Useofsocialnetworkingsites SNSsanditsrepercussionsonsleepqualitypsychosocialbehavioracademicperformanceandcircadianrhythmofhumans

Biological Rhythm Research
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Use of social networking sites (SNSs) and its

repercussions on sleep quality, psychosocial
behavior, academic performance and circadian
rhythm of humans – a brief review
Rakesh Kumar Swain & Atanu Kumar Pati
To cite this article: Rakesh Kumar Swain & Atanu Kumar Pati (2019): Use of social networking
sites (SNSs) and its repercussions on sleep quality, psychosocial behavior, academic
performance and circadian rhythm of humans – a brief review, Biological Rhythm Research, DOI:
10.1080/09291016.2019.1620487
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BIOLOGICAL RHYTHM RESEARCH
https://doi.org/10.1080/09291016.2019.1620487
REVIEW ARTICLE
Use of social networking sites (SNSs) and its repercussions

on sleep quality, psychosocial behavior, academic
performance and circadian rhythm of humans – a brief
review
a a,b,c
Rakesh Kumar Swain and Atanu Kumar Pati
a
School of Zoology, Gangadhar Meher University, Amruta Vihar, Sambalpur, India; bSchool of Studies in
Life Science, Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, India; cCenter for Translational Chronobiology,
Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, India
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Social networking sites (SNSs) confer countless benefits to man- Received 15 May 2019
kind through increased communication and connection between Accepted 2 September 2019
and among millions of people on the globe. Do the detrimental KEYWORDS
effects of SNSs outweigh its benefits? We have tried to answer this Social networking sites;
question through reviewing the relevant literature on the reper- sleep quality; academic
cussions of use of SNSs on sleep quality, psychosocial behavior, performance; circadian
academic performance and circadian rhythm in humans. Literature rhythm; chronotype
on the subject underscores the adverse effects of SNSs usage on
sleep resulting in poor sleep quality, delayed sleep onset, short-
ening of sleep length, excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), insom-
nia, apnea and nightmare. The students addicted to social media
suffer from psychiatric distress, anxiety, depression, low self-
esteem, suicidal ideation, procrastination and poor academic
attainment. There is, however, a paucity of literature on the effects
of overuse of SNSs on the functioning of circadian clocks in
humans. It emerged that the adolescents and young adults are
the most vulnerable to the ill effects of excessive use of the SNSs.
We recommend that more researches on the effects of SNSs on
human health should be carried out and effective awareness
campaigns should be launched to educate the people about the
darker side of the excessive use of SNSs.
1. Introduction
The Homo sapiens are innovators. They developed various tools and techniques for
themselves and also for the welfare of society. All tools and techniques are collectively
called as technology. The lifestyle of today’s man is technology dependent. The tech-
nologies play an important role in several sectors, such as industry, health care, educa-
tion, business, trade and day-to-day life of an individual. One of the technologies, the
“Internet” was developed just a few years back. It started playing a crucial role in human
life and at this moment it solves many of their problems. The smartphone is one of the
CONTACT Atanu Kumar Pati [email protected] Gangadhar Meher University, Amruta Vihar, Sambalpur,
Odisha, India
© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 R. KUMAR SWAIN AND A. K. PATI
greatest inventions of the contemporary century. The people get instant access to the
Internet through these phones. One can have information on any subject and of any-
thing almost instantly using the smartphones.
There were about 4.4 billion active Internet users worldwide until April 2019 (Statista;
www.statista.com). China, India and the United States together have the maximum
number of Internet users. The Internet has penetrated deep into human life as
a source of information, trade and communication (Sahin 2018). That is why the 21st
century is also called as the “Era of the Internet”. The Internet facilitates people’s
participation in social networking sites (SNSs) and online trading sites. It has dramatically
changed the way of communication among the peoples (Sahin 2018).
The SNSs allow their registered members to interact with each other. The members
send and exchange messages, pictures and videos to others and among themselves.
Instant interaction is possible between any two individuals or among a group of
individuals located anywhere in the world (Ryan et al. 2014; Vashishtha et al. 2017).
These SNSs include Facebook, YouTube, WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, WeChat,
Instagram, QQ, QZone, Douyin/Tik Tok, Sina Weibo, Reddit, Twitter, Douban, LinkedIn,
Baidu Tieba, Skype, Snapchat, Viber, Pinterest, Discord and so on. Figure 1 depicts the
top 12 social media as of April 2019. Of those, the Facebook is the most widely used SNS;
it has about 2.2 billion monthly active users till this time (Figure 2; https://dustn.tv/
social-media-statistics/). In 2010, there were 0.97 billion SNSs users. This number is
expected to rise to 3.02 billion in 2021 (www.statista.com). This amounts to almost 211-
fold increase in the number of SNSs users a little over a decade. India has the maximum
number of FB users in the world; the number of Indian users touched 260 million mark
Figure 1. The statistics cards of 12 top social media (Reproduced with permission from https://dustn.
tv/social-media-statistics/).
BIOLOGICAL RHYTHM RESEARCH 3
Monthly Active Users (in Billion)

2.5
1.5
0.5
Figure 2. Monthly active users (expressed in billion) in top 10 social media (based on the statistics
cards shown in Figure 1).
Figure 3. Leading countries apropos number of Facebook users as of April 2019 (in millions). Open
source; downloaded from https://www.statista.com/on 12 May 2019.
as of April 2019 (Figure 3; www.statista.com). In another estimates, India is likely to have

627 million Internet users by the end of 2019 (Kantar IMRB ICUBE report - Internet in
India 2019).
Smart features, attractive backgrounds or themes, symbols and functional buttons on
SNSs, such as in LINE, WhatsApp and others attract the young and adolescents to spend
more time on playing games, chatting and messaging activities (Luke and Evelina 2017).
These social networking apps enable users to share information, images, videos, photos,
ideas and greetings. The users can also make voice and video calls. They can create
groups consisting of friends and like-minded people and communicate among the
members of the group. Nowadays, it is observed that most of the young adults are
using SNSs without any inhibition as these sites provide a platform where they can
connect to their peers without adult surveillance (Livingstone 2008). With the help of
smartphones and portable devices, most of the students stay online throughout day and
night due to the ubiquity of Wi-Fi and 4G technology (Rosen et al. 2013; Leep et al. 2015;
Terry 2015). These young pupils are highly skilled in using any form of social media and
technical media; one can say that they are multitaskers, social networkers and they are
the first to rush into any new technology (Rosen et al. 2010).
Excessive use of social media makes the users addicted to the Internet (Kuss and Ve
Griffiths 2012). Sometimes the users of the SNSs due to their excessive indulgence in
Internet browsing forget to discharge their work and social responsibilities. Addicted
individuals become covertly restless if they do not get access to the SNSs. In recent
times, social media addiction has become a very problematic issue among teens and
adolescents.
However, it has also been argued that moderate social media usage alleviate stress,
loneliness or depression in an individual. But, excessive use of the SNSs may create
problems and is likely to exacerbate unnecessary mental states in an individual (Xu and
Tan 2012). The social media use may incite aggression, personality disorder, an unwho-
lesome diet, early sexuality, and tobacco/alcohol abuse in the young populace (Brown
and Bobkowski 2011).
Humans are basically sociable. The extent of socialization may vary. Most of the
humans prefer not to stay in isolation. Humans always have the desire to stay
connected and networked with others. In the advent of the Internet, the people
got an excellent opportunity to become socially active through SNSs. There are
numerous SNSs platforms that people use to make new relationships. In these SNSs
platforms, there is no need for a personal handshake or face-to-face meeting. The
SNSs have grown in numbers by leaps and bounds (https://makeawebsitehub.com/
social-media-sites/). The negative aspects of SNSs cannot be ignored that encourage
negative behavior in teens, such as an increase in procrastination and a rise in drugs/
alcohol abuse (Sahill 2011).
Health organizations nowadays prefer social media as the best platform to com-
municate, share information regarding health and educate people about health-
related issues (Moreno 2013; Valle et al. 2013; Menon et al. 2014; Rice et al. 2014;
Laranjo et al. 2015). The SNSs provide a platform for many adolescents where they
express their feelings, and they like/dislike what they post on social media. Through
SNSs, they express their views to known and unknown recipients, and in addition,
they get the feedback which stimulates them to be engaged more and more in the
social media.
It appears that SNSs confer countless benefits to mankind through increased com-
munication and connection between and among millions of people on the globe. Do
the detrimental effects of SNSs outweigh its benefits? We have tried to answer this
question through reviewing the relevant literature on the repercussions of use of SNSs
Table 1. Literature on the relationship between use of social networking sites (SNSs) and sleep quality, psychosocial variables, academic performance and
circadian rhythm.
Subject and
S. no. Area of research gender Age Subject type Method/variable used Location Result Reference
Sleep quality
Facebook addiction 300 (184 M, Students BFAS and PHQ9 Bangladesh 39.7% had FA, less physical activity, Al Mamun and
and depression 116 F) sleep problems and showed Griffiths 2019
depression symptoms.
Impact of SNS on sleep 286 (182 M, Average: Medical PSQI and Questionnaire Saudi Arabia Females used WhatsApp and Asiri et al. 2018
quality 104 F) 22.1 ± 1.6 students Twitter at a significantly higher
y rate than males and had poor
sleep quality.
FB use and sleep 21 F 18–23 y UG students PSQI The UK Light emitted from I-pad before Bowler and
quality sleep had a significant impact on Bourke 2018
sleep quality of subjects.
WhatsApp use and 306 >30 y Doctors and PSS-10, WhatsApp Malaysia Compared to males, female workers Ganasegeran et al.
sleep disturbances nurses Usage Characteristics showed higher excessive day 2017
Questionnaire time sleepiness disorder and
poor sleep quality.
Media exposure and 300 (150 M, 18–22 y Students PSQI and SF-36v2 Pakistan Found actively engaged in Muazzam and
health related 150 F) watching TV, using FB, other Ahmad 2017
quality of life media at late night. They
exhibited symptoms, like
getting day time sleepiness, and
sleeping late in light. Aging, poor
sleep quality and media
exposure were found to be
significant predictors of sleep
disturbances.
Pattern of sleep and 353 (218 M, 15.89 ± 1.93 Students BEARS Nigeria 42.8% adolescents engaged in Peter et al. 2017
sleep hygiene 135 F) y social media and used it till ˂ 1
h before bedtime. Watching TV,
playing video games and using
social media induced
disturbances in their sleep habit.
They reported suboptimal sleep.

(Continued)
5
6
Table 1. (Continued).
Subject and
Internet use and its 727 (53% M, 13 ± 0.9 y 7th- and 8th- IAT-Scale Portugal Students addicted to Internet Ferreira et al. 2017
relationship with 47% F) grade showed sleep disorder, mild
sleep disorder and students insomnia, excessive day time
excessive day time sleepiness and circadian rhythm
sleepiness desynchronization.
WhatsApp addiction 01 A lady (house Psychological test and India The subject suffered from bipolar Faye et al. 2016
personality disorder wife) Counseling disorder, aggressiveness and
sleep disturbance.
Internet use at work 250 (70% M, 30.4 y Employees Back ground data sheet India Employee spent 1.55 h in SNSs Shrivastava et al.
R. KUMAR SWAIN AND A. K. PATI
place 30% F) surfing during work place. 42% 2016

acknowledged that their work
postponed due to consumption
of most of their time in Internet
activity. 64% reported that their
work efficiency affected due to
nonwork-related Internet surfing.
Reported 1.6-h-delayed sleep at
night.
An association 1788 19–32 y Young adults Pew Internet Research The USA Authors reported social media Levenson et al.
between social (49.7% M, Questionnaire, addiction leading to sleep 2016
media use and sleep 50.3% F) PROMIS disorders.
disturbance
The impact of 259 13–21 y Adolescents ESS The USA Technology produced impact on Johansson et al.
technology on night time sleep and daytime 2016
adolescence sleep dysfunction among adolescence.
Prebedtime behaviors 146 16.2 ± 1.0 y Students Actigraphy, PBBQ and Australia Playing video games and online Harbard et al.
and Actigraphy MEQ SNS use led to shorter sleep. 2016
assessed sleep
Monitoring the life 1654 13–20 y Students from Self-questionnaire Elbasan, central FB users played violent online Cela et al. 2014
style and behavior (46.7% M, 8th to 12th Albania videogames, and used cold
53.3% F) grade weapons, stayed more time at
bar and stayed awake till late.
(Continued)
Subject and
Facebook addiction 9 (6 M, 3 F) 25–30 y Postgraduates Semistructured Malaysia FB addicts experienced disturbed Zaremohzzabieh
among university students of interview daily routine. They avoided social et al. 2014
postgraduate Universiti relationship, and ignored offline
students Putra responsibilities, and suffered
from sleep disorders.
Link between 418 respondents Average: 20.1 y Undergraduate PSQI, Questionnaire of Internet Peru
Facebook (96 M, 322 F) students Addiction
dependence and
poor sleep quality
Subjects addicted to Wolniczak
Facebook use et al. 2013
reported disturbed
sleep, and daytime
dysfunction.
Internet and social 134 HD 53 ± 13.4 y HD patients of Short Form of Medical Konya, Turkey Most of the patients had Facebook Afsar 2013
media usage and patients the state Outcomes Study (SF- account. SNS produced
the QoL among HD (73 M, 61 hospital 36), BDI, SMMSE, a beneficial effect on their sleep
patients F) PSQI quality. They had less depression
and better cognitive function.
Sleep patterns and 470 14 ± 0.8 y SSHS, EMFQ Israel Exhibited late bed times, short Shochat et al.
electronic media sleep duration and fatigue due 2010
to electronic media usage
Internet overuse and 2336 16.7 ± 1.0 y Students YIAT, ESS South Korea Most of the subjects suffered from Choi et al. 2009
EDS (1343 M, insomnia, nightmare, apnea and
993 F) reported EDS due to IA
Relationship of sleep 2546 Students Self-administered Belgium Spent considerable time on Den Bulck 2004
with television/ (54.2% M) questionnaire television/surfing Internet and
gaming/social had less sleep on weekdays and
media felt higher level of tiredness.
Psychosocial behavior
Negative aspects of FB 27,867 23.94 y Mixed BFAS, IAT and Western countries The authors noticed a positive Marino et al.
use (59.22% F) Problematic and Africa association between time spent 2018a
Facebook Use Scale online and problematic FB use.
The latter had a negative

association with self-esteem.
(Continued)
7
8
Subject and
The reliability and 998 (432 M, 18–58 y Secondary SMAS-SF Turkey Social networking sites deeply Sahin 2018
validity study of 566F) school, high affected the daily lives of
SMAS-SF school and students.
university
students
SNS addiction and 511 (64.6% 20–35 y English Bergen Social Media Australia, Greece and Participants exhibited SNS Pontes et al. 2018
psychosomatic F) speaking Addiction Scale, the UK addiction and showed FoMo,
problems social Problematic Internet maladaptivecognition,
networking Use Scale-2, Chinese psychiatric distress and POSI.
site users Maladaptive
Cognition Scale and
DERS-SF
Problematic Facebook 13,929 16–32 y Mixed FIQ and BFAS Western countries, The problematic FB use was found Marino et al.
use with two Asian countries to be associated with 2018b
psychological and two African psychological distress, anxiety
distress and well countries. and depression.
being
Effects of smartphone 1824 15 y Middle school Smartphone Addiction South Korea Smartphone users were prone to Cha and Seo 2018
usage students Scale anger, depression and lethargic
behavior. This was attributed to
excessive SNSs use.
The big five of 752 18–24 y University IAS, BFI and Self-Liking Turkey Instagram addiction resulted in Kircaburun and
personality and students Scale lower agreeableness and Griffiths 2018
Instagram addiction conscientiousness through self-
liking.
Social media and 132 (41 M, 91 20.44 y UG students Self-made 12-item Involvement in PSMU was found to Aalbers et al. 2018
recession F) questionnaire be positively associated with
depressed mood, attention
deficit, loneliness, fatigue and
feeling inferior.
Relationship of social 374 (M 20.01 y Students Social Network Mexico Students showed addictive Jasso-Medrano
media with 41.4%, Addiction behavior toward SNS use and and López-
addictive behavior, F 58.6%) Questionnaire, CES- that led to depression and Rosales 2018
suicidal ideation and D, Positive and suicidal ideation. 36.1% subjects
depression Negative Suicidal had suicidal thoughts.
Inventory
(Continued)
Subject and
SNS and mental 200 21.6 y Medical STAI, BDI and India 80% respondents spent ≥ 4 h in Barman et al. 2018
disorders (51.0% M, students Structured SNSs per day. 24% students
49.0% F) Questionnaire experienced depression and
68.5% felt anxiety. Woke up early
and went to bed late night to
spend more time on SNSs.
Social media behavior 504 20.4 y UG students Social Media Intensity Texas Social media addiction and social Robinson et al.
and its relationship (11.4% M, Scale, BFAS, PHQ-9 comparison through social media 2019
with major 82.1% F) led to major depressive disorder.
depressive disorder But social interaction by social
media had reduced MDD.
Social media and 212 (116 M, 18–35 y Students Enrique Echeburua Peru Excessive use of SNS, like Jeri-Yabar et al.
depression 96 F) Questionnaire and Instagram, Twitter led to 2018
BDI depression. 62.5% Twitter users
had depression.
SNSs addiction and 3945 12–15 y Secondary CIUS, UCLA-10 item The Netherlands The school students, who spent van Rooij et al.
psychological well school Loneliness Scale, more time online, exhibited 2017
being students SLSS, Rosenberg’s depressive mood, anxiety,
Self-esteem Scale negative self-esteem, and low life
satisfaction.
WhatsApp use and its 272 12–17 y Mixed Questionnaire of Spain Both males and females suffered Tresáncoras et al.
relationship with Anxiety (STAIC), from anxiety due to WhatsApp 2017
personality and Questionnaire of usage.
anxiety Personality (TIPI),
Questionnaire of
Problematic
WhatsApp (CERW,
CERM)
Behavior of WhatsApp 150 UG students BFAS, WhatsApp Use India WA-dependent students exhibited Sampath et al.
users Pattern WA addiction in all dimensions, 2017
Questionnaire such as tolerance, salience,
withdrawal, mood modification,
relapse and conflict.

(Continued)
9
10
Subject and
Pitfalls of SNSs use 5961 15–22 y 9th- and 10th- BSMAS, CES-D, RSES-HU Hungary Students addicted to social media Banyai et al. 2017
(2931 M, grade and showed reduced self-esteem and
3030 F) students Sociodemographics higher level of depression.
Questionnaire
Excessive use of 295 (173 M, 15–19 y Students Athene Insomnia Scale Japan Mobile phone extreme usage led to Tamura et al. 2017
mobile phone, 122 F) and CES-D sleep interruption and insomnia.
Insomnia and Usually surfing social media and
depression engagement with online chats
led to depression.
Social media use and 226 (55 M, unreported) 14–17 y Adolescents and DSM Checklist, FoMo Survey, UCLA The USA
mental health 51 F and 7 parents Loneliness Scale and Social
Media Survey Parent Version

Higher social media Barry et al.
uses led to higher 2017
FoMo, anxiety,
depression and
loneliness
Role of SNS and its 440 11–19 y adolescent 211 adolescents, 229 PSS, BAI and BDI-II Iran Twitter users
association with 20–29 y young adults showed anxiety,
emotional adults stress and
functioning depression.
Prevalence of
anxiety was
more among
females.
Khodarahimi and Fathi
2017
FoMo and Internet use 270 (80 M, 17–39 y 153 from s-IAT-ICD, FoMo Scale Germany and Spain Psychopathological disorder Wegmann et al.
expectancies and 190 F) Germany, and IUES predicted fear of missing out 2017
symptoms of ICD 117 from (FoMo).
Spain
Use of Twitter and 2312 twitter Teenagers, Auto DOA, Web The USA Auto DOA effectively detected Fan et al. 2017
other social media users young Crawling tool opioid addiction. Authors
in the detection of people reported 1132 addicts.
opioid addiction
(Continued)
Subject and
Problematic social 1749 19–32 y Mixed PROMIS-S, BFAS The United States Subjects developed depressive Shensa et al. 2017
media use and (49.9% M, symptoms due to problematic
depressive 50.1% F) social media use.
symptoms
Association between 2625 13–18 y Adolescents Satisfaction with Life China SNSs had a significant relationship Yan et al. 2017
screen time and Scale, Middle School with anxiety and physical activity
unhealthy behaviors Student Mental that led to poor quality of life.
Health Scale, However, SNS use did not
Rosenberg Self- produce any effect on academic
esteem Scale performance.
SNSs use-based 485 (125 M, 14–55 y Students, s-IAT-com, IUES, TICS Germany Social isolation led to ICD. Wegmann and
disorders and 358 F) married and Self-esteem Brand 2016
coping abilities person and Scale
job holders
Information-seeking 209 13–68 y Young students 66-item questionnaire Israel Young generation used more SNS, Zhitomirsky-Geffet
behavior and smart of schools, like WhatsApp than older and Blau 2017
phone universities, generation. They also showed
and old higher neuroticism, extroversion
people and less conscientiousness.
The validity and 1325 10–17 y Teenagers SMDS The Netherlands Social media addiction led to van Den RJJM
psychometric mental problem, depression and et al. 2016
properties of SMDS attention deficit disorder.
SNS use and its 467 11–17 y Adolescents PSQI, HADS, RES, and Scotland Social media usage led to anxiety, Woods and Scott
association with Social Media Use depression. Poorer sleep quality 2016
sleep quality, Integration Scale was also reported.
anxiety, depression
SNS and poor 753 14.1 y Students Kessler Psychological Canada Girls and high school students Sampasa-Kanyinga
psychological Distress Scale spent more time in SNSs than and Lewis 2015
functioning boys and middle school students.
Experienced high level of
psychological distress and
suicidal ideation.
Characteristic of social 370 (356 M, 38.9 y Working IAT, TAS-26, BDI-II, SCL- The USA, The UK, Internet addiction led to Geisel et al. 2015
network gamers 14 F) employees, 90-R, and WHOQOL- Canada, Germany, alexithymia, depression, and
through online and students BREF Australia and other poor QoL among 16.2%
survey countries participants.
(Continued)
11
12
Subject and
Internet use and 338 (116 M, 18 y Students IAT and CES-DC Belgrade, Serbia Authors found a positive Banjanin et al.
depression 222 F) association between Internet 2015
addiction and depression.
SNS and cyber bullying 5126 (48% F) 11–20 y School students Kessler Psychological Canada Use of SNS led to cyber bullying Sampasa-Kanyinga
victimization Distress Scale victimization. Psychological and Hamilton
distress, suicidal ideation and 2015a
attempts reported.
Facebook use and 44 (17 M, 27 19–52 y Taking classes IAT, Parental Bonding Asian, Asian- FB users were found to be under Fox and Moreland
psychological F) at Instrument, American, stress when they did not get an 2015
stressors Midwestern Personality Disorder European, access to their FB account.
University Questionnaire, and European-American
CES-DC
Comparisons of 26 (8 M, 18 3rd-year Questionnaire Boston, the US Both distracted and nondistracted Nalliah and
performance F) students of students performed equally. Allareddy 2014
between students dental Unlike males, the distracted
using electronic courses of females gave 50% correct
device and students Harvard answers.
focusing on lectures School of
during class Dental
Medicine
Facebook users: 241 Students Rosenberg’s Self- Taiwan FB addiction led to depression, and Hong et al. 2014
addiction and esteem Scale, Lai’s self-inferiority
psychosocial issues Personality test and
FAS
FB addiction and 119 23.5 y Undergraduate BFAS America Although students were not Akter 2014
students’ resistance (50.4% M) psychology addicted to Facebook, yet they
students showed a positive relationship
toward salience, withdrawal,
relapse, conflict, tolerance and
mood modification.
Symptoms of excessive 69 (66 M, 03 18 y Students of IRPS India The users of Internet exhibited Vishwanathan
Internet usage F) Missouri symptoms, like withdrawal, 2014
University of craving, tolerance to Internet and
Science and introversion.
Technology
(Continued)
Subject and
Online social 253 (62.8% 19.68 y UG students Modified DSM-IV-TR, The United States Women had more craving for FB Hormes et al. 2014
networking sites F) PACS-FB, YIAT, usage than men. They deviated
and poor emotion AUDIT, AAQ-II, DERS, from ambition, avoided
regulation skills WBSI, CAGE-FB emotional responses and
exhibited poor impulse control.
Designing of scale to 26 Facebook users BFAS and FWS 11 FB addicts on withdrawal Parlak and
quantify FB use experienced anxiety, annoyance, Eckhardt 2014
withdrawal increased appetite, difficulties in
concentrating, hostility,
impatience and memory lapses.
FB usage and 1143 participants 18–65 y Students and normal MCMI-III Southern
technology-related (460 M, 683 people California
anxiety and F)
attitudes
FB users suffered from Rosen et al.
bipolar mania, 2013aa
narcissism,
dysthymia and
histrionic
personality disorder.
FB addiction and 297 (47% M, 18–25 y UG students BFAS, SVS and SHS Turkey Facebook addiction had a negative Uysal et al. 2013
subjective vitality 53% F) relationship with the subjective
and happiness happiness and subjective vitality.
Facebook use and life 1000 (400 M, 18–25 y MBBS students Self-administered Pakistan Medical students, using FB, had Farooqi et al. 2013
style of medical 600 F) questionnaire headache, eye problems,
university students decreased work efficiency,
depression, mood swing and
backache.
Effects of Internet 3105 11–19 y Dutch students CIUS and QBF The Netherlands Highly addictive Internet users Kuss et al. 2013
addiction (1501 M, showed aggressive behavior.
1604 F)
Facebook addiction 447 (347 M, 18–30 y Students of GHQ, FAS and FUS Turkey Students addicted to FB Koc and Gulyagci
among Turkish 100 F) technical experienced anxiety, depression 2013
college students education and insomnia.

college
(Continued)
13
14
Subject and
Use of Happy Farm 18–24 y University Self-questionnaire Taiwan More materialistic students were Wu 2013
Facebook students found to be addicted to online
application and games and had less interpersonal
behavior relation.
Interpersonal 444 (199 M, University Questionnaire Taiwan Internet addiction reduced Lai et al. 2013
relationship and 245 F) students interpersonal relationship.
Internet addiction
Reasons behind the 20 (9 M, 11 18–25 y Students of two Semistructured Easternand north- Students thought that using SNSs is Turan et al. 2013
nonuse of social F) universities interview easternTurkey a waste of time and might lead
net-working sites by to addiction, virtual relationship

university students lacking trustworthiness.
FB use and subjective 82 (M 29, 53 19.52 y Peoples SWLS, BDI, RSES and Michigan FB undermined subjective well Kross et al. 2013
well-being F) Social Provision Scale being.
Problems associated 221 15–49 y Mixed Authors self- Poland Excessive SNS use led to Szczegielniak et al.
with use of the SNS (4.62% M, questionnaire disturbances in sleep, anxiety 2013
95.38% F) and depression.
SNSs and job 193 (90 M, 27 y Employee Through online Texas, the USA Using SNSs among the employees Moqbel et al. 2013
performance 103 F) questionnaires enhanced their level of job
satisfaction. Increased job
satisfaction led a positive impact
on job performance.
SNSs usage and 160 (51 M, 18 High school BDI-II-II Central Serbia Students, who spent more time on Pantic et al. 2012
depression 109 F) students SNS, had depression as well as
obesity.
SNSs usage and 233 (144 F, 19 UG students Questionnaire Asia and Africa Facebook induced openness more McKinney et al.
narcissism 89 M) and Twitter increased narcissism. 2012
Predictors of SNSs use 201 (46 M, 17–24 y Students from Five Factor Inventory, Australia Participants, who used SNS had less Wilson et al. 2010
153 F) Australian Coopersmith Self- conscientiousness, higher
University esteem Inventory, extroversion and were more
Addictive Tendencies prone to addiction.
Scale
(Continued)
Subject and
Cause and effect of PIU 635 (42% M, UG students UCLA Loneliness Scale, Midwestern Individuals suffered from loneliness Kim and LaRose
58% F) Self-monitoring Scale Universities and showed a positive 2009
relationship with compulsive
Internet use. Poor work output
was observed owing to
indulgence in SNSs.
WhatsApp 78 PG and 77 Veterinary Self-prepared Punjab, India Both positive and negative Malhotra and
enchantment and UG students questionnaire impacts were observed. Bansal 2017
its impact students
(91 M, 64
F)
Online social 15 18–19 y Students of two Semistructured Indonesia Young females were found to be Luke and Evelina
networking (OSNs) universities questionnaire more addictive to OSNs. 2017
addictions
Social media use and 895 (366 M, 10.4–17 y School students KIDSCREEN-52 Central Switzerland Students who used SNSs more Foerster and
health 484 F) questionnaire, and Basel frequently had unsatisfactory Röösli 2017
MPPUS-10 health-related quality of life
questionnaire (HRQoL).
Social media use and 21,053 14.4 y Secondary CIUS and 25-item SDQ The Netherlands Males had problematic gaming Mérelle et al. 2017
health-related school addiction, while females showed
problems students problematic social media uses,
suicidal thoughts and
hyperactivity.
Negative 1468 (377 M, 16–18 y Spanish HADS, FoMo Scale, and Argentina Bolivia, Fear of Missing out led to Oberst et al. 2016
consequences of 1091 F) speaking CERM Questionnaire Chile, Colombia, Smartphone addiction. Females
SNS use Latin- Peru, Mexico, showed depression due to
American Guatemala, Facebook usage, and males had
social media Ecuador, Honduras, anxiety.
users Uruguay, Venezuela
and Nicaragua
Internet use and 255 19.18 y Young and 37-item Likert Scale Turkey The addicted subjects avoided Kurtulus et al.
addictive behavior educated problems and showed 2016
middle class withdrawal symptoms.

(Continued)
15
16
Subject and
Frequency of Internet 534 (233 M, Medical IAT Questionnaire Greece Of the participants, Twitter users Tsimtsiou et al.
addiction through 301 F) students were more than the Facebook 2015
online survey users. Internet addiction was
attributed to playing online
games.
FB usage and health 311 (132 M, 18–32 y Students BFAS, SHS, SVS, SWLS, Turkey Problematic FB use lowered well Satici and Uysal
179 F) Flourishing Scale being, but did not hamper life 2015
satisfaction, flourishing,
subjective happiness and vitality.
SNS addiction among 81 mixed 20–25 y Medical and Six-item Electronic Self- Muscat, Oman Addiction to SNSs, such as Masters 2015
health science gender laboratory reporting Survey Part Facebook, Twitter was evident.
students science of-BFAS
students
Dominance of Internet 553 (62.7% Average: Elementary and Young’s Diagnostic Novi Sad, Serbia 18.7% were found to be addicted Ač-Nikolić et al.
addiction among F) 15.6 y high school Questionnaire to Internet. Most of them used 2015
school children students FB and compared to boys, the
girls visited FB more frequently.
A double-edged sword 515 18–26 y College SWLS and Empathy Hong Kong Strongly addicted adult FB users Chan 2014
effect of Facebook students Quotient Scale showed weakening empathetic
upon the users life responses to others.
satisfaction and
empathetic skills
Instant messaging 105 (49 M, 21 y IM users at YIAT and ASRS-V1.1 China and the USA Extreme Internet uses deteriorated Rosenbaum and
services and mental 56 F) Midwestern their mental health leading to Wong 2012
health University Internet addiction and
expression of symptoms for
ADHD.
Academic Performance
Electronic gadgets and 240 12–16 y 6th–10th grade Questionnaire Karnataka, India 67% students spent more time in Hegde et al. 2019
its effect on the students SNS. Reported headache in early
behavior, and morning along with eye
academic irritation, and changes in their
performance behavior.
(Continued)
Subject and
SNS, social well being 366 (F) Students DEMATEL Malaysia Engagement in SNS had a positive Samad et al. 2019
and academic influence on students well being
performance and also enhanced their learning
performance.
SNS and academic 380 (184 M, Students ASSIST, Persian Version Iran 70.3% were Instagram users where Rostaminezhad
performance 196 F) of SNS Usage as 24.7% were WA users. SNS et al. 2018
Questionnaire had a negative effect on the
study habit of students. Spent
several hours in Internet surfing.
WA and memory 64 (24 M, 40 12–17 Pupils The Personal Israel Students felt difficulties and got Aharony and Zion
performance F) Information distracted from reading 2018
Questionnaire, obligations. WA use induced
Execution a decline in learning abilities and
Assessment Q students reported reduced
memory efficacy.
Social network sites: its 273 (21% M, Students from CIAS Qatar Students addicted to Instagram and Al-Yafi et al. 2018
impact on academic 79% F) two Snapchat felt tired at morning,
performance universities slept less than 4 h and had very
poor academic performance.
Social media impact 345 (192 M, 18–26 y Students Self-structured Bangladesh 72% respondents used FB followed Nahar Mim et al.
on academic 152 F) questionnaire by YouTube, Instagram, etc. 2018
performance and Spent nearly 2.03 h in FB. As
behavior a result got few hours for their
study, showed procrastination in
the submission of assignment,
and were poor in academic
performance.
Applying social 62 Two groups Questionnaire Turkey Education through SNS tools Doğan et al. 2018
networks to with 31 showed a positive relationship
engineering students in with academic performance
education each group among engineering students.
SNS relationship with 331 (107 M, 21–30 y Students Self-administered East Malaysia SNSs usage enhanced both Abdurahman et al.
academic and 224 F) questionnaire academic performance and 2018
nonacademic nonacademic engagements.

performances
(Continued)
17
18
Subject and
Adverse health effect 300 18, 18–27, Medical Self-administered India Majority of respondents spent 4–5 Deogade et al.
and SNS use (28.3% M, >27 students questionnaire h per day in SNSs. Subjects 2018
71.7% F) experienced musculoskeletal
pain, eye irritation and headache.
They exhibited unhealthy
behavior, like holding urine,
skipping meals, etc.
Mobile SNSs and 505 (242 M, <30 Students Questionnaire China Excessive use of mobile SNSs Cao et al. 2018
academic 263 F) caused a cognitive-emotional
performance preoccupation. It also led to
techno exhaustion, life invasion
and privacy-invasion. These

factors influenced academic
performance.
SNS and academic 71 (45 M, 26 18.24 Students Questionnaire Quebec, Canada There was no significant Doleck et al. 2018
performance F) relationship between SNS and
longitudinal study academic performance.
Impact of FAD on 200 (100 M, 15–18 y Secondary BFAS and Study Habit India Adolescents spent more time on Vashishtha et al.
study habits and 100 F) school Inventory Facebook, which affected their 2017
academic students study habits and showed poor
achievements academic performance.
Social media use and 234 ≥18 y Students Self-reported The USA 71% respondents were distracted Leyrer-Jackson
academic questionnaire due to usage of SM during and Wilson
performances class hour and 80% respondents 2017
experienced that they were
disturbed by the users those who
used SM in class hour. Female
users were more compared to
male. SM uses in classes
disturbed their study and might
have a detrimental effect on
their study especially among girl
students.
Social media and 50 Dental Authors’ own Chennai, India Social media decreased efficiency Deepika and
cognitive behavior graduates questionnaire and productivity, and had an Lakshmi 2017
adverse effect on education.
(Continued)
Subject and
SNS and classroom 122 (40 M, 16–25 y UG students Multiple choice Turkey Multitasking abilities in Social Demirbilek and
performance 82 F) questions media during lecture Talan 2017
deteriorated their grading points.
Cognitive perceptions were also
disrupted.
Implications of using 30 Academic and Questionnaire Indonesia Both academic and nonacademic Luke and Meranga
SNS in university nonacademic staffs showed a positive 2017
staffs from relationship with the use of SNSs.
two They preferred using WA, and FB
universities for sharing information, and was
the best tool for learning
process.
Effects of WhatsApp 201 18–23 y Medical Self-prepared India About 45.8% respondents was Shettigar and
use (55.7% M, students questionnaire unable to concentrate during
44.3% F) their study, 33.3% felt that it
reduced their physical activities,
and 12.9% students reported
decline in their academic
performance since they have
started using WA.
Karinagannanavar
2016
Facebook use and its 452 (224 M, 20.2 ± 1.2 y Medical, dental Self-administered Bharatpur, Nepal Of the FB users, 67% participants Jha et al. 2016
effects on life of 228 F) and nursing questionnaire declared a negative impact on
health science students their studies; 21% felt burning
students sensation in their eyes, had
disturbed sleep (19%), and
headache (16%).
Association between 954 18–58 y High school General Procrastination Poland Liklihood of FB intrusion depended Przepiorka et al.
procrastination with and Scale, Facebook upon intensity of FB usage 2016
Facebook intrusion university Intrusion among procrastinators.
and intensity students Questionnaire,
Decisional
Procrastination Scale
(Continued)
19
20
Subject and
Social media and its 526 (244 M, Students from Questionnaire Ghana Females used WhatsApp more Mingle and Adams
influence on 282 F) four frequently. They had poor 2015
academic senior schools academic performance and
performance committed spelling and
grammar errors.
Usage of social media 162 (M 107, Students Self-administered Pakistan 87% respondents had SNS Javed and Bhatti
by medical and F 55) questionnaire membership actively. Majority of 2015
dental students them used FB and YouTube. SNS
had a positive effect on academic

performance.
SNS and its effect on 209 (83 M, 18–24 y UG and BIG Five Inventory, IAT China Male students with low Glass et al. 2015
academic 126 F) Graduate agreeableness had spent more
performance students time in problematic social
networking use. As a result their
academic performance also
hampered.
Influence of social 1578 participants Polytechnique Self-questionnaire developed by Ghana
media use on students researchers
academic
performance
Time spent on Facebook Acheaw and
had a positive Larson
association with the 2015
poor academic
performance.
Perception of students 480 Students Self-administered Bangladesh Compared to female students, Shohrowardhy
toward SNS with questionnaire prevalence of SNS use were more and Hassan
reference to in male students. Very few 2014
academic purposes proportions of students used it
for academic purposes.
(Continued)
Subject and
Investigation on the 327 (283 M, 21–40 y Somali youth Facebook Addiction Somalia Social interaction, political news, Dhaha and Igale
motives of Facebook 44 F) Scale entertainment were the motives 2014
use and effects on to use FB. Females used more
addiction to FB than males, became bored if not
logged in, and neglected
responsibilities leading to poor
grades.
Online SNS and 10,930 14–17 y Adolescents Online Communication Greece, Spain, Poland, 40% users spent 2 or more than 2 Tsitsika et al. 2014
pattern of use in six (5211 M, Tools, Youth Self the Netherlands, h on SNS, larger proportions of
European countries 5719 F) Report Scale Romania and girls spent more time in SNS
Iceland than boys. Heavier users had
lower academic performance,
poor offline activities and more
internalizing problems.
SNS use among 6358 UG and PG 35-item questionnaire Malaysia Most of the respondents used SNS Hamat et al. 2012
students students provided through as a learning tool and did not
online survey agree that its usage had any
impact on their academic
performance.
Role of YouTube in 91 Medical Self-assessment UAE YouTube acted as an effective tool Jaffar 2012
education students questions for HAE study and highly used by
medical students.
SNS – Its impact on 340 (48% M, 26.73 y UG students Questionnaire The USA OSN had a negative impact on Paul et al. 2012
academic 52% F) academic performance.
performance Participants showed higher
attention deficit due to higher
usage of OSN.
(Continued)
21
22
Subject and
Effect of social 48 (26 M, 22 Undergraduate Anonymous The USA SNS use led to poor grade. Wang et al. 2011
networking on F) and questionnaire
study efficiency graduate
students of
Johnson and
Wales
University
SNS usage in higher 105 (68% F) 19–32 y Students Questionnaire Spain 88% respondents believed that Arquero and
education SNSs act as the best tool for Romero-Frías
learning. It motivated and also 2013

provided better time
management for their study.
Tweets by teacher and 86 Students Online tweets The USA Students using Twitter for Van Vooren and
learning mechanism interacting with their teachers Bess 2013
showed a positive result toward
learning purposes compared to
non Twitter users.
Technology usage 446 (201 M, 13–16 y School students Adolescent Technology Western New York High levels of technology usage led Dehmler 2009
during sleep – Its 228 F) Usage Survey, to less sleep duration. Low
impact on sleep, Working Memory technology users had better GPA
attention and Scale than high technology users.
academic
performance
Circadian rhythm and chronotype
CR activity of mixed 15 young Young Consisting of PSQI, MCTQ, MEQ, India Members of young groups were Agrawal and Pati
human population members students: two groups, Facebook Intrusion active during evening, whereas 2018
on SNS (8 M and 7 22–33 y; respectively Questionnaire, members of the senior citizens’
F), 13 senior with young Cosinor Analysis group were active during
senior citizens: subjects and morning.
citizens 60–62 y senior
(10 M and citizens
3 F)
(Continued)
Subject and
Facebook association 88 (41 M, 47 12–17 y Users of Psychological Canada A positive association between the Morin-Major et al.
with the levels of F) Facebook Questionnaire, CDI number of FB friends and the 2016
cortisol and SEQ production of diurnal cortisol
level was discerned. This led to
elevation of stress.
Facebook use and 663 (64.1% 15–45 y Users of Facebook Intensity Poland Chronotype had negative Blachino et al.
chronotype F) Facebook Scale, Facebook association with FB usage, and 2015
Intrusion intensity of Facebook use was
Questionnaire, CSM found more among the ET.
AAQ-II
Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II; ADHDAttention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder; ASRS-V1.1ADHD Self Report Scale V1.1; ASSISTApproaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students;
AUDIT
Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test; BAIBeck Anxiety Inventory;
BDI
Beck Depression Inventory; BEARSB = Bedtime Issues, E = Excessive Daytime Sleepiness, A = Night Awakenings, R = Regularity and Duration of Sleep, S = Snoring; BFASBergen Facebook
Addiction Scale; BFIBIG Five inventory; BSMASBergen Social Media Addiction Scale; CAGE-FB Cut-down, Annoyed, Guilt, Eye-opener- Facebook; CDIChild Depression Inventory; CERMCuestionario
de Experiencias Relacionadas con el Móvil; CES-DCentre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale; CES-DCCenter for Epidemiologic Studies of Depression Scale for Children; CIASChen’s
Internet Addiction Scale; CIUSCompulsive Internet Use Scale; CSMComposite Scale of Morningness; DEMATELDecision Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory; DERSDifficulties in Emotion
Regulation Scale; DERS-SFDifficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale-Short form; Auto DOAAutomatically Detect Opioid Addicts; DSMDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; DSM-IV-TR
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: Text Revision (edited IV version); EDSExcessive Daytime Sleepiness; EMFQElectronic Media and Fatigue Questionnaire; ESSEpworth
Sleepiness Scale; ETEvening type; EAQExecution Assessment Questionnaire; FFemale; FAFacebook Addiction; FADFacebook Addiction Disorder; FASFacebook Addiction Scale; FBFacebook;
FIQ
Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire; FoMoFear of Missing out; FUSFacebook Usage Scale; FWSFacebook Withdrawal Scale; GHQGeneral Health Questionnaire; GPAGrade Point Average;
HADS
Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; HAEHuman Anatomy Education; HDHemodialysis; HRQoLHealth Related Quality of Life; IAInternet Addiction; IASInstagram Addiction Scale; IATInternet
Addiction Test Scale; ICDInternet Communication Disorder; IRPSInternet Related Problem Scale; IUESInternet Use Expectancies Scale; MMale; MCMI-IIIMillion Multiaxial Clinical Inventory-III;
MCTQ
Munich Chronotype Questionnaire; MDDMajor Depressive Disorder; MEQMorningness-Eveningness Questionnaire; MPPUS−10Mobile Phone Problem Use Scale (10 item); OSNOnline Social
Networking; PACS-FBPenn Alcohol Craving Scale-FB; PBBQThe Prebedtime Behavior Questionnaire; PGPost graduate; PHQ9Patient Health Questionnaire; PIQPersonal Information Questionnaire;
PIU
Problematic Internet use; POSIPreference for Online Social Interaction; PROMISPatient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System; PROMIS-SPatient-Reported Outcomes
Measurement Information System Scale; PSMUPassive Social Media Use; PSQIPittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; PSSPerceived Stress Scale; QBFQuick Big Five Inventory; QoLQuality of Life;
RSES
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale; RSES-HURosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale-Hungarian Version; SCL−90-R Symptom Check List-90-R; SDQStrengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; SEQSelf-Esteem
Questionnaire; SF−36v236-Item Short Form Survey (Version 2.0); SHSSubjective Happiness Scale; s-IAT-comShort Internet Addiction Test for online communication; s-IAT-ICDShort Internet
Addiction Test for Internet Communication Disorder; SMAS-SFSocial Media Addiction Scale-Students Form; SMDSSocial Media Disorder Scale; SMMSEStandardized Mini Mental State Examination;
SNS
Social Networking Site; SSHSSchool Sleep Habits Survey; STAIState-Trait Anxiety Inventory; STAICState-Trait Anxiety Inventory for children; SVSSubjective Vitality Scale; SWLSSatisfaction With
Life Scale; TAS−26Toronto Alexithymia Scale (26 item); TICSTrier Inventory of Chronic Stress; TIPITen Item Personality Inventory; UCLAUniversity California Los Angeles; UGUnder graduate;
WA
WhatsApp; WBSIWhite Bear Suppression Inventory; WHOQOLWorld Health Organization Quality of Life Measurement; yYear; YIATYoung Internet Addiction Test.
23
on sleep quality, psychosocial behavior, academic performance, and circadian rhythm in

humans (Table 1).
2. Sleep quality
It has been reported that there is a steady decline in sleep duration among adolescents
(Iglowstein et al. 2003; Keyes et al. 2015). This recent phenomenon has been ascribed to
multiple factors, such as biological, environmental, societal and so forth (Calamaro et al.
2009; Pallesen et al. 2011; Bartel et al. 2015). The screen media usage (SMU) in the 21st
century has been identified as one of the major culprits. Adolescents engage themselves
in surfing the Internet and playing games for a longer time in cell phone before
bedtime. This behavior leads to a reduction in their sleep length and increases in the
excessive day time sleepiness (Eggermont and Van Den Bulck 2006; Fossum et al. 2014).
Insufficient sleep also leads to the development of negative physiological consequences,
including an increased risk of obesity and metabolic dysfunction. Anxiety, depression,
mood disturbances, suicidal ideation and drug/alcohol abuse have also been reported
among the adolescents due to insufficient sleep (Gupta et al. 2002; Chen et al. 2008;
Lowry et al. 2012). Adolescents with poor sleep quality exhibit poor judgment, lack of
motivation and decreased life quality (Pilcher et al. 1997; Wolfson and Carskadon 1998;
Gradisar et al. 2008; Owens 2014). This phenomenon has been observed to be gender
neutral, however (Thomée et al. 2007).
According to the National Science Foundation, USA sleep requirements of individuals
vary as a function of their age (National Sleep Foundation (NSF) 2015). For example,
children in the age range between 6 and 13 years should have 9–11 h of sleep; while
adolescents aged 14–17 should have 8–10 h of sleep whereas young adults ranging
18–25 years should have 7–9 h of sleep. A study conducted earlier revealed that about
45% of adolescents reported 8-h sleep per night (National Sleep Foundation (NSF) 2015).
It has been observed that the adolescents experience a shift in their biological rhythm
and they wake up later in the morning and stay more alert at night (Carskadon 2011;
National Sleep Foundation (NSF) 2015). If they wake up before 7.00 AM they experience
uneasiness and fail to concentrate on their work (Burke 2016). Spending more time in
SNSs, before and after going to bed, results in greater sleep latency and subsequent
sleep interruptions (Cain and Gradisar 2010). Overuse of technology has a negative
impact on both sleep quality and quantity (National Sleep Foundation (NSF) 2011). It
has been reported that exposure to bright light in the evening causes a delay in the
initiation of melatonin secretion thereby leading to delay in the onset of drowsiness or
sleep among the individuals (Cajochen et al. 2011; Chang et al. 2014).
The young and adolescents consider SNSs platforms as the most attractive and
precious. They tend to become highly addicted to these sites and exhibit various
symptoms, like changes in their sleep behavior, or cognitive behavior, and several health
consequences. Xanidis and Brignell (2016) performed a study on 334 randomly selected
subjects, including 101 males and 231 females aged between 18 and 58 years. They
concluded that SNS dependency leads to poor sleep quality among its users.
Exposure of 8th and 9th-grade students to electronic media declines their average
sleep duration. They consume a lot of time in weekdays apropos their engagement with
the electronic media and consequently get very few hours to sleep, invariably less than 7
h. It has also been reported that they suffer from day time sleepiness and experience
problematic sleep pattern and fatigue attributed to improper sleep hours in weekdays
compared to a weekend (Shochat et al. 2010). Use of SNSs not only makes the users
addicted to, but it also enslaves and emancipates the users. It has also been concluded
that SNS addiction acts as an antecedent for cell phone addiction (Salehan and
Negahban 2013).
Participants with overuse of SNSs have poor sleep quality as compared to the
nondependent users. It has been estimated that they had 1.3 times poorer sleep quality
(Wolniczak et al. 2013). The adolescents who frequently use social media develop
a sense of urgency and very high expectations of instant responses apropos their
feelings and needs (Barish 2015). All of these factors together may contribute to delayed
sleep, sleep interruption and less sleep. According to Choi et al. (2009), high school
seniors with Internet addiction (IA) and overuse of SNSs reported day time sleepiness.
They suffer from headache, insomnia, nightmare, teeth grinding in addition to
excessive day time sleepiness.
Sleep deprivation is one of the leading causes of circadian rhythm misalignment and
has been reported to disturb metabolic, endocrine and immune responses (Adams et al.
2013). Consequences of sleep deprivation are reflected in weight gain, insulin resistance
and hypertension (Laposky et al. 2008; AlDabal and BaHammam 2011). While it induces
an increase in the levels of circulating cortisol and systemic inflammation, it also
compromises the immune response (Laposky et al. 2008; AlDabal and BaHammam
2011). They also discovered a relationship between sleep deprivation and negative
behavior that prominently includes alcohol/drug abuse, increased sexual behavior and
the overuse of drowsiness suppressants (Carskadon 1990; Irwin et al. 1996; Patel and Hu
2008; AlDabal and BaHammam 2011).
3. Psychosocial behavior
Use of SNSs has been shown to have ample influences on large number of psychosocial
behaviors. It has been reported that excessive use of social media lead to psychiatric
distress (Sampasa-Kanyinga and Lewis 2015; Pontes et al. 2018; Marino et al. 2018b),
depression (Pantic et al. 2012; Afsar 2013; Farooqi et al. 2013; Koc and Gulyagci 2013;
Szczegielniak et al. 2013; Hong et al. 2014; Geisel et al. 2015; Banjanin et al. 2015; van
Den RJJM et al. 2016; Woods and Scott 2016; Oberst et al. 2016; Banyai et al. 2017;
Tamura et al. 2017; Barry et al. 2017; Khodarahimi and Fathi 2017; Cha and Seo 2018;
Jasso-Medrano and López-Rosales 2018; Barman et al. 2018; Jeri-Yabar et al. 2018;
Marino et al. 2018b; Al Mamun and Griffiths 2019), anxiety (Marino et al. 2018b;
Barman et al. 2018; van Rooij et al. 2017; Tresáncoras et al. 2017; Barry et al. 2017;
Khodarahimi and Fathi 2017; Yan et al. 2017; Woods and Scott 2016; Parlak and Eckhardt
2014; Rosen et al. 2013a; Koc and Gulyagci 2013; Szczegielniak et al. 2013; Oberst et al.
2016) and low self-esteem (Wilson et al. 2010; Hong et al. 2014; Wegmann and Brand
2016; Banyai et al. 2017; Yan et al. 2017) among student population. Incidences of
lethargic behavior (Cha and Seo 2018), suicidal ideation (Sampasa-Kanyinga and Lewis
2015; Sampasa-Kanyinga and Hamilton 2015a; Mérelle et al. 2017; Jasso-Medrano and
López-Rosales 2018) and procrastination (Przepiorka et al. 2016; Nahar Mim et al. 2018)
have been attributed to excessive use of SNSs.
Subjects using excessive SNSs suffer from poor cognitive abilities (Pontes et al. 2018).
They also exhibit mood swings and attention deficit (Paul et al. 2012; van Den RJJM et al.
2016; Aalbers et al. 2018). Use of SNSs also induces feeling of loneliness (Kim and LaRose
2009; van Rooij et al. 2017; Barry et al. 2017; Aalbers et al. 2018) and subjective fatigue
(Shochat et al. 2010; Aalbers et al. 2018). Many addicted individuals show fear of missing
out (FoMo), when they are deprived of opportunities to use social media (Oberst et al.
2016; Barry et al. 2017; Wegmann et al. 2017; Pontes et al. 2018). Excessive use of SNSs
also leads to opioid addiction (Fan et al. 2017). It has been demonstrated that data
mining from social media uses, such as in Twitter could be used to detect opioid
addicted subjects through using AutoDOA. This technique could also be used for
prevention and treatment of opioid addiction (Fan et al. 2017). It has been reported
that in older individuals social information seeking behavior has a link with the higher
neuroticism and extroversion (Wilson et al. 2010; Zhitomirsky-Geffet and Blau 2017).
Many adolescents spent their day by checking posts in the SNS media. The young
adults begin and end their day by frequently visiting the SNSs. The SNSs disrupt their
solitary activities and reduces their face-to-face interaction (Spies Shapiro and Margolin
2014). Many researchers have highlighted the negative psychological effects of
Facebook (Elgan 2015; Chowdhry 2016; Lewis 2016; Tordesillas 2016). Rosen et al.
(2013a) reported that those who spend more time in social media and actively engage
themselves in Facebook have major depression symptoms. It has also been reported
that spending more time in SNSs deteriorates the social relationship, weakens the
relationship with family and increases loneliness and depression. In a few case studies,
it has been observed that excessive SNSs users often seek clinical evaluation and
treatment (Karaiskos et al. 2010; Griffiths et al. 2014). Excessive SNSs use has been
found to be associated with mental health problems, like depressive symptoms and
suicidal behaviors (Sampasa-Kanyinga and Lewis 2015; Sampasa-Kanyinga and Hamilton
2015a; Seabrook et al. 2016). Unhealthy lifestyle behaviors that include physical inactiv-
ity, poor eating behavior and substance use have been attributed to screen media use
(Sampasa-Kanyinga et al. 2015, 2016; Sampasa-Kanyinga and Hamilton 2015b; Sampasa-
Kanyinga and Chaput 2016a, 2016b). On account of excessive SMU the adolescents
confront with a host of other complications, such as lack of cognitive flexibility (Dong
et al. 2014), poor decision making (D’Hondt et al. 2015), anxiety (Wegmann et al. 2015),
procrastination (Chóliz and Marco 2012), poor working memory (Dong et al. 2012) and
concentration conflicts (Rücker et al. 2015).
4. Academic performance
Excessive usage of SNSs has been shown to compromise the academic performance of
students. Instead of using textbooks, children or adolescents pay more attention to
these SNSs, resulting in the production of harmful impacts on their learning environ-
ment (Cela et al. 2014).
Cha and Seo (2018) conducted research on the smartphone addiction amongst the
middle school students in 17 cities of South Korea. The study involved 1824 middle
school students with a mean age of about 15.6 years. The authors and trained inter-
viewers conducted face-to-face interviews using a designated scale to determine the
intensity of addiction to smartphone among the participants. Out of 1824 participants,
563 (30.9%) were found to be addicted to the smartphone. They observed that addiction
leads to angriness, depression and lethargic behavior. A study on 1578 polytechnique
students of Ghana revealed that the students engaged in excessive use of SNSs had
poor academic grades (Acheaw and Larson 2015). Students, who were multitasking
between social networking use and home assignments, had 20% lower grades as
compared with the students without accounts in SNS platforms. Students who browsed
through pages of SNS on their computer screen lost their grasping efficiency during
their designated study hour and scored low grade subsequently (Enriquez 2010).
The Nielson Media Research reported that students spend 25% of their total time on
social media (Jacobsen and Forste 2011). The American Educational Research
Association in 2009 at the annual conference in San Diego, California declared that
users of social media study less and get low scores (Asif-ur-Rahman et al. 2015).
According to Englander et al. (2010), higher the Internet usages among the students
lower are their academic scores. They explained this phenomenon as the outcome of the
distracted or disruptive aspect of Internet use.
Cela et al. (2014) reported that the new generation teens do not take an interest in
reading books; instead, they spend a lot of time on social media. They stay awake until
late at night and go on chatting with friends till early morning. This altered behavior
might take a toll on their health and academic performance. School teachers admit that
students fall asleep during classes and unable to pay adequate attention to the lectures
(Cela et al. 2014). The habit of late night awakening is likely to deteriorate their health
leading to aggressive or inappropriate behaviors. Inadequate sleep has been linked to
diabetes, hypertension, obesity and depression (Danielsson et al. 2013).
Many parents and guardians of school and college going students think that their
words are not devoting adequate time for their studies as they spend a lot of time on
SNSs. It is also believed that “Internet” is one of the key factors, which might influence
the grade or study of students adversely (Kist 2008; Choney 2010; Jacobsen and Forste
2011; Meh Mood and Taswir 2013).
San Miguel (2009) reported an association between FB usage time and students’
performance at an academic level. He discovered a negative association between the
time spent on FB and grades. A GPA of 3.0–3.5 was reported among average FB users,
whereas non-FB-users secured a GPA of 3.5–4.0. Facebook users devoted 1–5 h to
studies, whereas non-FB-users spent 11–15 h on studies in a week (Enriquez 2010). It
was observed that poor academic performance is attributed to excessive indulgence in
Internet browsing as addicted individuals tend to neglect their personal as well as
academic responsibilities (Nalwa and Ananad 2003).
It has been observed that IA users have poor academic performance and less inter-
action with their teachers (Ying-Fang and Peng 2008; Frangos et al. 2009). Skipping
meals, late night sleep, being obese and hypersomnic are other consequences devel-
oped among IA users. Facebook users confessed that they get diverted from their
studies for several hours when compared with non-Facebook users (Kirschner and
Karpinski 2010).
According to Bowman et al. (2012), students who engaged themselves in social media
and instant messengers invariably fail to complete their task than those who do
not engage in it. Students’ deficits have been attributed to online-social networking
(OSN) usage during study periods (Paul et al. 2012).
There are many reports that have highlighted the brighter side of the SNSs use. Afsar
(2013) categorically demonstrated that SNS use is beneficial for the HD patients. These
patients had less depression and better cognitive function. A study conducted on female
students in Malaysia revealed that the SNS use produces positive effect on their well
beings and improves their academic performance (Samad et al. 2019). The SNS use has
been reported to improve academic performance and nonacademic engagement
among students of east Malaysia (Abdurahman et al. 2018). In contrast, there are
number of reports that did not reveal any negative effects of SNS use on the academic
performance (Hamat et al. 2012; Satici and Uysal 2015; Yan et al. 2017; Doleck et al.
2018). In many educational institutions, the social media platforms are used to maximize
the teaching efficiency of the teachers and learning abilities of the students (Jaffar 2012;
Arquero and Romero-Frías 2013). On the contrary, the student participants in a study
conducted in Turkey opined that use of SNS is a complete waste of time (Turan et al.
2013). They believed that SNS use might lead to addiction and instilment of trustworthi-
ness among its users. It appears that there are conflicting reports apropos the effects of
SNSs use on the academic performance. Therefore, more intensive research should be
carried out to resolve this controversy.
5. Chronotype and circadian rhythm

Chronotype is an individual’s preference with regard to going to bedtime and wake up
time. An individual does not remain active throughout the 24 h, rather beginning and
end of its active period remain restricted to a particular time period of the day. On the
basis of their activeness, he/she can be categorized into either “Morning type” (MT) or
“Lark type”. The MT remains active in the morning hour; whereas the “Evening type” (ET)
or “Owl type” remains active during evening time. There is yet another category called
“Neither type” (NT) or “Intermediate type (IT)”; in this case, the individual is neither active
at morning nor at evening. The diversity based on personalities is collectively termed as
“chronotype” (Agrawal and Pati 2018). Both sleep and orderly circadian functioning are
essential for good health. Findings emanating from few studies on teenagers and
adolescents revealed that excessive social media use can modulate the chronotype of
an individual. The youngsters are spending a lot of time accessing SNSs; as a result, their
circadian rhythms get compromised and bring in changes in their daily activities,
behaviors and academic performances. Persons spending lots of time in online video
gaming might develop social isolation and loneliness leading to sleep fragmentation
(Schmit et al. 2011). There is categorical evidence that suggests a possible association
between Internet usage and chronotype. Invariably the ET-people are found to be
Internet-dependent (Randler et al. 2014). They suffer from insomnia on account of
their excessive indulgence in surfing the Internet in the late evening and early morning
(Fossum et al. 2014).
The light emitted from any electronic gadgets could interrupt the circadian rhythm.
Melatonin induces sleep in humans. The light emitted from electronic gadgets disrupts
its secretion and interfere in its regulatory role on the sleep-wake cycle (Loughran 2015).
The light emitted from these devices reinforces the message to the brain to stay active
and awake (Levenson et al. 2016). Insomnia and scores of late chronotype have
a positive relationship with the in-bed usage of computer and mobile phone prior to
the initiation of actual sleep (Fossum et al. 2014). In one of our recent studies, we
reported for the first time that the timings of the social media messages could be used
to gauge the status of the endogenous circadian clock of the SNSs users (Swain and Pati
2019). More extensive studies are underway in our laboratory to elucidate circadian
rhythm in the pattern of SNSs usage among human population.
6. Conclusions and future research direction

This review summarizes information on the use of SNS and its effects on human
population. It underscores the adverse effects of SNSs usage on various variables/
components associated with sleep, such as sleep quality, delayed sleep onset, short-
ening of sleep length, excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), insomnia, apnea and night-
mare (Figure 4). It has already been accepted unequivocally that use of SNSs produces
alterations in number of psychosocial behaviors. Literature review revealed that in
general, students addicted to social media suffer from psychiatric distress, anxiety,
depression, low self-esteem, suicidal ideation and procrastination (Figure 4). In addition,
there are many studies that have attempted to establish a relationship between SNSs
usage and academic performance, especially among the student population (Figure 4).
One important recommendation that emerges from this review of literature is that the
clinicians, counselors and health care professionals should be more sensitive and should
remain aware of the possibility of the problematic Internet or social media use in
• Poor quality
• Delayed sleep onset
• Shortening of sleep
length
Sleep
• EDS
• Insomnia
• Apnea
• Nightmare
• Psychiatric distress
• Anxiety
• Depression
Psychosocial
behavior
• Low self-esteem
• Lethargic behavior
• Suicidal ideation
• Procrastination
• Reduced memory efficacy

Academic • Poor academic performance
performance
• Reduced cognitive perceptions
• Rhythm misalignment
Circadian
rhythm • Age asymmetry in peak
usage time
Figure 4. Cartoon diagram depicts negative effects of social networking sites on various components
of sleep, psychosocial behavior, academic performance and circadian rhythm. Conceptualized based
on information reported in various scholarly articles cited in Scopus.
adolescents and young adults. Additionally, it is recommended that counselors and

health care workers should develop effective school/institution-based prevention, edu-
cation and intervention programs to address problematic Internet and social media
usage among adolescents and young adults. There is, however, a paucity of literature
on the effects of overuse of SNSs on the functioning of circadian clocks in humans.
Acknowledgments
The authors are obliged to the Head of the Department, School of Zoology, Gangadhar Meher
University, Amruta Vihar, Sambalpur – 768 004, Odisha, India for extending all facilities during the
study and the preparation of this manuscript.
Author contribution
RKS conducted the literature survey.
AKP conceptualized the theme and wrote the article.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This work is a part of the PhD program of one of the authors (RKS). The authors did not receive any
financial support from any extra-mural funding agency, except the routine facilities that were
extended to the authors by the Gangadhar Meher University, Amruta Vihar, Sambalpur 768004,
Odisha, India.
ORCID
Rakesh Kumar Swain http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1818-304X
Atanu Kumar Pati http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4618-017X
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Published online: 22 Nov 2019.

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Use of social networking sites (SNSs) and its repercussions

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Monthly Active Users (in Billion)

as of April 2019 (Figure 3; www.statista.com). In another estimates, India is likely to have

They reported suboptimal sleep.

place 30% F) surﬁng during work place. 42% 2016

The latter had a negative

relapse and conﬂict.

Media Survey Parent Version

college students education and insomnia.

net-working sites by to addiction, virtual relationship

middle class withdrawal symptoms.

nonacademic nonacademic engagements.

and privacy-invasion. These

had a positive eﬀect on academic

learning. It motivated and also 2013

on sleep quality, psychosocial behavior, academic performance, and circadian rhythm in

5. Chronotype and circadian rhythm

6. Conclusions and future research direction

• Reduced memory efficacy

adolescents and young adults. Additionally, it is recommended that counselors and

Ganasegeran K, Abdulrahman SA, Radman Al-Dubai SA, Rashid A, Perumal M, Renganathan P.

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