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Calculus Volume 1
2.3 The Limit Laws
2.3 The Limit Laws

Learning Objectives
2.3.1 Recognize the basic limit laws.
2.3.2 Use the limit laws to evaluate the limit of
a function.
2.3.3 Evaluate the limit of a function by
factoring.
2.3.4 Use the limit laws to evaluate the limit of
a polynomial or rational function.
2.3.5 Evaluate the limit of a function by
factoring or by using conjugates.
2.3.6 Evaluate the limit of a function by using
the squeeze theorem.

In the previous section, we evaluated limits by

looking at graphs or by constructing a table of
values. In this section, we establish laws for
calculating limits and learn how to apply these
laws. In the Student Project at the end of this
section, you have the opportunity to apply these
limit laws to derive the formula for the area of a
circle by adapting a method devised by the Greek
mathematician Archimedes. We begin by
restating two useful limit results from the previous
section. These two results, together with the limit
laws, serve as a foundation for calculating many
limits.

Evaluating Limits with the Limit

Laws
The first two limit laws were stated in Two
Important Limits and we repeat them here. These
basic results, together with the other limit laws,
allow us to evaluate limits of many algebraic
functions.

THEOREM 2.4

Basic Limit Results

For any real number a and any constant
c,

i.

lim x = a (2.14)
x→a

ii.

lim c = c (2.15)
x→a

EXAMPLE 2.13

Evaluating a Basic Limit

Evaluate each of the following limits

using Basic Limit Results.

a. lim x
x→2
b. lim 5
x→2

[Show/Hide Solution]

We now take a look at the limit laws, the

individual properties of limits. The proofs that
these laws hold are omitted here.

THEOREM 2.5

Limit Laws
Let f (x) and g (x) be defined for all
x ≠ a over some open interval
containing a. Assume that L and M are
real numbers such that lim f (x) = L
x→a
and lim g (x) = M . Let c be a
x→a
constant. Then, each of the following
statements holds:

Sum law for limits:

lim (f (x) + g (x)) = lim f (x) + lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a

Difference law for limits:

lim (f (x) − g (x)) = lim f (x) − lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a

Constant multiple law for limits:

lim cf (x) = c ⋅ lim f (x) = cL
x→a x→a

Product law for limits:

lim (f (x) ⋅ g (x)) = lim f (x) ⋅ lim g (x) =
x→a x→a x→a

Quotient law for limits:

f(x) limf(x)
L
lim g(x) = x→a
limg(x)
= M for M ≠0
x→a x→a

Power law for limits:

n
lim (f (x)) = ( lim f (x)) = Ln for
n
x→a x→a
every positive integer n.

Root law for limits:

n −−−− −−−−−−− n−
−
lim √ f (x) = √
n lim f (x) = √L for
x→a x→a
all L if n is odd and for L ≥ 0 if n is even
and f(x) ≥ 0 .

We now practice applying these limit laws to

evaluate a limit.

EXAMPLE 2.14

Evaluating a Limit Using Limit

Laws

Use the limit laws to evaluate

lim (4x + 2) .
x→−3

[Show/Hide Solution]

EXAMPLE 2.15

Using Limit Laws Repeatedly

Use the limit laws to evaluate

2
lim 2x x−3x+1
3 +4
.
x→2

[Show/Hide Solution]

CHECKPOINT 2.11

Use the limit laws to evaluate

−−−−
lim (2x − 1) √x + 4 . In each
x→6
step, indicate the limit law applied.

Limits of Polynomial and

Rational Functions
By now you have probably noticed that, in each
of the previous examples, it has been the case
that lim f (x) = f (a) . This is not always true,
x→a
but it does hold for all polynomials for any choice
of a and for all rational functions at all values of a
for which the rational function is defined.

THEOREM 2.6

Limits of Polynomial and Rational

Functions
Let p (x) and q (x) be polynomial
functions. Let a be a real number. Then,

lim p (x) = p (a)

x→a

p (x) p (a)
lim = when q (a) ≠ 0.
x→a q (x) q (a)

To see that this theorem holds, consider the

polynomial
p (x) = cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + ⋯ + c1 x + c0 .
By applying the sum, constant multiple, and
power laws, we end up with

lim p (x) = lim (cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + ⋯ + c1 x

x→a x→a
n n−1
= cn ( lim x) + cn−1 ( lim x) +⋯
x→a x→a
= cn an + cn−1 an−1 + ⋯ + c1 a + c0
= p (a) .

It now follows from the quotient law that if p (x)

and q (x) are polynomials for which q (a) ≠ 0,
then

p (x) p (a)
lim = .
x→a q (x) q (a)

Example 2.16 applies this result.

EXAMPLE 2.16

Evaluating a Limit of a
Rational Function

2x2 −3x+1
Evaluate the lim .
x→3 5x+4

[Show/Hide Solution]

CHECKPOINT 2.12

Evaluate lim (3x3 − 2x + 7) .

x→−2

Additional Limit Evaluation

Techniques
As we have seen, we may evaluate easily the
limits of polynomials and limits of some (but not
all) rational functions by direct substitution.
However, as we saw in the introductory section
on limits, it is certainly possible for lim f (x) to
x→a
exist when f (a) is undefined. The following
observation allows us to evaluate many limits of
this type:

If for all x ≠ a, f (x) = g (x) over some open

interval containing a, then lim f (x) = lim g (x) .
x→a x→a

To understand this idea better, consider the limit

x2 −1
lim .
x→1 x−1

The function

x2 −1
f (x) = x−1
(x−1)(x+1)
= x−1

and the function g (x) = x + 1 are identical for

all values of x ≠ 1. The graphs of these two
functions are shown in Figure 2.24.

Figure 2.24 The graphs of f (x) and g (x) are identical for all
x ≠ 1. Their limits at 1 are equal.

We see that

x2 −1 (x−1)(x+1)
lim = lim
x→1 x−1 x→1 x−1

= lim (x + 1)
x→1
= 2.

f(x)
The limit has the form lim , where
x→a g(x)
lim f (x) = 0 and lim g (x) = 0. (In this case,
x→a x→a
we say that f(x)/g(x) has the indeterminate
form 0/0.) The following Problem-Solving
Strategy provides a general outline for evaluating
limits of this type.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY

Problem-Solving Strategy:
Calculating a Limit When
f (x) /g (x) has the
Indeterminate Form 0/0
1. First, we need to make sure that
our function has the appropriate
form and cannot be evaluated
immediately using the limit laws.
2. We then need to find a function
that is equal to
h (x) = f(x)/g(x) for all x ≠ a
over some interval containing a. To
do this, we may need to try one or
more of the following steps:

a. If f (x) and g (x) are

polynomials, we should factor
each function and cancel out
any common factors.
b. If the numerator or
denominator contains a
difference involving a square
root, we should try
multiplying the numerator and
denominator by the
conjugate of the expression
involving the square root.
c. If f(x)/g(x) is a complex
fraction, we begin by
simplifying it.

3. Last, we apply the limit laws.

The next examples demonstrate the use of this

Problem-Solving Strategy. Example 2.17
illustrates the factor-and-cancel technique;
Example 2.18 shows multiplying by a conjugate.
In Example 2.19, we look at simplifying a complex
fraction.

EXAMPLE 2.17

Evaluating a Limit by
Factoring and Canceling

x2 −3x
Evaluate lim .
x→3 2x2 −5x−3

[Show/Hide Solution]

CHECKPOINT 2.13

x2 +4x+3
Evaluate lim .
x→−3 x2 −9

EXAMPLE 2.18

Evaluating a Limit by
Multiplying by a Conjugate

√x+2−1
Evaluate lim .
x→−1 x+1

[Show/Hide Solution]

CHECKPOINT 2.14

√x−1−2
Evaluate lim .
x→5 x−5

EXAMPLE 2.19

Evaluating a Limit by
Simplifying a Complex
Fraction
1
− 12
Evaluate lim x−1 .
x+1

x→1

[Show/Hide Solution]

CHECKPOINT 2.15

1
+1
Evaluate lim .
x+2

x→−3 x+3

Example 2.20 does not fall neatly into any of the

patterns established in the previous examples.
However, with a little creativity, we can still use
these same techniques.

EXAMPLE 2.20

Evaluating a Limit When the

Limit Laws Do Not Apply

Evaluate lim ( x1 + 5
).
x→0 x(x−5)

[Show/Hide Solution]

CHECKPOINT 2.16

Evaluate lim ( x−3

1
− 4
).
x→3 x2 −2x−3

Let’s now revisit one-sided limits. Simple

modifications in the limit laws allow us to apply
them to one-sided limits. For example, to apply
the limit laws to a limit of the form lim h (x) , we
x→a−
require the function h (x) to be defined over an
open interval of the form (b, a) ; for a limit of the
form lim h (x) , we require the function h (x) to
x→a+
be defined over an open interval of the form
(a, c) . Example 2.21 illustrates this point.

EXAMPLE 2.21

Evaluating a One-Sided Limit

Using the Limit Laws

Evaluate each of the following limits,

if possible.
−−−−
a. lim √x − 3
x→3−
−−−−
b. lim √x − 3
x→3+

[Show/Hide Solution]

In Example 2.22 we look at one-sided limits of a

piecewise-defined function and use these limits
to draw a conclusion about a two-sided limit of
the same function.

EXAMPLE 2.22

Evaluating a Two-Sided Limit

Using the Limit Laws

4x − 3 if x < 2
For f (x) = { 2 ,
(x − 3) if x ≥ 2
evaluate each of the following limits:

a. lim f (x)
x→2−
b. lim f (x)
x→2+
c. lim f (x)
x→2

[Show/Hide Solution]

CHECKPOINT 2.17

Graph
⎧
⎪ −x − 2 if x < −1
f (x) = ⎨ 2 if x = −1
⎩
⎪
and
x3 if x > −1
evaluate lim f (x) .
− x→−1

We now turn our attention to evaluating a limit of

f(x)
the form lim , where lim f (x) = K, where
x→a g(x) x→a
K ≠ 0 and lim g (x) = 0. That is, f(x)/g(x)
x→a
has the form K/0, K ≠ 0 at a.

EXAMPLE 2.23

Evaluating a Limit of the Form

K/0, K ≠ 0 Using the Limit
Laws

x−3
Evaluate lim 2 −2x .
x→2 − x

[Show/Hide Solution]

CHECKPOINT 2.18

x+2
Evaluate lim .
x→1 (x−1)2

The Squeeze Theorem

The techniques we have developed thus far work
very well for algebraic functions, but we are still
unable to evaluate limits of very basic
trigonometric functions. The next theorem, called
the squeeze theorem, proves very useful for
establishing basic trigonometric limits. This
theorem allows us to calculate limits by
“squeezing” a function, with a limit at a point a
that is unknown, between two functions having a
common known limit at a. Figure 2.27 illustrates
this idea.

Figure 2.27 The Squeeze Theorem applies when

f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h (x) and lim f (x) = lim h (x) .
x→a x→a

THEOREM 2.7

The Squeeze Theorem

Let f (x) , g (x) , and h (x) be defined
for all x ≠ a over an open interval
containing a. If

f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h (x)

for all x ≠ a in an open interval

containing a and

lim f (x) = L = lim h (x)

x→a x→a

where L is a real number, then

lim g (x) = L.
x→a

EXAMPLE 2.24

Applying the Squeeze

Theorem

Apply the squeeze theorem to

evaluate lim x cos x.
x→0

[Show/Hide Solution]

CHECKPOINT 2.19

Use the squeeze theorem to

evaluate lim x2 sin x1 .
x→0

We now use the squeeze theorem to tackle

several very important limits. Although this
discussion is somewhat lengthy, these limits
prove invaluable for the development of the
material in both the next section and the next
chapter. The first of these limits is lim sin θ.
θ→0
Consider the unit circle shown in Figure 2.29. In
the figure, we see that sin θ is the y-coordinate on
the unit circle and it corresponds to the line
segment shown in blue. The radian measure of
angle θ is the length of the arc it subtends on the
unit circle. Therefore, we see that for
π
0<θ< 2,0 < sin θ < θ.

Figure 2.29 The sine function is shown as a line on the unit circle.

Because lim 0 = 0 and lim θ = 0, by using the

θ→0+ θ→0+
squeeze theorem we conclude that

lim sin θ = 0.
θ→0+

To see that lim sin θ = 0 as well, observe that

θ→0−
for − π2 < θ < 0, 0 < −θ < π2 and hence,
0 < sin (−θ) < −θ. Consequently,
0 < −sin θ < −θ. It follows that 0 > sin θ > θ.
An application of the squeeze theorem produces
the desired limit. Thus, since lim sin θ = 0 and
θ→0+
lim−sin θ = 0,
θ→0

lim sin θ = 0. (2.16)

θ→0

−−−−−−−
Next, using the identity cos θ = √1 − sin 2 θ for
− π2 < θ < π2 , we see that
−−−−−−2−
√
lim cos θ = lim 1 − sin θ = 1. (2.17)
θ→0 θ→0