Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

MATH 101 - Informal limits continued

S Sial

Dept of Mathematics
LUMS

revised 12 Sep 2019

Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Outline

Difference formulas

Continuous functions

Squeeze theorem

Limit of sin(x)/x at 0

Limits at infinity
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Difference formulas

Difference formulas
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Difference of squares

Recall

a2 − b 2 = (a − b)(a + b)
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Difference of cubes

Recall

a3 − b 3 = (a − b)(a2 b 0 + a1 b 1 + a0 b 2 ) = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b 2 )
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Difference of positive integer powers

For n a positive integer

an − b n =
(a − b)(an−1 b 0 + an−2 b 1 + an−3 b 2 + · · · + a2 b n−3 + ab n−2 + a0 b n−1 )
(a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + an−3 b 2 + · · · + a2 b n−3 + ab n−2 + b n−1 )
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Difference formulas

Difference formulas can help us do some limits.

Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example

Limit

x −b x−
b
lim 3 3
= lim
x→b x − b x→b (x− b)(x + xb + b 2
 2

1
= lim 2
x→b x + xb + b 2
1
= 2
b + b · b + b2
1
=
3b 2
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example

Limit

x −b −b)
(x 
lim = lim

x→b x 4 − b 4 x→b (x  3 + x 2 b + xb 2 + b 3 )
−b)(x
1
= lim 3
x→b x + x b + xb 2 + b 3
2
1
= 3
b + b · b + b · b2 + b3
2
1
=
4b 3
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example

For n a positive integer

x −b x−b
lim = limx→b (x−b)(x n−1 +x n−2 b+···+b n−1 )
x→b x n − bn
1
= limx→b x n−1 +x n−2 b+···+b n−1
= nb1n−1
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Continuous functions

Continuous functions
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Continuous functions

Idea
A function is continuous at a point if the function value and the
limit value are the same at the point. There is no hole or break in
the graph of the function at the point.
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Continuous functions

Real-valued f : U → V conts at x0 if
a) f (x0 ) defined.
b) limx→x0 f (x) exists.
c) limx→x0 f (x) = f (x0 )
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Continuous functions

Limit evaluation
If f conts at x0 its limit at x0 is f (x0 ).

Examples of functions conts at all reals

polynomials, sin, cos, exp

Examples of functions conts ’most’ reals

tan/cot/sec/csc except at .., 1/x except at ... , log except at ...
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Continuous functions

Example
f : R → R defined by

f (x) = 1 + x + x 2
Evaluate

lim f (x)
x→π

As polynomials are continuous everywhere, the limit can be found

by evaluating the function at π.
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Rules for conts fns

Sum
If f : U ⊂ R → V ⊂ R and g : U ⊂ R → V ⊂ R conts at x = x0
then f + g is conts at x0 .
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Rules for conts fns

Difference
If f : U ⊂ R → V ⊂ R and g : U ⊂ R → V ⊂ R conts at x = x0
then f − g is conts at x0 .
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Rules for conts fns

Product
If f : U ⊂ R → V ⊂ R and g : U ⊂ R → V ⊂ R conts at x = x0
then f · g is conts at x0 .
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Rules for conts fns

Quotient
If f : U ⊂ R → V ⊂ R and g : U ⊂ R → V ⊂ R conts at x = x0
then f /g is conts at x0 unless g (x0 ) = 0.
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example

Evaluate
x2 + 4
lim
x→3 x 3 − 1
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

What kind of fns are we dealing with?

The numerator is a polynomial, the denominator is a polynomial.
Polynomials are conts everywhere so their quotient is conts
everywhere except where the denominator is zero.
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

So

x2 + 4 32 + 4
lim =
x→3 x 3 − 1 33 − 1
13
=
26
1
=
2
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Squeeze/Sandwich/Pinching theorem

Idea
It may be difficult to find the limit of a function at a point. If we
can squeeze it between two other functions that have the same
limit at the point, then we may be able to find the limit of the
original function.
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Squeeze/Sandwich/Pinching theorem

Suppose

lim f (x) = L = lim h(x)

x→x0 x→x0

and g is a function such that

f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h(x)

on an interval containing x0 (except possibly at x0 itself).

Then

lim g (x) = L
x→x0
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example

Evaluate
 
21
lim x sin
x→0 x
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

Recall
The sin function (where it is defined) takes values between -1 and
+1.

So for x 6= 0

−1 ≤ sin(1/x) ≤ 1
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

Multiplying by x 2

−x 2 ≤ sin(1/x) ≤ x 2
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

Consider the limits of the bounding functions

lim −x 2 = 0 = lim x 2
x→0 x→0
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

Then by the squeeze theorem

lim f (x) = 0
x→0
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

Note
We use the squeeze theorem to avoid thinking about the
’squeezed’ function and evaluate the simpler limit of the
’squeezing’ functions instead.
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example

f : R → R defined by
(
x 2, x ∈Q
f (x) =
0, x 6∈ Q

Evaluate

lim f (x)
x→0
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

Note
f (x) can take two values, 0 and x 2 . And for all reals x

0 ≤ 0 ≤ x2

0 ≤ x2 ≤ x2
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

Then for all reals x

0 ≤ f (x) ≤ x 2

For the bounding functions, we can use

0, x 2
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

Limits of the bounding functions

lim 0 = 0 = lim x 2
x→0 x→0
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

Then by the squeeze theorem

lim f (x) = 0
x→0
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Limit of sin(x)/x at 0

Limit of sin(x)/x at 0
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

A famous limit

There is a proof in the text for

sin(x)
lim = 1
x→0 x
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example

Evaluate
sin(9x)
lim
x→0 x
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

Is this a known form? Almost.

So we do some algebraic manipulation to put it in a known

form.
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Example contd

Evaluating

sin(9x) sin(9x)
lim = lim 9
x→0 x x→0 9x
sin(9x)
= 9 lim
x→0 9x
= 9·1
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Exercise

Evaluate
sin(x)
lim
x→0 9x
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Exercise

Evaluate
sin(x 2 )
lim
x→0 x
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Limits at infinity

Limits at infinity
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Limits at infinity

Notation

lim f (x) = L
x→∞

means that as x gets arbitrarily large and positive the value f (x)
becomes arbitrarily close to L.
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Limits at infinity

x 2 + sin(x) x 2 (1 + sin(x)/x 2 )
lim = lim
x→∞ x2 − 1 x→∞ x 2 (1 − 1/x 2 )
1 + sin(x)/x 2
= lim
x→∞ 1 − 1/x 2
lim(1 + sin(x)/x 2 )
=
lim(1 − 1/x 2 )
1
=
1
= 1
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Limits at infinity

Similarly

lim f (x) = L
x→−∞

means that as x gets arbitrarily large and negative the value f (x)
becomes arbitrarily close to L.
Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

Squeeze theorem for limits at infinity

A version of the squeeze theorem works for limits at infinity

Example
Noting that
−1 ≤ sin(x) ≤ + 1

Evaluate
sin(x)
lim
x→∞ x