union of the complements of those sets.

Example. Given the following Venn diagrams, use the symbols for union, intersection, and
complement to describe each shaded region.

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Section 2.5 – Survey Problems

Example. In a survey on musical tastes, respondents were asked: Do you listen to classical music? So
you listen to jazz? The survey results are summarized in the given Venn diagram.

a. How many respondents listened to classical music?

b. How many respondents listened to jazz?

c. How many respondents listened to both classical music and jazz?

d. How many respondents listened to classical music or jazz?

e. How many respondents listened to classical music but not jazz?

f. How many respondents listened to jazz but not classical music?

g. How many respondents listened to neither classical music nor jazz?

h. How many people were surveyed?

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Math 100 – Lecture Notes Chapter 2 Ms. Carrillo

Steps to Solve Survey Problems

1. Use the survey’s description to define sets and draw a Venn diagram.
2. Use the survey’s results to determine the cardinality of each region in the Venn diagram. Start
with the intersection of the sets, the innermost region, and work outward.
3. Use the completed Venn diagram to answer the problem’s questions.

Example. In a Gallup pool, 2000 U.S. adults were selected at random and asked to agree or disagree
with the following statement: Job opportunities for women are not equal to those for men.
The results of the survey showed that
1190 people agreed with the statement, and 700 women agreed with the statement.
If half the people surveyed were women,
a. How many men agreed with the statement?
b. How many men disagreed with the statement?

Example. A survey of 80 college students was taken to determine the musical styles they listened to.
42 students listened to rock, 34 to classical, and 27 to jazz. Twelve students listened to rock and jazz, 14
to rock and classical, and 10 to classical and jazz. Seven students listened to all three musical styles.
a. How many listened to only rock music?

b. How many listened to classical and jazz, but not rock?

c. How many listened to classical or jazz, but not rock?

d. How many did not listen to any of the musical styles?

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