LIMITS OF REAL-VALUED FUNCTIONS OF REAL VARIABLE X

BY DR FABELURIN O. O., DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, O. A. U,

ILE-IFE, NIGERIA

1. PROPERTIES OF LIMITS

In this section, we would attempt to give some properties are very useful methods
for finding limits.

1.1. Theorems on Sum, Product and Quotient of Functions.

Theorem 1.1. f, g, h : [a, b] −→ R, and let c ∈ [a, b]. Let k ∈ R.
Suppose that
lim f := lim f (x) = L and lim g := lim g(x) = M.
x−→c x−→c x−→c x−→c

Then
(a.)
lim (f ± g) := lim (f (x) ± g(x)) = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) = L ± M.
x−→c x−→c x−→c x−→c

(b.)
  
lim (f g) := lim (f (x)g(x)) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = LM.
x−→c x−→c x−→c x−→c

(c.)
 
lim (bf ) := lim (bf (x)) = b lim f (x) = bL.
x−→c x−→c x−→c
(d.)
   
f f f (x) L
lim := lim (x) := lim := ,
x−→c h x−→c h x−→c h(x) H
where supposed that h(x) 6= 0 ∀ x ∈ [a, b] and
lim h(x) = H 6= 0.
x−→c

Remark 1.2.

(a.) Using inductive argument and the Theorem 2.1(b), we have that
 n
lim f (x) = Ln .
x−→c
1
BY DR FABELURIN O. O., DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, O. A. U, ILE-IFE, NIGERIA
2

(b.) From the Theorem 2.1 (a-c), it is easy to see that

lim p(x) : = lim an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · a1 x + a0


(1.1)
x−→c x−→c
= an c n + an−1 xn−1 + · · · a1 c + a0 (1.2)
= p(c). (1.3)
(c.) If q(c) 6= 0, applying Theorem 2.1 (d), we have that
p(x) limx−→c p(x) p(c)
lim = = ,
x−→c q(x) limx−→c q(x) q(c)
where p(x) := an xn +an−1 xn−1 +· · · a1 x+a0 and q(x) := bn xn +bn−1 xn−1 +
· · · b1 x + b0 .
1.2. Limit preserves inequality signs (Ordering).
Theorem 1.3. f : [a, b] −→ R, and let c ∈ [a, b]. If
a ≤ f (x) ≤ b forall x ∈ [a, b], x 6= c,
and if
lim f (x) exists,
x−→c
then
a ≤ lim f (x) ≤ b.
x−→c

1.3. Squeeze Theorem.

Theorem 1.4. f, g, h : [a, b] −→ R, and let c ∈ [a, b]. If
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) forall x ∈ [a, b], x 6= c,
and if
lim f (x) = L = lim h(x),
x−→c x−→c
then
lim g(x) = L.
x−→c

1.4. Limit involving Square roots.

Theorem 1.5. f : [a, b] −→ R, and √ let c ∈ [a, b]. Suppose that
f (x) ≥ 0 forall x ∈ [a, b], and let f be the function defined by
p p
( f )(x) := f (x) forall x ∈ [a, b].
If
lim f (x) exists
x−→c
then q
p
lim f= lim f .
x−→c x−→c
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1.5. Important Inequalities.

(a.)
x ≤ x1/2 ≤ 1 holds for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
(b.)
−1 ≤ sin x, cos x ≤ 1 holds for all x ∈ R.
(c.)
1 − 2x2 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 for all x ∈ R.
(d.)
1
x − x3 ≤ sin x ≤ x for all x ≥ 0.
6
(e.)
1
x ≤ sin x ≤ x − x3 for all x ≤ 0.
6
(f.)
0 < t < et for t > 0.
Example 1.6.

Find the following limits

(a.)
 
cos x − 1
lim .
x−→0 x
(b.)
 
sin x
lim .
x−→0 x
(c.)
 
1
lim x sin .
x−→0 x
(d.)
x2 + 2
lim .
x−→1 x2 − 2

(e.)
√ √
1 + 2x − 1 + 3x
lim .
x−→0 x + 2x2
(f.)
r
2x + 1
lim .
x−→0 2x + 3
BY DR FABELURIN O. O., DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, O. A. U, ILE-IFE, NIGERIA
4

(a.) From the inequality 2.5 (c), we have

−2x2 ≤ cos x − 1 ≤ 0 for all x ∈ R.
We then that
cos x − 1
−2x ≤ ≤ 0 for all x 6= 0.
x
Observe that limx−→0 −2x = 0 = limx−→0 . Hence, it follows from squeeze
theorem that  
cos x − 1
lim = 0.
x−→0 x
(b.) From inequalities 2.5 (d) and 2.5(e), we have that
1 sin x
1 − x2 ≤ ≤ 1 for all x 6= 0.
6 x
Observe that  
1 2
lim 1 − x = 1 = lim 1.
x−→0 6 x−→0

Hence, it follows from squeeze theorem that

 
sin x
lim = 1.
x−→0 x
(c.) From 2.5 (b), we have ]
 
1
−1 ≤ sin ≤1 holds for all x ∈ R.
x
Clearly, this implies that
 
1
−x ≤ x sin ≤x holds for all x > 0
x
and  
1
x ≤ x sin ≤ −x holds for all x < 0.
x
The last two inequalities above yields
 
1
−|x| ≤ x sin ≤ |x| for all x 6= 0.
x
Observe that
lim −|x| = 0 = lim |x|.
x−→0 x−→0

Hence, it follows from the squeeze theorem that

 
1
lim x sin = 0.
x−→0 x
 @ OOFABELURIN 5

(d.) Observe first that x2 + 2, x2 − 2 are polynomials and

lim (x2 − 2) = −1 6= 0.
x−→1

Hence by Remark 2.2 (c), we have that

x2 + 2 limx−→1 (x2 + 2) 3
lim = = = −3.
x−→1 x2 − 2 2
limx−→1 (x − 2) −1
(e.) Suppose x 6= 0. By rationalizing and using Theorems 2.1 and 2.5, we find
that
√ √  √ √  √ √ 
1 + 2x − 1 + 3x 1 + 2x − 1 + 3x 1 + 2x + 1 + 3x
lim = lim × √ √ .
x−→0 x + 2x2 x−→0 x + 2x2 1 + 2x + 1 + 3x
−x
= lim √ √

2
x−→0 (x + 2x ) 1 + 2x + 1 + 3x
−1
= lim √ √

x−→0 (1 + 2x) 1 + 2x + 1 + 3x
limx−→0 −1
= √ √


limx−→0 (1 + 2x) 1 + 2x + 1 + 3x
limx−→0 −1
= √ √

limx−→0 (1 + 2x) limx−→0 1 + 2x + 1 + 3x
limx−→0 −1
= p p 
limx−→0 (1 + 2x) limx−→0 (1 + 2x) + limx−→0 (1 + 3x)
−1
=
1(1 + 1)
−1 1
= =− .
2 2
q
2x+1
(f.) limx−→0 2x+3

1.6. Introduction to L’Hospital’s Rules.

In the part, we will be discussing limits

f (x)
lim
x−→c g(x)
or
f (x)
lim ,
x−→±∞ g(x)

where any of the following holds

lim f (x) = 0 = lim g(x)
x−→c x−→c
BY DR FABELURIN O. O., DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, O. A. U, ILE-IFE, NIGERIA
6

lim f (x) = ±∞ lim g(x)

x−→c x−→c

lim f (x) = 0 = lim g(x)

x−→±∞ x−→c

lim f (x) = ±∞ = lim g(x)

x−→±∞ x−→c

In this case, the limit limx−→c fg(x)

(x)
is said to be “indeterminate.”Later, We will see
that in these cases the limits may not exist or may be any real value, depending
on the particular functions f and g.
For example, consider the
sin x
lim .
x−→0 x

Here, limx−→0 sin x = 0 and limx−→0 x = 0.

The symbol
0
0
is used to refer to this kind of situation. However, by our early example 2.6(b),
we know that the limit exists, and in fact,
sin x
lim = 1.
x−→0 x

As such, the indeterminate form 00 can lead to any real number, say L, as a limit.
Other indeterminate forms are represented by the symbols
∞
1∞ , , 0 · ∞, 00 , ∞0 , ∞ − ∞.
∞
These notations correspond to the indicated limiting behavior and juxtaposition
of the functions f and g. Our attention will be focused on the indeterminate forms
0=0 and1=1. The other indeterminate cases are usually reduced to the form
∞ 0
, ,
∞ 0
by taking logarithms, exponentials, or algebraic manipulations.

1.7. First Theorem on the L’Hospital’s Rules.

We will give the Theorem for two-sided limit: the Left-hand limit and Right-Limit
is exactly treated the same.
Theorem 1.7. Let −∞ ≤ a < b ≤ ∞ and let f, g be differentiable on (a, b) such
that g(x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ (a, b). Suppose that
lim f (x) = 0 = lim g(x).
x−→a x−→a
 @ OOFABELURIN 7

(a.) If
0
f (x)
lim 0 = L ∈ R,
x−→a g (x)

then
f (x)
lim = L.
x−→a g(x)

(b.) If
0
f (x)
lim 0 = L ∈ {−∞, ∞},
x−→a g (x)

then
f (x)
lim = L.
x−→a g(x)

Remark 1.8. (a.) Differentiability of the functions at the point a is not as-
sumed.e point a
Example 1.9.

Evaluate the following limits:

(a.)
1 − cos x
lim
x−→0 x2
(b.)
ex − 1 − x
lim
x−→0 x2
(c.)
 
1 1
lim − x > 1.
x−→1 1 − x ln x
SOLUTION

(a.) Observe first that

lim (1 − cos x) = 0 = lim x2 ,
x−→0 x−→0

so that the limit

1 − cos x
lim
x−→0 x2
has indeterminate form of
0
.
0
Moreover note that
0 d
x2 = 2x 6= 0 f orall x 6= 0.


g (x) =
dx
BY DR FABELURIN O. O., DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, O. A. U, ILE-IFE, NIGERIA
8

Hence by Theorem 2.7, we have that

d
1 − cos x dx
(1 − cos x) sin x
lim = lim d
= lim
x−→0 x2 x−→0
dx
2
(x ) x−→0 2x
d
dx
(sin x)
= lim d
x−→0
dx
(2x)
cos x 1
= lim =
x−→0 2 2
Here, we applied the Theorem twice (that is, we applied L’Hospital’s rule
twice) since
lim (sin x) = 0 = lim 2x,
x−→0 x−→0
d
and (2x) = 2 6= 0, x 6= 0.
dx
(b.) Observe first that
lim (ex − 1 − x) = 0 = lim x2 ,
x−→0 x−→0
so that the limit
ex − 1 − x
lim
x−→0 x2
has again the indeterminate form of
0
.
0
Similar arguments and twice applications of L’Hospital’s rules yields that
d d
ex − 1 − x dx
(ex − 1 − x) ex − 1 dx
(ex − 1)
lim = lim d
= lim = lim d
x−→0 x2 x−→0
dx
(x2 ) x−→0 2x x−→0
dx
(2x)
ex 1
= lim = .
x−→0 2 2
(c.) Observe first that
     
1 1 1 1
lim − = lim − lim .
x−→1+ x − 1 ln x x−→1+ x−1 x−→1+ ln x
Now
lim (x − 1) = 0,
x−→1+
so that the
1
lim = ∞.
x−→1+ x − 1
Similarly,
1
lim = ∞,
x−→1+ ln x
since
lim ln x = 0.
x−→1+
Thus
     
1 1 1 1
lim − = lim − lim = ∞ − ∞.
x−→1 x − 1 ln x x−→1+ x−1 x−→1+ ln x
 @ OOFABELURIN 9

Sometimes simple algebraic manipulations could help change the indeter-

minate form ∞ − ∞ to indeterminate form
0
.
0
For
   
1 1 ln x − x + 1 0
lim − = lim ≡ ,
x−→1+ x − 1 ln x x−→1+ (x − 1) ln x 0
since
lim (ln x − x + 1) = 0 = lim ((x − 1) ln x)
x−→1+ x−→1+
and
0 d 1
g (x) = ((x − 1) ln x) = 1 − + ln x 6= 0 f orall x 6= 1.
dx x
Hence by Theorem 2.7,
   
1 1

1 1
limx−→1+ x−1 − ln x = limx−→1+ − lim (≡ ∞ − ∞)
x−1 x−→1+ ln x
 
ln x − x + 1
= lim (By simple algebraic manipulations)
x−→1+ (x − 1) ln x
d
(ln x − x + 1)
= lim dxd (Applying L0 Hospital0 s rules)
x−→1+
dx
((x − 1) ln x)
1
x
−1
= lim 1
x−→1+ 1 − x + ln x
 
1−x 0
= lim ≡
x−→1+ x − 1 + x ln x 0
d
(1 − x)
= lim d dx (Applying L0 Hospital0 s rules again)
x−→1+
dx
(x − 1 + x ln x)
−1 1
= lim =− .
x−→1+ 2 + ln x 2
1.8. Second Theorem on the L’Hospital’s Rules.

We will give the Theorem for two-sided limit: the Left-hand limit and Right-Limit
is exactly treated the same.
Theorem 1.10. Let −∞ ≤ a < b ≤ ∞ and let f, g be differentiable on (a, b)
such that g(x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ (a, b). Suppose that
lim g(x) = ±∞.
x−→a

(a.) If
0
f (x)
lim 0 = L ∈ R,
x−→a g (x)
BY DR FABELURIN O. O., DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, O. A. U, ILE-IFE, NIGERIA
10

then
f (x)
lim = L.
x−→a g(x)

(b.) If
0
f (x)
lim 0 = L ∈ {−∞, ∞},
x−→a g (x)

then
f (x)
lim = L.
x−→a g(x)

Example 1.11.

Evaluate the following limits:

(a.)
lim e−x x2
x−→∞

(b.)
ln(sin x)
lim
x−→0+ ln x
(c.)
x − sin x
lim
x−→∞ x + sin x

SOLUTION

(a.)

x2
lim e−x x2 (≡ 0.∞) = lim x (By simple algebraic manipulations)
 ∞ e
x−→∞ x−→∞

≡ indeterminate form
∞
2x
= lim x (Applying L0 Hospital0 s Rule)
x−→∞ e
 ∞ 
≡ indeterminate form
∞
2
= lim x (Applying L0 Hospital0 s Rule)
x−→∞ e
= 0 (Since lim ex = ∞.)
x−→∞
 @ OOFABELURIN 11

(b.)
 
ln(sin x) −∞
lim ≡ indeterminate form
x−→0+ ln x −∞
cos x
= (Applying L0 Hospital0 s Rule)
lim sin x
x−→0+ 1
x
 x  
= lim cos x
 sin x
x−→0+
x 
= lim lim cos x
x−→0+ sin x x−→0+
= 1 × 1 = 1.
(c.)
x − sin x  ∞ 
lim ≡ indeterminate form
x−→∞ x + sin x ∞
1 − cos x
= lim (Applying L0 Hospital0 s Rule)
x−→∞ 1 + cos x
(which does not exist)
However, by rewriting, we have
sin x
x − sin x 1− x
lim = lim sin x
x−→∞ x + sin x x−→∞ 1 +
x
limx−→∞ 1 − sinx x


=
limx−→∞ 1 + sinx x

1 − limx−→∞ sinx x


=
1 + limx−→∞ sinx x

1−0
=
1+0
= 1.
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